Research on grinding performance and wheel wear of titanium alloy arc-shaped mortise profile grinding wheels

Research on grinding performance and wheel wear of titanium alloy arc-shaped mortise profile grinding wheels | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Research on grinding performance and wheel wear of titanium alloy arc-shaped mortise profile grinding wheels Xiaofei Lei, Rong Wang, Xu Liu, Ziang Liu, Xiaobo Guo, Yang Cao, and 3 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7463539/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 20 Dec, 2025 Read the published version in The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology → Version 1 posted 5 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The arc-shaped mortise is an important form of the mortise on the disk of future aero engines and is of great significance for improving the performance of aero engines. This paper employs a forming electroplated CBN grinding wheel to grind TC11 titanium alloy mortise. Firstly, the influence of process parameters on grinding force and surface quality was explored. Then, the influence of wheel wear on the machining process is explored simultaneously. The results indicate that abrasive fracture and wheel adhesion are common wear forms of the wheel. The grinding forces in the three directions show a continuous upward trend with the increase of wheel wear. Compared with the initial and severe wear stage, The grinding forces in the three directions (x, y, and z) in the normal wear stage is reduced by 125.4%, 32.4%, 10.7% and 17.3%, 31.9%, 83.6% respectively. Furthermore, compared with the initial wear and severe wear stages, the surface roughness values in the normal wear stage decreased by 37.9% and 31.25% respectively, and the surface in the normal wear stage is also smoother. Arc-shaped mortise profile grinding wheel wear grinding force surface quality Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13 1. Introduction The service performance of aero engines is an important manifestation of industrial advancement. As an important structural component in aero engines, the wheel disc has an impact on the service performance of aero engines. At present, the commonly used mortise cross-sections of discs are mostly dovetail type and fir tree type mortises [ 1 – 2 ], but they are all linear mortises parallel to the axis of the disc or at a certain angle. Their load-bearing capacity and stability during rotation need to be improved. With the continuous progress of the aerospace industry, the arc-shaped mortise is an important form of the development of the mortise for the disk of aero engines in the future. Compared with the straight mortise, the arc-shaped mortise increases the effective load-bearing area and improves the connection stability [ 3 ]. Therefore, the arc-shaped mortise shows great application prospects in the wheel discs of aero engines. Titanium alloy is extensively utilized as a primary material in the production of critical components for aircraft engines, such as fan disks, turbine disks, compressors, cooling blades and other important parts [ 4 – 7 ]. In addition, titanium alloys can also be used to manufacture aircraft skins, landing gear etc [ 8 – 12 ]. Grinding is a critical processing approach for achieving ultra-precision machining of titanium alloy and plays an irreplaceable role in mechanical machining [ 13 , 14 ]. Because of the complex contact conditions between the wheel and the workpiece in profile grinding, the wheel and the workpiece surface exhibit a propensity for adhesive phenomena and thermal damage induced by the grinding process. Even large residual tensile stress will be generated on the machined surface, resulting in microcracks on the workpiece surface, which poses a serious threat to the functional durability and operational lifespan of the workpiece and the wheel [ 15 – 21 ], especially for profile grinding, the different contact positions between the wheel and the workpiece can also pose a severe influence to the workpiece processing quality and the wheel service life [ 22 – 25 ]. Therefore, controlling the wheel wear is of great significance for ensuring its own service life and the processing quality of the workpiece. Wheel wear is a critical challenge in the machining of titanium alloys. The degradation of the wheel due to wear curtails its operational longevity and it also significantly compromises the machining quality. A substantial body of research has noted that during the titanium alloy grinding, the wheel will mainly undergo abrasive wear, oxidation wear, abrasive shedding, grinding wheel adhesion, and other wear forms, which will have different degrees of impact on the machined surface [ 26 – 30 ]. Aiming to investigate the ramifications of abrasive wheel deterioration on the grinding operation, numerous researchers have carried out extensive studies on this topic in recent years. Ma et al. [ 31 ] used electroplated CBN grinding wheels to study the effect of wheel wear on GH4169 high-temperature alloy. The findings revealed that an optimal degree of grinding wheel attrition can contribute to the mitigation of surface roughness ( R a ) values on the machined component and the attenuation of stiffness-induced fluctuations in roughness, thereby substantially elevating the surface integrity of the machined surface. Miao et al. [ 32 ] analyzed the circumstances of grinding performance caused by grinding wheel wear through employing brown alumina and microcrystalline aluminum oxide abrasive wheels in creep-feed grinding operations on GH4169 nickel-based superalloy components. The results demonstrated that severe adhesive wear would be occurred on the wheel surface. Compared with brown alumina grinding wheels, microcrystalline alumina grinding wheels have higher grinding ratios and smaller wheel wear. This was because microcrystalline alumina grinding wheels had better self-sharpening properties and larger pores for better heat dissipation. Zhao et al. [ 33 ] analyzed the grinding ability of sintered spherical cubic boron nitride abrasives on titanium alloy. The findings indicated that sintered spherical cubic boron nitride abrasives possessed more cutting edges and superior self-sharpening capabilities compared to traditional CBN abrasives. These abrasives possessed a higher material removal rate, a more stable grinding force ratio, and a longer time period of stable wear. Considering the ramifications of the wear phase on grinding efficacy, Naik et al. [ 34 ] executed a comprehensive examination of how the three distinct wear stages of a single-layer electroplated CBN grinding wheel impact the machining performance of nickel-based superalloys. The findings revealed that the stable wear range with regard to the wheel was between 21 µm and 25.5 µm. When the wear transitioned from the initial stage to the stable wear stage, the amount of effective abrasive particles increased, which resulted in achieving a reduction in machined R a . After exceeding the stable wear stage, the specific grinding energy during grinding increased significantly. When the wear amount increased from 21 µm to 34 µm, the specific grinding energy increased from 240 J/mm 3 to 540 J/mm 3 , an increase of 125%. Naskar et al. [ 35 ] investigated the ramifications of super-abrasive wheel degradation on the dimensional integrity of the machined surface. Their findings indicated that abrasive wear was the primary mode of CBN abrasives. Under water-based fluid lubrication, the wheel radial wear increased by 2 to 4 times compared with pure oil, and the residual compressive stress was reduced by 10–75%. Li et al. [ 36 ] investigated the impact of ordinary alumina grinding wheels and brown oxide grinding wheels on the grinding performance of powder high-temperature alloys, focusing on grinding ratio, radial wear, and grinding force. The results showed that microcrystalline alumina grinding wheels have less wear and higher grinding ratio. This was because microcrystalline alumina grinding wheels have better self-sharpening and chip space. However, when the grinding ratio was less than 1.8, both grinding wheel surfaces would produce more serious adhesion and tool wear, and the grinding performance would decrease. Considering the impact of grinding wheel type on titanium alloy grinding, Shi et al. [ 37 ] examined diamond wheels and electroplated CBN wheels affect the grinding performance of titanium alloys. It found that the electroplated diamond wheel experienced less wear compared to the electroplated CBN wheel, but the grinding ratio decreased as the material removal rate increased. To sum up, some research has been conducted on the wear problem of wheels. However, the main focus is on the wear problem of grinding wheels during surface grinding, while the research on the wear phenomenon of wheels during profile grinding is still lacking. The first part of this paper analyzes the influence of process parameters on grinding performance. The second part explores the wear forms and evolution laws of forming wheels. The third part reveals the relationship between different wheel wear stages and the grinding force and machining quality during the profile grinding process, and obtains the combination of process parameters that meet the service life of grinding wheels and the processing quality of mortises. It provides theoretical insights and practical guidance for the subsequent control of surface integrity and wheel wear. 2. Experimental details 2.1 Experimental materials and tools The VDL850 three-axis vertical machining center for profile grinding is used in this research. The wheel is secured to the tool holder via a spring-loaded collet, and the workpiece is retained using a multi-axis adjustable vise. Figure 1 (a) illustrates the designated experimental machining setup. In this paper, the electroplated CBN forming wheel is provided by Zhengzhou Abrasives and Grinding Research Institute. The particle size is 80–120 #, and the tool geometry is illustrated in Fig. 1 (b). The material selected for the experiment is TC11 titanium alloy with excellent comprehensive mechanical properties, and primary chemical components shown in Table 1 . The microstructural constitution of TC11 titanium alloy is depicted in Fig. 2 , the short and coarse grains as structure a , the slender grains are classified as structure β , and the grain boundaries are formed between the two grains. For the convenience of research, the positions of the machined mortise were divided, as shown in Fig. 1 (c). The 1, 4, and 5 positions of the mortise were selected to represent end face grinding, bevel grinding, and circular grinding for discussion. The workpiece is the milled mortise contour, and the mortise length is 50 mm (Fig. 1 (c)). Table 1 Chemical compositions of TC11. Elements Al Mo Zr S C O H Fe N Ti Mass fraction/% 6.41 3.27 1.81 0.22 0.024 0.097 0.002 0.078 0.003 Balance 2.2 Experimental parameter settings and test equipment Grinding process parameters are important factors affecting the durability of abrasive wheels and the surface integrity of the machined workpiece. Therefore, the selected test parameters mainly include spindle speed, grinding depth and workpiece speed. The test scheme parameter selection is shown in Table 2 . The Kistler 9257B dynamometer is used to collect force signals in the x, y, and z directions. The morphology of different positions of the mortise is reproduced using rubber impression materials, and the surface morphology and R a of the workpiece were collected using a Sensofar 3-D confocal