Enhancing Energy Efficiency in Micro-Apartments using Phase Change Materials: A Case Study in Alexandria, Egypt

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Affordable options are increasingly scarce, especially for those unable to meet housing market rates. This research explores micro-apartments as an eco-friendly solution aligned with global trends toward minimalism, offering compact living spaces of about 40 square meters. In Alexandria, where awareness is limited and energy consumption is high, the study emphasizes micro-apartments as a housing solution with the aim to improve thermal comfort and energy efficiency for the occupants using Phase Change Materials (PCMs) and passive design strategies. Methods This research evaluates micro-apartments as affordable housing in Egypt, emphasizing passive design and RT24HC Phase Change Material for wall insulation in Alexandria. A prototype is developed, and Design Builder software, using version 7.0.2.006 & Energy Plus 9.4 plugin, simulates the chosen RT24HC PCM’s energy efficiency. This methodology optimizes land use and enhances thermal comfort by integrating PCM with passive design, assessing Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfaction (PPD%) and Predicted Mean Vote (PMV). Results The results indicate that integrating the chosen Phase Change Material with passive design significantly lowers discomfort levels in micro-apartments. Four scenarios tested included: two layers of RT24HC PCM, one layer of RT24HC PCM with XPS insulation, two RT24HC PCM layers with window shading, and two RT24HC PCM layers with 1-meter overhang. The fourth scenario, achieving a 14.18% reduction in predicted discomfort (PPD%) and a Predicted Mean Vote of 1.3, highlights the potential of micro-apartments as an energy-efficient housing through effective PCM integration. Conclusion This study advocates for micro-apartment designs using RT24HC PCM tailored to Alexandria’s climate in Egypt to improve thermal comfort and reduce energy consumption. It provides insights for architects, developers, and policymakers in Egypt, highlighting the importance of PCM in sustainable urban housing solutions. " } { "@context": "http://schema.org", "@type": "BreadcrumbList", "itemListElement": [ { "@type": "ListItem", "position": "1", "item": { "@id": "https://f1000research.com/", "name": "Home" } }, { "@type": "ListItem", "position": "2", "item": { "@id": "https://f1000research.com/browse/articles", "name": "Browse" } }, { "@type": "ListItem", "position": "3", "item": { "@id": "https://f1000research.com/articles/14-112", "name": "Enhancing Energy Efficiency in Micro-Apartments using Phase Change..." } } ] } Home Browse Enhancing Energy Efficiency in Micro-Apartments using Phase Change... ALL Metrics - Views Downloads Get PDF Get XML Cite How to cite this article Yasser A, Hany N and Mosaad G. Enhancing Energy Efficiency in Micro-Apartments using Phase Change Materials: A Case Study in Alexandria, Egypt [version 1; peer review: 1 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :112 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.160274.1 ) NOTE: If applicable, it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. Close Copy Citation Details Export Export Citation Sciwheel EndNote Ref. Manager Bibtex ProCite Sente EXPORT Select a format first Track Share ▬ ✚ Case Study Enhancing Energy Efficiency in Micro-Apartments using Phase Change Materials: A Case Study in Alexandria, Egypt [version 1; peer review: 1 approved with reservations] Ayah Yasser https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1616-0039 1 , Nermine Hany 1 , Gihan Mosaad 1 Ayah Yasser https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1616-0039 1 , Nermine Hany 1 , Gihan Mosaad 1 PUBLISHED 20 Jan 2025 Author details Author details 1 Architecture & Envrionmental Engineering, Arab Academy for Science Technology and Maritime Transport College of Engineering and Technology, Alexandria, Alexandria Governorate, Egypt Ayah Yasser Roles: Resources, Visualization, Writing – Original Draft Preparation Nermine Hany Roles: Supervision, Writing – Review & Editing Gihan Mosaad Roles: Supervision OPEN PEER REVIEW DETAILS REVIEWER STATUS This article is included in the Energy gateway. Abstract Background Adequate housing is a fundamental human need, yet in Egypt and the MENA region, they face challenges due to rising population pressures and economic difficulties. Affordable options are increasingly scarce, especially for those unable to meet housing market rates. This research explores micro-apartments as an eco-friendly solution aligned with global trends toward minimalism, offering compact living spaces of about 40 square meters. In Alexandria, where awareness is limited and energy consumption is high, the study emphasizes micro-apartments as a housing solution with the aim to improve thermal comfort and energy efficiency for the occupants using Phase Change Materials (PCMs) and passive design strategies. Methods This research evaluates micro-apartments as affordable housing in Egypt, emphasizing passive design and RT24HC Phase Change Material for wall insulation in Alexandria. A prototype is developed, and Design Builder software, using version 7.0.2.006 & Energy Plus 9.4 plugin, simulates the chosen RT24HC PCM’s energy efficiency. This methodology optimizes land use and enhances thermal comfort by integrating PCM with passive design, assessing Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfaction (PPD%) and Predicted Mean Vote (PMV). Results The results indicate that integrating the chosen Phase Change Material with passive design significantly lowers discomfort levels in micro-apartments. Four scenarios tested included: two layers of RT24HC PCM, one layer of RT24HC PCM with XPS insulation, two RT24HC PCM layers with window shading, and two RT24HC PCM layers with 1-meter overhang. The fourth scenario, achieving a 14.18% reduction in predicted discomfort (PPD%) and a Predicted Mean Vote of 1.3, highlights the potential of micro-apartments as an energy-efficient housing through effective PCM integration. Conclusion This study advocates for micro-apartment designs using