Social alienation and its consequences on youth cultural identity: A field study in Mosul

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This paper looks at the impact of various aspects of social alienation on the development of youth cultural identity in post-conflict Mosul, Iraq, after the occupation of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) between 2014 and 2017. It employed a sequential explanatory mixed-methods design, in which 423 youth aged 15–17 years were surveyed in five districts of Mosul. Subsequently, 30 in-depth interviews and ethnographic observations were conducted. These measures included validated alienation scales addressing powerlessness, meaninglessness, and social isolation, as well as comprehensive cultural identity measures. Findings indicate that social isolation had the most negative relationships with all cultural identity outcomes (r = − .45 to − .51, p < .001). Social isolation was found to be the strongest predictor of heritage cultural connection (β = − .31, p < .001), contemporary cultural adaptation (β = − .38, p < .001), and bicultural identity integration (β = − .28, p < .001) using multiple regression analysis. These relationships were strongly moderated by family support (beta = 0.18–0.21, p < .01), which offered important protection against the adverse outcomes of alienation. Geographic differences appeared, as the youth of the Old City were the most alienated, and ethnic minorities had the most significant attachment to their heritage and social isolation. The results are used to design culturally sensitive interventions for post-conflict reconstruction and youth development programs. Social alienation Youth cultural identity post-conflict society Mosul Academic performance Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 1 Introduction Different global challenges, such as conflict, displacement, and social disruption, have led to significant changes in how higher education institutions and communities worldwide support the development of young people [ 1 ]. Youth in post-conflict societies face unprecedented challenges in establishing coherent cultural identities amidst complex social reconstruction processes [ 2 ]. According to the report of the International Association of Universities (IAU), educational institutions in conflict-affected regions require specialized strategies to support the development of young people [ 3 ]. Societies must employ various mechanisms to restore social solidarity and cultural transmission [ 4 ]. The long-term consequences of conflicts on youth development and identity formation persist in many communities even after the conflict has ended [ 5 ]. Social alienation has emerged as a key issue in the development of youth in post-conflict situations [ 6 ]. Social alienation is a relatively new phenomenon in post-conflict studies, and it remains under-researched in educational and developmental literature [ 7 , 8 ]. Previous empirical research on social alienation has primarily focused on stable social situations [ 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 ] and, more recently, post-conflict situations [ 13 ] and displacement situations [ 14 ]. The role of social alienation in the cultural identity formation of youth in post-conflict environments has, however, been overlooked. The existing research in post-conflict research has primarily concentrated on the comprehension of trauma and mental health outcomes [ 15 , 16 – 18 ] without paying attention to the cultural identity development processes [ 19 , 20 , 21 ]. Although many have emphasized the need for more research on youth development in post-conflict settings [ 22 , 23 ], there has been limited research on the construction of cultural identity, despite the disproportionate impact of conflict on young people [ 24 , 25 ]. The lack of studies is based on the assumption that young people are resilient and will automatically overcome the experiences of conflict [ 26 ]; yet, recent research has demonstrated the opposite [ 27 , 28 ]. The process of cultural identity formation is a situational process that must be explored within a particular post-conflict context [ 29 ]. Although most research has conceptualized social alienation as a symbol of only negative phenomena, such as poor academic performance [ 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 ], social alienation can also be a source of positive coping strategies and cultural preservation efforts [ 34 , 35 ]. This research paper aims to fill this gap by examining the correlation between various aspects of social alienation and the construction of youth cultural identity in post-conflict Mosul, Iraq. Furthermore, the exploration of the issue of social alienation among youth exposed to post-conflict environments might assist administrators and policymakers in finding ways to minimize alienation, maximize cultural affiliation and identity consistency, and ultimately improve the quality of community reconstruction [ 36 ]. Moreover, the results can guide policymakers in providing the necessary support to youths who are uncertain about their identity and lack social connections [ 37 ]. Understanding how various dimensions of alienation contribute to the outcomes of cultural identity can lead to improved design and delivery of interventions in post-conflict settings [ 38 ]. 2 Literature review 2.1 Social alienation, stressors, and cultural identity Social alienation has been gaining increasing attention in post-conflict literature, as social systems are disrupted in almost all areas of life, particularly in the case of protracted conflicts and displacement [ 39 ]. The first mention of social alienation in the sociological literature was made by Karl Marx in his work on industrial society [ 40 ]. Marx believed that alienation is an unhealthy disconnection between people and their social world, characterized by powerlessness, meaninglessness, and social isolation [ 41 ]. Alienation theory was later operationalized by Melvin Seeman, who developed specific dimensions that could be empirically measured and analyzed [ 42 ]. The framework proposed by Seeman consists of powerlessness (the expectation that one's behavior is unable to influence desired outcomes), meaninglessness (the inability to comprehend social situations and predict their consequences), and social isolation (the expectation of rejection or exclusion by social groups) [ 43 ]. This multidimensional perspective has become common in modern alienation studies [ 44 , 45 ]. The study of social alienation in post-conflict settings has recently begun to be explored, revealing distinctive patterns and issues [ 46 ]. The alienation that is part of the post-conflict situation often includes the disorganization of the traditional social order, the destruction of cultural institutions, and the disruption of intergenerational transmission processes [ 47 ]. The youth in post-conflict environments can be more alienated due to the developmental phase they are undergoing simultaneously with the social reconstruction [ 48 ]. 2.2 Cultural identity formation in post-conflict contexts The formation of cultural identity is a crucial developmental task in adolescence, which entails exploring cultural heritage, adhering to cultural values, and assimilating various cultural influences [ 49 ]. The ethnic identity development model by Phinney has been widely used to explain how adolescents develop cultural identities by exploring and committing themselves [ 50 ]. Studies continue to show that the positive effects of a strong cultural identity include high self-esteem, academic achievement, and psychological well-being [ 51 ]. Cultural identity formation in post-conflict situations is confronted with special challenges such as destruction of cultural sites, interference with artistic practices, and exposure to alternative ideologies through force [ 52 ]. The acculturation framework proposed by Berry offers insight into how people can navigate the relationships between their heritage and modern culture, and integration strategies tend to yield the most favorable results [ 53 ]. Nevertheless, post-conflict settings can restrict the acculturation options available due to social dislocation and resource scarcity [ 54 ]. As recent studies have pointed out, the narrative medicine approach emphasizes the importance of storytelling and cultural narratives in the healing and identity reconstruction process [ 55 ]. This strategy implies that the process of cultural identity development in post-conflict situations needs not only personal psychological work, but also group cultural reconstruction activities [ 56 ]. 