microscope. The R a at each position of the mortise is measured five times, with the mean value is considered to be the ultimate result. Wear tests were conducted on the workpiece using new grinding tools, with each grinding length being 50 mm, and a total of 20 grinding operations were carried out. Table 2 Profile grinding and wheel size parameters. Parameter name Values Spindle speed n (r/min) 3000,4000, 5000, 6000 depth of cut a p (mm) 5, 10, 15, 20 Workpiece speed v w (mm/min) 25, 50, 75, 100 Wheel diameter (mm) 25–42 3. Results and discussion 3.1 Grinding force s Grinding force is a key variable that influences machining stability, significantly affecting both surface machining quality and the lifespan of wheel. According to the Fig. 3, the impact of varied machining parameters on the tangential grinding forces and normal grinding forces during the profile grinding of titanium alloy mortise is explored. As presented in Fig. 3(a), with the uprising of spindle speed, the grinding forces F x , F y , and F z show a downward trend. Specifically, when the spindle speed rises from 3000 r/min to 6000 r/min, F x , F y , and F z change from 7.359 N, 6.329 N, and 10.26 N to 4.79 N, 3.44 N, and 6.7 N, respectively, which can be reduced by 34.9%, 45.6%, and 34.6%, respectively. This phenomenon arises due to the elevation in spindle speed, which diminishes the undeformed chip thickness per individual grain, thus lowering the grinding force. It is illustrated in Fig. 3(b) that an increment in cutting depth results in a rising trend in the grinding forces along all three directions. When the cutting depth changes from 5 μm to 20 μm, F x , F y , and F z change from 4.97 N, 2.18 N, and 6.5 N to 11.94 N, 9.3 N, and 22.96 N, respectively, which increase by 140.2%, 326.6%, and 253.2%, respectively. This is because an increasing cutting depth causes a greater number of active cutting edges in cutting area, so improves the frictional resistance at the contact interface between the workpiece and the abrasives. At the same time, the phenomenon of a growth in cutting depth causes a larger chip thickness for each abrasive, further escalating the grinding force. Furthermore, the analysis of the cutting process reveals that the force magnitude along the z-axis undergoes the most substantial growth, because the effective cutting depth is a critical factor in the analysis. The contact pressure per unit area is maximized during end-face grinding operations, which leads to a sharp increase in the friction between the top of the workpiece and the abrasive during end face grinding. It is demonstrated in Fig. 3(c) that the grinding forces in the three directions all demonstrate a progressive escalation in conjunction with an increase in the workpiece speed. When the workpiece speed varies from 25 mm/min to 100 mm/min, F x , F y , and F z changes from 5.1 N, 3.69 N, and 5.48 N to 8.1 N, 6.32 N, and 11.96 N, respectively, increasing by 58.8%, 71.2%, and 118.2%, respectively. This is because an increment in workpiece speed raises the material removal rate per unit time, leading to a greater chip thickness for each abrasive grain. In comparison to the workpiece speed and spindle speed, the cutting depth emerges as the predominant factor influencing the measured variation in grinding force, a trend that aligns with the established force-variation patterns observed in conventional metal grinding processes. 3.2 Surface roughness and surface morphology Fig. 4 demonstrates the impact of diverse process parameter changes on the R a and surface morphology of different mortise positions. As depicted in Fig. 4(a), with the increase in the spindle speed, R a shows a trend of first decreasing and then rising. When the spindle speed varies from 3000 r/min to 4000 r/min, the R a at positions 1, 4, and 5 decreased from 0.88 μm, 0.99 μm, and 0.86 μm to 0.76 μm, 0.86 μm, and 0.76 μm, reducing by 13.6%, 13.1%, and 11.6% respectively. This phenomenon arises due to the escalation in the number of active cutting edges engaged in material removal per unit time in the same area. When the spindle speed reached 6000 r/min, the R a value rose from 0.76 μm, 0.86 μm, and 0.76 μm to 0.84 μm, 1.12 μm, and 0.98 μm, respectively, increasing by 10.5%, 30.2%, and 28.9%. The augmentation of spindle speed induces dynamic oscillations within the machine tool spindle assembly, which leads to an increase in the vibration and impact of abrasives on the workpiece, thereby increasing R a again. Fig. 4(b) illustrates the influence of different cutting depth changes on R a and surface morphology. When the cutting depth gradually rises from 5 μm to 20 μm, the R a at the mortise parts basically manifests a trajectory marked by an initial diminution followed by a subsequent elevation. The R a at some positions shows a continuous rising trend, but the R a at all positions as a whole shows an upward tendency. Before the cutting depth reaches 10 μm, the R a value at positions 1 and 5 decreases from 0.66 μm and 0.926 μm to 0.54 μm and 0.86 μm, respectively, decreasing by 18.1% and 7.1%, respectively. When the cutting depth varies from 10 μm to 20 μm. The R a varies from 0.54 μm and 0.86 μm to 1.47 μm and 1.21 μm, respectively, increasing by 172.2% and 40.6%. The observed performance can be attributed to the progressive degradation of the abrasives, which subsequently leads to a reduction in the embedment depth of the abrasives within the workpiece, thus reducing the R a . The subsequent increase results from an increase in the grinding depth, which further increases the depth of the abrasive that penetrates the workpiece. Meanwhile, the wear of the wheel becomes relatively more severe, resulting in an upward trend in the R a again. The R a at position 4 shows a continuous rising trend. When the cutting depth changes from 5 μm to 20 μm, the R a at position 4 directly rises from 0.89 μm to 1.23 μm, an increase of 38.2%. This is because the increment in cutting depth results in a sharp increase in grinding force, thereby intensifying the vibration and impact on the workpiece. Therefore, the R a at all positions shows a rising trend. Fig. 4(c) shows the impact of different workpiece velocity changes on R a and surface morphology. It is found that when the workpiece speed grows, the R a at all positions shows a continuous upward tendency. When the workpiece speed varies from 25 mm/min to 100 mm/min, the R a of the mortise positions 1, 4, and 5 varies from 0.61 μm, 0.84 μm, and 0.82 μm to 0.96 μm, 1.43 μm, and 1.15 μm respectively, increasing by 57.3%, 70.2% and 40.2%, respectively. This stems from the fact that augmenting the workpiece speed results in a reduction of the active abrasive density per unit area, concurrent with an escalation of the effective cutting depth. Therefore, the R a shows a continuous upward trend, and at the same time, the height distinction of the surface morphology becomes larger. Furthermore, from the Fig. 4, the differences in the extent of rise or fall at different positions are also quite obvious, which is related to the contact position between the wheel and the mortise. In addition, the variation trend of surface morphology is different from the R a . With the increase in the spindle speed, the overall height distinction of the surface morphology denotes a decreased trend. This phenomenon is attributable to the attenuation of the individual abrasive uncut chip thickness, which arises from the elevation of the spindle speed. The increase in cutting depth will lead to an upward trend in the height difference of surface topography. This is because the increase in cutting depth will cause the depth at which the abrasives penetrate the workpiece to become larger, and at the same time, it will also increase the grinding force, causing a severe impact between the abrasives and the workpiece surface, ultimately causing a large height difference in the surface topography after processing. The rise in workpiece speed will also result in an elevation in the height difference of the machined morphology. This is because, as the workpiece speed increases, the residual area of the machined surface per unit time will increase, and thus the height difference will show an upward trend. The changes of the elements on the machined surface will affect the fatigue performance of the workpiece. In order to further analyze the element distribution at different positions of the mortise grinding surface, the elements at different grinding positions of the mortise were detected by EDS, as shown in Fig. 5. From the Fig. 5, the oxygen element content at all positions has increased compared to the material composition before grinding, indicating that during the grinding process, the interaction between the abrasives and the workpiece generates a relatively high temperature, causing titanium to undergo a certain degree of oxidation reaction with the oxygen element in the air. As a result, the oxygen element content at the processing positions shows an upward trend, and the oxygen element content at positions 1, 2, 4, and 6 is higher than that at other positions. This might be caused by the high grinding temperature at the bottom and in the arc area. In addition, it was found that the content of aluminum in all positions showed a downward trend compared to the material composition before grinding. This is because aluminum has poor chemical stability. At high temperatures, it undergoes oxidation and the generated oxides will be removed under the friction of abrasive particles. Therefore, the content of aluminum on the machined surface will decrease. In addition to oxygen and carbon elements, an increase in carbon content was also found at all positions. On the one hand, the high temperature enhanced the adsorption capacity of titanium for carbon. On the other hand, some carbon elements in the wheel or cutting fluid were transferred. 