Temporal Interaction Patterns in Online Learning: A Study Based on the Community of Inquiry Framework in Two Case Studies

Temporal Interaction Patterns in Online Learning: A Study Based on the Community of Inquiry Framework in Two Case Studies | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Temporal Interaction Patterns in Online Learning: A Study Based on the Community of Inquiry Framework in Two Case Studies Ramón Tirado-Morueta, Rocío Illanes-Segura, Juan C Infante-Moro, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8379219/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study explores temporal interaction patterns within the Community of Inquiry (CoI) framework using Moodle activity logs from two online courses for older adults. Both courses shared identical content and structure, but differed in facilitation: case (a) involved a single instructor (n = 27), while case (b) included peer facilitators (n = 45). A total of 4,276 log entries were analysed as proxy variables for teaching, social, and cognitive presence. These were converted into time series and examined through cross-correlation analysis with a three-day lag. The results sugest that accessing the course guide and attending synchronous sessions are key triggers for cognitive and social engagement. Alternating patterns were also observed between individual content processing and social interaction. These findings provide valuable insights into the temporal dynamics of online learning interactions, particularly for instructional planning and process-oriented research. digital literacy older adults peer support Community of Inquiry (CoI) framework online learning Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 3 1. Introduction Learning Management Systems (LMSs) automatically record extensive, time-stamped data on participants’ interactions and activities, including resources accessed, completed activities, forum contributions (and their type), and connection durations for both instructors and learners (Rotelli & Monreale, 2023 ). Although log data do not capture the affective or qualitative dimensions of engagement, they provide a valid and replicable means of identifying differential behavioural patterns across experimental conditions. Analyses of log data can reveal how learning unfolds in digital environments and inform the personalisation and improvement of educational provision (Dawson, 2010 ; Pan et al., 2024 ). Empirical work has demonstrated the utility of such metrics in explaining academic performance (Bravo-Agapito et al., 2021 ; Strang, 2016 ; Wang, 2019 ; Zacharis, 2015 ), learner satisfaction and technology acceptance (Harrati et al., 2016 ; Larmuseau et al., 2018 ), and early withdrawal from courses (Tamada et al., 2021). Log data are also employed to investigate diverse aspects of teaching and learning, including learner autonomy (Tsai, 2019 ), overall activity levels (Park & Jo, 2016 ), interaction patterns and social collaboration (Cerezo et al., 2016 ; Hamuy & Galaz, 2010 ; Jin, Sung & Kim, 2016 ), and collaborative learning processes (Lu & Law, 2012 ). Recent studies further link behavioural traces to dimensions of engagement—social, cognitive and behavioural—highlighting their analytical value for learning analytics (Dornauer et al., 2024 ; Winter et al., 2024 ; Yang & Ghislandi, 2024 ). Nevertheless, despite evidence that log data can serve as real-time proxies for learning, there remains a shortage of studies that focus specifically on temporal patterns that are actionable for course designers and instructors managing the timing and pacing of LMS-based courses. This study therefore aimed to identify temporal relationship patterns among indicators derived from log data in two LMS-based courses. To that end, we (a) adopted a modified Community of Inquiry (CoI) framework incorporating self-regulated learning to broaden the interpretative lens, (b) operationalised log data as indicators of the framework’s constructs, and (c) analysed cross-correlations among those indicators. We acknowledge that trace data index observable actions and behaviours rather than latent constructs; consequently, their use as proxies for higher-order constructs requires careful theoretical mapping and operational justification (Dixson, 2015 ; Dornauer et al., 2024 ; Jin et al., 2016 ; Norz et al., 2024 ; Winter et al., 2024 ). 2. Theoretical background: the modified CoI framework The CoI framework, widely applied to analyse online learning, comprises three interdependent elements: social presence, cognitive presence and teaching presence (Garrison, 2003; Garrison et al., 1999; Swan et al., 2009). Social presence denotes open communication, cohesion and interpersonal rapport; cognitive presence describes the phases of meaning-making (triggering event, exploration, integration, resolution); and teaching presence covers course design, facilitation and instructional direction that enable the other two presences. Analyses of LMS activity logs have been used to operationalise and extend CoI framework constructs by linking observable behaviours to pedagogical processes (Dawson, 2010). Empirical studies using log data and self-report measures show that behavioural patterns relate to performance, self-regulated strategies and motivation (Çebi & Guyer, 2020). Work by Çakiroğlu and Kahyar (2022) weighted Moodle interactions as indicators of cognitive, social, and teaching presence, finding that student–content interaction is especially central to cognitive presence, while social presence is aligned with peer and student–teacher exchanges, and teaching presence with student–system interactions. Content analyses of forum records further indicate that initial teaching presence can foster social presence, which then supports cognitive presence (Akyol & Garrison, 2011; Li, 2022). Shea and Bidjerano (2012) and subsequent studies report that the three presences interact dynamically and may compensate for one another; this led to proposals that learning presence (self-regulation) moderates their relationships (Shea et al., 2012; Cho et al., 2017; Lyu, 2024; Na et al., 2024a). Integrating Zimmerman’s model of self-regulated learning into CoI framework broadens its explanatory power and helps account for how learners’ planning, monitoring and regulation mediate links between teaching/social presence and cognitive outcomes (Zimmerman, 2000; Espiritu et al., 2023; Dunmoye et al., 2025; Zhang et al., 2023). This modification clarifies why specific actions—such as attending synchronous sessions, consulting learning guides, or posting in forums—may precede or follow one another. Evidence suggests a temporal pattern in which teaching presence initially scaffolds interaction, strengthening social presence and thereby stimulating cognitive presence (Garrison, Anderson & Archer, 2000; Akyol & Garrison, 2011; Li, 2022). From a self-regulation perspective, task perception and goal setting trigger planning and metacognitive strategies that predict social engagement (Pintrich, 2000; Na et al., 2024b), while access to guides and tasks can initiate cycles of planning, performance and monitoring that socialise knowledge (Shea & Bidjerano, 2012; Jin et al., 2016; Swan et al., 2009). Learning guides have been reported to prompt idea exploration and collaborative engagement (Baldwin & Ching, 2019; Martin et al., 2020), although empirical evidence on these causal sequences remains limited. Rather than a fixed linear sequence, knowledge construction often follows a reciprocal feedback loop between individual and collaborative activity, contingent on instructional context and learners’ self-regulatory phase (Akyol & Garrison, 2011; Zhou & Ye, 2024; Zimmerman, 2000; Pardo et al., 2019). To address the paucity of temporal analyses, this study examines temporal correlation patterns among proxy indicators of teaching, social and cognitive presence derived from Moodle activity logs in two courses: one instructor-led and one augmented with peer facilitators. 3. Research questions Drawing on the preceding theoretical background, this study addresses three interrelated research questions about the temporal relations among teaching, cognitive and social presence, operationalised via log-based proxies of CoI-related activity. Teaching presence and cognitive/social presence. We examine whether synchronous teaching presence (attendance at videoconferencing sessions) scaffolds planning and clarification, producing subsequent increases in resource access and forum interaction. RQ1. What temporal relationship exists between access to videoconferencing (as an indicator of teaching presence) and actions associated with cognitive presence (access to learning guides, content, and assignments) and social presence (forum participation)? Rationale: Cognitive as organiser of task cycles. We test whether access to learning guides and assignments, as proxies for cognitive presence, structure task cycles that alternate individual study and collaborative discussion when students seek clarification or share findings. RQ2. What temporal relationship exists between access to the learning guide and assignments—as elements that activate cognitive and social presence—and the exploration of content and participation in forums? Rationale: Dynamics across course phases. We investigate how the cognitive–social relationship varies over the course: social interaction may lead during orientation, whereas individual cognitive activity may precede social peaks during resolution and consolidation. RQ3. What temporal relationship exists between cognitive presence (access to cognitive resources) and social presence (forum participation) throughout the course? 4. Method 4.1. Experimental setting The study was conducted within the framework of a training program for digital mentoring of older adults based on the ADDIE model (Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation) (Molenda, 2015; Siemens, 2002) (Figure 1). - Analysis: A review of scientific literature was conducted on cases of digital literacy practices through peer-to-peer methods, identifying the didactic gaps among mentors, given the diversity of the target group, which shares common characteristics such as medium-to-high cultural levels and intermediate or advanced digital skills. Additionally, the geographic dispersion of these individuals across the territory highlights the suitability of using digital platforms for communication and learning. Finally, a group of experts established the advisability of a modular and practical structure based on the main functions of digital mentoring practices. - Design: A group of 10 experts developed each of the two modules: (a) digital mentoring, and (b) the design and development of digital literacy workshops. Each module was designed with reference to the CoI framework (Table 1). Table 1 Design of the learning model based on the CoI framework Component Purpose Learning resources used Teaching presence To create a supportive learning climate, encourage interaction, and motivate participation. To provide feedback, synthesise ideas, and offer supplementary resources (Garrison et al., 1999). Videoconferencing sessions. Learning guides. Social presence To promote participation, mutual support, and social interaction among students (Rourke et al., 2001). Discussion forums on module topics Forums focused on each module’s assessment assignment. Cognitive presence To support the construction of meaning and knowledge through deep thinking and collaboration (Garrison, Anderson & Archer, 2001). Infographic materials covering module content Interactive infographics explaining assignments. Discussion and assignment forums. - Development : For each module, the following materials were developed: (a) a didactic guide for instructors and learners, (b) interactive infographics and testimonial videos, (c) two videoconference sessions, (d) discussion forums on the module content, (e) assignment forum and (f) tasks based on case resolution and the design of a training workshop project. Each module was validated by a group of 40 experts in the field of communication and pedagogical innovation. To measure the quality of the materials, the "challenge" component of the environmental complexity model (Shernoff et al., 2016) was used, along with the subjective usability scale (SUS) (Brooke, 1996) (Appendix). Finally, a pilot test was conducted with a group of 14 older adults with intermediate or advanced digital skills, involving 6 instructors. The two modules were implemented, and feedback was gathered from both the 14 participants and the 6 instructors. - Implementation: Based on recommendations from the pilot test, the final version of the program simplified its content and tasks. Instructors were trained in the goals and structure of the final course version, its materials, and tasks. The instructors also participated in the course's development and pilot test. Participants were instructed on the program content and practiced using the e-learning platform. Furthermore, the platform was adapted to a user-friendly environment, including only the essential components for course access: (a) didactic guide, (b) interactive infographics, (c) discussion forums, and (d) assignment instructions. The course implementation used two editions: case (a), a traditional edition delivered by instructors where all students shared the same instructors; and case (b), an edition with peer facilitators, who were selected from among the students who had successfully completed the first edition (case (a)) and had expressed interest in participating in the second. The role of the peer facilitators was to participate in the videoconference sessions and in the discussion forums. The number of facilitator contributions was heterogeneous, both in terms of forum visits (Mean = 28.33, SD = 28.77) and posts (Mean = 4.25; SD = 5.36), as well as the number of interventions during videoconference sessions (Mean = 5.55; SD = 1.58). However, implementing the version with peer facilitators required careful selection and training to ensure they had the necessary technical and facilitation skills. To ensure that the facilitators had the required skills, they were selected from among the graduate students of case (a). Clear expectations were set, and ongoing support was provided to the facilitators. Using peer facilitators in online courses for older adults also raised ethical considerations, so steps were taken to ensure that facilitators did not feel overburdened. Both editions lasted two weeks, corresponding to the two modules. Edition (a) was implemented from Monday to Sunday, while edition (b) was implemented from Wednesday to Tuesday. As aforesaid, this study placed special emphasis on ethical considerations. Informed consent was obtained from all participants, ensuring that they understood the study's objectives and that their participation was voluntary. Additionally, to protect participants' privacy, all collected and analysed data were anonymized. These measures ensure that the study adheres to ethical standards and respects the confidentiality of the information provided by the participants. - Post-Course Evaluation: After the completion of both course versions, two components of the Kirkpatrick model were used to evaluate course quality: (a) Performance was assessed through Pre-Test and Post-Test evaluations. (b) Students’ reactions were measured using a Likert-type scale, focusing on course structure, material usability, support received from instructors and peers, and perceived learning outcomes. The performance test revealed significant improvements between the pre-test and post-test results. Additionally, the student reaction questionnaire yielded scores above 4 across all scales, based on a 1-to-5 rating system. 