Hydrodynamics of gliding penguin flipper suggests the adjustment of sweepback with swimming speeds

Hydrodynamic performance of a gliding penguin flipper (wing) considering the backward sweep was estimated with computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation. A flipper of a gentoo penguin ( Pygoscelis papua ) was 3D scanned, smoothed, and a numerical fluid mesh was generated. For accurate yet resource-saving computation, an embedded large-eddy simulation (ELES) methods was employed, where the flow near the flipper was solved with large-eddy simulation (LES) and flow far away from the flipper was solved with Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS). The relative flow speed was fixed at 2 m s −1 , close to the typical foraging speed for the penguin species. The sweep angle was set to be 0°, 30°, and 60°, while the angle of attack was varied between −40° and 40°, both are within the realistic ranges in the wing kinematics measurement of penguins in an aquarium. It was revealed that a higher sweep angle reduces the lift slope, but the lift coefficient is unchanged at a high angle of attack. Drag coefficient was reduced across the angles of attack with increasing the sweep angles. The drag polars suggest the sweep angle may be adjusted with the change in swimming speed and anhedral (negative dihedral) angle to minimise drag while maintaining the vertical force balance to counteract the positive buoyancy. This will effectively expand the swimming envelope of the gliding penguin, similar to a flying counterpart such as swift.