Development and psychometric evaluation of the Japanese version of the Physical Effort Scale

Development and psychometric evaluation of the Japanese version of the Physical Effort Scale | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Development and psychometric evaluation of the Japanese version of the Physical Effort Scale Keishi Soga, Hiroyuki Sasai, Yasuyuki Taki, Boris Cheval, Keita Kamijo This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7515948/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background Physical inactivity is a global public health concern, and bridging the gap between intention and behavior is critical to promoting physical activity (PA). The Physical Effort Scale (PES) assesses individual tendencies to approach or avoid physical effort, which may help explain this gap. To facilitate cross-cultural research on PA behavior, this study developed and validated a Japanese version of the PES (PES-JP). Methods We translated the PES into Japanese according to established cross-cultural adaptation guidelines. An online survey was conducted among 400 Japanese adults aged 20 to 59 years. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were conducted to examine structural validity. Construct validity was assessed by examining concurrent, convergent, and discriminant validity, following the analytic approach of the original PES study. Concurrent validity was assessed using self-reported PA levels from the International Physical Activity Questionnaire. Results Structural validity was supported by a two-factor structure (approach and avoidance), consistent with the original scale. Internal consistency was high for both subscales (α = .92 for approach, .87 for avoidance). Concurrent validity was demonstrated by associations between PES-JP scores and PA levels: the approach score was positively associated with moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA; standardized coefficient: β = .18) and negatively with sitting time (β = − .19), while the avoidance score was unrelated to MVPA but positively associated with sitting time (β = .20). The global score (approach – avoidance), which reflects the overall tendency to approach rather than avoid physical effort, showed a similar pattern to the approach score, being positively associated with MVPA (β = .12) and negatively with sitting time (β = − .23). Convergent validity was demonstrated through associations between all PES-JP scores (approach, avoidance, and global) and autonomous motivation, affective attitudes, and intentions (ps < .001). Discriminant validity was demonstrated through weak associations between all PES-JP scores and controlled motivation and instrumental attitudes (ps ≤ .028). Test-retest reliability was acceptable (ICC = .74 for approach, .64 for avoidance, .81 for global score). Conclusions The PES-JP is a psychometrically sound instrument for assessing tendencies toward physical effort in Japanese adults. The approach and global scores were associated with higher MVPA and lower sitting time, whereas the avoidance score was unrelated to MVPA but positively associated with sitting time. The PES-JP can support research on individual differences in PA behavior and contribute to cross-cultural investigations of how tendencies toward physical effort influence PA across diverse populations. Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Introduction Physical inactivity has long been recognized as a global pandemic [ 1 ]. It is responsible for approximately 6 to 10 percent of major non-communicable diseases such as coronary heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and breast and colon cancer, and accounts for about 9 percent of all deaths worldwide [ 2 ]. Even without knowing such specific figures, the idea that physical activity (PA) is beneficial for health is now widely accepted as common knowledge. However, even when individuals intend to be physically active, many fail to put this intention into practice. In fact, a meta-analysis of 22 studies with a total of 29,600 participants found that approximately 70 percent of individuals indicate having the intention to engage in PA [ 3 ], yet nearly half of these individuals, referred to as "unsuccessful intenders", fail to translate their intentions into actual behavior. This intention-behavior gap highlights the substantial challenges involved in translating intentions into regular PA, which may be one of the key factors contributing to the global pandemic of physical inactivity. Why, then, do so many individuals become unsuccessful intenders? One theoretical framework that may help explain this phenomenon is the Theory of Effort Minimization in Physical Activity (TEMPA), proposed by Cheval and Boisgontier [ 4 ]. According to TEMPA, humans possess a fundamental tendency to minimize physical effort, rooted in evolutionary and neurophysiological constraints. This tendency is thought to operate largely automatically, with brain systems prioritizing energy-efficient actions by default. Such processes can undermine effortful behavior even in the presence of conscious motivation, making it difficult for individuals to consistently translate intentions into PA. From this perspective, while people may fully recognize the benefits of being active, they remain subject to an automatic bias favoring energy conservation. Consequently, becoming an ‘unsuccessful intender’ may simply reflect our inherent predisposition to avoid physical effort. In light of the findings from Feil et al.’s meta-analysis [ 3 ], which demonstrated that approximately half of intenders fail to translate their intentions into PA, this raises an important counterquestion: why, then, are the other half able to overcome this tendency to avoid physical effort and become successful intenders? Indeed, TEMPA highlights substantial interindividual variability: some people are less drawn to effort-free options and more capable of engaging in effortful behaviors [ 5 ]. Consistent with this view, previous studies have also reported considerable differences in how strongly people are inclined to avoid physical effort [ 6 , 7 ]. Such individual differences may help explain why some people succeed in translating their intentions into regular PA while others do not. To capture these differences more precisely, Cheval et al. [ 8 ] developed the Physical Effort Scale (PES), a novel instrument designed to assess people's general tendencies to either approach or avoid physical effort. The PES is an eight-item self-report questionnaire, comprising four items that measure approach tendencies and four items that capture avoidance tendencies toward physical effort. The scale has demonstrated good internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and construct validity, and serves as a promising tool for examining how approach and avoidance tendencies toward physical effort may influence engagement in PA behavior. Notably, the PES has shown concurrent validity through its associations with self-reported PA levels assessed by the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) [ 9 ], demonstrating that individuals with higher approach and lower avoidance tendencies tend to engage in more moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA). Importantly, the PES has also demonstrated strong psychometric validity in both English [ 8 ] and French [ 10 ] versions, underscoring its cross-linguistic applicability. As physical inactivity remains a global public health issue, it is crucial to support individuals in translating their intentions to engage in PA into actual behavior, thereby increasing the number of so-called "successful intenders" worldwide. Achieving this goal requires a better understanding of how people from different cultural backgrounds perceive and evaluate physical effort, and how such perceptions influence PA behavior. The development of culturally adapted measurement tools is vital, not only to advance cross-national comparative research, but also to guide the development of practical strategies for promoting PA globally. To address this need, the present study aimed to develop and validate a Japanese version of the PES (PES-JP), thereby enabling cross-cultural investigations into how tendencies toward physical effort influence PA behavior. Methods Scale translation The translation process followed the guidelines of Wild et al. [ 11 ]. The procedural flow of the scale translation is illustrated in Fig. 1 . Two Japanese authors (KS and KK), with expertise in sport/exercise psychology, independently translated the English version of the PES into Japanese. Subsequently, these two authors, along with another Japanese author (HS), who has expertise in the assessment of PA, discussed the cultural context and appropriateness of the forward-translated version, and then collaborated to create a consensus Japanese version. Next, a professional bilingual translator from an English editing company specializing in academic manuscripts, who was kept unaware of the underlying concepts of the PES, back-translated the Japanese consensus version into English. The three authors who created the Japanese consensus version reviewed the back-translated items and found no issues. The developer of the original version (BC) reviewed the back-translated items and confirmed their conceptual equivalence with the original version. Based on this confirmation, the Japanese consensus version was adopted as the pre-final version. Subsequently, cognitive briefing was conducted with eight Japanese undergraduate and graduate students (mean age = 23.9 years, 4 females) to assess the comprehensibility and cognitive equivalence of the pre-final Japanese version of the PES. Based on the feedback obtained, the Japanese authors discussed the findings and made minor revisions to enhance clarity and consistency. In particular, Item 5 (exerting physical effort does not appeal to me) was revised in response to feedback noting that, due to its negative phrasing, it required reverse interpretation of the 5-point Likert scale, which could cause confusion regarding the scale direction. Such negatively worded items are particularly prone to misunderstanding in Japanese due to linguistic differences between English and Japanese. To address this issue, we created two versions of the item: one with brief explanatory labels added to each scale point (e.g., “strongly appealing” to “not appealing at all”), and one without such labels. A preliminary validation study involving 200 participants was conducted to examine which version demonstrated better construct validity. The results indicated that the version with explanatory labels demonstrated stronger concurrent, convergent, and discriminant validity than the version without them (Supplemental results). Therefore, we designated the version including the explanatory labels as the final PES-JP. The final version is available in Appendix 1. Procedure This study was approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee of Chukyo University (2024-016) and the Ethics Committee of the Graduate School of Medicine, Tohoku University (2025-1-190). The main survey was conducted online. The entire web-based survey process, including participant recruitment and data collection, was conducted by Cross Marketing Inc., a leading survey company in Japan with a panel of over 10 million registered monitors [ 12 ]. Cross Marketing Inc. was selected based on their proven track record in academic research, including contributions to numerous peer-reviewed publications in health and behavioral sciences (e.g., [ 13 ]), and their capability to execute stratified sampling procedures required for this study. Data collection was conducted in April and May 2025. A total of 400 participants were recruited for this study to ensure sufficient representation across different age groups