4.2. Participants The participants were recruited through a call issued by the Government of Andalusia, Spain, which funds and coordinates social centres for older adults, as well as through the Red Cross and the State Association of University Programmes for Seniors. Additionally, to ensure that participants had an intermediate or advanced level of digital skills, a scale was applied. Finally, 72 participants were selected for this study: 27 from the first edition (case (a)) and 45 from the second edition (case (b)). The mean age of the participants was 65.41 (SD = 6.51), (31 women and 41 men), and with 10 or more activity records in any of the Moodle events. 4.3. Operational mapping of log-based proxies to the constructs of the CoI framework Following extant practice, this study treats selected behavioural indicators as proxies for facets of the CoI framework. Teaching presence was operationalised through access to real-time videoconferencing. Synchronous sessions constitute the principal form of instructional scaffolding in many online courses; attendance logs can provide direct evidence of students' exposure to instructor guidance and clarification, therefore may serve as a proxy of teaching presence (Dixson, 2015). Behavioural trace studies further support the use of synchronous session metrics as predictors of subsequent engagement with course materials (Winter et al., 2024). Social presence was operationalised via participation in assignment-related and thematic discussion forums. These behaviours represent opportunities for interpersonal interaction, collaboration, and affective communication, which are central to the conceptualisation of social presence within the CoI framework. Patterns of communication and collaboration in e-learning environments can be analysed to infer social and participatory engagement (Jin, Sung, & Kim, 2016). Cognitive presence was inferred from learners’ interactions with instructional resources —accesses to content pages, course guides and assignment descriptions — together with assignment submission metadata. Measurable online behaviours such as assignment completion and resource access correlate with perceived cognitive engagement (Dixson, 2015). Taken together, videoconference access, forum postings and resource‑access/submission logs were treated as valid, albeit partial, proxies for teaching, social and cognitive presence. The units of analysis were the log-based proxies of CoI-related activity, i.e., the number of clicks made by participants on each of the course events (Rotelli & Monreale, 2023). In line with the aim of the study, 4,276 records were selected (Table 2). Table 2 Units of analysis Log-based proxies Description Code in Moodle Case(a) (n = 27) Case(b)(n = 45) Videoconferences A student clicks on an external link to access the videoconference URL – videoconference – viewed 69 217 Learning Guide A student views a resource – SCORM package of the teaching guide Course module – teaching guide – viewed 184 300 Explore Assignment A student views a resource – SCORM package of the module’s assignment content Course module – assignment – viewed 684 1,264 Explore Content A student views a resource – SCORM package of the module’s content Course module – contents – viewed 249 371 Discussion Forum A student posts a new message Post created 126 237 Assignment Forum A student posts a new message Post created 317 147 Delivery Created A student uploads a file or begins completing the submission form, and clicks “submit for grading” Submission created 45 66 Total 1,674 2,602 4.4. Data analysis To identify interaction patterns among log-based proxies of CoI-related activity, the records were arranged in chronological order using SPSS software, version 27.0.1.0. The variables analysed were the time series corresponding to each of the seven units of analysis over a 14-day period, which matched the duration of the course. To address RQ1, the variables used were access to videoconferences, access to the learning guide, exploration of content, exploration of assignments, and participation in forums. To address RQ2, the variables included access to the learning guide, exploration of assignments, and participation in both discussion forums and assignment forums. For RQ3, the variables comprised access to the learning guide, exploration of content, exploration of assignments, and participation in both types of forums. Prior to commencing the analysis, (a) missing data were addressed through systematic deletion, thereby preserving the temporal coherence of the series; (b) all metrics were subjected to a normalisation procedure (mean = 0, standard deviation = 1), ensuring comparability across variables and preventing those with wider numerical ranges from disproportionately influencing the results; (c) records were aggregated into uniform temporal intervals and organised into analytically coherent categories, which facilitated the construction of comparable series with sufficient density for robust examination; and (d) unequal levels of participation were mitigated by applying minimum activity thresholds, thereby ensuring that the correlations captured patterns representative of the dataset as a whole rather than being skewed by extreme cases. To examine how the variables were related over time, the following steps were undertaken: (a) each variable was transformed into a time series; (b) a Pearson correlation analysis was conducted to explore relationships among variables; and (c) a cross-correlation analysis was performed to assess the time lag between two series (e.g. how a change in one variable may affect another after a certain period). Cross-correlation is a technique that quantifies the extent to which a series of activities is correlated with others at different time points, helping understand how they influence one another over time. In Moodle, cross-correlations were used to identify relationships between variables, both when they occurred simultaneously and when delayed effects were present. For the 14 observations, following the recommendations of Shumway & Stoffer (2017), the analysis was restricted to ±3 lags, which allowed for a minimally reasonable number of overlapping pairs (ideally ≥10). 5. Results 5.1. Case (a) 5.1.1. Descriptive results Table 3 shows a significant progression in student participation across the various course activities. The “learning guide” variable displays notable peaks at the beginning of each module (38 in Module 1 and 30 in Module 2. “Videoconference” also features prominently at the start of each module. Participation in “discussion forum” and “assignment forum” is moderate yet consistent. The variables “explore assignment” and “explore content” show sustained growth, reaching peaks of 127 and 69 respectively, which suggests active engagement with the learning resources. Finally, “delivery created” remains low overall, with occasional spikes. Table 3 Count and percentage of log-based proxies of CoI-related activity (case (a)) Date Video conference Learning Guide Explore Assignment Explore Content Discussion Forum Assignment Forum Delivery Created Mod.1 10.06.24 21 38 39 36 7 51 0 11.06.24 0 11 16 19 4 13 0 12.06.24 0 11 14 11 6 8 0 13.06.24 0 12 10 14 8 20 0 14.06.24 0 4 51 4 4 23 6 15.06.24 0 6 42 8 7 5 7 16.06.24 0 7 69 11 3 14 8 Mod.2 17.06.24 36 30 127 29 7 32 8 18.06.24 0 8 36 16 3 28 0 19.06.24 0 9 59 18 19 22 2 20.06.24 0 5 38 18 6 16 4 21.06.24 1 4 27 24 8 26 0 22.06.24 0 4 30 12 1 12 3 23.06.24 0 5 36 5 0 7 6 5.1.2. Results of the correlation analysis and cross-correlation 5.1.2.1. Correlation analysis A Pearson correlation analysis was conducted using the normalised values of each series. Table 4 presents the correlations among the recorded log-based proxies of CoI-related activity. Table 4 Pearson correlations between time series of log-based proxies of CoI-related activity (case (a)) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1. Videoconference 1 2. Learning Guide .870 ** 1 3. Explore Assignment .720 ** .399 1 4. Explore Content .711 ** .795 ** .276 1 5. Discussion Forum .100 .181 .159 .344 1 6. Assignment Forum .649 * .760 ** .300 .809 ** .259 1 7. Delivery Created .022 − .256 .517 − .485 − .191 − .381 1 *p < .05, **p < .01. Table 4 reveals significant relationships among various educational activities. “Videoconferencing” is strongly associated with the use of the “learning guide” (r = 0.870, p < .01), as well as with “assignment exploration” (r = .720, p < .01) and “content exploration” (r = .711, p < .01), suggesting that students who participate in synchronous sessions also actively engage with the available learning resources. “Videoconferencing” is also moderately linked to the “assignment forum” (r = .649, p .05). “Learning guide” shows a high correlation with “content exploration” (r = .795, p < .01) and with the “assignment forum” (r = .760, p < .01). Likewise, “content exploration” is significantly related to the “assignment forum” (r = .809, p .05) and “content exploration” (r = -0.485, p > .05), without statistical significance. 5.1.2.2. Cross-correlation analysis The cross-correlation analysis shows that certain activities are strongly related to each other at different time lags. Table 5 presents the data within the range of -3 to 2, as no significant correlations were found at other time lags. Table 5 Cross-correlation between log-based proxies of CoI-related activity (case (a)) Series A Series B Optimal Lag r p-value RQ1 Videoconference Explore Content 0 .711 (.267) 0.002 Videoconference Learning Guide 0 .867 (.267) 0.000 Videoconference Explore Assignments 0 .720 (.267) 0.003 Videoconference Assignment Forum 0 .649 (.267) 0.010 Videoconference Discussion Forum 2 .732 (.289) 0.002 RQ2 Learning Guide Explore Content 0 .795 (.267) 0.000 Learning Guide Delivery Created 1 − .491 (.277) 0.085 Learning Guide Explore Assignments 0 .399 (.267) 0.318 Learning Guide Discussion Forum 2 .572 (.289) 0.042 Learning Guide Assignment Forum 0 .760 (.267) 0.000 Explore Assignments Explore Content -3 -529 (.302) 0.073 Explore Assignments Delivery Created 0 .517 (.267) 0.077 Explore Assignments Discussion Forum 2 .642 (.289) 0.013 Explore Assignments Assignment Forum -2 .378 (.289) 0.352 RQ3 Explore Content Discussion Forum 0 .344 (.267) 0.165 Explore Content Assignment Forum 0 .809 (.267) 0.000 The cross-correlation analysis of activity logs in Moodle reveals significant relationships between various activities with time lags. Below is a summary of the key findings (Fig. 2). Regarding RQ1 , the results show positive and highly significant correlations between the use of “videoconferencing” and other key activities. The relationship with the “learning guide” is particularly strong (r = .867, p = .000), suggesting that students who participate in videoconferencing sessions also engage intensively with the learning guides. Significant correlations are also observed with “explore assignment” (r = .720, p = .003), “explore content” (r = .711, p = .002), and the “assignment forum” (r = .649, p = .010), all with an optimal lag of 0, indicating that these activities occur simultaneously. The correlation with the “discussion forum” (r = .732, p = .002) appears with a lag of 2, reflecting forum participation two days after accessing the videoconference. Regarding RQ2 , the “learning guide” variable is strongly related to “explore content” (r = .795, p = .000) and “assignment forum” (r = .760, p = .000), both with a lag of 0, suggesting that students consult these resources concurrently. The correlation with “discussion forum” (r = .572, p = .042, lag 2) is also significant, indicating possible interaction two days later. In contrast, the relationship with “delivery created” is negative (r = –.491, p = .085), although not statistically significant, which may suggest that those who consult the guides do not typically submit work immediately. Correlations between “explore assignments” and other variables are weaker, with significance observed only in relation to the “discussion forum” (r = .642, p = .013, lag 2), suggesting that students tend to participate in discussion forums two days after accessing the assignment. Regarding RQ3 , a very strong correlation is observed between “explore content” and “assignment forum” (r = .809, p = .000), indicating that students who explore content also actively participate in submission-related forums. In contrast, the relationship with “discussion forum” is weak and not statistically significant (r = .344, p = .165), suggesting that content exploration is not directly linked to participation in open discussions. 