2.3 The Mosul context The second-largest city in Iraq, Mosul, was seriously disrupted by the occupation of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) in June 2014-July 2017 [ 57 ]. Historically diverse population of the city, such as Arabs, Kurds, Assyrians, Turkmens, and other minorities, were systematically subjected to the destruction of cultural diversity and the imposition of extremist ideology [ 58 ]. The next liberation campaign was successful, but it resulted in significant physical destruction and further social disruption [ 59 ]. During the occupation period, educational institutions, which are essential for cultural transmission, were particularly affected [ 60 ]. Recent studies on educational reconstruction in Mosul emphasize the difficulty of reconstruction of not only physical but also pedagogical infrastructure to serve students affected by trauma [ 61 ]. The linguistic diversity of post-conflict Mosul, including the adoption of foreign linguistic features and the preservation of local dialectal patterns, is an indication of larger cultural negotiation and identity construction [ 62 ]. According to current demographic data, 39.8 percent of the Mosul population are children and adolescents, and the experiences of youth are at the center of the city's reconstruction and further development [ 63 ]. The growth of local economic sectors will enable the involvement of youth in reconstruction activities, potentially leading to a decrease in alienation and the establishment of cultural ties [ 64 ]. 3 Theoretical framework and hypotheses 3.1 Theoretical model This paper combines theories of social alienation and cultural identity development to examine the relationships between the dimensions of alienation and cultural identity outcomes in post-conflict settings. The theoretical model suggests that various aspects of social alienation (powerlessness, meaninglessness, social isolation) will produce different impacts on the processes of cultural identity formation (heritage cultural connection, contemporary cultural adaptation, bicultural identity integration). According to the alienation theory, we anticipate that social isolation will be the most negatively related to cultural identity outcomes, since cultural identity formation is essentially a social process that requires affiliation with cultural groups [ 65 ]. Powerlessness can have specific impacts on cultural heritage connections by compromising the sense of agency in young people, hindering their ability to sustain cultural traditions [ 66 ]. The most significant influence of meaninglessness on modern cultural adaptation is that it confuses what to do culturally in a changing social environment [ 67 ]. 3.2 Hypotheses According to the theoretical framework and literature review, the following hypotheses are put forward: H1 : Social isolation will have a negative correlation with (a) heritage cultural connection, (b) contemporary cultural adaptation, and (c) bicultural identity integration. H 2 : Powerlessness will have a negative correlation with (a) heritage cultural connection, (b) contemporary cultural adaptation, and (c) bicultural identity integration. H3 : Meaninglessness will have a negative correlation with (a) heritage cultural connection, (b) contemporary cultural adaptation, and (c) bicultural identity integration. H4 : Family support will mediate the links between alienation dimensions and cultural identity outcomes, in that strong family support will cushion the adverse consequences. H5 : Alienation levels will differ significantly in the various districts of Mosul, as the level of conflict impact and reconstruction progress will vary. H6 : Cultural identity outcomes will vary significantly across ethnic groups, with minority groups demonstrating greater heritage connection and greater social isolation. 4 Methodology 4.1 Research design The research employed a sequential explanatory mixed-methods design, where quantitative data collection and analysis were conducted first, followed by a qualitative exploration to provide further insight into the relationships identified in the statistical analyses [ 68 ]. This method enables the generalization of relationships between variables on a broad scale, as well as the in-depth understanding of the processes underlying these relationships [ 69 ]. The philosophical underpinning is based on pragmatism, which focuses on the practical usefulness of the research results and emphasizes the importance of a variety of methodological approaches [ 70 ]. 4.2 Participants and sampling The quantitative sample consisted of 423 youth aged 15–17 years who were recruited in 28 secondary schools in five districts of Mosul through stratified random sampling. This age group was chosen because it is a critical stage in the development of cultural identity. At the same time, the participants were old enough to complete research instruments with a high degree of reliability [ 71 ]. The sample consisted of 52 percent females and 48 percent males, which is in line with the general population. Ethnic makeup was a sign of the historical diversity of Mosul: Arab (68%), Kurdish (18%), Assyrian (8%), Turkmen (4%), and other minorities (2%) [ 72 ]. Every participant was a survivor of the ISIL occupation, and 73 percent of them had been displaced from their homes with an average of 18.4 months [ 73 ]. The qualitative sample consisted of 30 participants, who were selected using a purposive sampling method to achieve maximum variation in terms of demographic characteristics [ 74 ]. 4.3 Measures Social Alienation : The research used modified versions of validated scales of three dimensions of alienation [ 75 ]. Powerlessness scale (5 items, 78) measured a sense of being unable to affect significant events. Difficulty understanding social situations was measured by the meaninglessness scale (4 items, 42). Expectations of social acceptance were calculated using the Social Isolation Scale (4 items, Cronbach's alpha = 0.85). All measurements were taken using 5-point Likert scales. Cultural Identity : Cultural identity was measured through three complementary measures that were localized. Attachment to traditional cultural practices was measured by the Heritage Cultural Connection (6 items, α = .84). Modern cultural adaptation (5 items, α = .79) measured comfort with the present social settings. Bicultural identity integration (4 items, 47 = .87) assessed the capacity to manoeuvre between different cultural settings [ 76 ]. Contextual Variables : The Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support family subscale (4 items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, The adapted items of the Network of Relationships Inventory (5 items, 86) [ 78 ] were used to measure peer support. A locally developed scale (6 items, 79) was used to assess community resources [ 79 ]. 4.4 Data collection and analysis The data were collected during March-June 2021, approximately four years after the liberation of Mosul. The institutional review board approved all procedures, and they were carried out in partnership with local educational institutions. SPSS 28.0 was used to analyze quantitative data, employing descriptive statistics, correlational analyses, multiple regression, and moderation analyses. The Hayes PROCESS macro [ 80 ] was used for these analyses. Thematic analysis was employed to analyze the qualitative data by the guidelines provided by Braun and Clarke [ 81 ]. Two researchers independently coded the data, and differences were discussed. An iterative analysis, employing both deductive and inductive strategies, was used to develop themes [ 82 ]. 5 Results 5.1 Descriptive statistics Most participants were aged 15–17 years, with 52% being female and 48% male. Most respondents were in secondary school, and 69 percent of them reported being fluent in the Arabic language. The participants experienced displacement between 1 and 36 months, with a maximum of 36 months. The most desirable mode of learning was face-to-face instruction. Additional information on the demographics of respondents is given in Table 1 . Table 1 Descriptive Statistics for Key Variables Variable M SD Range Skewness Kurtosis Alienation Dimensions Powerlessness 2.8 0.9 1.0–5.0 0.12 -0.45 Meaninglessness 2.6 0.8 1.0–5.0 0.28 -0.33 Social Isolation 3.1 1.0 1.0–5.0 -0.15 -0.52 Cultural Identity Outcomes Heritage Cultural Connection 3.7 0.9 1.2-5.0 -0.41 0.18 Contemporary Cultural Adaptation 3.9 0.8 1.0–5.0 -0.52 0.34 Bicultural Identity Integration 3.2 1.1 1.0–5.0 -0.08 -0.67 Contextual Variables Family Support 4.1 0.7 2.0–5.0 -0.89 0.76 Peer Support 3.4 0.9 1.0–5.0 -0.22 -0.41 Community Resources 2.9 0.8 1.0-4.8 0.18 -0.29 5.2 Measurement model The model was assessed using SmartPLS version 4.0 [ 83 ]. Cronbach's alpha, composite reliability, and average variance extracted (AVE) were used to measure construct reliability and convergent validity. The Cronbach alpha values were higher than 0.70 [ 84 ], and the composite reliability was higher than 0.80 [ 85 ]. Factor loadings were 0.70 and more, and AVE was 0.5 and more [ 86 ]. Two were dropped in powerlessness and social isolation constructs, respectively, because they had a loading of less than 0.70. The measurement items show good convergent validity. The cross-loadings, Fornell-Larcker criterion, and heterotrait-monotrait ratio (HTMT) were used to determine the discriminant validity. According to the HTMT outcomes, the discriminant validity was fulfilled by all constructs. √AVE is higher than the pair-wise correlations among the constructs. 5.3 Correlational analysis The strongest correlations with all cultural identity outcomes were shown by social isolation, which had significant negative relationships with heritage cultural connection (r = − .45, p < .001), contemporary cultural adaptation (r = − .51, p < .001), and bicultural identity integration (r = − .39, p < .001). Moderate negative correlations were found between powerlessness and meaninglessness and heritage connection and contemporary adaptation, whereas weaker correlations were found between powerlessness and meaninglessness and bicultural integration. 