and sexes. This sample size was determined based on commonly accepted recommendations for validation studies, which suggest recruiting at least 10 participants per item when evaluating the structure and reliability of a scale [ 14 ]. Additionally, while the original validation study of the PES by Cheval et al. [ 8 ] (study 3) included 297 undergraduate students, we selected a larger and more diverse sample spanning ages 20–59 years to enhance the generalizability of the findings. Prior to accessing the questionnaires, all participants were given a detailed explanation of the study and provided their informed consent electronically. To be eligible for the study, participants had to meet the following criteria: 1) be native Japanese speakers; 2) be able to engage in PA without any medical contraindications; and 3) be aged between 20 and 59 years. In the preliminary validation study described above, we observed a relatively high proportion of participants reporting that they did not engage in any PA (Supplemental results). Although the exact reason for this finding remains unclear, it may be partly attributable to the nature of online surveys. For instance, individuals with more sedentary lifestyles may be more likely to register as monitors for web-based research panels. To address this issue, we consulted data from a nationally representative survey conducted in Japan [ 15 ], which reported that 26% of adults aged 20–59 did not engage in any PA. Accordingly, participant recruitment was stratified to reflect this distribution. Specifically, within each sex-by-age group stratum (i.e., 20s, 30s, 40s, and 50s; 50 participants per stratum), 13 individuals (26%) were purposively sampled to represent inactive individuals. Measures PES-JP Participants were instructed to complete the PES-JP by responding to eight statements using a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (“I completely disagree”) to 5 (“I completely agree”). Four items assessed the tendency to approach physical effort, and four items assessed the tendency to avoid it. Consistent with the initial validation study [ 8 ], a global score was calculated to reflect the tendency to approach (rather than avoid) physical effort. The global score was computed by subtracting the mean avoidance tendency score from the mean approach tendency score (Global score = Approach − Avoidance). This score theoretically ranges from − 4 to 4, with higher scores indicating a stronger tendency to approach physical effort and lower scores indicating a greater tendency to avoid it. Concurrent validity measurements Based on the original study [ 8 ] and French versions of the PES [ 10 ], PA levels were assessed to examine the concurrent validity using a Japanese version of the IPAQ-short form [ 16 ]. The IPAQ-short form enables the measurement of overall PA in a typical week, accounting for various intensities and types of PA. Participants were instructed to report both the number of days per week and the total duration per day (in hours and minutes) for vigorous-intensity PA, moderate-intensity PA, and walking performed in bouts of at least 10 consecutive minutes, as well as the time spent in sedentary behaviors, including sitting and reclining, in a typical week. PA levels were calculated as MET-minutes per week, according to the standard IPAQ scoring protocol [ 17 ]. MVPA was determined as the sum of MET-minutes per week from the vigorous-intensity, moderate-intensity, and walking categories. Measures of convergent and discriminant validity Following the same sources [ 8 , 10 ], autonomous motivation for PA [ 18 , 19 ], automaticity toward PA [ 20 ], affective attitudes toward PA [ 21 ], and intention to be physically active [ 22 ] were measured to examine the convergent validity of the PES-JP. Controlled motivation [ 18 , 19 ] and instrumental attitudes [ 21 ] were also included to assess discriminant validity. Test-retest reliability To assess the test-retest reliability of the PES-JP, a subsample of participants who completed the initial online questionnaire were asked to complete the PES-JP again after a seven-day interval. The procedure for the second administration of the PES-JP was identical to that of the first, ensuring consistency in data collection methods. Statistical analysis All statistical analyses were performed using R software (version 4.4.1). The structural validity of the PES-JP was examined using a series of analytical approaches. First, principal component analysis was employed to determine the potential number of underlying components. Subsequently, exploratory factor analysis with promax rotation was conducted to identify the latent variables associated with each item in the PES-JP. Finally, confirmatory factor analysis was performed to verify the proposed two-factor structure of the scale. The goodness of fit of the hypothesized two-dimensional model was evaluated using multiple indices: the Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI), Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), and Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR). The following criteria were used to indicate acceptable model fit: CFI and TLI values greater than .95, RMSEA less than .06, and SRMR less than .08 [ 24 , 25 ]. Following the methodology of the original study [ 8 ], the concurrent validity was evaluated by examining the association between PES-JP scores and self-reported measures of habitual PA, including moderate-intensity PA, vigorous-intensity PA, and MVPA, as well as time spent walking and sitting. To further assess the explanatory utility of the scale, hierarchical regression analyses were conducted. These analyses aimed to determine whether physical effort approach and avoidance tendencies, and the global score, as measured by the PES-JP, explained additional variance in MVPA levels, after adjusting for demographic factors (age and sex). In subsequent models, each of the following PES-JP scores was added separately to the initial model: a) Physical effort approach tendencies, b) Physical effort avoidance tendencies, and c) Global score. This hierarchical approach allowed us to examine the unique contribution of each PES-JP dimension in explaining variance in the dependent variable, independent of the effects of demographic factors. The convergent and discriminant validity of the PES-JP were examined using regression model analyses. Convergent validity was assessed by associations between PES-JP scale scores and measures of autonomous motivation, affective attitudes, intention, automaticity. To evaluate discriminant validity, we examined the associations between the PES-JP scale scores and measures of controlled motivation and instrumental attitudes. Finally, the temporal stability of the PES-JP was re-examined in a subsample of participants, with approximately half of the initial respondents completing the PES a second time. This analysis employed two complementary methods to comprehensively assess test-retest reliability: weighted Kappa coefficients were calculated to assess the stability of individual items at the ordinal level, accounting for the ordered nature of the 5-point Likert scale responses, while intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) were used to evaluate the absolute agreement and consistency of continuous total scores across the two time points. Test-retest reliability was evaluated based on contemporary criteria. Weighted Kappa coefficients were interpreted according to McHugh [ 26 ], with values ≥ .40 indicate weak to strong agreement. ICC values were interpreted using the guidelines by Koo and Li [ 27 ], where values ≥ .50 indicate moderate to excellent reliability. Results Participants A total of 400 Japanese participants were included in the main analyses, with 50% identifying as female. The mean age of participants was 40.2 years (SD = 11.1, range = 20 − 59 years). Participants reported 1696.3 MET-minutes per week of MVPA (SD = 4783.3). The mean PES-JP approach score was 2.7 (SD = 1.0), and the mean avoidance score was 3.1 (SD = 1.0) on the 5-point Likert scale. For the temporal stability analysis, 209 participants from the initial sample completed the PES-JP twice with a seven-day interval. The mean age was 39.9 years (SD = 11.2), with 46.4% identifying as female. Structural Validity Principal component analysis of the 8-item PES-JP suggested a two-component solution, with the first two components explaining 77.2% of the variance. Exploratory factor analysis with promax rotation confirmed the expected two-factor structure (χ² = 39.84, df = 13, p < .001). All approach items loaded on Factor 1 with loadings ranging from .81 to .91, while all avoidance items loaded on Factor 2 with loadings ranging from .60 to .93. The confirmatory factor analysis supported the hypothesized two-factor structure of the PES-JP. The model demonstrated acceptable fit to the data: χ²(19) = 133.27, p < .001, CFI = .947, TLI = .921, RMSEA = .123 (90% CI = .103 − .143), SRMR = .067 (Fig. 2 ). Factor loadings for the approach dimension ranged from .82 to .90 (standardized loadings), while loadings for the avoidance dimension ranged from .75 to .82. The correlation between the approach and avoidance factors was r = − .50, p < .001. Both subscales demonstrated high internal consistency. Cronbach's alpha was .92 for the approach dimension and .87 for the avoidance dimension, indicating excellent reliability for both subscales. Concurrent Validity Concurrent validity was assessed by examining the associations between the approach dimension, avoidance dimension, and global score of the PES-JP and PA levels as measured by the IPAQ, with each score tested in a separate model (Table 1 ). The approach dimension of the PES-JP was associated with MVPA, moderate PA, and vigorous PA and sitting time. The avoidance dimension of the PES-JP was not associated with PA levels but was associated with sitting time. The global score was associated with MVPA, vigorous PA, and sitting time, but not with moderate PA. These results were further supported by hierarchical regression analyses that examined the associations between PES-JP scores and both MVPA and sitting time, controlling for age and sex (Tables 2 and 3 ). Specifically, for MVPA, the approach dimension (β = .18, p < .001) and the global score (β = .12, p = .014) showed significant positive associations, while the avoidance dimension was not significant (β = − .03, p = .516). For sitting time, all PES-JP scores were significantly associated: the approach dimension (β = − .19, p < .001) and global score (β = − .23, p < .001) were negatively associated, whereas the avoidance dimension showed a positive association (β = .20, p < .001). Age did not significantly influence the observed associations between PES-JP dimensions and PA behaviors. Table 1 Concurrent, convergent, and discriminant validity of the PES-JP approach, avoidance, and global scores. Approach of physical effort Avoidance of physical effort Global of physical effort N β p N β p N β p Concurrent validity 400 400 400 Usual level of PA 400 400 400 MVPA 400 0.18 < 0.001 400 -0.03 0.505 400 0.12 0.013 Moderate PA 400 0.18 < 0.001 400 0.03 0.608 400 0.09 0.073 Vigorous PA 400 0.16 0.002 400 -0.03 0.521 400 0.11 0.027 Walking 400 0.07 0.150 400 -0.07 0.165 400 0.08 0.101 Sitting 400 -0.18 < 0.001 400 0.20 < 0.001 400 -0.22 < 0.001 Convergent validity Autonomous motivation 400 0.76 < 0.001 400 -0.48 < 0.001 400 0.72 < 0.001 Affective attitudes 400 0.47 < 0.001 400 -0.44 < 0.001 400 0.52 < 0.001 Intentions 400 0.60 < 0.001 400 -0.33 < 0.001 400 0.54 < 0.001 Automaticity 400 0.59 < 0.001 400 -0.39 < 0.001 400 0.57 < 0.001 Discriminant validity Controlled motivation 400 0.37 < 0.001 400 -0.11 0.028 400 0.28 < 0.001 Instrumental attitudes 400 0.25 < 0.001 400 -0.21 < 0.001 400 0.27 < 0.001 Notes. Usual level of PA = Physical activity as assessed by the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ; Craig et al., 2003); MVPA = usual level of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity. Univariate linear regressions were used to assess the associations. All the variables were scaled to obtain standardized coefficients. Table 2 Results of the hierarchical regression analyses for explaining the usual level of MVPA. Baseline Approach Avoidance Global β p β p β p β p Dependent variable: MVPA Step 1 Age -0.08 0.109 -0.07 0.165 -0.08 0.112 -0.07 0.136 Sex (ref. women) Men -0.01 0.900 -0.07 0.500 -0.21 0.874 -0.04 0.676 Step 2 Approach 0.18 < 0.001 Avoidance -0.03 0.516 Global 0.12 0.014 R 2 Adjusted R 2 0.002 0.031 0.000 0.014 Notes. MVPA = usual level of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity. Multiple linear regressions were used to assess the associations. All the variables were scaled to obtain standardized coefficients. Table 3 Results of the hierarchical regression analyses for explaining usual level of time spent sitting. Baseline Approach Avoidance Global β p β p β p β p Dependent variable: Usual sitting time Step 1 Age 0.06 0.203 0.05 0.297 0.06 0.220 0.05 0.280 Sex (ref. women) Men 0.08 0.397 0.14 0.155 0.11 0.282 0.14 0.160 Step 2 Approach -0.19 < 0.001 Avoidance 0.20 < 0.001 Global -0.23 < 0.001 R 2 Adjusted R 2 0.001 0.033 0.039 0.049 Notes . Multiple linear regressions were used to assess the associations. All the variables were scaled to obtain standardized coefficients. Convergent and discriminant validity Figure 3 illustrates the correlations between PES-JP scores (approach, avoidance, and global) and the variables used to assess convergent and discriminant validity. To assess convergent and discriminant validity, the PES-JP scores were examined in relation to theoretically relevant constructs: autonomous motivation, affective attitudes, and intentions (convergent validity), and controlled motivation and instrumental attitudes (discriminant validity, Table 1 ). Convergent validity was supported by moderate-to-strong associations in the expected directions. The approach score (β = .47 − .76, ps < .001) and the global score (β = .52 − .72, ps < .001) were positively associated with autonomous motivation, affective attitudes, intentions, and automaticity, whereas the avoidance score showed negative associations with these constructs (β = − .33 to − .48, ps < .001). For discriminant validity, all PES-JP scores showed statistically significant but weak associations with controlled motivation and instrumental attitudes. The approach dimension (β = .25 − .37, ps < .001) and the global score (β = .27 − .28, ps < .001) demonstrated weak positive associations, whereas the avoidance dimension showed weak negative associations (β = − .11 to − .21, ps ≤ .028), consistent with theoretical expectations. Test-retest reliability The test-retest reliability analysis demonstrated satisfactory stability for the PES-JP over a one-week period (n = 209). Weighted kappa coefficients for individual items ranged from .43 to .60, with all coefficients being statistically significant (p < .001). For the approach dimension items, kappa values ranged from .46 to .60, while for the avoidance dimension items, they ranged from .43 to .52. For the subscale scores, intraclass correlation coefficients were .74 (95% CI: .67 − .79) for the approach dimension, .64 (95% CI: .55 − .71) for the avoidance dimension, and .81 (95% CI: .75 − .85) for the global dimension. Discussion The aim of the present study was to develop and validate the PES-JP to assess individual tendencies toward physical effort in relation to PA behavior. The findings provide evidence that the PES-JP is a psychometrically robust instrument, demonstrating structural validity, internal consistency, construct validity (including concurrent, convergent, and discriminant validity), and test-retest reliability. Consistent with the original validation study [ 8 ], both exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses supported the two-factor structure of the PES-JP, reflecting approach and avoidance tendencies toward physical effort. Notably, the approach and avoidance subscales were moderately negatively correlated, which is a desirable pattern as it indicates that the two dimensions capture distinct yet related constructs and supports the relevance of considering a two-factor solution, thereby strengthening the validity of the PES-JP. Interestingly, however, the magnitude of the negative association between the approach and avoidance subscales was somewhat lower than that reported in the original study, which may reflect cultural or linguistic differences in how individuals conceptualize and respond to approach versus avoidance of physical effort. Nevertheless, the overall factor structure and internal consistency remained robust and consistent with the original scale. In terms of concurrent validity, the approach dimension and global score were positively associated with MVPA and negatively associated with sitting time. Conversely, the avoidance dimension, while not associated with MVPA, showed a significant positive association with sitting time. These results mirror the original findings [ 8 ], suggesting that individuals with a stronger tendency to approach physical effort are more likely to engage in PA, whereas those with a stronger tendency to avoid effort may be more inclined to engage in sedentary behavior. The global score also captured these patterns, being associated with both higher MVPA and lower sitting time. This pattern remained robust in hierarchical regression analyses controlling for age and sex, underscoring the value of assessing effort-related tendencies in understanding PA behavior. Notably, the avoidance dimension did not significantly predict MVPA in the full model, but it was associated with sedentary behavior, suggesting a possible link between avoidance tendencies and inactivity rather than activity per se. This pattern diverges from the original findings [ 8 ], where avoidance tendencies were found to negatively predict MVPA. Although the age distribution in our sample differed from that of the original study, as shown above, age did not significantly moderate the associations between PES-JP scores and PA behaviors. This suggests that the discrepancy in findings is unlikely to be explained by age differences alone. Instead, differences in social, environmental, or cultural contexts may influence how individuals act on their effort-related tendencies. Beyond these contextual considerations, psychological interpretations may also help explain the observed patterns. One speculative interpretation is that PA may be perceived as a protective behavior to be adopted rather than avoided, thereby aligning more strongly with approach tendencies. Conversely, sedentary behavior may be perceived as a tempting behavior that individuals feel compelled to resist, thus linking it more closely to avoidance processes. Taken together, these findings suggest that all three PES-JP scores (approach, avoidance, and global) are relevant for understanding sedentary behavior, whereas the approach and global scores may be particularly informative for explaining engagement in PA. Complementing these behavioral associations, convergent validity of the PES-JP was supported by significant correlations with theoretically related constructs. The approach dimension was positively associated with autonomous motivation, affective attitudes, intentions, and automaticity toward PA, whereas the avoidance dimension showed negative associations with these variables. This pattern aligns with the predictions of the TEMPA [ 4 ], which posits that automatic tendencies to avoid effort may hinder the translation of intentions into action. The PES-JP also showed weak correlations with controlled motivation and instrumental attitudes. Importantly, consistent with the original validation study [ 8 ], these constructs were selected because they represent externally regulated forms of motivation or utility-based evaluations of PA, which are theoretically distinct from effort valuation. These weak associations therefore reinforce the discriminant validity of the PES-JP. Regarding reliability, the PES-JP showed adequate temporal stability, with both item-level agreement and subscale-level consistency falling within acceptable ranges. These findings suggest that individual tendencies toward physical effort, as assessed by the PES-JP, are relatively stable over short periods of time. This supports the scale’s utility in longitudinal or repeated-measures research designs where consistency over time is essential. Several strengths of this study should be noted. First, it included a relatively large sample size covering a wide age range of Japanese adults. Second, the PES was translated following rigorous cross-cultural adaptation guidelines, including back-translation and cognitive debriefing procedures. Third, the study benefited from the involvement of one of the original developers of the PES as a co-author (BC), which ensured conceptual fidelity and strengthened the cross-cultural adaptation process. These methodological strengths provide confidence in the robustness of the findings. Nevertheless, several limitations should also be acknowledged. First, the reliance on self-reported PA measures may introduce recall bias. Self-reports tend to overestimate PA levels and underestimate sitting time when compared to objective measures such as accelerometry [ 28 , 29 ], potentially leading to inflated associations or misclassification of activity patterns. Future studies could incorporate device-based PA measures to validate and extend the present findings. Second, although our sample included participants across a wide age range and both sexes, it may not fully represent other population segments such as older adults or clinical populations. Additional studies are needed to confirm the generalizability of the PES-JP in diverse groups. Finally, while the cross-sectional design enabled a robust psychometric validation, longitudinal or intervention studies are warranted to investigate the causal relationships between effort tendencies and PA behavior. In summary, the PES-JP is a validated and culturally appropriate tool for assessing tendencies to approach or avoid physical effort, with promising applications in both research and practice. Using this scale can enhance our understanding of how individual tendencies toward physical effort relate to PA behavior, and may support the development of tailored behavior change interventions. In addition, the PES-JP can contribute to cross-cultural research by capturing individual differences in dispositions toward physical effort. Future studies should further explore these associations using device-based PA indicators and research designs that can clarify causal relationships. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate This study was approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee of Chukyo University (2024-016) and the Ethics Committee of the Graduate School of Medicine, Tohoku University (2025-1-190). All participants were given a detailed explanation of the study and provided their informed consent electronically. Consent for publication Not applicable Availability of data and materials The analysis scripts and datasets have been made publicly available and can be accessed at the following link: https://github.com/KeishiSoga/PES_JP . Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Funding This research received no specific grant funding. Authors' contributions Concept and oversight: KS, HS, KK Data collection: KK Data analysis & Visualization: KS Writing—original draft: KS, KK; Writing—review & editing: HS, YT, BC All authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript. Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge Drs. Silvio Maltagliati, Samuele Maria Marcora, and Delphine Courvoisier for their valuable advice and guidance throughout the conduct of this research. References Kohl HW 3rd, Craig CL, Lambert EV, et al. The pandemic of physical inactivity: global action for public health. Lancet. 2012;380:294–305. 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60898-8 . Lee I-M, Shiroma EJ, Lobelo F, et al. Effect of physical inactivity on major non-communicable diseases worldwide: an analysis of burden of disease and life expectancy. Lancet. 2012;380:219–29. 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61031-9 . Feil K, Fritsch J, Rhodes RE. 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Cheval B, Maltagliati S, Courvoisier DS, et al. Development and validation of the physical effort scale (PES). Psychol Sport Exerc. 2024;72:102607. 10.1016/j.psychsport.2024.102607 . Craig CL, Marshall AL, Sjöström M, et al. International physical activity questionnaire: 12-country reliability and validity. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2003;35:1381–95. St-Denis B, Beaudry S, Boisgontier MP, et al. Validation de la version francophone de l’Échelle d’Effort Physique. Mov Sport Sci. 2024;33–45. 10.1051/sm/2024019 . Wild D, Grove A, Martin M, et al. Principles of Good Practice for the translation and Cultural Adaptation process for patient-reported outcomes (PRO) measures: Report of the ISPOR task force for translation and Cultural Adaptation. Value Health. 2005;8:94–104. 10.1111/j.1524-4733.2005.04054.x . Cross Marketing Inc. https://www.cross-m.co.jp/en/ Yamada Y, Namba H, Date H, et al. Regional difference in the impact of COVID-19 pandemic on domain-specific physical activity, sedentary behavior, sleeping time, and step count: Web-based cross-sectional nationwide survey and accelerometer-based observational study. JMIR Public Health Surveill. 2023;9:e39992. 10.2196/39992 . Terwee CB, Bot SDM, de Boer MR, et al. Quality criteria were proposed for measurement properties of health status questionnaires. J Clin Epidemiol. 2007;60:34–42. 10.1016/j.jclinepi.2006.03.012 . Sasakawa Sports Foundation. https://www.ssf.or.jp/thinktank/sports_life/datalist/2022/index.html Murase N, Katsumura T, Ueda C, Inoue S, Shimomitsu T. Validity and reliability of Japanese version of International Physical Activity Questionnaire. J Health Welf Stat. 2002;49:1–9. Scoring protocol for the International Physical. Activity Questionnaire. https://sites.google.com/view/ipaq/score Brunet J, Gunnell KE, Gaudreau P, et al. An integrative analytical framework for understanding the effects of autonomous and controlled motivation. Pers Individ Dif. 2015;84:2–15. 10.1016/j.paid.2015.02.034 . Maltagliati S, Rebar A, Fessler L, et al. Evolution of physical activity habits after a context change: The case of COVID-19 lockdown. Br J Health Psychol. 2021;26:1135–54. 10.1111/bjhp.12524 . Gardner B, Abraham C, Lally P, et al. Towards parsimony in habit measurement: testing the convergent and predictive validity of an automaticity subscale of the Self-Report Habit Index. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2012;9:102. 10.1186/1479-5868-9-102 . Ajzen I. Constructing a TPB questionnaire: Conceptual and methodological considerations. Published Online First: 2002. Rhodes RE, Rebar AL. Conceptualizing and defining the intention construct for future physical activity research. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 2017;45:209–16. 10.1249/JES.0000000000000127 . Boisgontier M. Research integrity requires to be aware of good and questionable research practices. Eur Rehabilitation J. 2022;2:1–3. Hu L-T, Bentler PM. Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Struct Equ Model. 1999;6:1–55. 10.1080/10705519909540118 . Shi D, Maydeu-Olivares A, Rosseel Y. Assessing fit in ordinal factor analysis models: SRMR vs. RMSEA. Struct Equ Model. 2020;27:1–15. 10.1080/10705511.2019.1611434 . McHugh ML. Interrater reliability: the kappa statistic. Biochemia Med. 2012;22:276–82. Koo TK, Li MY. A guideline of selecting and reporting intraclass correlation coefficients for reliability research. J Chiropr Med. 2016;15:155–63. 10.1016/j.jcm.2016.02.012 . Dyrstad SM, Hansen BH, Holme IM, et al. Comparison of self-reported versus accelerometer-measured physical activity. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2014;46:99–106. Gardner B, Flint S, Rebar AL, et al. Is sitting invisible? Exploring how people mentally represent sitting. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2019;16:85. 10.1186/s12966-019-0851-0 . Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files PESJPSupplementalResultsfinal.docx Appendix1final.pdf Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7515948","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":509407399,"identity":"1eafc005-a433-4f3f-9020-62a67317ed12","order_by":0,"name":"Keishi Soga","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"","institution":"Tohoku University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Keishi","middleName":"","lastName":"Soga","suffix":""},{"id":509407403,"identity":"446ad896-b318-431e-9582-6826e5b8f1d1","order_by":1,"name":"Hiroyuki Sasai","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Tokyo Metropolitan Institute for Geriatrics and Gerontology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Hiroyuki","middleName":"","lastName":"Sasai","suffix":""},{"id":509407404,"identity":"85ec31e4-76e9-4fb4-8a9d-c4751ffadc4b","order_by":2,"name":"Yasuyuki Taki","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Tohoku University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yasuyuki","middleName":"","lastName":"Taki","suffix":""},{"id":509407406,"identity":"f80025d0-d96e-4206-860b-23f5809360d9","order_by":3,"name":"Boris Cheval","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Univ Rennes, École normale supérieure de Rennes","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Boris","middleName":"","lastName":"Cheval","suffix":""},{"id":509407408,"identity":"2d8457b7-63b0-4020-92f5-4100e5118f6a","order_by":4,"name":"Keita Kamijo","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Chukyo University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Keita","middleName":"","lastName":"Kamijo","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-09-02 09:23:44","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":false,"vertebrateSubjects":false,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false,"humanSubjectConsent":false,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7515948/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7515948/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":90554202,"identity":"5bdc6da2-fc71-47ad-a9b4-18e9b391d8d9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-04 04:01:29","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":335269,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTranslation and Validation Process of the PES-JP. \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003eNotes\u003c/em\u003e. PES = Physical Effort Scale; PES-JP = Japanese version of the PES; PCA = Principal component analysis; EFA = Exploratory Factor Analysis; CFA = Confirmatory factor analysis using lavaan package; PA = Physical activity.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7515948/v1/2252f88f603efbca06cde6b4.jpeg"},{"id":90554218,"identity":"491d288d-776d-4618-b6d6-14d4d64c1f8c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-04 04:01:30","extension":"jpeg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":183187,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults of the confirmatory factor analysis of the 8-item PES-JP\u003c/strong\u003e. \u003cem\u003eNotes\u003c/em\u003e. R2 = percentage of variance explained; e =error variances.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image2.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7515948/v1/d509f3bcfb324beaf9ca83c4.jpeg"},{"id":90554819,"identity":"1f6d02fb-783f-4567-b2f3-414c2e8ff58e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-04 04:17:30","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":129230,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCorrelations of the approach, avoidance, and global scores of the PES-JP with other assessed variables\u003c/strong\u003e. \u003cem\u003eNotes\u003c/em\u003e. Correlation coefficients are represented as colored circles, with the bluer and larger circles indicating the coefficients were closer to +1, the redder and larger circles indicating the coefficients were closer to − 1, and the whiter and smaller circles indicating a coefficient closer to 0.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7515948/v1/7c5eb3d226be9c6743d2e8d1.jpg"},{"id":90733076,"identity":"93ab1dcf-9b2f-4365-a7e9-288387768c13","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-06 18:16:23","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1750047,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7515948/v1/c2e806ef-13ad-43ee-90ff-661f6e9252ab.pdf"},{"id":90554205,"identity":"83ff9560-0b21-4e58-bc34-9a8afdf78ddb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-04 04:01:29","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":321263,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"PESJPSupplementalResultsfinal.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7515948/v1/c9946647b2088e9abbad6520.docx"},{"id":90554206,"identity":"74e67352-56cb-4d36-9c09-339dc27971d3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-04 04:01:29","extension":"pdf","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":77965,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Appendix1final.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7515948/v1/a1527ce3a7a59d75629476ad.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Development and psychometric evaluation of the Japanese version of the Physical Effort Scale","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003ePhysical inactivity has long been recognized as a global pandemic [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. It is responsible for approximately 6 to 10 percent of major non-communicable diseases such as coronary heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and breast and colon cancer, and accounts for about 9 percent of all deaths worldwide [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. Even without knowing such specific figures, the idea that physical activity (PA) is beneficial for health is now widely accepted as common knowledge. However, even when individuals intend to be physically active, many fail to put this intention into practice. In fact, a meta-analysis of 22 studies with a total of 29,600 participants found that approximately 70 percent of individuals indicate having the intention to engage in PA [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e], yet nearly half of these individuals, referred to as \"unsuccessful intenders\", fail to translate their intentions into actual behavior. This intention-behavior gap highlights the substantial challenges involved in translating intentions into regular PA, which may be one of the key factors contributing to the global pandemic of physical inactivity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhy, then, do so many individuals become unsuccessful intenders? One theoretical framework that may help explain this phenomenon is the Theory of Effort Minimization in Physical Activity (TEMPA), proposed by Cheval and Boisgontier [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. According to TEMPA, humans possess a fundamental tendency to minimize physical effort, rooted in evolutionary and neurophysiological constraints. This tendency is thought to operate largely automatically, with brain systems prioritizing energy-efficient actions by default. Such processes can undermine effortful behavior even in the presence of conscious motivation, making it difficult for individuals to consistently translate intentions into PA. From this perspective, while people may fully recognize the benefits of being active, they remain subject to an automatic bias favoring energy conservation. Consequently, becoming an \u0026lsquo;unsuccessful intender\u0026rsquo; may simply reflect our inherent predisposition to avoid physical effort.