5.2. Case (b) 5.2.1. Descriptive results Table 6 shows a clear progression in student participation across the two course modules. The “learning guide” variable reflects a high initial level of interest, with 57 records on the first day of Module 1 and 49 at the start of Module 2. “Videoconferencing” also features prominently at the beginning of each module. Participation in “discussion forum” and “assignment forum” remains moderate yet consistent, with peaks of up to 31 posts in the discussion forum and 102 in the assignment forum. The “explore assignment” and “explore content” variables show progressive growth, reaching peaks of 143 and 30 respectively. Finally, “delivery created” remains relatively low, although with occasional spikes that coincide with assignment deadlines. Table 6 Count and percentage of log-based proxies of CoI-related activity (case (b)) Date Videoconference Learning Guide Explore Assignment Explore Content Assignment Forum Discussion Forum Delivery Created Mod. 1 06.11.24 56 57 94 84 102 11 2 07.11.24 8 6 84 7 51 9 7 08.11.24 0 3 29 4 16 3 3 09.11.24 0 7 24 6 18 8 1 10.11.24 0 9 115 22 97 20 11 11.11.24 0 13 128 10 96 31 5 12.11.24 0 32 94 25 44 5 10 Mod. 2 13.11.24 72 49 80 42 26 0 1 14.11.24 0 17 44 12 12 0 0 15.11.24 0 11 31 17 43 9 0 16.11.24 0 6 18 6 25 2 0 17.11.24 0 16 57 18 47 3 2 18.11.24 0 12 143 22 95 5 14 19.11.24 0 19 125 30 54 5 10 5.2.2. Results of the correlational analysis and cross-correlation 5.2.2.1. Correlations analysis Table 7 reveals significant relationships among various course activities, shedding light on student behavioural patterns. “Videoconferencing” shows a very strong correlation with the “learning guide” (r = .858, p < .01) and “explore content” (r = .762, p < .01). In turn, the “learning guide” is strongly associated with “explore content”(r = .891, p < .01). The “explore assignment” variable displays a strong correlation with “delivery created” (r = .805, p < .01), reflecting that task exploration is closely linked to the act of submitting work. In contrast, “assignment forum” shows weak or negative correlations with most variables, which may suggest a more independent or less integrated use within the overall activity flow. Finally, “discussion forum” is moderately associated with the “learning guide” (r = .505) and “explore content” (r = .764, p < .01) variables, indicating that participation in discussions is related to engagement with learning resources. Table 7 Pearson correlations between time series of log-based proxies of CoI-related activity (case (b)) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1. Videoconference 1 2. Learning Guide .858 ** 1 3. Explore Assignment .104 .223 1 4. Explore Content .762 ** .891 ** .357 1 5. Discussion Forum .312 .505 .208 .764 ** 1 6. Assignment Forum − .153 − .121 .468 − .008 .092 1 7. Delivery Create − .256 − .072 .805 ** .083 − .024 .157 1 **p < .01 5.2.2.2. Cross-correlation analysis Table 8 presents the correlations between variables at different time lags. Time lags ranging from − 3 to 3 were used. Table 8 Cross-correlation between log-based proxies of CoI-related activity (case (b)) Series A Series B Optimal Lag r p-value RQ1 Videoconference Explore Content 0 .762 (.269) 0.015 Videoconference Delivery Created -1 .354 (.277) 0.225 Videoconference Learning Guide 0 .858 (.267) 0.007 Videoconference Explore Assignments 3 -.543 (.302) 0.097 Videoconference Assignment Forum -2 .628 (.289) 0.050 Videoconference Discussion Forum 0 .312 (.267) 0.265 RQ2 Learning Guide Explore Content 0 -.891 (.267) 0.005 Learning Guide Delivery Created 3 -.529 (.302) 0.105 Learning Guide Explore Assignments 3 -.742 (.302) 0.030 Learning Guide Discussion Forum 0 .505 (.267) 0.082 Learning Guide Assignment Forum -2 .594 (.289) 0.062 Explore Assignments Explore Content -3 -.595 (.302) 0.072 Explore Assignments Delivery Created 0 .805 (.267) 0.010 Explore Assignments Discussion Forum -2 -.322 (.289) 0.287 Explore Assignments Assignment Forum 0 .468 (.267) 0.105 RQ3 Explore Content Discussion Forum 0 .764 (.267) 0.014 Explore Content Assignment Forum 2 .288 (.289) 0.338 Regarding RQ1 , the results show positive and significant correlations between the “videoconference” variable and several key resources. Its strong association with the “learning guide” (r = .858, p = .007) and “explore content” (r = .762, p = .015), both with an optimal lag of 0, suggests that students who participate in synchronous sessions also actively consult study materials. A further significant correlation is observed with the “assignment forum” (r = .628, p = .050, lag − 2), indicating that “forum participation” may precede “videoconferencing” by two days. In contrast, the relationship with “explore assignments” is negative (r = –.543, p = .097, lag 3), although not statistically significant, which may reflect a temporal disconnect between these activities. Correlations with “delivery created” and “discussion forum” are weak and not significant. Regarding RQ2 , the “learning guide” variable shows a very strong negative correlation with “explore content” (r = –.891, p = .005). Negative correlations are also observed with “explore assignments” (r = –.742, p = .030, lag 3) and “delivery created” (r = –.529, p = .105), although the latter is not statistically significant. These inverse relationships may be attributed to the presence of peer facilitators who potentially compensate for the role of guidance materials. In contrast, a positive correlation is detected with the “assignment forum” (r = .594, p = .062, lag − 2) and the “discussion forum” (r = .505, p = .082), indicating that the use of guides may be linked to participation in collaborative spaces. Additionally, the “explore assignments” variable is positively associated with “delivery created” (r = .805, p = .010). Regarding RQ3 , a significant correlation is observed between “explore content” and the “discussion forum” (r = .764, p = .014), indicating that students who explore content also actively engage in discussions. Moreover, although the relationship with the “assignment forum” is weak and not significant (r = .288, p = .338, lag 2), it suggests that “content exploration” may precede participation in task-related forums. 6. Discussion The results obtained in both cases (a) and (b) reveal temporal patterns that reflect the interaction between log-based proxies of CoI-related activity (Garrison, Anderson & Archer, 2001). (a) Observed correlations between videoconferencing access and log-based proxies of cognitive presence-related activity In both cases, and at the same time point, videoconferencing appears as a relevant element associated with cognitive engagement. Videoconferencing has been linked to the fostering of social presence (Richardson et al., 2017) and teaching presence, as instructors guide discussions and support learning during these sessions. In both case studies, these sessions were observed in connection with cognitive activities such as engaging with the learning guide and exploring course content, indicating a temporal association between videoconferencing and proxies of cognitive activity. This pattern is consistent with research emphasising the role of synchronous teaching presence in shaping asynchronous learning processes (Richardson et al., 2017; Fuertes-Alpiste et al., 2022). Recent studies suggest that videoconferencing may enhance content comprehension and encourage participation in subsequent activities, such as forum discussions (Fuertes-Alpiste et al., 2022). The delayed correlation observed between videoconferencing and forum participation in case (a) could be interpreted in relation to cognitive overload (Sweller, 2021), which occurs when individuals receive more information than they can process, thereby affecting their problem-solving and decision-making abilities. In contrast, in case (b), the non-significant but simultaneous correlation points to a possible mediating role played by peer facilitators, who may have contributed to alleviating the cognitive load during videoconferencing sessions (Rourke et al., 2001). (b) Temporal associations between log-based proxies of cognitive presence and social participation The correlation between access to content, learning guides and forum participation indicates moments of cognitive activation. In case (a), the delayed correlation between task exploration and participation in discussion forums suggests a sequence in which learners process information before engaging in interaction, consistent with the integration phase of cognitive presence described by Garrison et al. (2001). Likewise, the results support the notion that the learning guide is a valuable tool that encourages learners to navigate resources and engage in various proposed activities (Anderson, 2008). Recent studies suggest that access to well-designed guides enables students to plan and follow their learning activities independently, fostering cognitive presence from the outset (Baldwin & Ching, 2019) and increasing the likelihood of participating in collaborative tasks (Martin et al., 2020). In case (a), access to the learning guide was not only correlated with engagement with course content, but also with participation in task forums at the same time point, and with a two-day lag in relation to participation in the discussion forum. In contrast, in case (b), a strong (though not statistically significant) correlation was found at the same time point between access to the guide and participation in the discussion forum. These findings suggest that, depending on the course context, access to the learning guide may stimulate both immediate and delayed social presence focused on exploration and idea generation. (c) Alternation and synchronicity between log-based proxies of individual and social activity Cognitive activities such as content and task exploration, and social activities such as participation in discussion forums and collaborative tasks, exhibit temporal relationships that vary according to context. In both cases (a) and (b), with no time lag, content exploration correlates with posts in both discussion and task forums. With a two-day lag in case (a), exploration of the learning task precedes posts in discussion forums. This dynamic illustrates how cognitive presence (thinking and reflecting) and social presence (interacting with others) complement one another. Learners alternate between processing content and engaging with peers, either synchronously or with delay. In this regard, recent studies highlight that learners tend to oscillate between individual activities (such as content exploration) and collaborative ones (such as forum participation) to deepen their understanding, positively influencing academic performance (Espinosa & Saltos, 2024). Additionally, the temporal fluctuations in forum participation can be interpreted through Zimmerman’s (2000) self-regulated learning model, in which learners adjust their levels of interaction and reflection in response to course demands. This finding is consistent with studies indicating that social presence does not always precede or follow cognitive presence, but rather that both presences mutually reinforce one another in cycles of participation (Zhou & Ye, 2024; Akyol & Garrison, 2011). In case (b), the non-significant but simultaneous correlation between access to the guide and forum participation suggests immediate social activation, possibly influenced by the course context. While causality cannot be established, studies such as Swan et al. (2009) have documented that course design and the presence of peer facilitators can modulate the intensity of social presence by synchronizing it with individual cognitive actions. 7. Practical implications for instructional design Considering the associations identified within the participant group of this study the following considerations may inform the design of digital learning experiences. While these suggestions are grounded in observed correlations, they should be interpreted with caution and not assumed to imply causal effectiveness: (a) Videoconferencing may be considered as a potential point of cognitive activation, followed by asynchronous activities that support individual reflection and information processing. (b) The use of learning guides that link access to content with participation in collaborative activities could foster both learner autonomy and social interaction. (c) Attention to the temporal patterns of learner interaction may assist in adjusting course pacing and promoting a balanced alternation between individual and collaborative activities, in alignment with self-regulated learning models. These recommendations are offered as design considerations reflecting associations identified in a small, focused convenience sample, and further validation in broader contexts is advised. 8. Limitations and future research The sample size employed in this study is consistent with exploratory research involving log data in short-format courses; however, it limits both the generalisability of the findings and the statistical power of the analyses. Future studies would benefit from the use of larger and more diverse samples to corroborate and extend the observed associations. Although the participant groups shared certain socio-demographic characteristics, unmeasured individual differences, such as prior experience with online learning or motivational factors, may have influenced interaction patterns. Accounting for these additional attributes in future sampling strategies would enhance the interpretative robustness of the findings. Furthermore, the interpretation of log data as proxy indicators of cognitive, social, and teaching presence within the Community of Inquiry (CoI) framework entails inherent uncertainty. These metrics primarily capture patterns of participation and do not constitute direct evidence of the presences themselves. To strengthen the validity and depth of future analyses, it is recommended that subsequent research incorporate complementary qualitative data, extend the duration of observation, and include more heterogeneous participant profiles. 9. Conclusions This study demonstrates how log-based proxies of activity in Moodle, related to the CoI framework, provide a valid and replicable means of identifying temporal interaction patterns. It is acknowledged that trace data index observable actions and behaviours rather than latent constructs, yet the temporal analysis of such proxies offers valuable insights into real-time dynamics associated with cognitive and social presence. The findings reveal significant correlations among different proxies (such as access to content, learning guides, forum participation, and videoconferencing) thereby contributing to a more precise understanding of how interactions unfold in virtual environments and reinforcing the potential of the CoI framework to advance methodologies for measuring online learning. Declarations Ethics Approval Information The study adhered strictly to the fundamental ethical principles governing research involving human participants. All individuals were informed about the objectives of the study, its voluntary nature, and their right to withdraw at any time without consequence. Written informed consent was obtained, and all data were pseudonymised prior to analysis using Moodle’s native functionality, in line with ethical standards that safeguard confidentiality and privacy. These procedures complied with the ethical provisions of the Declaration of Helsinki and the national regulations applicable to educational research. The dataset was reviewed by the host institution and subsequently published on Zenodo; the DOI has been withheld to preserve anonymity during peer review. The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Andalusia (SICEIA-2025-001665), Spain, with an approval date of 31 October 2025. References Akyol, Z. & Garrison, D.R. (2011) ‘Assessing metacognition in an online community of inquiry’, The Internet and Higher Education , 14(3), pp.183–190. doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2011.01.005 Anderson, T. 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(2024) ‘Investigating cognitive engagement patterns in online collaborative learning: A temporal learning analytic study’, Interactive Learning Environments , 32(10), pp.6997–7013. doi:10.1080/10494820.2023.2299976 Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. 