5.4 Group differences There were significant variations in the levels of alienation between districts (F(4,418) = 12.4, p < .001, η² = .11). The highest levels of alienation were reported in Old City (M = 3.4), which had been severely damaged and still faced reconstruction problems. East Mosul had the lowest alienation (M = 2.1), as it was liberated earlier and its infrastructure was better preserved. Both cultural identity outcomes (F(4,418) = 8.9, p < .001, η 2 = .08) and social isolation (F(4,418) = 6.7, p < .001, η 2 = .06) were significant in terms of ethnic group differences. Minority groups had greater heritage cultural connections and greater social isolation than the Arab and Kurdish participants. 5.5 Structural model and hypothesis testing Outcome Variable Predictors β SE t p 95% CI Heritage Cultural Connection (R² = .28, F = 54.2, p < .001) Social Isolation − .31 .04 -7.8 < .001 [-.39, − .23] Powerlessness − .19 .05 -4.1 < .001 [-.29, − .09] Meaninglessness − .14 .06 -2.4 .018 [-.26, − .02] Contemporary Cultural Adaptation (R² = .35, F = 74.8, p < .001) Social Isolation − .38 .04 -9.9 < .001 [-.46, − .30] Powerlessness − .23 .04 -5.2 < .001 [-.31, − .15] Meaninglessness − .12 .05 -2.1 .041 [-.22, − .02] Bicultural Identity Integration (R² = .22, F = 39.1, p < .001) Social Isolation − .28 .05 -6.2 < .001 [-.38, − .18] Powerlessness − .08 .06 -1.4 .162 [-.20, .04] Meaninglessness − .05 .07 -0.8 .423 [-.19, .09] The findings confirm Hypotheses H1a, H1b, and H1c, which indicate that social isolation has a negative relationship with all the outcomes of cultural identity. Hypotheses H2a and H2b are confirmed, whereas H2c is not confirmed since powerlessness was not a significant predictor of bicultural identity integration. H3a and H3b are supported, whereas H3c is not supported. 5.6 Moderation analysis Family support was also a significant moderator of the associations between social isolation and all outcomes of cultural identity, which confirms Hypothesis H4. In the case of heritage cultural connection, the interaction term was also significant (beta = .18, p = .008, delta R 2 = .02). Simple slopes analysis indicated that the negative effects of social isolation were more pronounced in the case of low family support ( 2 = − .42, p < .001) than in the case of high family support ( 2 = − .24, p < .001). 5.7 Qualitative findings Thematic analysis showed three major themes that explain the quantitative relationships: Theme 1 : Powerlessness in Reconstruction Processes Young people reported feeling powerless to affect reconstruction processes: The schools are overcrowded and we do not have proper books, but no one asks us what we need (Participant 007, 16-year-old female, Arab). Theme 2 : Cultural Meaning-Making in Transition Participants had difficulty in determining how to behave culturally: “Some of the traditions were prohibited under ISIL, and now we can practice them once again, but we do not know how other people will respond to them” (Participant 026, 17-year-old male, Turkmen). Theme 3 : Social Connection Problems and Solutions. Social isolation was found to be the most problematic: It is difficult to know whom to trust. These experiences left divisions that exist to date” (Participant 011, 17-year-old female, Kurdish). 6 Discussion 6.1 Key findings and theoretical implications The study is the first empirical examination of the relationships between social alienation and cultural identity formation among youth in post-conflict Mosul. The results demonstrate that social alienation has a substantial impact on cultural identity formation, with social isolation being the most problematic aspect. These findings apply the alienation theory to the post-conflict settings and reveal the effects of extreme social disruption on the identity formation process. The finding that social isolation was the strongest predictor of all cultural identity outcomes is consistent with post-conflict studies, which have consistently found that social connections are of paramount importance to recovery and adaptation [ 87 ]. Social isolation appears to weaken the capacity of young people to preserve their cultural heritage, adapt to modern settings, and integrate diverse cultural identities. This implies that social connection interventions can be especially useful in promoting cultural identity development. 6.2 Practical implications The results guide the development of several intervention areas: Educational Interventions : Schools need to focus on the provision of positive peer interaction using joint learning activities and extra-curricular programs, which celebrate cultural diversity [ 88 ]. Students should have their cultural backgrounds acknowledged in the curriculum, and also encouraged to develop a common civic identity. Community-Based Programs : Community-based interventions ought to be aimed at the reconstruction of cultural institutions and the establishment of intergenerational cultural transmission spaces [ 89 ]. Powerlessness can be minimized through youth involvement in the reconstruction process, which fosters the creation of social networks. Family Support Services : Since family support is protective, interventions ought to enhance family functioning and cultural transmission processes [ 90 ]. Parent education programs can help families preserve traditions and adapt to new circumstances. 6.3 Limitations and future research Several limitations should be taken into consideration. The cross-sectional design restricts the causal inferences of the relationships between alienation and cultural identity. Longitudinal studies are necessary to understand how these relationships develop over time. The post-conflict environment presents unique circumstances that can limit the applicability of the results to other contexts. 7 Conclusion The present research provides strong support for the hypothesis that social alienation has a significant impact on the formation of cultural identity among youth in post-conflict Mosul, with social isolation being the most problematic aspect of this process. The results reveal that although alienation presents severe problems to identity development, family support acts as a protective factor against the adverse effects of alienation. The study makes a theoretical contribution by applying the theories of alienation and cultural identity to the post-conflict environment. The practical implications are that it is essential to address the issue of social alienation by employing culturally informed approaches to support the development of youth and enhance social cohesion in post-conflict societies. Future studies should employ longitudinal designs to investigate developmental paths and the effectiveness of interventions over time. Cross-context comparative studies would enhance our understanding of universal versus context-specific patterns. The design and testing of culturally adapted interventions are crucial steps in translating research into practice. Declarations Funding Declaration: This study was supported by a grant from Alnoor University under the code ANU/2025/Hum.09. Clinical Trial Registration: Not applicable. Ethical Approval The study protocol was reviewed and approved by the Research Ethics Committee of Alnoor University, Mosul, Iraq. Consent to Participate Informed written consent was obtained from all participants involved in the study. For participants under the age of 18, consent was obtained from a parent or legal guardian. Consent to Publish Consent for publication of the anonymized findings and data derived from the study was obtained from all participants or, where applicable, from their parents or legal guardians. Data Availability Statement The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to confidentiality agreements with participants, but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. References Betancourt TS, Khan KT. The mental health of children affected by armed conflict: protective processes and pathways to resilience. Int Rev Psychiatry. 2008;20(3) :317–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540260802090363 Masten AS. Ordinary magic: resilience in development. New York: Guilford Press; 2014. UNESCO. Education Sector Recovery Plan: Iraq, 2018–2022. Baghdad: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization; 2018. Banks JA. An introduction to multicultural education. 4th ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon; 2008. Save the Children. 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A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling. J Acad Mark Sci. 2015;43(1):115–35. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-014-0403-8. Nunnally JC, Bernstein IH. Psychometric theory. 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1994. Bagozzi RP, Yi Y. On the evaluation of structural equation models. J Acad Mark Sci. 1988;16(1):74–94. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02723327 Chin WW. The partial least squares approach to structural equation modeling. In: Marcoulides GA, editor. Modern methods for business research. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; 1998. p. 295–336. Hu LT, Bentler PM. Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Struct Equ Model. 1999;6(1):1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118 Kline RB. Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. 