RT24HC PCM tailored to Alexandria’s climate in Egypt to improve thermal comfort and reduce energy consumption. It provides insights for architects, developers, and policymakers in Egypt, highlighting the importance of PCM in sustainable urban housing solutions. READ ALL READ LESS Keywords micro-apartment, affordable housing, energy efficiency, thermal comfort, RT24HC PCM Corresponding Author(s) Ayah Yasser ( [email protected] ) Close Corresponding author: Ayah Yasser Competing interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Grant information: The author(s) declared that no grants were involved in supporting this work. Copyright: © 2025 Yasser A et al . This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. How to cite: Yasser A, Hany N and Mosaad G. Enhancing Energy Efficiency in Micro-Apartments using Phase Change Materials: A Case Study in Alexandria, Egypt [version 1; peer review: 1 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :112 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.160274.1 ) First published: 20 Jan 2025, 14 :112 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.160274.1 ) Latest published: 20 Jan 2025, 14 :112 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.160274.1 ) Introduction The quality of indoor environments significantly influences both productivity and health, as individuals typically spend around 80% of their lives indoors. 1 Housing is acknowledged as a fundamental necessity for human well-being and plays a crucial role in promoting sustainable community development. It encompasses vital aspects related to the environment, economy, and society. 2 However, the challenge of obtaining adequate housing has become increasingly pronounced for various segments of Egyptian society, particularly among low-income groups. A prevalent issue affects most residents in both middle and low-income housing areas. The government’s inability to fulfil the housing needs of the population, exacerbated by a rising population and an increasing number of families, has intensified these challenges. 3 The housing crisis is extensive in scope. By the year 2050, the urban population is expected to grow by approximately 2.5 billion individuals, with around 90% of this rise projected to occur in Asia and Africa. 4 Presently, Egypt’s energy sector is facing numerous challenges that often overlap and conflict with one another. In recent years, the energy usage in Egypt has undergone a significant reversal, and the economy has not yet fully stabilized. Energy consumption in Egypt is escalating at a rate of about 5%, with projections indicating a potential increase from 60 million tons of oil equivalent (MTOE) to 135 MTOE by 2030. The surge in urban populations, rising income levels, and heightened expectations for comfort have significantly driven up electricity consumption in the housing sector, which is experiencing an annual growth rate of approximately 7%. These challenges are summarized in Table 1 . Consequently, the housing sector emerges as one of the most critical areas for development and the largest consumer of energy. 5 Table 1. Major obstacles representing the significance of the housing sector as the largest energy consumer 4 , 5 [Adapted by the researchers]. Factors Notes Urban Population 2.5 billion increases by 2050 90% growth in Asia and Africa (Including Egypt) Egypt’s Energy Consumption 5% increase From 60 MTOE TO 135 MTOE by 2030 Electricity Usage 7% Annual growth rate globally Research problem Egypt is confronted with severe housing shortages as a result of rapid population growth, low wages and rising living expenses. The situation is made more difficult by frequent power outages caused by excessive energy consumption. In order to improve energy efficiency in construction, phase change materials (PCM) will be investigated as a wall insulating solution in conjunction with passive design techniques. Additionally, the idea of micro-apartments, which are 40 square meters on average, provides a small-scale and financially feasible housing option though its success in other nations has largely prevented it from being explored in Egypt, this is due to the devaluation of the Egyptian pound currency that has significantly impacted everyday citizens, particularly those in the middle and lower classes, hence, leading to increased prices for essential goods and services where many families are struggling financially, as wage growth has not kept pace with rising costs. Research aim The research aims to investigate two energy-efficient concepts that are not widely commonly used in Egypt: phase change materials (PCM) and micro-apartments. It aims to examine the thermal comfort using the application of RT24HC PCM in walls in the residential sector with the addition of passive design strategies. This promotes innovative housing solutions in Egypt, specifically Alexandria, by increasing awareness among researchers and designers. Methods The study examines the effectiveness of Phase Change Material (PCM) and utilizes a 40 square meter micro-apartment prototype as a case study located in Alexandria, Egypt. The research study is divided into two distinct sections: Literature Review and the application on a Case Study. Literature review The literature review will cover various key topics such as definitions of affordable housing, micro-apartments and phase change materials. It will also address the essential functional needs of micro-apartments and discuss the current state of affordable housing in Egypt, focusing on affordability issues. Following this, the literature will define passive design particularly emphasizing thermal insulation related to Phase Change Materials (PCMs). An overview of PCMs will include the impact of PCMs on building construction with the focus on residential walls and will then finally explore the application of PCMs in Egypt and the specific factors influencing PCM selection in the country. Case study The second part of the research focuses on a case study of a proposed 40 square meter micro-apartment in Alexandria, Egypt. It simulates the impact of the RT24HC Phase Change Material (PCM) on thermal comfort metrics, Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) and Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfaction (PPD%), using Design Builder software. The study tests the base case as well as four scenarios involving PCM and selective passive cooling strategies for the apartment’s walls only which are: 1. Base Case: A standard wall without insulation. 