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2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":236494,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDiagram with cross-correlations between log-based proxies of CoI-related activity (case (a))\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNote:\u003c/strong\u003e Significant correlations are highlighted with a bolded box.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8379219/v1/e50cd4543b7ceddf1f3845a2.png"},{"id":98624598,"identity":"c2405d47-89a2-48db-bc95-51b90677a56a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-19 17:08:32","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":237047,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDiagram with cross-correlations between log-based proxies of CoI-related activity (case (b))\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8379219/v1/c59f4a73c2b2cb70418a0d2e.png"},{"id":98521574,"identity":"4d2dbf39-0431-42b6-8a2f-a512756ce92c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-18 13:41:17","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":237047,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDiagram with cross-correlations between log-based proxies of CoI-related activity (case (b))\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNote:\u003c/strong\u003e Significant correlations are highlighted with a bolded box.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"36.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8379219/v1/6351f8c70f362150bc0cbdb0.png"},{"id":98775397,"identity":"7cedaea5-0198-448e-9876-720d262e1131","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 12:19:46","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2238786,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8379219/v1/5d596943-6290-43da-920c-03bece3f9550.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eTemporal Interaction Patterns in Online Learning: A Study Based on the Community of Inquiry Framework in Two Case Studies\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eLearning Management Systems (LMSs) automatically record extensive, time-stamped data on participants\u0026rsquo; interactions and activities, including resources accessed, completed activities, forum contributions (and their type), and connection durations for both instructors and learners (Rotelli \u0026amp; Monreale, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough log data do not capture the affective or qualitative dimensions of engagement, they provide a valid and replicable means of identifying differential behavioural patterns across experimental conditions. Analyses of log data can reveal how learning unfolds in digital environments and inform the personalisation and improvement of educational provision (Dawson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Pan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Empirical work has demonstrated the utility of such metrics in explaining academic performance (Bravo-Agapito et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Strang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Wang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Zacharis, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), learner satisfaction and technology acceptance (Harrati et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Larmuseau et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), and early withdrawal from courses (Tamada et al., 2021).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLog data are also employed to investigate diverse aspects of teaching and learning, including learner autonomy (Tsai, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), overall activity levels (Park \u0026amp; Jo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), interaction patterns and social collaboration (Cerezo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Hamuy \u0026amp; Galaz, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Jin, Sung \u0026amp; Kim, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), and collaborative learning processes (Lu \u0026amp; Law, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Recent studies further link behavioural traces to dimensions of engagement\u0026mdash;social, cognitive and behavioural\u0026mdash;highlighting their analytical value for learning analytics (Dornauer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Winter et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Yang \u0026amp; Ghislandi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Nevertheless, despite evidence that log data can serve as real-time proxies for learning, there remains a shortage of studies that focus specifically on temporal patterns that are actionable for course designers and instructors managing the timing and pacing of LMS-based courses.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study therefore aimed to identify temporal relationship patterns among indicators derived from log data in two LMS-based courses. To that end, we (a) adopted a modified Community of Inquiry (CoI) framework incorporating self-regulated learning to broaden the interpretative lens, (b) operationalised log data as indicators of the framework\u0026rsquo;s constructs, and (c) analysed cross-correlations among those indicators.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe acknowledge that trace data index observable actions and behaviours rather than latent constructs; consequently, their use as proxies for higher-order constructs requires careful theoretical mapping and operational justification (Dixson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Dornauer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Jin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Norz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Winter et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Theoretical background: the modified CoI framework","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe CoI framework, widely applied to analyse online learning, comprises three interdependent elements: social presence, cognitive presence and teaching presence (Garrison, 2003; Garrison et al., 1999; Swan et al., 2009). Social presence denotes open communication, cohesion and interpersonal rapport; cognitive presence describes the phases of meaning-making (triggering event, exploration, integration, resolution); and teaching presence covers course design, facilitation and instructional direction that enable the other two presences.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnalyses of LMS activity logs have been used to operationalise and extend CoI framework constructs by linking observable behaviours to pedagogical processes (Dawson, 2010). Empirical studies using log data and self-report measures show that behavioural patterns relate to performance, self-regulated strategies and motivation (Çebi \u0026amp; Guyer, 2020). Work by Çakiroğlu and Kahyar (2022) weighted Moodle interactions as indicators of cognitive, social, and teaching presence, finding that student–content interaction is especially central to cognitive presence, while social presence is aligned with peer and student–teacher exchanges, and teaching presence with student–system interactions. Content analyses of forum records further indicate that initial teaching presence can foster social presence, which then supports cognitive presence (Akyol \u0026amp; Garrison, 2011; Li, 2022).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShea and Bidjerano (2012) and subsequent studies report that the three presences interact dynamically and may compensate for one another; this led to proposals that learning presence (self-regulation) moderates their relationships (Shea et al., 2012; Cho et al., 2017; Lyu, 2024; Na et al., 2024a). Integrating Zimmerman’s model of self-regulated learning into CoI framework broadens its explanatory power and helps account for how learners’ planning, monitoring and regulation mediate links between teaching/social presence and cognitive outcomes (Zimmerman, 2000; Espiritu et al., 2023; Dunmoye et al., 2025; Zhang et al., 2023).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis modification clarifies why specific actions—such as attending synchronous sessions, consulting learning guides, or posting in forums—may precede or follow one another. Evidence suggests a temporal pattern in which teaching presence initially scaffolds interaction, strengthening social presence and thereby stimulating cognitive presence (Garrison, Anderson \u0026amp; Archer, 2000; Akyol \u0026amp; Garrison, 2011; Li, 2022). From a self-regulation perspective, task perception and goal setting trigger planning and metacognitive strategies that predict social engagement (Pintrich, 2000; Na et al., 2024b), while access to guides and tasks can initiate cycles of planning, performance and monitoring that socialise knowledge (Shea \u0026amp; Bidjerano, 2012; Jin et al., 2016; Swan et al., 2009). Learning guides have been reported to prompt idea exploration and collaborative engagement (Baldwin \u0026amp; Ching, 2019; Martin et al., 2020), although empirical evidence on these causal sequences remains limited.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRather than a fixed linear sequence, knowledge construction often follows a reciprocal feedback loop between individual and collaborative activity, contingent on instructional context and learners’ self-regulatory phase (Akyol \u0026amp; Garrison, 2011; Zhou \u0026amp; Ye, 2024; Zimmerman, 2000; Pardo et al., 2019).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo address the paucity of temporal analyses, this study examines temporal correlation patterns among proxy indicators of teaching, social and cognitive presence derived from Moodle activity logs in two courses: one instructor-led and one augmented with peer facilitators.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. Research questions","content":"\u003cp\u003eDrawing on the preceding theoretical background, this study addresses three interrelated research questions about the temporal relations among teaching, cognitive and social presence, operationalised via log-based proxies of CoI-related activity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTeaching presence and cognitive/social presence. We examine whether synchronous teaching presence (attendance at videoconferencing sessions) scaffolds planning and clarification, producing subsequent increases in resource access and forum interaction.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eRQ1.\u003c/b\u003e What temporal relationship exists between access to videoconferencing (as an indicator of teaching presence) and actions associated with cognitive presence (access to learning guides, content, and assignments) and social presence (forum participation)?\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRationale: Cognitive as organiser of task cycles. We test whether access to learning guides and assignments, as proxies for cognitive presence, structure task cycles that alternate individual study and collaborative discussion when students seek clarification or share findings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eRQ2.\u003c/b\u003e What temporal relationship exists between access to the learning guide and assignments\u0026mdash;as elements that activate cognitive and social presence\u0026mdash;and the exploration of content and participation in forums?\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRationale: Dynamics across course phases. We investigate how the cognitive\u0026ndash;social relationship varies over the course: social interaction may lead during orientation, whereas individual cognitive activity may precede social peaks during resolution and consolidation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eRQ3.\u003c/b\u003e What temporal relationship exists between cognitive presence (access to cognitive resources) and social presence (forum participation) throughout the course?\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. Method","content":"\u003ch3\u003e4.1.\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp; Experimental setting\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted within the framework of a training program for digital mentoring of older adults based on the ADDIE model (Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation) (Molenda, 2015; Siemens, 2002) (Figure 1).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Analysis: A review of scientific literature was conducted on cases of digital literacy practices through peer-to-peer methods, identifying the didactic gaps among mentors, given the diversity of the target group, which shares common characteristics such as medium-to-high cultural levels and intermediate or advanced digital skills. Additionally, the geographic dispersion of these individuals across the territory highlights the suitability of using digital platforms for communication and learning. Finally, a group of experts established the advisability of a modular and practical structure based on the main functions of digital mentoring practices.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Design: A group of 10 experts developed each of the two modules: (a) digital mentoring, and (b) the design and development of digital literacy workshops. Each module was designed with reference to the CoI framework (Table 1).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eDesign of the learning model based on the CoI framework\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"566\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eComponent\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 218px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePurpose\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 226px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLearning resources used\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTeaching presence\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 218px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTo create a supportive learning climate, encourage interaction, and motivate participation.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTo provide feedback, synthesise ideas, and offer supplementary resources (Garrison et al., 1999).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 226px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVideoconferencing sessions.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLearning guides.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSocial presence\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 218px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTo promote participation, mutual support, and social interaction among students (Rourke et al., 2001).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 226px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDiscussion forums on module topics Forums focused on each module\u0026rsquo;s assessment assignment.