4th ed. New York: Guilford Press; 2016. Anderson JC, Gerbing DW. Structural equation modeling in practice: A review and recommended two-step approach. Psychol Bull. 1988;103(3):411–23. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.103.3.411 Preacher KJ, Hayes AF. Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behav Res Methods. 2008;40(3):879–91. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.40.3.879 Zhao X, Lynch JG, Chen Q. Reconsidering Baron and Kenny: myths and truths about mediation analysis. J Consum Res. 2010;37(2):197–206. https://doi.org/10.1086/651257 Sobel ME. Asymptotic confidence intervals for indirect effects in structural equation models. Sociol Methodol. 1982;13:290–312. https://doi.org/10.2307/270723 MacKinnon DP, Lockwood CM, Williams J. Confidence limits for the indirect effect: distribution of the product and resampling methods. Multivar Behav Res. 2004;39(1):99–128. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr3901_4 Shrout PE, Bolger N. Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies: new procedures and recommendations. Psychol Methods. 2002;7(4):422–45. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.7.4.422 Baron RM, Kenny DA. The Moderator–Mediator Variable Distinction in Social Psychological Research: Conceptual, Strategic, and Statistical Considerations. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1986;51(6):1173–82. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.51.6.1173 Ringle CM, Wende S, Becker JM. SmartPLS 4. Bönningstedt: SmartPLS; 2022. Nunnally JC. Psychometric theory. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1978. Hair JF, Black WC, Babin BJ, Anderson RE. Multivariate data analysis. 7th ed. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall; 2010. Bagozzi RP, Yi Y. On the evaluation of structural equation models. J Acad Mark Sci. 1988;16(1):74–94. Masten AS, Motti-Stefanidi F. Multisystem resilience for children and youth in disaster: reflections in the context of COVID-19. Advers Resil Sci. 2020;1(2):95–106. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42844-020-00010-w García-Carrión R, Villardón-Gallego L, Yañez-Marquina L, Estévez A. Educational impact of successful educational actions in schools located in socially and culturally diverse contexts. Front Psychol. 2020;11:1610. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01610 Sleeter CE, Grant CA. Making choices for multicultural education: five approaches to race, class, and gender. 7th ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons; 2009. García-Coll C, Marks AK, editors. The Immigrant Paradox in Children and Adolescents: Is Becoming American a Developmental Risk? Washington: American Psychological Association; 2012. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7091859","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":502254710,"identity":"12fb64a4-e53d-4672-80e5-0a565034cf5f","order_by":0,"name":"Reem Abdulwahhab Ismail","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"","institution":"University of Mosul","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Reem","middleName":"Abdulwahhab","lastName":"Ismail","suffix":""},{"id":502254711,"identity":"e1de32f1-42c6-4417-af92-0e792db4d09e","order_by":1,"name":"Sara Mohammed Abdulrazzaq","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Alnoor University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sara","middleName":"Mohammed","lastName":"Abdulrazzaq","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-07-10 10:23:17","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7091859/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7091859/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":89589238,"identity":"734f6874-9b54-4eb0-b860-07cc201ebadb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-21 15:45:23","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":475389,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCorrelation Matrix of Alienation and Cultural Identity Variables\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7091859/v1/14ebec50f5690617148bd1f5.png"},{"id":89589647,"identity":"c5eae553-0237-43f9-96ed-987928c1bab5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-21 15:53:23","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":316337,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAlienation Levels by District\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7091859/v1/61fa303c74a129f28852b4dc.png"},{"id":89589646,"identity":"becaccfd-6568-43f6-bfe7-a3f0dfc4d0ac","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-21 15:53:23","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":364720,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCultural Identity and Social Isolation by Ethnic Group\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7091859/v1/5680562256a09a26ce9663ef.png"},{"id":89589247,"identity":"96c51580-be11-4b88-8106-4f5906338b40","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-21 15:45:23","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":349522,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eModeration Effect of Family Support\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7091859/v1/c292a7c0d5e98266a73bc4db.png"},{"id":94650081,"identity":"33e7c4cd-48ee-4082-b5c6-37a1e6101128","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-29 09:25:08","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2464373,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7091859/v1/607cfbf5-9ec2-4769-ad9a-e73327fcec75.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Social alienation and its consequences on youth cultural identity: A field study in Mosul","fulltext":[{"header":"1 Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eDifferent global challenges, such as conflict, displacement, and social disruption, have led to significant changes in how higher education institutions and communities worldwide support the development of young people [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. Youth in post-conflict societies face unprecedented challenges in establishing coherent cultural identities amidst complex social reconstruction processes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. According to the report of the International Association of Universities (IAU), educational institutions in conflict-affected regions require specialized strategies to support the development of young people [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. Societies must employ various mechanisms to restore social solidarity and cultural transmission [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. The long-term consequences of conflicts on youth development and identity formation persist in many communities even after the conflict has ended [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSocial alienation has emerged as a key issue in the development of youth in post-conflict situations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. Social alienation is a relatively new phenomenon in post-conflict studies, and it remains under-researched in educational and developmental literature [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Previous empirical research on social alienation has primarily focused on stable social situations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e] and, more recently, post-conflict situations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e] and displacement situations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. The role of social alienation in the cultural identity formation of youth in post-conflict environments has, however, been overlooked.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe existing research in post-conflict research has primarily concentrated on the comprehension of trauma and mental health outcomes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR17\" citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e] without paying attention to the cultural identity development processes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. Although many have emphasized the need for more research on youth development in post-conflict settings [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e], there has been limited research on the construction of cultural identity, despite the disproportionate impact of conflict on young people [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. The lack of studies is based on the assumption that young people are resilient and will automatically overcome the experiences of conflict [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]; yet, recent research has demonstrated the opposite [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]. The process of cultural identity formation is a situational process that must be explored within a particular post-conflict context [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlthough most research has conceptualized social alienation as a symbol of only negative phenomena, such as poor academic performance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e], social alienation can also be a source of positive coping strategies and cultural preservation efforts [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. This research paper aims to fill this gap by examining the correlation between various aspects of social alienation and the construction of youth cultural identity in post-conflict Mosul, Iraq.