3.3 Wear forms and wear evolution of grinding wheels As evidenced by the depicted Fig. 6, the wheel mainly undergoes two forms of wear during the processing: abrasive fracture and adhesion, accompanied by abrasive pull-out. The fracture is due to the relatively high strength of titanium alloys. A violent force will occur between the workpiece and the abrasives, causing the stress at the contact point between the abrasives and the workpiece to exceed the resistence of the abrasive material itself. This causes the breakage and wear of the abrasives. After the breakage and wear occur, the interfacial contact region between the apex of the abrasives and the workpiece surface will experience a progressive augmentation, thereby amplifying the interaction forces acting on the abrasive-workpiece interface. These factors will induce the extrication of the abrasives from the bond structure of the wheel. The adhesion phenomenon arises from the inherently low thermal diffusivity of titanium alloys, leading to significant heat retention within the grinding zone under the influence of continuous frictional heating. Notably, following the passivation of the wheel, the interfacial engagement region between the workpiece surface and the abrasives undergoes a progressive expansion, consequently elevating the tangential shear resistance at the contact interface, and thus the workpiece material is prone to adhere to the surface of the wheel. As can be seen from the figure, the adhesion of workpiece material on the wheel at positions 1, 4 and 5 is relatively severe. This is because the abrasives at position 1 are in continuous contact with the workpiece, grinding heat is continuously generated, and the cutting fluid is difficult to enter the area of position 1. At the same time, the grinding chips at position 1 are difficult to be discharged from the bottom, thus the adhesion is relatively severe. Positions 4 and 5 are due to the abrasives being in the arc zone. Stress accumulation within this specific zone is inherently susceptible to manifestation, resulting in accelerated attrition of the matrix wheel and elevated frictional forces at the cutting area. Meanwhile, the heat dissipation area on the upper and lower sides of this area is small, and heat is prone to accumulate, so adhesion is relatively severe. Titanium alloy is prone to cause wheel adhesion during the grinding process because the low thermal conductivity, thereby affecting the wheel service life and the workpiece machining quality. Fig. 7 shows the EDS detection diagrams at different positions of the wheel after grinding. It can be found from the diagram that a large amount of titanium element is detected at each position of the wheel except for positions 2 and 7, indicating that a large amount of adhesion occurred at most positions of the wheel. Although no obvious titanium was found at positions 2 and 7, a large amount of nickel is discovered, indicating that the abrasives at positions 2 and 7 were severely broken, resulting in the detection of nickel in the metal binder. Furthermore, a large amount of oxygen is detected at positions 1, 4, and 6 of the wheel, indicating that the oxidation at positions 1, 4, and 6 was relatively severe. This is related to the high grinding temperatures at these three positions. The high temperature at position 1 is due to the severe adhesion at the bottom of the wheel, which makes it difficult for the fallen grinding chips to be discharged and for the cutting fluid to enter. In contrast, positions 4 and 6 are located in the arc area, where the contact area between the wheel and the workpiece is large, generating more heat. Heat is prone to accumulate and the cutting fluid has difficulty entering the arc area, thus resulting in high temperatures. Especially at the top of the mortise and tenon arc area, the heat dissipation area on both sides is small. Its temperature will be higher. The maximum exposure height of abrasives at various positions of the wheel is taken as the research object, as shown in Fig. 8. It is the variation process of the exposed height of the abrasives at different grinding times. The figure illustrates that with the proper increment of grinding times, the protrusion magnitude of the abrasives relative to the bond matrix shows a continuous downward trend. Before the grinding times reached 8 times, the exposed height of the abrasives showed a significant decrease. Taking the tenon positions 1, 4, and 5 as the research objects, when the grinding times varies from 0 to 6 times, the exposed heights of the three positions 1, 4, and 5 varies from 82.6 μm, 81.4 μm, and 78.2 μm to 56.6 μm, 61.6 μm, and 57 μm respectively, reducing by 31.4%, 24.3%, and 27.1% respectively. When the grinding times varies from 8 to 12 times, the exposed heights of the abrasives varies from 56.6 μm, 54.5 μm, and 62 μm to 41.6 μm, 38.3 μm, and 40 μm respectively, decreasing by 26.5%, 29.7%, and 35.4% respectively. When the grinding times varies from 14 to 20 times, the exposed heights of the abrasives varies from 41.6 μm, 38.3 μm, and 40 μm to 11.2 μm, 16.5 μm, and 18.2 μm respectively, decreasing by 73.07%, 56.9%, and 54.5% respectively. When the grinding times change from 0 to 6, the initial exposure height of the abrasives decreases relatively quickly. When the grinding times change from 8 to 12, t The grinding wheel wears relatively evenly and slowly. After the grinding times exceed 14, the downward trend of the exposure height of the abrasives accelerates significantly. Overall, the variation in the height of abrasive exposure is consistent with the three wear stages of the cutting tool. In addition, it was found that as the grinding times increases, the adhesion phenomenon on the surface of the wheel becomes more severe. This is because the wear of the wheel further intensifies the friction between the abrasives and the workpiece, and thus the adhesion will become more and more obvious. The evolution of adhesion at the bottom of the wheel is illustrated in Fig. 9. As demonstrated in the figure, before the grinding times reach 5 times, the adhesion phenomenon at the bottom of the wheel is not obvious, as well as the abrasive wear; when the grinding times reach 10 times, the underside of the wheel has slight adhesion, and after reaching 15 times, the underside of the wheel has large-scale adhesion. When the grinding times reach 20 times, the peripheral interface of the wheel substrate has attained a state of near-complete adhesive saturation along its lower planar region, with only a few abrasives exposed on the surface. This is because as the number of grinding times continues to increase, the grinding heat continues to accumulate in the contact area, resulting in more and more serious adhesion on the wheel surface. Meanwhile, the grinding chips at the inferior extremity of the wheel are more difficult to discharge, so they will further adhere to the processed surface. Since the debris on the bottom surface of the wheel is more difficult to discharge than other positions during end face grinding, a corresponding groove structure can be opened on the bottom surface of the wheel in the future to increase the debris discharge capacity at the bottom. 3.4 Effect of different wear stages on grinding force The variation of grinding force under different grinding times is demonstrated in Fig. 10. A consistent upward trajectory is observed in the triaxial grinding forces corresponding to the cumulative grinding operations. When the grinding times change from 2 to 8 times, the grinding forces F x , F y , and F z in the three directions increase from 5.23 N, 4.16 N, and 5.78 N to 12.06 N, 6.3 N, and 9.5 N, respectively, an increment of 130.5%, 51.4%, and 64.3%, respectively. When the grinding times change from 8 to 14 times, the grinding forces F x , F y , and F z change from 12.06 N, 6.3 N, and 9.5 N to 12.68 N, 7.5 N, and 14.6 N, respectively, an increase of 5.1%, 19%, and 53.6%, respectively. When the number of grindings changes from 14 to 20, the grinding forces F x , F y , and F z change from 12.68 N, 7.5 N, and 14.6 N to 15.53 N, 11.32 N, and 34.64 N, respectively, increasing by 22.4%, 50.9%, and 137.2%, respectively. From the above analysis, before the number of grindings reaches 8, the grinding force increases rapidly, which is the initial wear stage; when the number of grindings is between 8 and 16, the grinding force changes slowly, belonging to the stable wear stage; when the number of grindings reaches 16, the grinding force increases relatively sharply, indicating that the wheel has reached the severe wear stage. Furthermore, with a greater number of grindings, the force in the z-axis increases faster than on the x- and y-axes. This is because the adhesion of the bottom abrasive particles is relatively serious, the realized interfacial engagement zone between the abrasives and the workpiece substratum expands, causing enhanced frictional interactions, which causes a large change in the force in the z-axis. Furthermore, it can be found from the figure that the increase in cutting force is accompanied by a change in roughness. The R a shows a trend of first decreasing and then increasing. The first decrease is due to the period when the initial wear enters the normal wear stage. At this time, the contour of the abrasives is good, so the R a first decreases. However, as grinding proceeds, the wheel enters the rapid wear stage from normal wear. Therefore, the R a shows an upward trend again, and chip adhesion occurs on the machined surface. 3.5 Effects of different wear stages on surface roughness Fig. 11 shows the variation of the roughness at different positions with the number of grinding cycles. As can be seen from the figure, the R a at positions 1, 4 and 5 demonstrates a tendency of first decreases and then increases When the grinding times varies from 2 to 10, the R a at positions 1, 4 and 5 varies from 1.12 μm, 1.24 μm and 1.06 μm to 0.76 μm, 0.77 μm and 0.68 μm respectively, decreasing by 32.1%, 37.9% and 35.8% respectively. Meanwhile, the height difference of the roughness contour curve shows a changing trend from large to small, and the fluctuation of the R a curve is relatively uniform. This is because during the initial grinding, the contour of the abrasives on the wheel surface is worse and the dispersion is large, so the R a value is relatively high. However, as the grinding proceeds, the abrasives wear to a certain extent, resulting in an improvement in the contour of the abrasives on the wheel surface. The depth at which the abrasives penetrate the workpiece also decreases, thus reducing the R a value. When the grinding times varies from 10 to 20, the R a at positions 1, 4 and 5 varies from 0.76 μm, 0.77 μm and 0.68 μm to 0.96 μm, 1.12 μm and 0.88 μm respectively, increasing by 16.8%, 31.25% and 29.4% respectively. This phenomenon is attributable to the relatively pronounced degradation of the abrasive surface, which has precipitated an escalation in the frictional interaction between the planar interface of the abrasive and the workpiece substrate, thus the R a has shown an upward trend again. Meanwhile, the height distinction of the R a contour curve shows a rising tendency, and the degree of fluctuation and dispersion of the contour curve up and down increases. Fig. 12 shows the evolution process of the surface morphology of the tenon groove positions 1, 4, and 5 with the number of machining times. According to the figure, the change in surface morphology with the number of machining times is consistent with the change trend of R a , both showing a trend of first improving and then deteriorating. When the grinding times change from 2 to 10, the surfaces at positions 1, 4 and 5 gradually change from rough to smooth, and the surface grooves also become shallower, with the lower R a value. When the grinding times change from 10 to 20, the surface gradually changes from smooth to rough again, and the formed grooves are wide and deep, with obvious burrs appearing, and the R a value gradually increases. Overall, a smoother surface and a lower R a value can be achieved during the stable wear stage. Fig. 13 shows the R a of different positions of the mortise during the stable wear stage of the wheel. As illustrated in Fig. 13, the wear behavior of the wheel exhibits a stable regime during the specified operational interval, the R a at each position of the mortise is less than 0.8 μm, meeting the processing requirements. 