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCognitive presence\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 218px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTo support the construction of meaning and knowledge through deep thinking and collaboration (Garrison, Anderson \u0026amp; Archer, 2001).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 226px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInfographic materials covering module content Interactive infographics explaining assignments.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDiscussion and assignment forums.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e- \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Development\u003cem\u003e:\u003c/em\u003e For each module, the following materials were developed: (a) a didactic guide for instructors and learners, (b) interactive infographics and testimonial videos, (c) two videoconference sessions, (d) discussion forums on the module content, (e) assignment forum and (f) tasks based on case resolution and the design of a training workshop project. Each module was validated by a group of 40 experts in the field of communication and pedagogical innovation. To measure the quality of the materials, the \u0026quot;challenge\u0026quot; component of the environmental complexity model (Shernoff et al., 2016) was used, along with the subjective usability scale (SUS) (Brooke, 1996) (Appendix).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFinally, a pilot test was conducted with a group of 14 older adults with intermediate or advanced digital skills, involving 6 instructors. The two modules were implemented, and feedback was gathered from both the 14 participants and the 6 instructors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e-\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Implementation:\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eBased on recommendations from the pilot test, the final version of the program simplified its content and tasks. Instructors were trained in the goals and structure of the final course version, its materials, and tasks. The instructors also participated in the course\u0026apos;s development and pilot test. Participants were instructed on the program content and practiced using the e-learning platform. Furthermore, the platform was adapted to a user-friendly environment, including only the essential components for course access: (a) didactic guide, (b) interactive infographics, (c) discussion forums, and (d) assignment instructions. The course implementation used two editions: case (a), a traditional edition delivered by instructors where all students shared the same instructors; and case (b), an edition with peer facilitators, who were selected from among the students who had successfully completed the first edition (case (a)) and had expressed interest in participating in the second.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe role of the peer facilitators was to participate in the videoconference sessions and in the discussion forums. The number of facilitator contributions was heterogeneous, both in terms of forum visits (Mean = 28.33, SD = 28.77) and posts (Mean = 4.25; SD = 5.36), as well as the number of interventions during videoconference sessions (Mean = 5.55; SD = 1.58).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHowever, implementing the version with peer facilitators required careful selection and training to ensure they had the necessary technical and facilitation skills. To ensure that the facilitators had the required skills, they were selected from among the graduate students of case (a). Clear expectations were set, and ongoing support was provided to the facilitators. Using peer facilitators in online courses for older adults also raised ethical considerations, so steps were taken to ensure that facilitators did not feel overburdened.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBoth editions lasted two weeks, corresponding to the two modules. Edition (a) was implemented from Monday to Sunday, while edition (b) was implemented from Wednesday to Tuesday.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs aforesaid, this study placed special emphasis on ethical considerations. Informed consent was obtained from all participants, ensuring that they understood the study\u0026apos;s objectives and that their participation was voluntary. Additionally, to protect participants\u0026apos; privacy, all collected and analysed data were anonymized. These measures ensure that the study adheres to ethical standards and respects the confidentiality of the information provided by the participants.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e-\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Post-Course Evaluation: After the completion of both course versions, two components of the Kirkpatrick model were used to evaluate course quality: (a) Performance was assessed through Pre-Test and Post-Test evaluations. (b) Students\u0026rsquo; reactions were measured using a Likert-type scale, focusing on course structure, material usability, support received from instructors and peers, and perceived learning outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe performance test revealed significant improvements between the pre-test and post-test results. Additionally, the student reaction questionnaire yielded scores above 4 across all scales, based on a 1-to-5 rating system.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e4.2.\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp; Participants\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe participants were recruited through a call issued by the Government of Andalusia, Spain, which funds and coordinates social centres for older adults, as well as through the Red Cross and the State Association of University Programmes for Seniors. Additionally, to ensure that participants had an intermediate or advanced level of digital skills, a scale was applied.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFinally, 72 participants were selected for this study: 27 from the first edition (case (a)) and 45 from the second edition (case (b)). The mean age of the participants was 65.41 (SD = 6.51), (31 women and 41 men), and with 10 or more activity records in any of the Moodle events.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e4.3.\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp; Operational mapping of log-based proxies to the constructs of the CoI framework\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFollowing extant practice, this study treats selected behavioural indicators as proxies for facets of the CoI framework.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTeaching presence was operationalised through access to real-time videoconferencing. Synchronous sessions constitute the principal form of instructional scaffolding in many online courses; attendance logs can provide direct evidence of students\u0026apos; exposure to instructor guidance and clarification, therefore may serve as a proxy of teaching presence (Dixson, 2015). Behavioural trace studies further support the use of synchronous session metrics as predictors of subsequent engagement with course materials (Winter et al., 2024).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSocial presence was operationalised via participation in assignment-related and thematic discussion forums. These behaviours represent opportunities for interpersonal interaction, collaboration, and affective communication, which are central to the conceptualisation of social presence within the CoI framework. Patterns of communication and collaboration in e-learning environments can be analysed to infer social and participatory engagement (Jin, Sung, \u0026amp; Kim, 2016).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCognitive presence was inferred from learners\u0026rsquo; interactions with instructional resources \u0026mdash;accesses to content pages, course guides and assignment descriptions \u0026mdash; together with assignment submission metadata. Measurable online behaviours such as assignment completion and resource access correlate with perceived cognitive engagement (Dixson, 2015).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTaken together, videoconference access, forum postings and resource‑access/submission logs were treated as valid, albeit partial, proxies for teaching, social and cognitive presence.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe units of analysis were the log-based proxies of CoI-related activity, i.e., the number of clicks made by participants on each of the course events (Rotelli \u0026amp; Monreale, 2023). In line with the aim of the study, 4,276 records were selected (Table 2).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eUnits of analysis\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"595\" class=\"fr-table-selection-hover\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLog-based proxies\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 189px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDescription\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCode in Moodle\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCase(a) (n = 27)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCase(b)(n = 45)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVideoconferences\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 189px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA student clicks on an external link to access the videoconference\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eURL \u0026ndash; videoconference \u0026ndash; viewed\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e69\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e217\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLearning Guide\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 189px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA student views a resource \u0026ndash; SCORM package of the teaching guide\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCourse module \u0026ndash; teaching guide \u0026ndash; viewed\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e184\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e300\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExplore Assignment\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 189px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA student views a resource \u0026ndash; SCORM package of the module\u0026rsquo;s assignment content\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCourse module \u0026ndash; assignment \u0026ndash; viewed\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e684\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1,264\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExplore Content\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 189px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA student views a resource \u0026ndash; SCORM package of the module\u0026rsquo;s content\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCourse module \u0026ndash; contents \u0026ndash; viewed\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e249\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e371\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDiscussion Forum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 189px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA student posts a new message\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePost created\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e126\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e237\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAssignment Forum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 189px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA student posts a new message\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePost created\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e317\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e147\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDelivery Created\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 189px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA student uploads a file or begins completing the submission form, and clicks \u0026ldquo;submit for grading\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSubmission created\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e66\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 189px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1,674\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2,602\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e4.4.\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp; Data analysis\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo identify interaction patterns among log-based proxies of CoI-related activity, the records were arranged in chronological order using SPSS software, version 27.0.1.0.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe variables analysed were the time series corresponding to each of the seven units of analysis over a 14-day period, which matched the duration of the course. To address RQ1, the variables used were access to videoconferences, access to the learning guide, exploration of content, exploration of assignments, and participation in forums. To address RQ2, the variables included access to the learning guide, exploration of assignments, and participation in both discussion forums and assignment forums. For RQ3, the variables comprised access to the learning guide, exploration of content, exploration of assignments, and participation in both types of forums.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePrior to commencing the analysis, (a) missing data were addressed through systematic deletion, thereby preserving the temporal coherence of the series; (b) all metrics were subjected to a normalisation procedure (mean = 0, standard deviation = 1), ensuring comparability across variables and preventing those with wider numerical ranges from disproportionately influencing the results; (c) records were aggregated into uniform temporal intervals and organised into analytically coherent categories, which facilitated the construction of comparable series with sufficient density for robust examination; and (d) unequal levels of participation were mitigated by applying minimum activity thresholds, thereby ensuring that the correlations captured patterns representative of the dataset as a whole rather than being skewed by extreme cases.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo examine how the variables were related over time, the following steps were undertaken: (a) each variable was transformed into a time series; (b) a Pearson correlation analysis was conducted to explore relationships among variables; and (c) a cross-correlation analysis was performed to assess the time lag between two series (e.g. how a change in one variable may affect another after a certain period).