2. Scenario One: Two layers of RT24HC PCM. 3. Scenario Two: One layer of RT24HC PCM combined with one layer of traditional XPS insulation, as per the Egyptian Energy Code. 4. Scenario Three: Two layers of RT24HC PCM along with window shading using highly reflective slat blinds. 5. Scenario Four: Two layers of RT24HC PCM paired with a local shading overhang extending one meter horizontally. The research methodology assesses the effectiveness of Phase Change Materials (PCMs) and selective passive design strategies to enhance thermal comfort in micro-apartments in Egypt. Simulations using Design Builder software, version 7.0.2.006 with an Energy Plus 9.4 plugin, will evaluate the Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) and Percentage of People Dissatisfied (PPD%) for a 40 sqm micro-apartment case study in Alexandria, focusing on how these materials and strategies impact the thermal environment. Literature review Micro-apartment as a housing solution Micro-apartments are compact living spaces under standard sanitary regulations, typically ranging from 280 to 450 square feet, designed for efficiency and space conservation. 6 , 7 They generally measure 15-30 m 2 , accommodating one or two occupants with essential amenities. 8 The growing interest in micro-apartments reflects the need for affordable housing solutions in urban areas. 9 Features of micro-apartments Living alone in cities is increasingly common, with one-third of urban residents choosing micro-apartments for one or two occupants. These units prioritize sustainable living through multifunctional furniture and thoughtful design, including high ceilings and large windows to enhance space perception. 6 , 7 Vertical space is optimized with convertible furniture and storage solutions. 10 Careful design elements improve comfort while addressing social interaction challenges. 8 Micro-apartments, classified as compact living spaces by the British Property Federation, must include essential elements for functionality, as shown in Figure 1 . These units are designed for one or two occupants and emphasize efficient use of space through thoughtful design. 11 Figure 1. Micro-living standards [By the researchers]. Affordable housing issues in Egypt Egypt’s affordable housing crisis arises from limited access for low-income individuals, high price-to-income ratios, and a mismatch between supply and demand, complicating adequate housing provision. 12 – 14 Contributing factors include: 1. Rapid population growth 2. Poverty rates 3. Income levels 4. Rental costs 5. Refugees 6. Urbanization trends 7. Slums 8. Annual Housing Shortage Table 2 illustrates key affordability issues in Egypt, hence, discussing the research problem to the urge need of implementing micro-apartments. 15 Table 2. Affordability problems in Egypt 15 – 17 [Adapted by the researchers]. Affordability problems in Egypt Description High-Cost Burden Because median rents or home prices are higher than their means, an estimated 54.3% of Egyptians are deemed cost-burdened. For housing, over half of households would need to pay more than 25% of their monthly income Limited Affordability Rent is a larger expense for lower-class households putting strain on their finances. This situation results in families having to cut back on essential expenses like health, education, and food Regional Disparities Affordability challenges vary across regions in Egypt. Upper Egypt, the Suez Canal cities, the Delta, Greater Cairo, and the Frontier governorates all face different levels of unaffordability, with some areas having a higher percentage of households unable to afford median rents or prices Overcrowding and Inadequate Housing Families with high housing costs may be compelled to live in subpar housing that is devoid of essential amenities like durable housing, safe water and proper sanitation. This can lead to overcrowding and compromised living conditions PCM’s overview The potential of phase change materials (PCMs) and thermal energy storage to lower global energy demands is drawing attention. 18 During phase transitions, PCMs absorb and release thermal energy stabilizing temperatures, enhancing efficiency with passive techniques like natural ventilation. 19 They absorb heat when melting and release it upon solidification. 20 Figure 2 illustrates this process. PCMs serve as effective latent heat storage materials due to their high heat of fusion, 21 whereas Figure 3 shows how PCMs are divided into three groups: eutectic, inorganic, and organic. 18 , 22 Figure 2. PCM cycle 23 [Adapted by the researchers]. Figure 3. PCM categorization 24 [Adapted by the researchers]. Impact of PCMs on building wall construction emphasizing on residential buildings The optimal location for Phase Change Materials in building walls is illustrated in Figure 4 , emphasizing their placement on the exterior and middle surfaces in hot climates to absorb external heat before it enters indoors. 