4. Conclusions For titanium alloy arc-shaped mortise, this paper uses formed electroplated CBN wheel to process it, analyzes the grinding performance of the wheel, explores the influence of different wear states of the wheel on grinding force and R a , and obtains the following conclusions: (1) Within the selected processing parameter range, the cutting depth has the greatest influence on the cutting force and R a , followed by the workpiece speed, and the spindle speed. The variation amplitudes of grinding force reached 326.6%, 71.2% and 45.6%, respectively, and the variation amplitudes of R a were 172.2%, 70.2% and 30.2%, respectively. (2) The wear forms of electroplated CBN wheels mainly include adhesion, fragmentation and pull-out of individual abrasive grains, which are consistent with the SEM/EDS analysis results. (3) The influence of different wear stages on grinding force was analyzed. Compared with the initial wear stage and the severe wear stage, the growth trend of grinding force in the normal wear stage was relatively slow. The growth rate of grinding force in the normal wear stage was 10.7% and 83.6% lower than that in the initial wear stage and the severe wear stage, respectively. (4) The influence of different wear stages on R a and machined surface morphology is analyzed. The results show that the R a value is the smallest in the stable wear stage. Compared with the initial wear stage and the severe wear stage, the maximum R a value is reduced by 37.9% and 31.25% respectively. Declarations Competing interests The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare that they are relevant to the content of this article. Availability of data and material All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in the present article. Authors' contributions Xiaofei Lei was in charge of the whole experiment and edited the manuscript; Rong Wang supervised the research and inspected the manuscript; Xu Liu and Ziang Liu assisted with sampling and experimental analysis; Xiaobo Guo and Yang Cao have checked and changed the language. Carlos E. H. Ventura, Wenfeng Ding and Biao Zhao were responsible for the manuscript’s review. Ethics approval and consent to participate The article follows the guidelines of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and involves no studies on human or animal subjects. Consent to participate Not applicable. Consent for publication Not applicable. 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Shi ZD, Attia H (2021) High performance grinding of titanium alloys with electroplated diamond wheels. Procedia CIRP 101: 178–181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procir.2020.11.008. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 20 Dec, 2025 Read the published version in The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Major Revisions Needed 26 Nov, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 15 Oct, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 15 Oct, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 28 Aug, 2025 First submitted to journal 26 Aug, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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13:41:02","extension":"html","order_by":76,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":159421,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7463539/v1/6e4369c79d7582d8f6ed2f18.html"},{"id":94673449,"identity":"34103f29-4f6a-4038-8e1a-c43622044efa","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-29 13:41:24","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":468201,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eExperimental processing site: (a) processing equipment, (b) contour shape of the wheel and (c) mortise section.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7463539/v1/641d9510750cf8bdc8b279ea.png"},{"id":94665977,"identity":"0160a954-e0fe-44e2-af2d-75a4c8cb0586","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-29 12:31:02","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":223831,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eOriginal microstructure of TC11 titanium alloy.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7463539/v1/2c0f089247a4c5e1a4a78f8d.png"},{"id":94673000,"identity":"669455ec-77e5-4abc-968c-ba3a879bd44c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-29 13:41:09","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":109445,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffect of different machining parameters on grinding force: (a) spindle speed, (b) depth of cut and (c) workpiece speed.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7463539/v1/88d8c5db98c962bf93caedf7.png"},{"id":94665982,"identity":"c15e5609-a975-4141-8b88-92550567ba17","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-29 12:31:02","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":974461,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffect of different machining parameters on \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e: (a) spindle speed, (b) cutting depth and (c) workpiece speed.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7463539/v1/c2bdb042f6d2820fd4dc578a.png"},{"id":94672829,"identity":"e2a5856d-a8c9-4a74-bf0e-27e5f479a431","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-29 13:41:02","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":732947,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDistribution of elements at different positions of the mortise.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7463539/v1/472bb8a47a5ba6adb8e1bfb3.png"},{"id":94672948,"identity":"3b03a53a-ff2f-41af-85b0-1f5dde25833d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-29 13:41:06","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":788977,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eWear form of grinding wheel.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7463539/v1/e11616da79e8e74caed88fca.png"},{"id":94666004,"identity":"9c0603db-2af2-4ef4-b470-8f85bfdd6ed9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-29 12:31:02","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":663622,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDistribution of elements at different positions of the wheel.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7463539/v1/d3a3a5c6a5cd646af9e0705f.png"},{"id":94665993,"identity":"1f6b9c09-e05e-4e1d-bd26-cc784cbd8a70","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-29 12:31:02","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":413062,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eVariation of abrasive particle exposure height with grinding times at different positions (n = 4000 r/min, \u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ew\u003c/sub\u003e = 75 mm/min, \u003cem\u003ea\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e = 10 μm).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7463539/v1/e40a1b12fe283480666a7f44.png"},{"id":94666002,"identity":"19b0ccab-003e-4592-bcb3-d33ad81de520","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-29 12:31:02","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":741445,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAdhesion process of the bottom of the wheel (n = 4000 r/min,\u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ew\u003c/sub\u003e = 75 mm/min, \u003cem\u003ea\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e = 10 μm).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7463539/v1/9cb53035ccc6bd25fc726208.png"},{"id":94672827,"identity":"a0157d04-1ef8-4777-a39a-cc6ad31e2833","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-29 13:41:01","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":227018,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffect of different wear stages on grinding force (n = 4000 r/min,\u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ew\u003c/sub\u003e = 75 mm/min, \u003cem\u003ea\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e = 10 μm).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7463539/v1/f7c6758f370f05661aef6e97.png"},{"id":94672937,"identity":"7a52d40b-7339-49ee-9bc7-42f328865a88","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-29 13:41:06","extension":"png","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":315065,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffect of different wheel wear stages on \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"11.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7463539/v1/7ff6a4064e53d74874413790.png"},{"id":94673406,"identity":"03fe16c5-2e24-48ce-a8bf-3a28c2812f7b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-29 13:41:23","extension":"png","order_by":12,"title":"Figure 12","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":770179,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eInfluence of different grinding wheel wear stages on the surface morphology (n = 4000 r/min,\u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ew\u003c/sub\u003e = 75 mm/min, \u003cem\u003ea\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e = 10 μm).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"12.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7463539/v1/6b4fb336f57fa86a38ca6bc4.png"},{"id":94673429,"identity":"7af87419-af18-41a1-abc7-9f6ca0c636b0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-29 13:41:23","extension":"png","order_by":13,"title":"Figure 13","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":136072,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSurface roughness corresponding to the stable wear stage (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 4000 r/min,\u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ew\u003c/sub\u003e = 75 mm/min, \u003cem\u003ea\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e = 10 μm).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"13.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7463539/v1/2ae042faceaedfe2b8d25dea.png"},{"id":98814007,"identity":"d3ac0c58-585f-4643-bdb4-52668fc87d28","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 16:09:21","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":6915998,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7463539/v1/1026f3e8-5913-4772-b284-4f5dadc057af.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Research on grinding performance and wheel wear of titanium alloy arc-shaped mortise profile grinding wheels","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe service performance of aero engines is an important manifestation of industrial advancement. As an important structural component in aero engines, the wheel disc has an impact on the service performance of aero engines. At present, the commonly used mortise cross-sections of discs are mostly dovetail type and fir tree type mortises [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e], but they are all linear mortises parallel to the axis of the disc or at a certain angle. Their load-bearing capacity and stability during rotation need to be improved. With the continuous progress of the aerospace industry, the arc-shaped mortise is an important form of the development of the mortise for the disk of aero engines in the future. Compared with the straight mortise, the arc-shaped mortise increases the effective load-bearing area and improves the connection stability [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, the arc-shaped mortise shows great application prospects in the wheel discs of aero engines.