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn light of the findings from Feil et al.\u0026rsquo;s meta-analysis [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e], which demonstrated that approximately half of intenders fail to translate their intentions into PA, this raises an important counterquestion: why, then, are the other half able to overcome this tendency to avoid physical effort and become successful intenders? Indeed, TEMPA highlights substantial interindividual variability: some people are less drawn to effort-free options and more capable of engaging in effortful behaviors [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. Consistent with this view, previous studies have also reported considerable differences in how strongly people are inclined to avoid physical effort [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. Such individual differences may help explain why some people succeed in translating their intentions into regular PA while others do not. To capture these differences more precisely, Cheval et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e] developed the Physical Effort Scale (PES), a novel instrument designed to assess people's general tendencies to either approach or avoid physical effort. The PES is an eight-item self-report questionnaire, comprising four items that measure approach tendencies and four items that capture avoidance tendencies toward physical effort. The scale has demonstrated good internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and construct validity, and serves as a promising tool for examining how approach and avoidance tendencies toward physical effort may influence engagement in PA behavior. Notably, the PES has shown concurrent validity through its associations with self-reported PA levels assessed by the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e], demonstrating that individuals with higher approach and lower avoidance tendencies tend to engage in more moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA). Importantly, the PES has also demonstrated strong psychometric validity in both English [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e] and French [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e] versions, underscoring its cross-linguistic applicability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs physical inactivity remains a global public health issue, it is crucial to support individuals in translating their intentions to engage in PA into actual behavior, thereby increasing the number of so-called \"successful intenders\" worldwide. Achieving this goal requires a better understanding of how people from different cultural backgrounds perceive and evaluate physical effort, and how such perceptions influence PA behavior. The development of culturally adapted measurement tools is vital, not only to advance cross-national comparative research, but also to guide the development of practical strategies for promoting PA globally. To address this need, the present study aimed to develop and validate a Japanese version of the PES (PES-JP), thereby enabling cross-cultural investigations into how tendencies toward physical effort influence PA behavior.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eScale translation\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e The translation process followed the guidelines of Wild et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. The procedural flow of the scale translation is illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. Two Japanese authors (KS and KK), with expertise in sport/exercise psychology, independently translated the English version of the PES into Japanese. Subsequently, these two authors, along with another Japanese author (HS), who has expertise in the assessment of PA, discussed the cultural context and appropriateness of the forward-translated version, and then collaborated to create a consensus Japanese version. Next, a professional bilingual translator from an English editing company specializing in academic manuscripts, who was kept unaware of the underlying concepts of the PES, back-translated the Japanese consensus version into English. The three authors who created the Japanese consensus version reviewed the back-translated items and found no issues. The developer of the original version (BC) reviewed the back-translated items and confirmed their conceptual equivalence with the original version. Based on this confirmation, the Japanese consensus version was adopted as the pre-final version. Subsequently, cognitive briefing was conducted with eight Japanese undergraduate and graduate students (mean age\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;23.9 years, 4 females) to assess the comprehensibility and cognitive equivalence of the pre-final Japanese version of the PES. Based on the feedback obtained, the Japanese authors discussed the findings and made minor revisions to enhance clarity and consistency. In particular, Item 5 (exerting physical effort does not appeal to me) was revised in response to feedback noting that, due to its negative phrasing, it required reverse interpretation of the 5-point Likert scale, which could cause confusion regarding the scale direction. Such negatively worded items are particularly prone to misunderstanding in Japanese due to linguistic differences between English and Japanese. To address this issue, we created two versions of the item: one with brief explanatory labels added to each scale point (e.g., \u0026ldquo;strongly appealing\u0026rdquo; to \u0026ldquo;not appealing at all\u0026rdquo;), and one without such labels. A preliminary validation study involving 200 participants was conducted to examine which version demonstrated better construct validity. The results indicated that the version with explanatory labels demonstrated stronger concurrent, convergent, and discriminant validity than the version without them (Supplemental results). Therefore, we designated the version including the explanatory labels as the final PES-JP. The final version is available in Appendix 1.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eProcedure\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e This study was approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee of Chukyo University (2024-016) and the Ethics Committee of the Graduate School of Medicine, Tohoku University (2025-1-190). The main survey was conducted online. The entire web-based survey process, including participant recruitment and data collection, was conducted by Cross Marketing Inc., a leading survey company in Japan with a panel of over 10\u0026nbsp;million registered monitors [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. Cross Marketing Inc. was selected based on their proven track record in academic research, including contributions to numerous peer-reviewed publications in health and behavioral sciences (e.g., [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]), and their capability to execute stratified sampling procedures required for this study. Data collection was conducted in April and May 2025. A total of 400 participants were recruited for this study to ensure sufficient representation across different age groups and sexes. This sample size was determined based on commonly accepted recommendations for validation studies, which suggest recruiting at least 10 participants per item when evaluating the structure and reliability of a scale [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. Additionally, while the original validation study of the PES by Cheval et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e] (study 3) included 297 undergraduate students, we selected a larger and more diverse sample spanning ages 20\u0026ndash;59 years to enhance the generalizability of the findings. Prior to accessing the questionnaires, all participants were given a detailed explanation of the study and provided their informed consent electronically. To be eligible for the study, participants had to meet the following criteria: 1) be native Japanese speakers; 2) be able to engage in PA without any medical contraindications; and 3) be aged between 20 and 59 years. In the preliminary validation study described above, we observed a relatively high proportion of participants reporting that they did not engage in any PA (Supplemental results). Although the exact reason for this finding remains unclear, it may be partly attributable to the nature of online surveys. For instance, individuals with more sedentary lifestyles may be more likely to register as monitors for web-based research panels. To address this issue, we consulted data from a nationally representative survey conducted in Japan [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e], which reported that 26% of adults aged 20\u0026ndash;59 did not engage in any PA. Accordingly, participant recruitment was stratified to reflect this distribution. Specifically, within each sex-by-age group stratum (i.e., 20s, 30s, 40s, and 50s; 50 participants per stratum), 13 individuals (26%) were purposively sampled to represent inactive individuals.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMeasures\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003ePES-JP\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e Participants were instructed to complete the PES-JP by responding to eight statements using a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (\u0026ldquo;I completely disagree\u0026rdquo;) to 5 (\u0026ldquo;I completely agree\u0026rdquo;). Four items assessed the tendency to approach physical effort, and four items assessed the tendency to avoid it. Consistent with the initial validation study [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e], a global score was calculated to reflect the tendency to approach (rather than avoid) physical effort. The global score was computed by subtracting the mean avoidance tendency score from the mean approach tendency score (Global score\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Approach\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;Avoidance). This score theoretically ranges from \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;4 to 4, with higher scores indicating a stronger tendency to approach physical effort and lower scores indicating a greater tendency to avoid it.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eConcurrent validity measurements\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBased on the original study [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e] and French versions of the PES [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e], PA levels were assessed to examine the concurrent validity using a Japanese version of the IPAQ-short form [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. The IPAQ-short form enables the measurement of overall PA in a typical week, accounting for various intensities and types of PA. Participants were instructed to report both the number of days per week and the total duration per day (in hours and minutes) for vigorous-intensity PA, moderate-intensity PA, and walking performed in bouts of at least 10 consecutive minutes, as well as the time spent in sedentary behaviors, including sitting and reclining, in a typical week. PA levels were calculated as MET-minutes per week, according to the standard IPAQ scoring protocol [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. MVPA was determined as the sum of MET-minutes per week from the vigorous-intensity, moderate-intensity, and walking categories.