25 This arrangement enhances thermal performance and maximizes energy savings. Figure 4. Optimal PCM location in building walls in hot climates [By the researchers]. Application of PCMs in Egypt Paraffin is the most common Phase Change Material in Mediterranean climates, used 87.5% of the time for its adaptability and high latent heat. 19 Egypt’s climate is classified as BWh (hot dry desert), indicating intense summer heat and minimal precipitation, hence, Table 3 highlights key factors for applying Phase Change Materials (PCMs) in Egyptian buildings, considering the country’s hot and dry climate: Table 3. PCM selection factors and criteria in Egypt 26 – 29 [Adapted by the researchers]. Factors Description High Melting Points PCMs with high melting points are necessary to handle the extreme temperatures in Egypt. This assures that the PCM doesn't melt throughout the day and emits heat when it becomes cold at nighttime High Latent Heat Capacity High latent heat capacity is crucial for effective heat storage and release. This helps to reduce the peak cooling demands and maintain a comfortable indoor temperature Organic PCMs Organic PCMs are suitable for Egypt's hot and arid climate due to their high thermal stability and ability to withstand high temperatures Building Envelope Integration PCMs should be included into the building envelope, such as walls and roofs, to maximize their thermal performance and reduce energy consumption Essential guidelines for PCM and passive strategies in residential housing in Mediterranean cities Previous research on PCMs in Mediterranean cities reveals important guidelines for effectively using PCM and passive strategies in housing design, as shown in Table 4 . Table 4. Crucial guidelines for PCM and passive strategies in residential housing in Mediterranean cities [By the researchers]. Essential Guidelines for PCM and Passive Strategies Description PCM Selection For optimal thermal efficiency, make use of PCMs having melting temperatures ranging around 23°C and 29°C Construction Elements Integrate PCMs into walls, roof structures, and wallboards to enhance thermal mass and insulation Passive Design Strategies Lower or eliminate cooling demands through the use of thermal mass, shading components, and natural ventilation Energy Efficiency Goals Aim for annual energy savings through effective PCM integration and passive design Local Climate Consideration Adapt designs to local climate conditions, focusing on reducing peak summer temperatures Building Orientation Position buildings to maximize natural light while minimizing heat gain during summer months Case study Egypt’s housing heavily relies on air conditioning, leading to high energy costs. 30 This paper research aims to reduce energy consumption and enhance thermal efficiency by testing a 40 square meter micro-apartment with PCM-insulated walls and passive design strategies. Comparing scenarios with and without PCM with the addition of passive design will identify the most energy-efficient sustainable housing solution. Bioclimatic chart analysis and thermal comfort in Alexandria, Egypt This study examines Alexandria’s bioclimatic chart using Climate Consultant v.6.0, generating a psychrometric graph from meteorological data. This graph highlights potential bioclimatic design strategies to improve indoor thermal comfort, as illustrated in Figure 5 , showcasing effective passive design methods. Figure 5. Bioclimatic analysis of Alexandria's climate using climate consultant [By the researchers]. Figure 5 , analysed by the researchers, shows that only 20.8% of the year was within Alexandria’s climate comfort zone. The following passive design techniques were assessed in an effort to increase thermal comfort using Climate Consultant v.6.0 software by the researchers: • Applying internal heat gains might result in a 36.8% increase in pleasant hours, notably in the winter. • Sun shading from windows could enhance comfort by 17.6%, especially during summer. • Natural ventilation and cooling allowed for 12.8% of the comfort. • Night flushing using significant thermal mass improved comfort by 6.9%. • The combination of high thermal mass and passive solar exposure could boost comfort by 13.7%, resulting in 77% of hours pleasant. However, these conclusions were confined to general recommendations based on climate data analysis. The building case study’s particular design parameters will be further investigated in order to determine the best solutions. Alexandria’s climate in Egypt Positioned within latitudes 22°N and 32°N and the longitudes 25°E and 35°E, lies Egypt, with a hot climate. The Housing and Building Research Centre identifies eight climatic regions. Alexandria experiences summer highs of 32°C to 34°C and a transitioning climate from hot desert to semi-arid, with high humidity around 70% due to the Mediterranean Sea. 31 – 33 Case study description of the micro-apartment proposed model The simulation focuses on a 40 square meter micro-apartment model, the largest size for this prototype space, located in a four-story residential building in Alexandria, Egypt. This unit, positioned directly below the roof, allows for testing under challenging conditions. Essential features include a bed, kitchen, and bathroom to ensure minimal spatial comfort. A basic model plan 34 was taken as a reference to implement the proposed micro-apartment design layout. The design emphasizes flexibility to meet occupants’ specific requirements, highlighting the importance of adaptable layouts to enhance comfort and functionality in compact living spaces. The micro-apartment floor plan in Figure 6 features four mirrored identical units per floor, each 40 square meters, including a kitchen, living room, bedroom, and bathroom with multipurpose furniture for efficient space use. Figure 6. Typical floor plan of the proposed micro-apartment residential building [By the researchers]. The 5m x 8m configuration is optimal for a 40 sqm micro-apartment due to: • Better use of space: The square shape allows for flexible furniture placement and efficient use of the floor area compared to a long, narrow layout. • Improved natural light and ventilation: More perimeter wall space accommodates larger windows for better illumination and airflow. • Enhanced sense of openness: Less elongated proportions create a more open, airy feel within the micro-apartment. • More optimal utilization: The layout configuration maximizes the available space. Design builder project file settings of the proposed micro-apartment case study The 40 square meter micro-apartment model in Alexandria, Egypt, addresses energy efficiency and thermal comfort challenges posed by its hot, humid Mediterranean climate. Many local housing projects lack proper planning, making this simulation essential for improving residential energy performance. The Egyptian Construction Law mandates a minimum internal ceiling height of 2.7 meters for the 40 square meter micro-apartment, hence, this research uses 3 meters. 