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTitanium alloy is extensively utilized as a primary material in the production of critical components for aircraft engines, such as fan disks, turbine disks, compressors, cooling blades and other important parts [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR5 CR6\" citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. In addition, titanium alloys can also be used to manufacture aircraft skins, landing gear etc [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR9 CR10 CR11\" citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. Grinding is a critical processing approach for achieving ultra-precision machining of titanium alloy and plays an irreplaceable role in mechanical machining [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. Because of the complex contact conditions between the wheel and the workpiece in profile grinding, the wheel and the workpiece surface exhibit a propensity for adhesive phenomena and thermal damage induced by the grinding process. Even large residual tensile stress will be generated on the machined surface, resulting in microcracks on the workpiece surface, which poses a serious threat to the functional durability and operational lifespan of the workpiece and the wheel [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR16 CR17 CR18 CR19 CR20\" citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e], especially for profile grinding, the different contact positions between the wheel and the workpiece can also pose a severe influence to the workpiece processing quality and the wheel service life [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR23 CR24\" citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, controlling the wheel wear is of great significance for ensuring its own service life and the processing quality of the workpiece.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWheel wear is a critical challenge in the machining of titanium alloys. The degradation of the wheel due to wear curtails its operational longevity and it also significantly compromises the machining quality. A substantial body of research has noted that during the titanium alloy grinding, the wheel will mainly undergo abrasive wear, oxidation wear, abrasive shedding, grinding wheel adhesion, and other wear forms, which will have different degrees of impact on the machined surface [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR27 CR28 CR29\" citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. Aiming to investigate the ramifications of abrasive wheel deterioration on the grinding operation, numerous researchers have carried out extensive studies on this topic in recent years. Ma et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e] used electroplated CBN grinding wheels to study the effect of wheel wear on GH4169 high-temperature alloy. The findings revealed that an optimal degree of grinding wheel attrition can contribute to the mitigation of surface roughness (\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e) values on the machined component and the attenuation of stiffness-induced fluctuations in roughness, thereby substantially elevating the surface integrity of the machined surface. Miao et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e] analyzed the circumstances of grinding performance caused by grinding wheel wear through employing brown alumina and microcrystalline aluminum oxide abrasive wheels in creep-feed grinding operations on GH4169 nickel-based superalloy components. The results demonstrated that severe adhesive wear would be occurred on the wheel surface. Compared with brown alumina grinding wheels, microcrystalline alumina grinding wheels have higher grinding ratios and smaller wheel wear. This was because microcrystalline alumina grinding wheels had better self-sharpening properties and larger pores for better heat dissipation. Zhao et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e] analyzed the grinding ability of sintered spherical cubic boron nitride abrasives on titanium alloy. The findings indicated that sintered spherical cubic boron nitride abrasives possessed more cutting edges and superior self-sharpening capabilities compared to traditional CBN abrasives. These abrasives possessed a higher material removal rate, a more stable grinding force ratio, and a longer time period of stable wear. Considering the ramifications of the wear phase on grinding efficacy, Naik et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e] executed a comprehensive examination of how the three distinct wear stages of a single-layer electroplated CBN grinding wheel impact the machining performance of nickel-based superalloys. The findings revealed that the stable wear range with regard to the wheel was between 21 \u0026micro;m and 25.5 \u0026micro;m. When the wear transitioned from the initial stage to the stable wear stage, the amount of effective abrasive particles increased, which resulted in achieving a reduction in machined \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e. After exceeding the stable wear stage, the specific grinding energy during grinding increased significantly. When the wear amount increased from 21 \u0026micro;m to 34 \u0026micro;m, the specific grinding energy increased from 240 J/mm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e to 540 J/mm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e, an increase of 125%. Naskar et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e] investigated the ramifications of super-abrasive wheel degradation on the dimensional integrity of the machined surface. Their findings indicated that abrasive wear was the primary mode of CBN abrasives. Under water-based fluid lubrication, the wheel radial wear increased by 2 to 4 times compared with pure oil, and the residual compressive stress was reduced by 10\u0026ndash;75%. Li et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e] investigated the impact of ordinary alumina grinding wheels and brown oxide grinding wheels on the grinding performance of powder high-temperature alloys, focusing on grinding ratio, radial wear, and grinding force. The results showed that microcrystalline alumina grinding wheels have less wear and higher grinding ratio. This was because microcrystalline alumina grinding wheels have better self-sharpening and chip space. However, when the grinding ratio was less than 1.8, both grinding wheel surfaces would produce more serious adhesion and tool wear, and the grinding performance would decrease. Considering the impact of grinding wheel type on titanium alloy grinding, Shi et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e] examined diamond wheels and electroplated CBN wheels affect the grinding performance of titanium alloys. It found that the electroplated diamond wheel experienced less wear compared to the electroplated CBN wheel, but the grinding ratio decreased as the material removal rate increased.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo sum up, some research has been conducted on the wear problem of wheels. However, the main focus is on the wear problem of grinding wheels during surface grinding, while the research on the wear phenomenon of wheels during profile grinding is still lacking. The first part of this paper analyzes the influence of process parameters on grinding performance. The second part explores the wear forms and evolution laws of forming wheels. The third part reveals the relationship between different wheel wear stages and the grinding force and machining quality during the profile grinding process, and obtains the combination of process parameters that meet the service life of grinding wheels and the processing quality of mortises. It provides theoretical insights and practical guidance for the subsequent control of surface integrity and wheel wear.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Experimental details","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1 Experimental materials and tools\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe VDL850 three-axis vertical machining center for profile grinding is used in this research. The wheel is secured to the tool holder via a spring-loaded collet, and the workpiece is retained using a multi-axis adjustable vise. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e(a) illustrates the designated experimental machining setup. In this paper, the electroplated CBN forming wheel is provided by Zhengzhou Abrasives and Grinding Research Institute. The particle size is 80\u0026ndash;120 #, and the tool geometry is illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e(b). The material selected for the experiment is TC11 titanium alloy with excellent comprehensive mechanical properties, and primary chemical components shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. The microstructural constitution of TC11 titanium alloy is depicted in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, the short and coarse grains as structure \u003cem\u003ea\u003c/em\u003e, the slender grains are classified as structure \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e, and the grain boundaries are formed between the two grains. For the convenience of research, the positions of the machined mortise were divided, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e(c). The 1, 4, and 5 positions of the mortise were selected to represent end face grinding, bevel grinding, and circular grinding for discussion. The workpiece is the milled mortise contour, and the mortise length is 50 mm (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e(c)).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChemical compositions of TC11.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"11\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eElements\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAl\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eZr\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eO\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTi\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMass fraction/%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.81\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.024\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.097\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.078\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.003\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBalance\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2 Experimental parameter settings and test equipment\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eGrinding process parameters are important factors affecting the durability of abrasive wheels and the surface integrity of the machined workpiece. Therefore, the selected test parameters mainly include spindle speed, grinding depth and workpiece speed. The test scheme parameter selection is shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. The Kistler 9257B dynamometer is used to collect force signals in the x, y, and z directions. The morphology of different positions of the mortise is reproduced using rubber impression materials, and the surface morphology and \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e of the workpiece were collected using a Sensofar 3-D confocal microscope. The \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e at each position of the mortise is measured five times, with the mean value is considered to be the ultimate result. Wear tests were conducted on the workpiece using new grinding tools, with each grinding length being 50 mm, and a total of 20 grinding operations were carried out.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProfile grinding and wheel size parameters.