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCross-correlation is a technique that quantifies the extent to which a series of activities is correlated with others at different time points, helping understand how they influence one another over time. In Moodle, cross-correlations were used to identify relationships between variables, both when they occurred simultaneously and when delayed effects were present. For the 14 observations, following the recommendations of Shumway \u0026amp; Stoffer (2017), the analysis was restricted to \u0026plusmn;3 lags, which allowed for a minimally reasonable number of overlapping pairs (ideally \u0026ge;10).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e5.1. Case (a)\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e5.1.1. Descriptive results\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTable \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e shows a significant progression in student participation across the various course activities. The \u0026ldquo;learning guide\u0026rdquo; variable displays notable peaks at the beginning of each module (38 in Module 1 and 30 in Module 2. \u0026ldquo;Videoconference\u0026rdquo; also features prominently at the start of each module. Participation in \u0026ldquo;discussion forum\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;assignment forum\u0026rdquo; is moderate yet consistent. The variables \u0026ldquo;explore assignment\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;explore content\u0026rdquo; show sustained growth, reaching peaks of 127 and 69 respectively, which suggests active engagement with the learning resources. Finally, \u0026ldquo;delivery created\u0026rdquo; remains low overall, with occasional spikes.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCount and percentage of log-based proxies of CoI-related activity (case (a))\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVideo conference\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLearning Guide\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExplore Assignment\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExplore Content\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDiscussion Forum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAssignment Forum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDelivery Created\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMod.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.06.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.06.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.06.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.06.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.06.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.06.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.06.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e69\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMod.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.06.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e127\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.06.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.06.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e59\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.06.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.06.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22.06.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.06.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e5.1.2. Results of the correlation analysis and cross-correlation\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section4\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e5.1.2.1. Correlation analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA Pearson correlation analysis was conducted using the normalised values of each series. Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e presents the correlations among the recorded log-based proxies of CoI-related activity.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePearson correlations between time series of log-based proxies of CoI-related activity (case (a))\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1. Videoconference\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2. Learning Guide\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.870\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3. Explore Assignment\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.720\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.399\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4. Explore Content\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.711\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.795\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.276\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5. Discussion Forum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.181\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.159\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.344\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6. Assignment Forum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.649\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.760\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.300\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.809\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.259\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7. Delivery Created\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.022\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.256\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.517\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.485\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.191\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.381\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e*p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05, **p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTable \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e reveals significant relationships among various educational activities. \u0026ldquo;Videoconferencing\u0026rdquo; is strongly associated with the use of the \u0026ldquo;learning guide\u0026rdquo; (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.870, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01), as well as with \u0026ldquo;assignment exploration\u0026rdquo; (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.720, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01) and \u0026ldquo;content exploration\u0026rdquo; (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.711, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01), suggesting that students who participate in synchronous sessions also actively engage with the available learning resources.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Videoconferencing\u0026rdquo; is also moderately linked to the \u0026ldquo;assignment forum\u0026rdquo; (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.649, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05), although other correlations with the \u0026ldquo;discussion forum\u0026rdquo; are weak and statistically non-significant (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.100 to .344, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.05).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Learning guide\u0026rdquo; shows a high correlation with \u0026ldquo;content exploration\u0026rdquo; (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.795, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01) and with the \u0026ldquo;assignment forum\u0026rdquo; (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.760, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01). Likewise, \u0026ldquo;content exploration\u0026rdquo; is significantly related to the \u0026ldquo;assignment forum\u0026rdquo; (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.809, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFinally, the \u0026ldquo;delivery created\u0026rdquo; variable presents negative correlations with several resources, such as the \u0026ldquo;learning guide\u0026rdquo; (r = -0.256, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.05) and \u0026ldquo;content exploration\u0026rdquo; (r = -0.485, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.05), without statistical significance.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section4\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e5.1.2.2. Cross-correlation analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe cross-correlation analysis shows that certain activities are strongly related to each other at different time lags. Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e presents the data within the range of -3 to 2, as no significant correlations were found at other time lags.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCross-correlation between log-based proxies of CoI-related activity (case (a))\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSeries A\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSeries B\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOptimal Lag\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003er\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRQ1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVideoconference\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExplore Content\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.711 (.267)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVideoconference\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLearning Guide\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.867 (.267)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVideoconference\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExplore Assignments\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.720 (.267)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.003\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVideoconference\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAssignment Forum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.649 (.267)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.010\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVideoconference\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDiscussion Forum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.732 (.289)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRQ2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLearning Guide\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExplore Content\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.795 (.267)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLearning Guide\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDelivery Created\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.491 (.277)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.085\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLearning Guide\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExplore Assignments\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.399 (.267)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.318\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLearning Guide\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDiscussion Forum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.572 (.289)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.042\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLearning Guide\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAssignment Forum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.760 (.267)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExplore Assignments\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExplore Content\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-529 (.302)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.073\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExplore Assignments\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDelivery Created\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.517 (.267)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.077\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExplore Assignments\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDiscussion Forum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.642 (.289)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.013\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExplore Assignments\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAssignment Forum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.378 (.289)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.352\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRQ3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExplore Content\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDiscussion Forum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.344 (.267)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.165\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExplore Content\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAssignment Forum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.809 (.267)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe cross-correlation analysis of activity logs in Moodle reveals significant relationships between various activities with time lags. Below is a summary of the key findings (Fig. 2).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRegarding RQ1\u003c/strong\u003e, the results show positive and highly significant correlations between the use of \u0026ldquo;videoconferencing\u0026rdquo; and other key activities. The relationship with the \u0026ldquo;learning guide\u0026rdquo; is particularly strong (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.867, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.000), suggesting that students who participate in videoconferencing sessions also engage intensively with the learning guides. Significant correlations are also observed with \u0026ldquo;explore assignment\u0026rdquo; (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.720, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.003), \u0026ldquo;explore content\u0026rdquo; (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.711, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.002), and the \u0026ldquo;assignment forum\u0026rdquo; (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.649, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.010), all with an optimal lag of 0, indicating that these activities occur simultaneously. The correlation with the \u0026ldquo;discussion forum\u0026rdquo; (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.732, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.002) appears with a lag of 2, reflecting forum participation two days after accessing the videoconference.