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMeasures of convergent and discriminant validity\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFollowing the same sources [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e], autonomous motivation for PA [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e], automaticity toward PA [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e], affective attitudes toward PA [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e], and intention to be physically active [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e] were measured to examine the convergent validity of the PES-JP. Controlled motivation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e] and instrumental attitudes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e] were also included to assess discriminant validity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eTest-retest reliability\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo assess the test-retest reliability of the PES-JP, a subsample of participants who completed the initial online questionnaire were asked to complete the PES-JP again after a seven-day interval. The procedure for the second administration of the PES-JP was identical to that of the first, ensuring consistency in data collection methods.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eStatistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll statistical analyses were performed using R software (version 4.4.1). The structural validity of the PES-JP was examined using a series of analytical approaches. First, principal component analysis was employed to determine the potential number of underlying components. Subsequently, exploratory factor analysis with promax rotation was conducted to identify the latent variables associated with each item in the PES-JP. Finally, confirmatory factor analysis was performed to verify the proposed two-factor structure of the scale. The goodness of fit of the hypothesized two-dimensional model was evaluated using multiple indices: the Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI), Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), and Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR). The following criteria were used to indicate acceptable model fit: CFI and TLI values greater than .95, RMSEA less than .06, and SRMR less than .08 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFollowing the methodology of the original study [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e], the concurrent validity was evaluated by examining the association between PES-JP scores and self-reported measures of habitual PA, including moderate-intensity PA, vigorous-intensity PA, and MVPA, as well as time spent walking and sitting. To further assess the explanatory utility of the scale, hierarchical regression analyses were conducted. These analyses aimed to determine whether physical effort approach and avoidance tendencies, and the global score, as measured by the PES-JP, explained additional variance in MVPA levels, after adjusting for demographic factors (age and sex). In subsequent models, each of the following PES-JP scores was added separately to the initial model: a) Physical effort approach tendencies, b) Physical effort avoidance tendencies, and c) Global score. This hierarchical approach allowed us to examine the unique contribution of each PES-JP dimension in explaining variance in the dependent variable, independent of the effects of demographic factors. The convergent and discriminant validity of the PES-JP were examined using regression model analyses. Convergent validity was assessed by associations between PES-JP scale scores and measures of autonomous motivation, affective attitudes, intention, automaticity. To evaluate discriminant validity, we examined the associations between the PES-JP scale scores and measures of controlled motivation and instrumental attitudes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFinally, the temporal stability of the PES-JP was re-examined in a subsample of participants, with approximately half of the initial respondents completing the PES a second time. This analysis employed two complementary methods to comprehensively assess test-retest reliability: weighted Kappa coefficients were calculated to assess the stability of individual items at the ordinal level, accounting for the ordered nature of the 5-point Likert scale responses, while intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) were used to evaluate the absolute agreement and consistency of continuous total scores across the two time points. Test-retest reliability was evaluated based on contemporary criteria. Weighted Kappa coefficients were interpreted according to McHugh [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e], with values\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;.40 indicate weak to strong agreement. ICC values were interpreted using the guidelines by Koo and Li [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e], where values\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;.50 indicate moderate to excellent reliability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eParticipants\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA total of 400 Japanese participants were included in the main analyses, with 50% identifying as female. The mean age of participants was 40.2 years (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;11.1, range\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;20\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;59 years). Participants reported 1696.3 MET-minutes per week of MVPA (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4783.3). The mean PES-JP approach score was 2.7 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.0), and the mean avoidance score was 3.1 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.0) on the 5-point Likert scale. For the temporal stability analysis, 209 participants from the initial sample completed the PES-JP twice with a seven-day interval. The mean age was 39.9 years (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;11.2), with 46.4% identifying as female.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eStructural Validity\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrincipal component analysis of the 8-item PES-JP suggested a two-component solution, with the first two components explaining 77.2% of the variance. Exploratory factor analysis with promax rotation confirmed the expected two-factor structure (χ\u0026sup2; = 39.84, df\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;13, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001). All approach items loaded on Factor 1 with loadings ranging from .81 to .91, while all avoidance items loaded on Factor 2 with loadings ranging from .60 to .93. The confirmatory factor analysis supported the hypothesized two-factor structure of the PES-JP. The model demonstrated acceptable fit to the data: χ\u0026sup2;(19)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;133.27, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001, CFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.947, TLI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.921, RMSEA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.123 (90% CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.103\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.143), SRMR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.067 (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Factor loadings for the approach dimension ranged from .82 to .90 (standardized loadings), while loadings for the avoidance dimension ranged from .75 to .82. The correlation between the approach and avoidance factors was r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.50, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001. Both subscales demonstrated high internal consistency. Cronbach's alpha was .92 for the approach dimension and .87 for the avoidance dimension, indicating excellent reliability for both subscales.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConcurrent Validity\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eConcurrent validity was assessed by examining the associations between the approach dimension, avoidance dimension, and global score of the PES-JP and PA levels as measured by the IPAQ, with each score tested in a separate model (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The approach dimension of the PES-JP was associated with MVPA, moderate PA, and vigorous PA and sitting time. The avoidance dimension of the PES-JP was not associated with PA levels but was associated with sitting time. The global score was associated with MVPA, vigorous PA, and sitting time, but not with moderate PA. These results were further supported by hierarchical regression analyses that examined the associations between PES-JP scores and both MVPA and sitting time, controlling for age and sex (Tables\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Specifically, for MVPA, the approach dimension (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.18, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001) and the global score (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.12, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.014) showed significant positive associations, while the avoidance dimension was not significant (β = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.03, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.516). For sitting time, all PES-JP scores were significantly associated: the approach dimension (β = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.19, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001) and global score (β = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.23, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001) were negatively associated, whereas the avoidance dimension showed a positive association (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.20, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001). Age did not significantly influence the observed associations between PES-JP dimensions and PA behaviors.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConcurrent, convergent, and discriminant validity of the PES-JP approach, avoidance, and global scores.