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFurthermore, the exploration of the issue of social alienation among youth exposed to post-conflict environments might assist administrators and policymakers in finding ways to minimize alienation, maximize cultural affiliation and identity consistency, and ultimately improve the quality of community reconstruction [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. Moreover, the results can guide policymakers in providing the necessary support to youths who are uncertain about their identity and lack social connections [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. Understanding how various dimensions of alienation contribute to the outcomes of cultural identity can lead to improved design and delivery of interventions in post-conflict settings [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2 Literature review","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1 Social alienation, stressors, and cultural identity\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSocial alienation has been gaining increasing attention in post-conflict literature, as social systems are disrupted in almost all areas of life, particularly in the case of protracted conflicts and displacement [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]. The first mention of social alienation in the sociological literature was made by Karl Marx in his work on industrial society [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. Marx believed that alienation is an unhealthy disconnection between people and their social world, characterized by powerlessness, meaninglessness, and social isolation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlienation theory was later operationalized by Melvin Seeman, who developed specific dimensions that could be empirically measured and analyzed [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]. The framework proposed by Seeman consists of powerlessness (the expectation that one's behavior is unable to influence desired outcomes), meaninglessness (the inability to comprehend social situations and predict their consequences), and social isolation (the expectation of rejection or exclusion by social groups) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e]. This multidimensional perspective has become common in modern alienation studies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study of social alienation in post-conflict settings has recently begun to be explored, revealing distinctive patterns and issues [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e]. The alienation that is part of the post-conflict situation often includes the disorganization of the traditional social order, the destruction of cultural institutions, and the disruption of intergenerational transmission processes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e]. The youth in post-conflict environments can be more alienated due to the developmental phase they are undergoing simultaneously with the social reconstruction [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2 Cultural identity formation in post-conflict contexts\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe formation of cultural identity is a crucial developmental task in adolescence, which entails exploring cultural heritage, adhering to cultural values, and assimilating various cultural influences [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e]. The ethnic identity development model by Phinney has been widely used to explain how adolescents develop cultural identities by exploring and committing themselves [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e]. Studies continue to show that the positive effects of a strong cultural identity include high self-esteem, academic achievement, and psychological well-being [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCultural identity formation in post-conflict situations is confronted with special challenges such as destruction of cultural sites, interference with artistic practices, and exposure to alternative ideologies through force [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e]. The acculturation framework proposed by Berry offers insight into how people can navigate the relationships between their heritage and modern culture, and integration strategies tend to yield the most favorable results [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e]. Nevertheless, post-conflict settings can restrict the acculturation options available due to social dislocation and resource scarcity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs recent studies have pointed out, the narrative medicine approach emphasizes the importance of storytelling and cultural narratives in the healing and identity reconstruction process [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e]. This strategy implies that the process of cultural identity development in post-conflict situations needs not only personal psychological work, but also group cultural reconstruction activities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3 The Mosul context\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe second-largest city in Iraq, Mosul, was seriously disrupted by the occupation of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) in June 2014-July 2017 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e]. Historically diverse population of the city, such as Arabs, Kurds, Assyrians, Turkmens, and other minorities, were systematically subjected to the destruction of cultural diversity and the imposition of extremist ideology [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e]. The next liberation campaign was successful, but it resulted in significant physical destruction and further social disruption [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDuring the occupation period, educational institutions, which are essential for cultural transmission, were particularly affected [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e]. Recent studies on educational reconstruction in Mosul emphasize the difficulty of reconstruction of not only physical but also pedagogical infrastructure to serve students affected by trauma [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e]. The linguistic diversity of post-conflict Mosul, including the adoption of foreign linguistic features and the preservation of local dialectal patterns, is an indication of larger cultural negotiation and identity construction [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to current demographic data, 39.8 percent of the Mosul population are children and adolescents, and the experiences of youth are at the center of the city's reconstruction and further development [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e]. The growth of local economic sectors will enable the involvement of youth in reconstruction activities, potentially leading to a decrease in alienation and the establishment of cultural ties [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3 Theoretical framework and hypotheses","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1 Theoretical model\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis paper combines theories of social alienation and cultural identity development to examine the relationships between the dimensions of alienation and cultural identity outcomes in post-conflict settings. The theoretical model suggests that various aspects of social alienation (powerlessness, meaninglessness, social isolation) will produce different impacts on the processes of cultural identity formation (heritage cultural connection, contemporary cultural adaptation, bicultural identity integration).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to the alienation theory, we anticipate that social isolation will be the most negatively related to cultural identity outcomes, since cultural identity formation is essentially a social process that requires affiliation with cultural groups [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e65\u003c/span\u003e]. Powerlessness can have specific impacts on cultural heritage connections by compromising the sense of agency in young people, hindering their ability to sustain cultural traditions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e]. The most significant influence of meaninglessness on modern cultural adaptation is that it confuses what to do culturally in a changing social environment [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e67\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2 Hypotheses\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to the theoretical framework and literature review, the following hypotheses are put forward:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eH1\u003c/b\u003e: Social isolation will have a negative correlation with (a) heritage cultural connection, (b) contemporary cultural adaptation, and (c) bicultural identity integration.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eH 2\u003c/b\u003e: Powerlessness will have a negative correlation with (a) heritage cultural connection, (b) contemporary cultural adaptation, and (c) bicultural identity integration.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eH3\u003c/b\u003e: Meaninglessness will have a negative correlation with (a) heritage cultural connection, (b) contemporary cultural adaptation, and (c) bicultural identity integration.