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParameter name\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eValues\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSpindle speed \u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e (r/min)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3000,4000, 5000, 6000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003edepth of cut \u003cem\u003ea\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e (mm)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5, 10, 15, 20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWorkpiece speed \u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ew\u003c/sub\u003e (mm/min)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25, 50, 75, 100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWheel diameter (mm)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25\u0026ndash;42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results and discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.1 Grinding force\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003es\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGrinding force is a key variable that influences machining stability, significantly affecting both surface machining quality and the lifespan of wheel. According to the Fig. 3, the impact of varied machining parameters on the tangential grinding forces and normal grinding forces during the profile grinding of titanium alloy mortise is explored. As presented in Fig. 3(a), with the uprising of spindle speed, the grinding forces \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ey\u003c/sub\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ez\u003c/sub\u003e show a downward trend. Specifically, when the spindle speed rises from 3000 r/min to 6000 r/min, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ey\u003c/sub\u003e, and\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;F\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ez\u003c/sub\u003e change from 7.359 N, 6.329 N, and 10.26 N to 4.79 N, 3.44 N, and 6.7 N, respectively, which can be reduced by 34.9%, 45.6%, and 34.6%, respectively. This phenomenon arises due to the elevation in spindle speed, which diminishes the undeformed chip thickness per individual grain, thus lowering the grinding force. It is illustrated in Fig. 3(b) that an increment in cutting depth results in a rising trend in the grinding forces along all three directions. When the cutting depth changes from 5 \u0026mu;m to 20 \u0026mu;m, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ey\u003c/sub\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ez\u003c/sub\u003e change from 4.97 N, 2.18 N, and 6.5 N to 11.94 N, 9.3 N, and 22.96 N, respectively, which increase by 140.2%, 326.6%, and 253.2%, respectively. This is because an increasing cutting depth causes a greater number of active cutting edges in cutting area, so improves the frictional resistance at the contact interface between the workpiece and the abrasives. At the same time, the phenomenon of a growth in cutting depth causes a larger chip thickness for each abrasive, further escalating the grinding force. Furthermore, the analysis of the cutting process reveals that the force magnitude along the z-axis undergoes the most substantial growth, because the effective cutting depth is a critical factor in the analysis. The contact pressure per unit area is maximized during end-face grinding operations, which leads to a sharp increase in the friction between the top of the workpiece and the abrasive during end face grinding. It is demonstrated in Fig. 3(c) that the grinding forces in the three directions all demonstrate a progressive escalation in conjunction with an increase in the workpiece speed. When the workpiece speed varies from 25 mm/min to 100 mm/min, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ey\u003c/sub\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eF\u003csub\u003ez\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/em\u003e changes from 5.1 N, 3.69 N, and 5.48 N to 8.1 N, 6.32 N, and 11.96 N, respectively, increasing by 58.8%, 71.2%, and 118.2%, respectively. This is because an increment in workpiece speed raises the material removal rate per unit time, leading to a greater chip thickness for each abrasive grain. In comparison to the workpiece speed and spindle speed, the cutting depth emerges as the predominant factor influencing the measured variation in grinding force, a trend that aligns with the established force-variation patterns observed in conventional metal grinding processes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.2 Surface roughness and surface morphology\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFig. 4 demonstrates the impact of diverse process parameter changes on the \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e and surface morphology of different mortise positions. As depicted in Fig. 4(a), with the increase in the spindle speed, \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e shows a trend of first decreasing and then rising. When the spindle speed varies from 3000 r/min to 4000 r/min, the \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e at positions 1, 4, and 5 decreased from 0.88 \u0026mu;m, 0.99 \u0026mu;m, and 0.86 \u0026mu;m to 0.76 \u0026mu;m, 0.86 \u0026mu;m, and 0.76 \u0026mu;m, reducing by 13.6%, 13.1%, and 11.6% respectively. This phenomenon arises due to the escalation in the number of active cutting edges engaged in material removal per unit time in the same area. When the spindle speed reached 6000 r/min, the \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e value rose from 0.76 \u0026mu;m, 0.86 \u0026mu;m, and 0.76 \u0026mu;m to 0.84 \u0026mu;m, 1.12 \u0026mu;m, and 0.98 \u0026mu;m, respectively, increasing by 10.5%, 30.2%, and 28.9%. The augmentation of spindle speed induces dynamic oscillations within the machine tool spindle assembly, which leads to an increase in the vibration and impact of abrasives on the workpiece, thereby increasing \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e again.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFig. 4(b) illustrates the influence of different cutting depth changes on \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e and surface morphology. When the cutting depth gradually rises from 5 \u0026mu;m to 20 \u0026mu;m, the \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e at the mortise parts basically manifests a trajectory marked by an initial diminution followed by a subsequent elevation. The \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e at some positions shows a continuous rising trend, but the \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e at all positions as a whole shows an upward tendency. Before the cutting depth reaches 10 \u0026mu;m, the \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e value at positions 1 and 5 decreases from 0.66 \u0026mu;m and 0.926 \u0026mu;m to 0.54 \u0026mu;m and 0.86 \u0026mu;m, respectively, decreasing by 18.1% and 7.1%, respectively. When the cutting depth varies from 10 \u0026mu;m to 20 \u0026mu;m. The \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e varies from 0.54 \u0026mu;m and 0.86 \u0026mu;m to 1.47 \u0026mu;m and 1.21 \u0026mu;m, respectively, increasing by 172.2% and 40.6%. The observed performance can be attributed to the progressive degradation of the abrasives, which subsequently leads to a reduction in the embedment depth of the abrasives within the workpiece, thus reducing the \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e. The subsequent increase results from an increase in the grinding depth, which further increases the depth of the abrasive that penetrates the workpiece. Meanwhile, the wear of the wheel becomes relatively more severe, resulting in an upward trend in the \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e again. The \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e at position 4 shows a continuous rising trend. When the cutting depth changes from 5 \u0026mu;m to 20 \u0026mu;m, the \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e at position 4 directly rises from 0.89 \u0026mu;m to 1.23 \u0026mu;m, an increase of 38.2%. This is because the increment in cutting depth results in a sharp increase in grinding force, thereby intensifying the vibration and impact on the workpiece. Therefore, the \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e at all positions shows a rising trend.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFig. 4(c) shows the impact of different workpiece velocity changes on \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e and surface morphology. It is found that when the workpiece speed grows, the \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e at all positions shows a continuous upward tendency. When the workpiece speed varies from 25 mm/min to 100 mm/min, the \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e of the mortise positions 1, 4, and 5 varies from 0.61 \u0026mu;m, 0.84 \u0026mu;m, and 0.82 \u0026mu;m to 0.96 \u0026mu;m, 1.43 \u0026mu;m, and 1.15 \u0026mu;m respectively, increasing by 57.3%, 70.2% and 40.2%, respectively. This stems from the fact that augmenting the workpiece speed results in a reduction of the active abrasive density per unit area, concurrent with an escalation of the effective cutting depth. Therefore, the \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e shows a continuous upward trend, and at the same time, the height distinction of the surface morphology becomes larger.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFurthermore, from the Fig. 4, the differences in the extent of rise or fall at different positions are also quite obvious, which is related to the contact position between the wheel and the mortise. In addition, the variation trend of surface morphology is different from the \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e. With the increase in the spindle speed, the overall height distinction of the surface morphology denotes a decreased trend. This phenomenon is attributable to the attenuation of the individual abrasive uncut chip thickness, which arises from the elevation of the spindle speed. The increase in cutting depth will lead to an upward trend in the height difference of surface topography. This is because the increase in cutting depth will cause the depth at which the abrasives penetrate the workpiece to become larger, and at the same time, it will also increase the grinding force, causing a severe impact between the abrasives and the workpiece surface, ultimately causing a large height difference in the surface topography after processing. The rise in workpiece speed will also result in an elevation in the height difference of the machined morphology. This is because, as the workpiece speed increases, the residual area of the machined surface per unit time will increase, and thus the height difference will show an upward trend.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe changes of the elements on the machined surface will affect the fatigue performance of the workpiece. In order to further analyze the element distribution at different positions of the mortise grinding surface, the elements at different grinding positions of the mortise were detected by EDS, as shown in Fig. 5.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFrom the Fig. 5, the oxygen element content at all positions has increased compared to the material composition before grinding, indicating that during the grinding process, the interaction between the abrasives and the workpiece generates a relatively high temperature, causing titanium to undergo a certain degree of oxidation reaction with the oxygen element in the air. As a result, the oxygen element content at the processing positions shows an upward trend, and the oxygen element content at positions 1, 2, 4, and 6 is higher than that at other positions. This might be caused by the high grinding temperature at the bottom and in the arc area. In addition, it was found that the content of aluminum in all positions showed a downward trend compared to the material composition before grinding. This is because aluminum has poor chemical stability. At high temperatures, it undergoes oxidation and the generated oxides will be removed under the friction of abrasive particles. Therefore, the content of aluminum on the machined surface will decrease. In addition to oxygen and carbon elements, an increase in carbon content was also found at all positions. On the one hand, the high temperature enhanced the adsorption capacity of titanium for carbon. On the other hand, some carbon elements in the wheel or cutting fluid were transferred.