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRegarding RQ2\u003c/strong\u003e, the \u0026ldquo;learning guide\u0026rdquo; variable is strongly related to \u0026ldquo;explore content\u0026rdquo; (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.795, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.000) and \u0026ldquo;assignment forum\u0026rdquo; (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.760, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.000), both with a lag of 0, suggesting that students consult these resources concurrently. The correlation with \u0026ldquo;discussion forum\u0026rdquo; (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.572, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.042, lag 2) is also significant, indicating possible interaction two days later. In contrast, the relationship with \u0026ldquo;delivery created\u0026rdquo; is negative (r = \u0026ndash;.491, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.085), although not statistically significant, which may suggest that those who consult the guides do not typically submit work immediately. Correlations between \u0026ldquo;explore assignments\u0026rdquo; and other variables are weaker, with significance observed only in relation to the \u0026ldquo;discussion forum\u0026rdquo; (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.642, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.013, lag 2), suggesting that students tend to participate in discussion forums two days after accessing the assignment.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRegarding RQ3\u003c/strong\u003e, a very strong correlation is observed between \u0026ldquo;explore content\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;assignment forum\u0026rdquo; (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.809, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.000), indicating that students who explore content also actively participate in submission-related forums. In contrast, the relationship with \u0026ldquo;discussion forum\u0026rdquo; is weak and not statistically significant (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.344, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.165), suggesting that content exploration is not directly linked to participation in open discussions.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e5.2. Case (b)\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e5.2.1. Descriptive results\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTable \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e shows a clear progression in student participation across the two course modules. The \u0026ldquo;learning guide\u0026rdquo; variable reflects a high initial level of interest, with 57 records on the first day of Module 1 and 49 at the start of Module 2. \u0026ldquo;Videoconferencing\u0026rdquo; also features prominently at the beginning of each module. Participation in \u0026ldquo;discussion forum\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;assignment forum\u0026rdquo; remains moderate yet consistent, with peaks of up to 31 posts in the discussion forum and 102 in the assignment forum. The \u0026ldquo;explore assignment\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;explore content\u0026rdquo; variables show progressive growth, reaching peaks of 143 and 30 respectively. Finally, \u0026ldquo;delivery created\u0026rdquo; remains relatively low, although with occasional spikes that coincide with assignment deadlines.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCount and percentage of log-based proxies of CoI-related activity (case (b))\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVideoconference\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLearning Guide\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExplore Assignment\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExplore Content\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAssignment Forum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDiscussion Forum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDelivery Created\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMod. 1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e06.11.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e56\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e84\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e102\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e07.11.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e84\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e08.11.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e09.11.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.11.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e115\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e97\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.11.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e128\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.11.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMod. 2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.11.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.11.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.11.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.11.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.11.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.11.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e143\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.11.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e125\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e5.2.2. Results of the correlational analysis and cross-correlation\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section4\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e5.2.2.1. Correlations analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTable \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e reveals significant relationships among various course activities, shedding light on student behavioural patterns. \u0026ldquo;Videoconferencing\u0026rdquo; shows a very strong correlation with the \u0026ldquo;learning guide\u0026rdquo; (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.858, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01) and \u0026ldquo;explore content\u0026rdquo; (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.762, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01). In turn, the \u0026ldquo;learning guide\u0026rdquo; is strongly associated with \u0026ldquo;explore content\u0026rdquo;(r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.891, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe \u0026ldquo;explore assignment\u0026rdquo; variable displays a strong correlation with \u0026ldquo;delivery created\u0026rdquo; (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.805, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01), reflecting that task exploration is closely linked to the act of submitting work. In contrast, \u0026ldquo;assignment forum\u0026rdquo; shows weak or negative correlations with most variables, which may suggest a more independent or less integrated use within the overall activity flow.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFinally, \u0026ldquo;discussion forum\u0026rdquo; is moderately associated with the \u0026ldquo;learning guide\u0026rdquo; (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.505) and \u0026ldquo;explore content\u0026rdquo; (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.764, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01) variables, indicating that participation in discussions is related to engagement with learning resources.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab7\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 7\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePearson correlations between time series of log-based proxies of CoI-related activity (case (b))\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1. Videoconference\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2. Learning Guide\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.858\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3. Explore Assignment\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.104\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.223\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4. Explore Content\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.762\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.891\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.357\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5. Discussion Forum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.312\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.505\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.208\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.764\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6. Assignment Forum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.153\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.121\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.468\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.008\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.092\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7. Delivery Create\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.256\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.072\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.805\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.083\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.024\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.157\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003ctfoot\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003e**p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tfoot\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section4\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e5.2.2.2. Cross-correlation analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;8 presents the correlations between variables at different time lags. Time lags ranging from \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3 to 3 were used.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 8\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eCross-correlation between log-based proxies of CoI-related activity (case (b))\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"Left\"\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"566\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSeries A\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSeries B\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOptimal Lag\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003er\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"6\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRQ1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVideoconference\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExplore Content\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.762 (.269)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.015\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVideoconference\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDelivery Created\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.354 (.277)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.225\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVideoconference\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLearning Guide\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.858 (.267)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.007\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVideoconference\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExplore Assignments\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.543 (.302)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.097\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVideoconference\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAssignment Forum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.628 (.289)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.050\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVideoconference\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDiscussion Forum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.312 (.267)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.265\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"9\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRQ2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLearning Guide\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExplore Content\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.891 (.267)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.005\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLearning Guide\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDelivery Created\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.529 (.302)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.105\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLearning Guide\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExplore Assignments\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.742 (.302)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.030\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLearning Guide\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDiscussion Forum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.505 (.267)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.082\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLearning Guide\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAssignment Forum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.594 (.289)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.062\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExplore Assignments\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExplore Content\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.595 (.302)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.072\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExplore Assignments\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDelivery Created\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.805 (.267)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.010\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExplore Assignments\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDiscussion Forum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.322 (.289)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.287\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExplore Assignments\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAssignment Forum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.468 (.267)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.105\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRQ3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExplore Content\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDiscussion Forum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.764 (.267)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.014\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExplore Content\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAssignment Forum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.288 (.289)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.338\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRegarding RQ1\u003c/strong\u003e, the results show positive and significant correlations between the \u0026ldquo;videoconference\u0026rdquo; variable and several key resources. Its strong association with the \u0026ldquo;learning guide\u0026rdquo; (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.858, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.007) and \u0026ldquo;explore content\u0026rdquo; (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.762, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.015), both with an optimal lag of 0, suggests that students who participate in synchronous sessions also actively consult study materials. A further significant correlation is observed with the \u0026ldquo;assignment forum\u0026rdquo; (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.628, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.050, lag \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2), indicating that \u0026ldquo;forum participation\u0026rdquo; may precede \u0026ldquo;videoconferencing\u0026rdquo; by two days. In contrast, the relationship with \u0026ldquo;explore assignments\u0026rdquo; is negative (r = \u0026ndash;.543, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.097, lag 3), although not statistically significant, which may reflect a temporal disconnect between these activities. Correlations with \u0026ldquo;delivery created\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;discussion forum\u0026rdquo; are weak and not significant.