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eH4\u003c/b\u003e: Family support will mediate the links between alienation dimensions and cultural identity outcomes, in that strong family support will cushion the adverse consequences.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eH5\u003c/b\u003e: Alienation levels will differ significantly in the various districts of Mosul, as the level of conflict impact and reconstruction progress will vary.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eH6\u003c/b\u003e: Cultural identity outcomes will vary significantly across ethnic groups, with minority groups demonstrating greater heritage connection and greater social isolation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4 Methodology","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.1 Research design\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe research employed a sequential explanatory mixed-methods design, where quantitative data collection and analysis were conducted first, followed by a qualitative exploration to provide further insight into the relationships identified in the statistical analyses [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e68\u003c/span\u003e]. This method enables the generalization of relationships between variables on a broad scale, as well as the in-depth understanding of the processes underlying these relationships [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e69\u003c/span\u003e]. The philosophical underpinning is based on pragmatism, which focuses on the practical usefulness of the research results and emphasizes the importance of a variety of methodological approaches [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e70\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.2 Participants and sampling\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe quantitative sample consisted of 423 youth aged 15\u0026ndash;17 years who were recruited in 28 secondary schools in five districts of Mosul through stratified random sampling. This age group was chosen because it is a critical stage in the development of cultural identity. At the same time, the participants were old enough to complete research instruments with a high degree of reliability [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e71\u003c/span\u003e]. The sample consisted of 52 percent females and 48 percent males, which is in line with the general population.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEthnic makeup was a sign of the historical diversity of Mosul: Arab (68%), Kurdish (18%), Assyrian (8%), Turkmen (4%), and other minorities (2%) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e72\u003c/span\u003e]. Every participant was a survivor of the ISIL occupation, and 73 percent of them had been displaced from their homes with an average of 18.4 months [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e73\u003c/span\u003e]. The qualitative sample consisted of 30 participants, who were selected using a purposive sampling method to achieve maximum variation in terms of demographic characteristics [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e74\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.3 Measures\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSocial Alienation\u003c/b\u003e: The research used modified versions of validated scales of three dimensions of alienation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e75\u003c/span\u003e]. Powerlessness scale (5 items, 78) measured a sense of being unable to affect significant events. Difficulty understanding social situations was measured by the meaninglessness scale (4 items, 42). Expectations of social acceptance were calculated using the Social Isolation Scale (4 items, Cronbach's alpha\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.85). All measurements were taken using 5-point Likert scales.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCultural Identity\u003c/b\u003e: Cultural identity was measured through three complementary measures that were localized. Attachment to traditional cultural practices was measured by the Heritage Cultural Connection (6 items, α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.84). Modern cultural adaptation (5 items, α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.79) measured comfort with the present social settings. Bicultural identity integration (4 items, 47\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.87) assessed the capacity to manoeuvre between different cultural settings [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e76\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eContextual Variables\u003c/b\u003e: The Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support family subscale (4 items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, four items, The adapted items of the Network of Relationships Inventory (5 items, 86) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e78\u003c/span\u003e] were used to measure peer support. A locally developed scale (6 items, 79) was used to assess community resources [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e79\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.4 Data collection and analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe data were collected during March-June 2021, approximately four years after the liberation of Mosul. The institutional review board approved all procedures, and they were carried out in partnership with local educational institutions. SPSS 28.0 was used to analyze quantitative data, employing descriptive statistics, correlational analyses, multiple regression, and moderation analyses. The Hayes PROCESS macro [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e80\u003c/span\u003e] was used for these analyses.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThematic analysis was employed to analyze the qualitative data by the guidelines provided by Braun and Clarke [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e81\u003c/span\u003e]. Two researchers independently coded the data, and differences were discussed. An iterative analysis, employing both deductive and inductive strategies, was used to develop themes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e82\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5 Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.1 Descriptive statistics\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eMost participants were aged 15\u0026ndash;17 years, with 52% being female and 48% male. Most respondents were in secondary school, and 69 percent of them reported being fluent in the Arabic language. The participants experienced displacement between 1 and 36 months, with a maximum of 36 months. The most desirable mode of learning was face-to-face instruction. Additional information on the demographics of respondents is given in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDescriptive Statistics for Key Variables\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRange\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSkewness\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKurtosis\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlienation Dimensions\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePowerlessness\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.0\u0026ndash;5.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeaninglessness\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.0\u0026ndash;5.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSocial Isolation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.0\u0026ndash;5.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.52\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCultural Identity Outcomes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHeritage Cultural Connection\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.2-5.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eContemporary Cultural Adaptation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.0\u0026ndash;5.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.52\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBicultural Identity Integration\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.0\u0026ndash;5.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.67\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eContextual Variables\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFamily Support\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.0\u0026ndash;5.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.89\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.76\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePeer Support\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.0\u0026ndash;5.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCommunity Resources\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.0-4.