35 The micro-apartment proposed unit to be simulated is shown in Figure 7 . Figure 7. Micro-apartment unit model used in the simulation [By the researchers]. Data entry Design Builder 7.0.2.006 with an Energy Plus 9.4 plugin is the software used to simulate energy in this case study. It accurately models the building’s environmental conditions yearly, monthly, daily and hourly, including humidity, lighting, thermal balance, and energy consumption. Activity The activity of each space is specified accurately as well as the number of users, occupancy density, metabolic rate as shown in Table 5 . Table 5. Specifications for the micro-apartment activity in design builder [By the researchers]. Activity Template Domestic Circulation – Residential Spaces Number of Users 2 users minimum Occupancy Density (people/m 2 ) 0.16 people/m 2 Metabolic Rate 0.925 (Assuming 2 adults, 1 man and 1 woman) Construction Construction data, including materials for walls, slabs, and roofs, is crucial for accurate simulation. The U-value and insulation levels significantly affect energy use, as they transfer heat. Table 6 displays the building materials used in the Design Builder program. Table 6. Specifications for the micro-apartment activity in design builder [By the researchers]. Project Construction Materials External Walls Solid Brick wall 200 mm, Uninsulated Internal Partition Solid Brick wall 120 mm, Uninsulated Flat Roof Concrete 150 mm, Reinforced with 2% steel External Door Plywood Lightweight, 35 mm thickness Openings Heat gain and loss through windows significantly impact energy consumption, especially in warm climates where solar heat is a major contributor. Accurate simulation requires precise glazing and shading details, as illustrated in Table 7 , particularly relevant for Alexandria, Egypt. Table 7. Openings materials assigned in design builder [By the researchers]. Openings External Door Plywood Lightweight, 50 mm thickness Windows Single glazing, clear, no shading on windows with aluminium frame HVAC Passive design techniques were prioritized due to restrictions on HVAC systems and mechanical ventilation, addressing affordability issues in Alexandria. This approach aims to reduce energy consumption and mitigate power outages. The HVAC settings used in the program are listed in Table 8 below. Table 8. Openings materials assigned in design builder [By the researchers]. HVAC HVAC Template Natural Ventilation, No heating or Cooling Mechanical Ventilation Checked off Heating and Cooling Checked off Humidity Control Checked off Natural Ventilation Checked on The study utilizes RT-category phase change materials (PCMs), specifically RT24HC from Rubitherm, which has an adjustable melting temperature between -10°C and 90°C. 36 This PCM is optimal for Egypt’s high temperatures, enabling effective thermal management and energy savings. 37 Case study simulation results The simulation ran from January 1 to December 31, testing four scenarios on PCM material and passive cooling strategies for the micro-apartment unit’s walls, summarized in Table 9 . • Base Case: A baseline by using a standard wall without any insulation layers. • Scenario One: Incorporating two layers of RT24HC PCM material into the base case wall. • Scenario Two: Implementing one layer of RT24HC PCM material combined with one layer of traditional XPS insulation, as specified by the Egyptian energy code. • Scenario Three: Adding two layers of RT24HC PCM material along with window shading, utilizing blinds that feature high reflectivity slats. • Scenario Four: Integrating two layers of RT24HC PCM material along with a local shading overhang, which extends 1 meter horizontally from the exterior wall of the building. Table 9. Simulation scenarios with the incorporation of PCM and passive strategies in design builder [By the researchers]. Simulation Scenarios Wall layers description Base Case 15mm Plaster, 250mm Brick, 15mm Plaster S1 2 layers of RT24HC S2 1 layer of RT24HC + 1 layer of XPS insulation S3 2 layers of RT24HC + window shading S4 2 layers of RT24HC + local overhang (1m projection) The maximum PCM layer thickness in the simulation used is 30 mm, as greater thicknesses yield diminishing returns and potential drawbacks that were tested by the researchers while conducting the simulations, hence, this indicates that 30 mm PCM thickness is optimal for thermal performance and energy efficiency. Figures 8 to 11 illustrate wall section diagrams for the base case and the other scenarios, including window shading blinds and a local overhang with a 1-meter projection properties. Figure 8. Wall section – base case [By the researchers]. Figure 9. Wall section – Scenario 1 on the left, Scenario 2 on the right [By the researchers]. Figure 10. Wall section – Scenario 3 with window shading properties [By the researchers]. Figure 11. Wall section – Scenario 4 with local shading overhang 1-meter horizontal projection properties [By the researchers]. Table 10 shows variations in results compared to the base case across four scenarios, highlighting PPD% values on the hot scale with fluctuating trends. Table 10. PPD% values on hot scale for all four scenarios in design builder [By the researchers]. Simulation Scenarios MAX Fanger PMV on hot scale MAX Fanger PPD% on hot scale Base Case 1.43 47.08% S1 1.39 44.94% S2 1.4 45.28% S3 1.36 43.42% S4 1.3 40.41% A challenge with phase change materials (PCMs) in residential sectors is annual temperature variability, as most systems are optimized for summer or winter. This study analyses PMV and PPD% values during hot months to enhance summer comfort and reduce air conditioning demand. The PMV scalability variables are presented in Table 11 . A PMV of -3 represents a cool feeling, while a PMV of 3 implies a hot sensation. Table 11. PMV scaling parameters [By the researchers]. Parameter PMV (Predicted Mean Vote) Cold -3 Cool -2 Acceptably Cool -1 Neutral (Comfortable) 0 Acceptably Warm 1 Warm 2 Hot 3 Figure 12 highlights variations from the base case scenario, emphasizing summer months to enhance thermal comfort and reduce dissatisfaction with phase change materials (PCMs). This strategy aims to lower air conditioning reliance and energy consumption, addressing