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.3 Wear forms and wear evolution of grinding wheels\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs evidenced by the depicted Fig. 6, the wheel mainly undergoes two forms of wear during the processing: abrasive fracture and adhesion, accompanied by abrasive pull-out.\u0026nbsp;The fracture is due to the relatively high strength of titanium alloys. A violent force will occur between the workpiece and the abrasives, causing the stress at the contact point between the abrasives and the workpiece to exceed the resistence of the abrasive material itself. This causes the breakage and wear of the abrasives. After the breakage and wear occur, the interfacial contact region between the apex of the abrasives and the workpiece surface will experience a progressive augmentation, thereby amplifying the interaction forces acting on the abrasive-workpiece interface. These factors will induce the extrication of the abrasives from the bond structure of the wheel. The adhesion phenomenon arises from the inherently low thermal diffusivity of titanium alloys, leading to significant heat retention within the grinding zone under the influence of continuous frictional heating. Notably, following the passivation of the wheel, the interfacial engagement region between the workpiece surface and the abrasives undergoes a progressive expansion, consequently elevating the tangential shear resistance at the contact interface, and thus the workpiece material is prone to adhere to the surface of the wheel. As can be seen from the figure, the adhesion of workpiece material on the wheel at positions 1, 4 and 5 is relatively severe. This is because the abrasives at position 1 are in continuous contact with the workpiece, grinding heat is continuously generated, and the cutting fluid is difficult to enter the area of position 1. At the same time, the grinding chips at position 1 are difficult to be discharged from the bottom, thus the adhesion is relatively severe. Positions 4 and 5 are due to the abrasives being in the arc zone. Stress accumulation within this specific zone is inherently susceptible to manifestation, resulting in accelerated attrition of the matrix wheel and elevated frictional forces at the cutting area. Meanwhile, the heat dissipation area on the upper and lower sides of this area is small, and heat is prone to accumulate, so adhesion is relatively severe.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTitanium alloy is prone to cause wheel adhesion during the grinding process because the low thermal conductivity, thereby affecting the wheel service life and the workpiece machining quality. Fig. 7 shows the EDS detection diagrams at different positions of the wheel after grinding. It can be found from the diagram that a large amount of titanium element is detected at each position of the wheel except for positions 2 and 7, indicating that a large amount of adhesion occurred at most positions of the wheel. Although no obvious titanium was found at positions 2 and 7, a large amount of nickel is discovered, indicating that the abrasives at positions 2 and 7 were severely broken, resulting in the detection of nickel in the metal binder. Furthermore, a large amount of oxygen is detected at positions 1, 4, and 6 of the wheel, indicating that the oxidation at positions 1, 4, and 6 was relatively severe. This is related to the high grinding temperatures at these three positions. The high temperature at position 1 is due to the severe adhesion at the bottom of the wheel, which makes it difficult for the fallen grinding chips to be discharged and for the cutting fluid to enter. In contrast, positions 4 and 6 are located in the arc area, where the contact area between the wheel and the workpiece is large, generating more heat. Heat is prone to accumulate and the cutting fluid has difficulty entering the arc area, thus resulting in high temperatures. Especially at the top of the mortise and tenon arc area, the heat dissipation area on both sides is small. Its temperature will be higher.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe maximum exposure height of abrasives at various positions of the wheel is taken as the research object, as shown in Fig. 8. It is the variation process of the exposed height of the abrasives at different grinding times. The figure illustrates that with the proper increment of grinding times, the protrusion magnitude of the abrasives relative to the bond matrix shows a continuous downward trend. Before the grinding times reached 8 times, the exposed height of the abrasives showed a significant decrease. Taking the tenon positions 1, 4, and 5 as the research objects, when the grinding times varies from 0 to 6 times, the exposed heights of the three positions 1, 4, and 5 varies from 82.6 \u0026mu;m, 81.4 \u0026mu;m, and 78.2 \u0026mu;m to 56.6 \u0026mu;m, 61.6 \u0026mu;m, and 57 \u0026mu;m respectively, reducing by 31.4%, 24.3%, and 27.1% respectively. When the grinding times varies from 8 to 12 times, the exposed heights of the abrasives varies from 56.6 \u0026mu;m, 54.5 \u0026mu;m, and 62 \u0026mu;m to 41.6 \u0026mu;m, 38.3 \u0026mu;m, and 40 \u0026mu;m respectively, decreasing by 26.5%, 29.7%, and 35.4% respectively. When the grinding times varies from 14 to 20 times, the exposed heights of the abrasives varies from 41.6 \u0026mu;m, 38.3 \u0026mu;m, and 40 \u0026mu;m to 11.2 \u0026mu;m, 16.5 \u0026mu;m, and 18.2 \u0026mu;m respectively, decreasing by 73.07%, 56.9%, and 54.5% respectively. When the grinding times change from 0 to 6, the initial exposure height of the abrasives decreases relatively quickly. When the grinding times change from 8 to 12, t The grinding wheel wears relatively evenly and slowly. After the grinding times exceed 14, the downward trend of the exposure height of the abrasives accelerates significantly. Overall, the variation in the height of abrasive exposure is consistent with the three wear stages of the cutting tool. In addition, it was found that as the grinding times increases, the adhesion phenomenon on the surface of the wheel becomes more severe. This is because the wear of the wheel further intensifies the friction between the abrasives and the workpiece, and thus the adhesion will become more and more obvious.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe evolution of adhesion at the bottom of the wheel is illustrated in Fig. 9. As demonstrated in the figure, before the grinding times reach 5 times, the adhesion phenomenon at the bottom of the wheel is not obvious, as well as the abrasive wear; when the grinding times reach 10 times, the underside of the wheel has slight adhesion, and after reaching 15 times, the underside of the wheel has large-scale adhesion. When the grinding times reach 20 times, the peripheral interface of the wheel substrate has attained a state of near-complete adhesive saturation along its lower planar region, with only a few abrasives exposed on the surface. This is because as the number of grinding times continues to increase, the grinding heat continues to accumulate in the contact area, resulting in more and more serious adhesion on the wheel surface. Meanwhile, the grinding chips at the inferior extremity of the wheel are more difficult to discharge, so they will further adhere to the processed surface. Since the debris on the bottom surface of the wheel is more difficult to discharge than other positions during end face grinding, a corresponding groove structure can be opened on the bottom surface of the wheel in the future to increase the debris discharge capacity at the bottom.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.4 Effect of different wear stages on grinding force\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe variation of grinding force under different grinding times is demonstrated in Fig. 10. A consistent upward trajectory is observed in the triaxial grinding forces corresponding to the cumulative grinding operations. When the grinding times change from 2 to 8 times, the grinding forces \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ey\u003c/sub\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ez\u003c/sub\u003e in the three directions increase from 5.23 N, 4.16 N, and 5.78 N to 12.06 N, 6.3 N, and 9.5 N, respectively, an increment of 130.5%, 51.4%, and 64.3%, respectively. When the grinding times change from 8 to 14 times, the grinding forces \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ey\u003c/sub\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ez\u003c/sub\u003e change from 12.06 N, 6.3 N, and 9.5 N to 12.68 N, 7.5 N, and 14.6 N, respectively, an increase of 5.1%, 19%, and 53.6%, respectively. When the number of grindings changes from 14 to 20, the grinding forces \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ey\u003c/sub\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ez\u003c/sub\u003e change from 12.68 N, 7.5 N, and 14.6 N to 15.53 N, 11.32 N, and 34.64 N, respectively, increasing by 22.4%, 50.9%, and 137.2%, respectively. From the above analysis, before the number of grindings reaches 8, the grinding force increases rapidly, which is the initial wear stage; when the number of grindings is between 8 and 16, the grinding force changes slowly, belonging to the stable wear stage; when the number of grindings reaches 16, the grinding force increases relatively sharply, indicating that the wheel has reached the severe wear stage. Furthermore, with a greater number of grindings, the force in the z-axis increases faster than on the x- and y-axes. This is because the adhesion of the bottom abrasive particles is relatively serious, the realized interfacial engagement zone between the abrasives and the workpiece substratum expands, causing enhanced frictional interactions, which causes a large change in the force in the z-axis. Furthermore, it can be found from the figure that the increase in cutting force is accompanied by a change in roughness. The \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e shows a trend of first decreasing and then increasing. The first decrease is due to the period when the initial wear enters the normal wear stage. At this time, the contour of the abrasives is good, so the \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e first decreases. However, as grinding proceeds, the wheel enters the rapid wear stage from normal wear. Therefore, the \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e shows an upward trend again, and chip adhesion occurs on the machined surface.