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.2 Measurement model\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe model was assessed using SmartPLS version 4.0 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e83\u003c/span\u003e]. Cronbach's alpha, composite reliability, and average variance extracted (AVE) were used to measure construct reliability and convergent validity. The Cronbach alpha values were higher than 0.70 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e84\u003c/span\u003e], and the composite reliability was higher than 0.80 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e85\u003c/span\u003e]. Factor loadings were 0.70 and more, and AVE was 0.5 and more [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e86\u003c/span\u003e]. Two were dropped in powerlessness and social isolation constructs, respectively, because they had a loading of less than 0.70. The measurement items show good convergent validity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe cross-loadings, Fornell-Larcker criterion, and heterotrait-monotrait ratio (HTMT) were used to determine the discriminant validity. According to the HTMT outcomes, the discriminant validity was fulfilled by all constructs. \u0026radic;AVE is higher than the pair-wise correlations among the constructs.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.3 Correlational analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe strongest correlations with all cultural identity outcomes were shown by social isolation, which had significant negative relationships with heritage cultural connection (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.45, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001), contemporary cultural adaptation (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.51, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001), and bicultural identity integration (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.39, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001). Moderate negative correlations were found between powerlessness and meaninglessness and heritage connection and contemporary adaptation, whereas weaker correlations were found between powerlessness and meaninglessness and bicultural integration.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.4 Group differences\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThere were significant variations in the levels of alienation between districts (F(4,418)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;12.4, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001, η\u0026sup2; = .11). The highest levels of alienation were reported in Old City (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.4), which had been severely damaged and still faced reconstruction problems. East Mosul had the lowest alienation (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.1), as it was liberated earlier and its infrastructure was better preserved.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBoth cultural identity outcomes (F(4,418)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8.9, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001, η 2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.08) and social isolation (F(4,418)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6.7, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001, η 2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.06) were significant in terms of ethnic group differences. Minority groups had greater heritage cultural connections and greater social isolation than the Arab and Kurdish participants.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.5 Structural model and hypothesis testing\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Taba\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOutcome Variable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePredictors\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eβ\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSE\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003et\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e95% CI\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHeritage Cultural Connection (R\u0026sup2; = .28, F\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;54.2, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSocial Isolation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-7.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[-.39, \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.23]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePowerlessness\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-4.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[-.29, \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.09]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeaninglessness\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-2.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.018\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[-.26, \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.02]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eContemporary Cultural Adaptation (R\u0026sup2; = .35, F\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;74.8, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSocial Isolation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-9.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[-.46, \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.30]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePowerlessness\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-5.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[-.31, \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.15]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeaninglessness\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-2.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.041\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[-.22, \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.02]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBicultural Identity Integration (R\u0026sup2; = .22, F\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;39.1, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSocial Isolation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-6.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[-.38, \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.18]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePowerlessness\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-1.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.162\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[-.20, .04]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeaninglessness\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.423\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e[-.19, .09]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe findings confirm Hypotheses H1a, H1b, and H1c, which indicate that social isolation has a negative relationship with all the outcomes of cultural identity. Hypotheses H2a and H2b are confirmed, whereas H2c is not confirmed since powerlessness was not a significant predictor of bicultural identity integration. H3a and H3b are supported, whereas H3c is not supported.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.6 Moderation analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFamily support was also a significant moderator of the associations between social isolation and all outcomes of cultural identity, which confirms Hypothesis H4. In the case of heritage cultural connection, the interaction term was also significant (beta\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.18, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.008, delta R 2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.02). Simple slopes analysis indicated that the negative effects of social isolation were more pronounced in the case of low family support ( 2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.42, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001) than in the case of high family support ( 2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.24, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.7 Qualitative findings\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThematic analysis showed three major themes that explain the quantitative relationships:\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTheme 1\u003c/b\u003e: Powerlessness in Reconstruction Processes Young people reported feeling powerless to affect reconstruction processes: The schools are overcrowded and we do not have proper books, but no one asks us what we need (Participant 007, 16-year-old female, Arab).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTheme 2\u003c/b\u003e: Cultural Meaning-Making in Transition Participants had difficulty in determining how to behave culturally: \u0026ldquo;Some of the traditions were prohibited under ISIL, and now we can practice them once again, but we do not know how other people will respond to them\u0026rdquo; (Participant 026, 17-year-old male, Turkmen).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTheme 3\u003c/b\u003e: Social Connection Problems and Solutions. Social isolation was found to be the most problematic: It is difficult to know whom to trust. These experiences left divisions that exist to date\u0026rdquo; (Participant 011, 17-year-old female, Kurdish).