recent power outages in Egypt, particularly Alexandria. Figures 13 to 17 display PMV and PPD Fanger charts from Design Builder for all scenarios. Figure 12. PMV values for four scenarios on hot scale from design builder [By the researchers]. Figure 13. PPD and PMV values for base case scenario from design builder [By the researchers]. Figure 14. PPD and PMV values for Scenario 1 from design builder [By the researchers]. Figure 15. PPD and PMV values for Scenario 2 from design builder [By the researchers]. Figure 16. PPD and PMV values for Scenario 3 from design builder [By the researchers]. Figure 17. PPD and PMV values for Scenario 4 from design builder [By the researchers]. The analysis of four scenarios for a micro-apartment provides valuable insights into enhancing thermal comfort. The base case without insulation has a Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) of 1.43 and a Percentage of People Dissatisfied (PPD) of 47.08%. Scenario 1, adding two layers of RT24HC phase change material (PCM), improves PMV to 1.39 and reduces PPD to 44.94%. Scenario 2, combining one layer of RT24HC PCM with traditional XPS insulation, achieves a PMV of 1.40 and PPD of 45.28%. Scenario 3 incorporates two layers of RT24HC PCM with high reflectivity slat blinds, yielding a PMV of 1.36 and reducing PPD to 43.42%. The most effective scenario, Scenario 4, combines two layers of RT24HC PCM with a one-meter horizontal overhang, resulting in a PMV of 1.30 and a PPD of 40.41%, marking a significant reduction in discomfort. The findings highlight the importance of integrating PCM and shading strategies to improve indoor thermal comfort in hot regions like Egypt, with Scenario 4 being the most effective as shown in Table 12 and Figure 12 . Table 12. PPD% changes of the four scenarios with respect to the base case scenario [By the researchers]. Scenarios PPD change (%) – percentage of energy reduction Base Case - S1 4.54% S2 3.81% S3 7.57% S4 14.18% This holistic approach enhances indoor comfort and energy efficiency by combining effective insulation and shading strategies, promoting occupant satisfaction and sustainability through a comprehensive passive cooling strategy that reduces energy consumption in residential spaces. The percentage of energy reduction for each scenario compared to the base case is shown in Table 12 and Figure 18 below. This indicates how much energy is reduced in each scenario compared to the base case, with Scenario 4 showing the highest reduction percentage at approximately 14.18%. Figure 18. Energy consumption reduction for each scenario compared to the base case [By the researchers]. Conclusions and Recommendations The introduction of micro apartments combined with phase change materials (PCMs) and passive strategies offers an affordable housing solution in Alexandria, Egypt, addressing the city’s housing challenges and power cuts. Micro apartments provide compact, cost-effective living spaces, while PCMs enhance thermal comfort and reduce energy consumption. PCMs regulate indoor temperatures, minimizing reliance on mechanical cooling and contributing to energy savings, especially during hot summers when power cuts are common. The integration of insulation, shading, and PCMs represents a powerful passive cooling strategy, working synergistically to improve thermal performance and occupant comfort while decreasing energy demands. This comprehensive approach leads to more sustainable and comfortable living environments, making micro apartments a promising solution for affordable housing in Alexandria. To attempt to figure out which passive design solutions will perform most effectively in Alexandria, Egypt, a bioclimatic chart has been examined for the case study. According to the visual chart, the most beneficial techniques to improve thermal comfort in Alexandria will be to maximise internal heat gain, maximise natural ventilation, and install window shadings. The case study concentrates on a recommended model of a single, 40 square metre micro-apartment that incorporates basic necessities in a limited space and is specifically designed for the climate of Alexandria, a Mediterranean city. There are four floors within this low-rise building, along with every unit will accommodate two individuals in a minimum. The findings indicated that the most impactful scenario for enhancing thermal comfort in the micro-apartment unit was Scenario 4, which incorporated two layers of RT24HC PCM tailored to Egypt’s climate in Alexandria. This scenario also featured a 1-meter overhang for local shading, resulting in a PMV (Predicted Mean Vote) of 1.3 on the hot scale, focusing specifically on summer months. Additionally, it achieved a PPD (Predicted Percentage Dissatisfied) of 40.41%, reflecting a reduction of 14.18% compared to the base case. This scenario demonstrates how effectively integrating PCM and shading strategies can significantly improve indoor thermal comfort, particularly during the hotter months. By reducing peak temperatures and enhancing overall energy efficiency, these design choices provide a practical solution to the challenges posed by the Mediterranean climate in Alexandria, Egypt. To enhance the effectiveness of phase change materials (PCMs) in micro-apartments in Alexandria, several recommendations are proposed: • Modular PCM Panels: Develop easily installable and removable modular PCM panels for seasonal adaptability. • Public Awareness: Promote education on the benefits of micro-apartments and PCM technologies through campaigns and workshops. • Collaboration: Engage local authorities and stakeholders to integrate these technologies into urban development plans. • Ongoing Research: Foster continuous research and development to optimize micro-apartment design and PCM technologies. Ethics and consent No human participation was involved in this study. Data availability Underlying data Zenodo: Enhancing energy efficiency in micro-apartments using phase change materials: A case study in Alexandria, Egypt https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14532344 . 