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.5 Effects of different wear stages on surface roughness\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFig. 11 shows the variation of the roughness at different positions with the number of grinding cycles. As can be seen from the figure, the \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e at positions 1, 4 and 5 demonstrates a tendency of first decreases and then increases When the grinding times varies from 2 to 10, the \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e at positions 1, 4 and 5 varies from 1.12 \u0026mu;m, 1.24 \u0026mu;m and 1.06 \u0026mu;m to 0.76 \u0026mu;m, 0.77 \u0026mu;m and 0.68 \u0026mu;m respectively, decreasing by 32.1%, 37.9% and 35.8% respectively. Meanwhile, the height difference of the roughness contour curve shows a changing trend from large to small, and the fluctuation of the \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sub\u003ecurve is relatively uniform. This is because during the initial grinding, the contour of the abrasives on the wheel surface is worse and the dispersion is large, so the \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e value is relatively high. However, as the grinding proceeds, the abrasives wear to a certain extent, resulting in an improvement in the contour of the abrasives on the wheel surface. The depth at which the abrasives penetrate the workpiece also decreases, thus reducing the \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e value. When the grinding times varies from 10 to 20, the \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e at positions 1, 4 and 5 varies from 0.76 \u0026mu;m, 0.77 \u0026mu;m and 0.68 \u0026mu;m to 0.96 \u0026mu;m, 1.12 \u0026mu;m and 0.88 \u0026mu;m respectively, increasing by 16.8%, 31.25% and 29.4% respectively. This phenomenon is attributable to the relatively pronounced degradation of the abrasive surface, which has precipitated an escalation in the frictional interaction between the planar interface of the abrasive and the workpiece substrate, thus the \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e has shown an upward trend again. Meanwhile, the height distinction of the \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e contour curve shows a rising tendency, and the degree of fluctuation and dispersion of the contour curve up and down increases.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFig. 12 shows the evolution process of the surface morphology of the tenon groove positions 1, 4, and 5 with the number of machining times. According to the figure, the change in surface morphology with the number of machining times is consistent with the change trend of \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e, both showing a trend of first improving and then deteriorating. When the grinding times change from 2 to 10, the surfaces at positions 1, 4 and 5 gradually change from rough to smooth, and the surface grooves also become shallower, with the lower \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e value. When the grinding times change from 10 to 20, the surface gradually changes from smooth to rough again, and the formed grooves are wide and deep, with obvious burrs appearing, and the \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e value gradually increases. Overall, a smoother surface and a lower \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e value can be achieved during the stable wear stage.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFig. 13 shows the \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e of different positions of the mortise during the stable wear stage of the wheel. As illustrated in Fig. 13, the wear behavior of the wheel exhibits a stable regime during the specified operational interval, the \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e at each position of the mortise is less than 0.8 \u0026mu;m, meeting the processing requirements.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eFor titanium alloy arc-shaped mortise, this paper uses formed electroplated CBN wheel to process it, analyzes the grinding performance of the wheel, explores the influence of different wear states of the wheel on grinding force and \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e, and obtains the following conclusions:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(1) Within the selected processing parameter range, the cutting depth has the greatest influence on the cutting force and \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e, followed by the workpiece speed, and the spindle speed. The variation amplitudes of grinding force reached 326.6%, 71.2% and 45.6%, respectively, and the variation amplitudes of \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e were 172.2%, 70.2% and 30.2%, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(2) The wear forms of electroplated CBN wheels mainly include adhesion, fragmentation and pull-out of individual abrasive grains, which are consistent with the SEM/EDS analysis results.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(3) The influence of different wear stages on grinding force was analyzed. Compared with the initial wear stage and the severe wear stage, the growth trend of grinding force in the normal wear stage was relatively slow. The growth rate of grinding force in the normal wear stage was 10.7% and 83.6% lower than that in the initial wear stage and the severe wear stage, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(4) The influence of different wear stages on \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e and machined surface morphology is analyzed. The results show that the \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e value is the smallest in the stable wear stage. Compared with the initial wear stage and the severe wear stage, the maximum \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e value is reduced by 37.9% and 31.25% respectively.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare that they are relevant to the content of this article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and material\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp; All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in the present article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026apos; contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp; Xiaofei Lei was in charge of the whole experiment and edited the manuscript; Rong Wang supervised the research and inspected the manuscript; Xu Liu and Ziang Liu assisted with sampling and experimental analysis; Xiaobo Guo and Yang Cao have checked and changed the language. Carlos E. H. Ventura, Wenfeng Ding and Biao Zhao were responsible for the manuscript\u0026rsquo;s review.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp; The article follows the guidelines of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and involves no studies on human or animal subjects.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp; Not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp; Not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWang ZG, Chen TL, Gong JE, Zheng YF, Niu F, Wang Z, Wang J, Fang XY, Cai ZB (2024) Improvement in fretting fatigue life of GH4169 dovetail joint component by bonded solid lubricant coating at 500℃. 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Wear 462: 203475. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2020.203475.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLi BK, Ding WF, Li M, Zhang X (2021) Tool wear behavior of alumina abrasive wheels during grinding FGH96 powder metallurgy nickel-based superalloy. Procedia CIRP 101: 182\u0026ndash;185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procir.2020.04.161.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eShi ZD, Attia H (2021) High performance grinding of titanium alloys with electroplated diamond wheels. Procedia CIRP 101: 178\u0026ndash;181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procir.2020.11.008.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"the-international-journal-of-advanced-manufacturing-technology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"jamt","sideBox":"Learn more about [The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology](https://www.springer.com/journal/170)","snPcode":"170","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/170/3","title":"The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Arc-shaped mortise, profile grinding, wheel wear, grinding force, surface quality","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7463539/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7463539/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe arc-shaped mortise is an important form of the mortise on the disk of future aero engines and is of great significance for improving the performance of aero engines. This paper employs a forming electroplated CBN grinding wheel to grind TC11 titanium alloy mortise. Firstly, the influence of process parameters on grinding force and surface quality was explored. Then, the influence of wheel wear on the machining process is explored simultaneously. The results indicate that abrasive fracture and wheel adhesion are common wear forms of the wheel. The grinding forces in the three directions show a continuous upward trend with the increase of wheel wear. Compared with the initial and severe wear stage, The grinding forces in the three directions (x, y, and z) in the normal wear stage is reduced by 125.4%, 32.4%, 10.7% and 17.3%, 31.9%, 83.6% respectively. Furthermore, compared with the initial wear and severe wear stages, the surface roughness values in the normal wear stage decreased by 37.9% and 31.25% respectively, and the surface in the normal wear stage is also smoother.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Research on grinding performance and wheel wear of titanium alloy arc-shaped mortise profile grinding wheels","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-29 12:30:57","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7463539/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Major Revisions Needed","date":"2025-11-26T07:14:16+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2025-10-15T06:38:29+00:00","index":0,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-10-15T06:18:05+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-08-28T09:33:06+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology","date":"2025-08-26T09:35:59+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"the-international-journal-of-advanced-manufacturing-technology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"jamt","sideBox":"Learn more about [The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology](https://www.springer.com/journal/170)","snPcode":"170","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/170/3","title":"The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"96d2cf96-43f6-480c-9fbe-4f4ce5b66dc8","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 29th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-12-22T16:02:53+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-7463539","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-025-17169-0","journal":{"identity":"the-international-journal-of-advanced-manufacturing-technology","isVorOnly":false,"title":"The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology"},"publishedOn":"2025-12-20 15:58:15","publishedOnDateReadable":"December 20th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-29 12:30:57","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s00170-025-17169-0","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-025-17169-0","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7463539","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7463539","identity":"rs-7463539","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}