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"6 Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e6.1 Key findings and theoretical implications\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study is the first empirical examination of the relationships between social alienation and cultural identity formation among youth in post-conflict Mosul. The results demonstrate that social alienation has a substantial impact on cultural identity formation, with social isolation being the most problematic aspect. These findings apply the alienation theory to the post-conflict settings and reveal the effects of extreme social disruption on the identity formation process.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe finding that social isolation was the strongest predictor of all cultural identity outcomes is consistent with post-conflict studies, which have consistently found that social connections are of paramount importance to recovery and adaptation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e87\u003c/span\u003e]. Social isolation appears to weaken the capacity of young people to preserve their cultural heritage, adapt to modern settings, and integrate diverse cultural identities. This implies that social connection interventions can be especially useful in promoting cultural identity development.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e6.2 Practical implications\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe results guide the development of several intervention areas:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEducational Interventions\u003c/b\u003e: Schools need to focus on the provision of positive peer interaction using joint learning activities and extra-curricular programs, which celebrate cultural diversity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR88\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e88\u003c/span\u003e]. Students should have their cultural backgrounds acknowledged in the curriculum, and also encouraged to develop a common civic identity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCommunity-Based Programs\u003c/b\u003e: Community-based interventions ought to be aimed at the reconstruction of cultural institutions and the establishment of intergenerational cultural transmission spaces [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR89\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e89\u003c/span\u003e]. Powerlessness can be minimized through youth involvement in the reconstruction process, which fosters the creation of social networks.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFamily Support Services\u003c/b\u003e: Since family support is protective, interventions ought to enhance family functioning and cultural transmission processes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR90\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e90\u003c/span\u003e]. Parent education programs can help families preserve traditions and adapt to new circumstances.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e6.3 Limitations and future research\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSeveral limitations should be taken into consideration. The cross-sectional design restricts the causal inferences of the relationships between alienation and cultural identity. Longitudinal studies are necessary to understand how these relationships develop over time. The post-conflict environment presents unique circumstances that can limit the applicability of the results to other contexts.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"7 Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe present research provides strong support for the hypothesis that social alienation has a significant impact on the formation of cultural identity among youth in post-conflict Mosul, with social isolation being the most problematic aspect of this process. The results reveal that although alienation presents severe problems to identity development, family support acts as a protective factor against the adverse effects of alienation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study makes a theoretical contribution by applying the theories of alienation and cultural identity to the post-conflict environment. The practical implications are that it is essential to address the issue of social alienation by employing culturally informed approaches to support the development of youth and enhance social cohesion in post-conflict societies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFuture studies should employ longitudinal designs to investigate developmental paths and the effectiveness of interventions over time. Cross-context comparative studies would enhance our understanding of universal versus context-specific patterns. The design and testing of culturally adapted interventions are crucial steps in translating research into practice.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding Declaration:\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/strong\u003eThis study was supported by a grant from Alnoor University under the code ANU/2025/Hum.09.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical Trial Registration:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical Approval\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study protocol was reviewed and approved by the Research Ethics Committee of Alnoor University, Mosul, Iraq.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInformed written consent was obtained from all participants involved in the study. For participants under the age of 18, consent was obtained from a parent or legal guardian.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Publish\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConsent for publication of the anonymized findings and data derived from the study was obtained from all participants or, where applicable, from their parents or legal guardians.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability Statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to confidentiality agreements with participants, but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBetancourt TS, Khan KT. 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The Immigrant Paradox in Children and Adolescents: Is Becoming American a Developmental Risk? Washington: American Psychological Association; 2012.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Social alienation, Youth cultural identity, post-conflict society, Mosul, Academic performance","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7091859/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7091859/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eSocial alienation is a significant issue in post-conflict societies, as it poses a serious challenge to the development of cultural identity in adolescents. This paper looks at the impact of various aspects of social alienation on the development of youth cultural identity in post-conflict Mosul, Iraq, after the occupation of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) between 2014 and 2017. It employed a sequential explanatory mixed-methods design, in which 423 youth aged 15\u0026ndash;17 years were surveyed in five districts of Mosul. Subsequently, 30 in-depth interviews and ethnographic observations were conducted. These measures included validated alienation scales addressing powerlessness, meaninglessness, and social isolation, as well as comprehensive cultural identity measures. Findings indicate that social isolation had the most negative relationships with all cultural identity outcomes (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.45 to \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.51, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001). Social isolation was found to be the strongest predictor of heritage cultural connection (β = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.31, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001), contemporary cultural adaptation (β = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.38, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001), and bicultural identity integration (β = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.28, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001) using multiple regression analysis. These relationships were strongly moderated by family support (beta\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.18\u0026ndash;0.21, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01), which offered important protection against the adverse outcomes of alienation. Geographic differences appeared, as the youth of the Old City were the most alienated, and ethnic minorities had the most significant attachment to their heritage and social isolation. The results are used to design culturally sensitive interventions for post-conflict reconstruction and youth development programs.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Social alienation and its consequences on youth cultural identity: A field study in Mosul","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-08-21 15:45:19","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7091859/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"9de68e8b-be88-4c3d-ad45-bc4b8e0303ee","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 21st, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-10-29T09:24:50+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-08-21 15:45:19","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7091859","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7091859","identity":"rs-7091859","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}