38 This project contains the following underlying data: - Base Case Simulation.png (No insulation at all) - 2 layers of RT24HC.png (2 layers of 30mm RT24HC PCM added to the walls only – Scenario 1) - 1 layer of RT24HC PCM and 1 layer of XPS.png (1 layer of 30mm RT24HC PCM and 1 layer of 50mm XPS traditional insulation according to the Egyptian Energy Code are added to the walls only – Scenario 2) - 2 layers of 30mm RT24HC PCM with window shading (Blinds with high reflectivity slats).png (Scenario 3) - 2 layers of 30mm RT24HC PCM with local shading (overhang 1meter projection).png (Scenario 4) - PMV AND PPD Charts.xlsx (These are the PMV values on hot scale for all scenarios, as well as the PPD% in an excel sheet) - EGY_IK_Alexandria-Nozha.Intl.AP.623180_TMYx.2004-2018.wea [Alexandria, Egypt - Weather File.pdf] (This is the weather file related to Alexandria, Egypt, that has been used in the Design Builder simulation case study) - Micro apartment - PCM-Thesis Related.dsb [Micro-apartment.csv] (This is the Design Builder file that includes the 3d model and the simulation including all data) Data are available under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC-BY 4.0) Extended data Zenodo: Enhancing energy efficiency in micro-apartments using phase change materials: A case study in Alexandria, Egypt https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14557659 . 39 Data are available under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC-BY 4.0) References 1. 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Publisher Full Text Publisher Full Text Comments on this article Comments (0) Version 1 VERSION 1 PUBLISHED 20 Jan 2025 ADD YOUR COMMENT Comment Author details Author details 1 Architecture & Envrionmental Engineering, Arab Academy for Science Technology and Maritime Transport College of Engineering and Technology, Alexandria, Alexandria Governorate, Egypt Ayah Yasser Roles: Resources, Visualization, Writing – Original Draft Preparation Nermine Hany Roles: Supervision, Writing – Review & Editing Gihan Mosaad Roles: Supervision Competing interests No competing interests were disclosed. Grant information The author(s) declared that no grants were involved in supporting this work. Article Versions (1) version 1 Published: 20 Jan 2025, 14:112 https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.160274.1 Copyright © 2025 Yasser A et al . This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Download Export To Sciwheel Bibtex EndNote ProCite Ref. Manager (RIS) Sente metrics Views Downloads F1000Research - - PubMed Central info_outline Data from PMC are received and updated monthly. - - Citations open_in_new 0 open_in_new 0 open_in_new SEE MORE DETAILS CITE how to cite this article Yasser A, Hany N and Mosaad G. Enhancing Energy Efficiency in Micro-Apartments using Phase Change Materials: A Case Study in Alexandria, Egypt [version 1; peer review: 1 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :112 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.160274.1 ) NOTE: If applicable, it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS track receive updates on this article Track an article to receive email alerts on any updates to this article. TRACK THIS ARTICLE Share Open Peer Review Current Reviewer Status: ? Key to Reviewer Statuses VIEW HIDE Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Version 1 VERSION 1 PUBLISHED 20 Jan 2025 Views 0 Cite How to cite this report: Islam A. Reviewer Report For: Enhancing Energy Efficiency in Micro-Apartments using Phase Change Materials: A Case Study in Alexandria, Egypt [version 1; peer review: 1 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :112 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.176141.r365781 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-112/v1#referee-response-365781 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. Close Copy Citation Details Reviewer Report 17 Mar 2025 Anas Islam , Sunway University, Bandar Sunway, Selangor, Malaysia Approved with Reservations VIEWS 0 https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.176141.r365781 1. The introduction lacks a clear research gap. Clearly state what specific problem in Alexandria’s housing sector this study addresses and how it contributes beyond existing research on PCMs in similar climates. 2. Specify whether the prototype is ... Continue reading READ ALL 1. The introduction lacks a clear research gap. Clearly state what specific problem in Alexandria’s housing sector this study addresses and how it contributes beyond existing research on PCMs in similar climates. 2. Specify whether the prototype is a physical model or a digital simulation. Justify the choice of RT24HC PCM by comparing it with alternative PCM options suitable for Alexandria’s climate. 3. Discuss real-world challenges such as cost, availability, and construction feasibility of integrating RT24HC PCM into micro-apartments. Is it economically viable for affordable housing? 4. Provide clear policy recommendations. Should PCM integration be considered in building codes? Also, discuss whether findings can be generalized to other regions with similar climates. 5. The case study lacks specific details on the validation of simulation results. Were the results compared with real-world measurements or other validated studies? Adding a validation step would strengthen the reliability of the findings. 6. The discussion on Alexandria’s climate is too general. Instead of broad climatic descriptions, include more focused information on how seasonal variations impact micro-apartment energy performance. 7. The study mentions passive design strategies but does not explain why certain strategies were chosen over others. Justify why internal heat gains, night flushing, and shading were prioritized compared to other bioclimatic techniques. 8. The methodology does not clearly specify the PCM placement within the walls. Is it located on the inner or outer layer? This affects thermal performance and should be explicitly stated. 9. The text mentions that HVAC settings were included in the Design Builder simulation, but it is unclear whether cooling setpoints were adjusted based on PCM integration. Clarify if the thermostat settings were altered for different scenarios. 