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"12\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eApproach of physical effort\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAvoidance of physical effort\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGlobal of physical effort\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eβ\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eβ\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eβ\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eConcurrent validity\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUsual level of PA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMVPA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.505\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.013\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eModerate PA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.608\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.073\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVigorous PA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.002\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.521\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.027\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWalking\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.150\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.165\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.101\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSitting\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eConvergent validity\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAutonomous motivation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.76\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.72\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAffective attitudes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.44\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.52\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIntentions\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAutomaticity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.59\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDiscriminant validity\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eControlled motivation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.37\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.028\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInstrumental attitudes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"12\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNotes.\u003c/em\u003e Usual level of PA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Physical activity as assessed by the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ; Craig et al., 2003); MVPA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;usual level of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity. Univariate linear regressions were used to assess the associations. All the variables were scaled to obtain standardized coefficients.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eResults of the hierarchical regression analyses for explaining the usual level of MVPA.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"12\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBaseline\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eApproach\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAvoidance\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGlobal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eβ\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eβ\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eβ\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eβ\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDependent variable: MVPA\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStep 1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.109\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.165\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.112\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.136\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSex (ref. women)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMen\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.900\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.500\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.874\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.676\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStep 2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eApproach\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAvoidance\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.516\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGlobal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.014\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdjusted R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.031\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.014\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"12\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNotes.\u003c/em\u003e MVPA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;usual level of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity. Multiple linear regressions were used to assess the associations. All the variables were scaled to obtain standardized coefficients.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eResults of the hierarchical regression analyses for explaining usual level of time spent sitting.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"12\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBaseline\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eApproach\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAvoidance\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGlobal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eβ\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eβ\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eβ\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eβ\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDependent variable: Usual\u003c/b\u003e sitting time\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStep 1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.203\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.297\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.220\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.280\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSex (ref. women)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMen\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.397\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.155\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.282\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.160\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStep 2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eApproach\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAvoidance\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGlobal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdjusted R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.033\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.039\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.049\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"12\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNotes\u003c/em\u003e. Multiple linear regressions were used to assess the associations. All the variables were scaled to obtain standardized coefficients.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConvergent and discriminant validity\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e illustrates the correlations between PES-JP scores (approach, avoidance, and global) and the variables used to assess convergent and discriminant validity. To assess convergent and discriminant validity, the PES-JP scores were examined in relation to theoretically relevant constructs: autonomous motivation, affective attitudes, and intentions (convergent validity), and controlled motivation and instrumental attitudes (discriminant validity, Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Convergent validity was supported by moderate-to-strong associations in the expected directions. The approach score (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.76, ps\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001) and the global score (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.52\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.72, ps\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001) were positively associated with autonomous motivation, affective attitudes, intentions, and automaticity, whereas the avoidance score showed negative associations with these constructs (β = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.33 to \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.48, ps\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001). For discriminant validity, all PES-JP scores showed statistically significant but weak associations with controlled motivation and instrumental attitudes. The approach dimension (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.37, ps\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001) and the global score (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.27\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.28, ps\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001) demonstrated weak positive associations, whereas the avoidance dimension showed weak negative associations (β = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.11 to \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.21, ps\u0026thinsp;\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e\u0026le;\u003c/span\u003e\u0026thinsp;.028), consistent with theoretical expectations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eTest-retest reliability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe test-retest reliability analysis demonstrated satisfactory stability for the PES-JP over a one-week period (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;209). Weighted kappa coefficients for individual items ranged from .43 to .60, with all coefficients being statistically significant (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001). For the approach dimension items, kappa values ranged from .46 to .60, while for the avoidance dimension items, they ranged from .43 to .52. For the subscale scores, intraclass correlation coefficients were .74 (95% CI: .67\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.79) for the approach dimension, .64 (95% CI: .55\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.71) for the avoidance dimension, and .81 (95% CI: .75\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.85) for the global dimension.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe aim of the present study was to develop and validate the PES-JP to assess individual tendencies toward physical effort in relation to PA behavior. The findings provide evidence that the PES-JP is a psychometrically robust instrument, demonstrating structural validity, internal consistency, construct validity (including concurrent, convergent, and discriminant validity), and test-retest reliability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eConsistent with the original validation study [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e], both exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses supported the two-factor structure of the PES-JP, reflecting approach and avoidance tendencies toward physical effort. Notably, the approach and avoidance subscales were moderately negatively correlated, which is a desirable pattern as it indicates that the two dimensions capture distinct yet related constructs and supports the relevance of considering a two-factor solution, thereby strengthening the validity of the PES-JP. Interestingly, however, the magnitude of the negative association between the approach and avoidance subscales was somewhat lower than that reported in the original study, which may reflect cultural or linguistic differences in how individuals conceptualize and respond to approach versus avoidance of physical effort. Nevertheless, the overall factor structure and internal consistency remained robust and consistent with the original scale.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn terms of concurrent validity, the approach dimension and global score were positively associated with MVPA and negatively associated with sitting time. Conversely, the avoidance dimension, while not associated with MVPA, showed a significant positive association with sitting time. These results mirror the original findings [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e], suggesting that individuals with a stronger tendency to approach physical effort are more likely to engage in PA, whereas those with a stronger tendency to avoid effort may be more inclined to engage in sedentary behavior. The global score also captured these patterns, being associated with both higher MVPA and lower sitting time. This pattern remained robust in hierarchical regression analyses controlling for age and sex, underscoring the value of assessing effort-related tendencies in understanding PA behavior.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNotably, the avoidance dimension did not significantly predict MVPA in the full model, but it was associated with sedentary behavior, suggesting a possible link between avoidance tendencies and inactivity rather than activity per se. This pattern diverges from the original findings [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e], where avoidance tendencies were found to negatively predict MVPA. Although the age distribution in our sample differed from that of the original study, as shown above, age did not significantly moderate the associations between PES-JP scores and PA behaviors. This suggests that the discrepancy in findings is unlikely to be explained by age differences alone. Instead, differences in social, environmental, or cultural contexts may influence how individuals act on their effort-related tendencies. Beyond these contextual considerations, psychological interpretations may also help explain the observed patterns. One speculative interpretation is that PA may be perceived as a protective behavior to be adopted rather than avoided, thereby aligning more strongly with approach tendencies. Conversely, sedentary behavior may be perceived as a tempting behavior that individuals feel compelled to resist, thus linking it more closely to avoidance processes. Taken together, these findings suggest that all three PES-JP scores (approach, avoidance, and global) are relevant for understanding sedentary behavior, whereas the approach and global scores may be particularly informative for explaining engagement in PA.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eComplementing these behavioral associations, convergent validity of the PES-JP was supported by significant correlations with theoretically related constructs. The approach dimension was positively associated with autonomous motivation, affective attitudes, intentions, and automaticity toward PA, whereas the avoidance dimension showed negative associations with these variables. This pattern aligns with the predictions of the TEMPA [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e], which posits that automatic tendencies to avoid effort may hinder the translation of intentions into action. The PES-JP also showed weak correlations with controlled motivation and instrumental attitudes. Importantly, consistent with the original validation study [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e], these constructs were selected because they represent externally regulated forms of motivation or utility-based evaluations of PA, which are theoretically distinct from effort valuation. These weak associations therefore reinforce the discriminant validity of the PES-JP.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRegarding reliability, the PES-JP showed adequate temporal stability, with both item-level agreement and subscale-level consistency falling within acceptable ranges. These findings suggest that individual tendencies toward physical effort, as assessed by the PES-JP, are relatively stable over short periods of time. This supports the scale\u0026rsquo;s utility in longitudinal or repeated-measures research designs where consistency over time is essential.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSeveral strengths of this study should be noted. First, it included a relatively large sample size covering a wide age range of Japanese adults. Second, the PES was translated following rigorous cross-cultural adaptation guidelines, including back-translation and cognitive debriefing procedures. Third, the study benefited from the involvement of one of the original developers of the PES as a co-author (BC), which ensured conceptual fidelity and strengthened the cross-cultural adaptation process. These methodological strengths provide confidence in the robustness of the findings. Nevertheless, several limitations should also be acknowledged. First, the reliance on self-reported PA measures may introduce recall bias. Self-reports tend to overestimate PA levels and underestimate sitting time when compared to objective measures such as accelerometry [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e], potentially leading to inflated associations or misclassification of activity patterns. Future studies could incorporate device-based PA measures to validate and extend the present findings. Second, although our sample included participants across a wide age range and both sexes, it may not fully represent other population segments such as older adults or clinical populations. Additional studies are needed to confirm the generalizability of the PES-JP in diverse groups. Finally, while the cross-sectional design enabled a robust psychometric validation, longitudinal or intervention studies are warranted to investigate the causal relationships between effort tendencies and PA behavior.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn summary, the PES-JP is a validated and culturally appropriate tool for assessing tendencies to approach or avoid physical effort, with promising applications in both research and practice. Using this scale can enhance our understanding of how individual tendencies toward physical effort relate to PA behavior, and may support the development of tailored behavior change interventions. In addition, the PES-JP can contribute to cross-cultural research by capturing individual differences in dispositions toward physical effort. Future studies should further explore these associations using device-based PA indicators and research designs that can clarify causal relationships.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee of Chukyo University (2024-016) and the Ethics Committee of the Graduate School of Medicine, Tohoku University (2025-1-190). All participants were given a detailed explanation of the study and provided their informed consent electronically.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe analysis scripts and datasets have been made publicly available and can be accessed at the following link: https://github.com/KeishiSoga/PES_JP .\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research received no specific grant funding.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026apos; contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConcept and oversight: KS, HS, KK\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData collection: KK\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData analysis \u0026amp; Visualization: KS\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWriting\u0026mdash;original draft: KS, KK; Writing\u0026mdash;review \u0026amp; editing: HS, YT, BC\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors gratefully acknowledge Drs. 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Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2019;16:85. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1186/s12966-019-0851-0\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1186/s12966-019-0851-0\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":true,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7515948/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7515948/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003ePhysical inactivity is a global public health concern, and bridging the gap between intention and behavior is critical to promoting physical activity (PA). The Physical Effort Scale (PES) assesses individual tendencies to approach or avoid physical effort, which may help explain this gap. To facilitate cross-cultural research on PA behavior, this study developed and validated a Japanese version of the PES (PES-JP).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e We translated the PES into Japanese according to established cross-cultural adaptation guidelines. An online survey was conducted among 400 Japanese adults aged 20 to 59 years. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were conducted to examine structural validity. Construct validity was assessed by examining concurrent, convergent, and discriminant validity, following the analytic approach of the original PES study. Concurrent validity was assessed using self-reported PA levels from the International Physical Activity Questionnaire.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eStructural validity was supported by a two-factor structure (approach and avoidance), consistent with the original scale. Internal consistency was high for both subscales (α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.92 for approach, .87 for avoidance). Concurrent validity was demonstrated by associations between PES-JP scores and PA levels: the approach score was positively associated with moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA; standardized coefficient: β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.18) and negatively with sitting time (β = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.19), while the avoidance score was unrelated to MVPA but positively associated with sitting time (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.20). The global score (approach \u0026ndash; avoidance), which reflects the overall tendency to approach rather than avoid physical effort, showed a similar pattern to the approach score, being positively associated with MVPA (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.12) and negatively with sitting time (β = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.23). Convergent validity was demonstrated through associations between all PES-JP scores (approach, avoidance, and global) and autonomous motivation, affective attitudes, and intentions (ps\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001). Discriminant validity was demonstrated through weak associations between all PES-JP scores and controlled motivation and instrumental attitudes (ps\u0026thinsp;\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e\u0026le;\u003c/span\u003e\u0026thinsp;.028). Test-retest reliability was acceptable (ICC\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.74 for approach, .64 for avoidance, .81 for global score).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusions\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe PES-JP is a psychometrically sound instrument for assessing tendencies toward physical effort in Japanese adults. The approach and global scores were associated with higher MVPA and lower sitting time, whereas the avoidance score was unrelated to MVPA but positively associated with sitting time. The PES-JP can support research on individual differences in PA behavior and contribute to cross-cultural investigations of how tendencies toward physical effort influence PA across diverse populations.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Development and psychometric evaluation of the Japanese version of the Physical Effort Scale","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-09-04 04:01:24","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7515948/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"8c4fee31-ad0c-4b17-b326-014ccc334224","owner":[],"postedDate":"September 4th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-09-06T18:08:11+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-09-04 04:01:24","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7515948","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7515948","identity":"rs-7515948","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}