10. The energy savings of PCM integration are not explicitly quantified. Provide numerical data on energy consumption reduction compared to the base case to better demonstrate the impact. 11. The study states that a 30 mm PCM thickness is optimal, but there is no explanation of how this was determined. Were different thicknesses tested systematically? Presenting a sensitivity analysis would add more credibility. Is the background of the case’s history and progression described in sufficient detail? Partly Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Yes If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? I cannot comment. A qualified statistician is required. Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility? Partly Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? No Is the case presented with sufficient detail to be useful for teaching or other practitioners? No Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise: Thermal energy storage and heat transfer using PCMs I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard, however I have significant reservations, as outlined above. Close READ LESS CITE CITE HOW TO CITE THIS REPORT Islam A. Reviewer Report For: Enhancing Energy Efficiency in Micro-Apartments using Phase Change Materials: A Case Study in Alexandria, Egypt [version 1; peer review: 1 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :112 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.176141.r365781 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-112/v1#referee-response-365781 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS Report a concern Respond or Comment COMMENT ON THIS REPORT Comments on this article Comments (0) Version 1 VERSION 1 PUBLISHED 20 Jan 2025 ADD YOUR COMMENT Comment keyboard_arrow_left keyboard_arrow_right Open Peer Review Reviewer Status info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Reviewer Reports Invited Reviewers 1 Version 1 20 Jan 25 read Anas Islam , Sunway University, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia Comments on this article All Comments (0) Add a comment Sign up for content alerts Sign Up You are now signed up to receive this alert Browse by related subjects keyboard_arrow_left Back to all reports Reviewer Report 0 Views copyright © 2025 Islam A. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 17 Mar 2025 | for Version 1 Anas Islam , Sunway University, Bandar Sunway, Selangor, Malaysia 0 Views copyright © 2025 Islam A. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. format_quote Cite this report speaker_notes Responses (0) Approved With Reservations info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions 1. The introduction lacks a clear research gap. Clearly state what specific problem in Alexandria’s housing sector this study addresses and how it contributes beyond existing research on PCMs in similar climates. 2. Specify whether the prototype is a physical model or a digital simulation. Justify the choice of RT24HC PCM by comparing it with alternative PCM options suitable for Alexandria’s climate. 3. Discuss real-world challenges such as cost, availability, and construction feasibility of integrating RT24HC PCM into micro-apartments. Is it economically viable for affordable housing? 4. Provide clear policy recommendations. Should PCM integration be considered in building codes? Also, discuss whether findings can be generalized to other regions with similar climates. 5. The case study lacks specific details on the validation of simulation results. Were the results compared with real-world measurements or other validated studies? Adding a validation step would strengthen the reliability of the findings. 6. The discussion on Alexandria’s climate is too general. Instead of broad climatic descriptions, include more focused information on how seasonal variations impact micro-apartment energy performance. 7. The study mentions passive design strategies but does not explain why certain strategies were chosen over others. Justify why internal heat gains, night flushing, and shading were prioritized compared to other bioclimatic techniques. 8. The methodology does not clearly specify the PCM placement within the walls. Is it located on the inner or outer layer? This affects thermal performance and should be explicitly stated. 9. The text mentions that HVAC settings were included in the Design Builder simulation, but it is unclear whether cooling setpoints were adjusted based on PCM integration. Clarify if the thermostat settings were altered for different scenarios. 10. The energy savings of PCM integration are not explicitly quantified. Provide numerical data on energy consumption reduction compared to the base case to better demonstrate the impact. 11. The study states that a 30 mm PCM thickness is optimal, but there is no explanation of how this was determined. Were different thicknesses tested systematically? Presenting a sensitivity analysis would add more credibility. Is the background of the case’s history and progression described in sufficient detail? Partly Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Yes If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? I cannot comment. A qualified statistician is required. Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility? Partly Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? No Is the case presented with sufficient detail to be useful for teaching or other practitioners? No Competing Interests No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise Thermal energy storage and heat transfer using PCMs I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard, however I have significant reservations, as outlined above. reply Respond to this report Responses (0) Islam A. Peer Review Report For: Enhancing Energy Efficiency in Micro-Apartments using Phase Change Materials: A Case Study in Alexandria, Egypt [version 1; peer review: 1 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :112 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.176141.r365781) NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. 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