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRegarding RQ2\u003c/strong\u003e, the \u0026ldquo;learning guide\u0026rdquo; variable shows a very strong negative correlation with \u0026ldquo;explore content\u0026rdquo; (r = \u0026ndash;.891, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.005). Negative correlations are also observed with \u0026ldquo;explore assignments\u0026rdquo; (r = \u0026ndash;.742, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.030, lag 3) and \u0026ldquo;delivery created\u0026rdquo; (r = \u0026ndash;.529, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.105), although the latter is not statistically significant. These inverse relationships may be attributed to the presence of peer facilitators who potentially compensate for the role of guidance materials. In contrast, a positive correlation is detected with the \u0026ldquo;assignment forum\u0026rdquo; (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.594, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.062, lag \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2) and the \u0026ldquo;discussion forum\u0026rdquo; (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.505, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.082), indicating that the use of guides may be linked to participation in collaborative spaces. Additionally, the \u0026ldquo;explore assignments\u0026rdquo; variable is positively associated with \u0026ldquo;delivery created\u0026rdquo; (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.805, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.010).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRegarding RQ3\u003c/strong\u003e, a significant correlation is observed between \u0026ldquo;explore content\u0026rdquo; and the \u0026ldquo;discussion forum\u0026rdquo; (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.764, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.014), indicating that students who explore content also actively engage in discussions. Moreover, although the relationship with the \u0026ldquo;assignment forum\u0026rdquo; is weak and not significant (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.288, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.338, lag 2), it suggests that \u0026ldquo;content exploration\u0026rdquo; may precede participation in task-related forums.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"6. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe results obtained in both cases (a) and (b) reveal temporal patterns that reflect the interaction between log-based proxies of CoI-related activity (Garrison, Anderson \u0026amp; Archer, 2001).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(a)\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;Observed correlations between videoconferencing access and log-based proxies of cognitive presence-related activity\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn both cases, and at the same time point, videoconferencing appears as a relevant element associated with cognitive engagement. Videoconferencing has been linked to the fostering of social presence (Richardson et al., 2017) and teaching presence, as instructors guide discussions and support learning during these sessions. In both case studies, these sessions were observed in connection with cognitive activities such as engaging with the learning guide and exploring course content, indicating a temporal association between videoconferencing and proxies of cognitive activity. This pattern is consistent with research emphasising the role of synchronous teaching presence in shaping asynchronous learning processes (Richardson et al., 2017; Fuertes-Alpiste et al., 2022).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRecent studies suggest that videoconferencing may enhance content comprehension and encourage participation in subsequent activities, such as forum discussions (Fuertes-Alpiste et al., 2022). The delayed correlation observed between videoconferencing and forum participation in case (a) could be interpreted in relation to cognitive overload (Sweller, 2021), which occurs when individuals receive more information than they can process, thereby affecting their problem-solving and decision-making abilities. In contrast, in case (b), the non-significant but simultaneous correlation points to a possible mediating role played by peer facilitators, who may have contributed to alleviating the cognitive load during videoconferencing sessions (Rourke et al., 2001).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(b)\u0026nbsp;Temporal associations between log-based proxies of cognitive presence and social participation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe correlation between access to content, learning guides and forum participation indicates moments of cognitive activation. In case (a), the delayed correlation between task exploration and participation in discussion forums suggests a sequence in which learners process information before engaging in interaction, consistent with the integration phase of cognitive presence described by Garrison et al. (2001).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLikewise, the results support the notion that the learning guide is a valuable tool that encourages learners to navigate resources and engage in various proposed activities (Anderson, 2008). Recent studies suggest that access to well-designed guides enables students to plan and follow their learning activities independently, fostering cognitive presence from the outset (Baldwin \u0026amp; Ching, 2019) and increasing the likelihood of participating in collaborative tasks (Martin et al., 2020). In case (a), access to the learning guide was not only correlated with engagement with course content, but also with participation in task forums at the same time point, and with a two-day lag in relation to participation in the discussion forum. In contrast, in case (b), a strong (though not statistically significant) correlation was found at the same time point between access to the guide and participation in the discussion forum. These findings suggest that, depending on the course context, access to the learning guide may stimulate both immediate and delayed social presence focused on exploration and idea generation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(c)\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;Alternation and synchronicity between log-based proxies of individual and social activity\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCognitive activities such as content and task exploration, and social activities such as participation in discussion forums and collaborative tasks, exhibit temporal relationships that vary according to context. In both cases (a) and (b), with no time lag, content exploration correlates with posts in both discussion and task forums. With a two-day lag in case (a), exploration of the learning task precedes posts in discussion forums. This dynamic illustrates how cognitive presence (thinking and reflecting) and social presence (interacting with others) complement one another. Learners alternate between processing content and engaging with peers, either synchronously or with delay. In this regard, recent studies highlight that learners tend to oscillate between individual activities (such as content exploration) and collaborative ones (such as forum participation) to deepen their understanding, positively influencing academic performance (Espinosa \u0026amp; Saltos, 2024). Additionally, the temporal fluctuations in forum participation can be interpreted through Zimmerman’s (2000) self-regulated learning model, in which learners adjust their levels of interaction and reflection in response to course demands.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis finding is consistent with studies indicating that social presence does not always precede or follow cognitive presence, but rather that both presences mutually reinforce one another in cycles of participation (Zhou \u0026amp; Ye, 2024; Akyol \u0026amp; Garrison, 2011).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn case (b), the non-significant but simultaneous correlation between access to the guide and forum participation suggests immediate social activation, possibly influenced by the course context. While causality cannot be established, studies such as Swan et al. (2009) have documented that course design and the presence of peer facilitators can modulate the intensity of social presence by synchronizing it with individual cognitive actions.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"7. Practical implications for instructional design","content":"\u003cp\u003eConsidering the associations identified within the participant group of this study the following considerations may inform the design of digital learning experiences. While these suggestions are grounded in observed correlations, they should be interpreted with caution and not assumed to imply causal effectiveness:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(a) Videoconferencing may be considered as a potential point of cognitive activation, followed by asynchronous activities that support individual reflection and information processing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(b) The use of learning guides that link access to content with participation in collaborative activities could foster both learner autonomy and social interaction.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(c) Attention to the temporal patterns of learner interaction may assist in adjusting course pacing and promoting a balanced alternation between individual and collaborative activities, in alignment with self-regulated learning models.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese recommendations are offered as design considerations reflecting associations identified in a small, focused convenience sample, and further validation in broader contexts is advised.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"8. Limitations and future research","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe sample size employed in this study is consistent with exploratory research involving log data in short-format courses; however, it limits both the generalisability of the findings and the statistical power of the analyses. Future studies would benefit from the use of larger and more diverse samples to corroborate and extend the observed associations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough the participant groups shared certain socio-demographic characteristics, unmeasured individual differences, such as prior experience with online learning or motivational factors, may have influenced interaction patterns. Accounting for these additional attributes in future sampling strategies would enhance the interpretative robustness of the findings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, the interpretation of log data as proxy indicators of cognitive, social, and teaching presence within the Community of Inquiry (CoI) framework entails inherent uncertainty. These metrics primarily capture patterns of participation and do not constitute direct evidence of the presences themselves.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo strengthen the validity and depth of future analyses, it is recommended that subsequent research incorporate complementary qualitative data, extend the duration of observation, and include more heterogeneous participant profiles.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"9. Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study demonstrates how log-based proxies of activity in Moodle, related to the CoI framework, provide a valid and replicable means of identifying temporal interaction patterns. It is acknowledged that trace data index observable actions and behaviours rather than latent constructs, yet the temporal analysis of such proxies offers valuable insights into real-time dynamics associated with cognitive and social presence. The findings reveal significant correlations among different proxies (such as access to content, learning guides, forum participation, and videoconferencing) thereby contributing to a more precise understanding of how interactions unfold in virtual environments and reinforcing the potential of the CoI framework to advance methodologies for measuring online learning. \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics Approval Information\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study adhered strictly to the fundamental ethical principles governing research involving human participants. All individuals were informed about the objectives of the study, its voluntary nature, and their right to withdraw at any time without consequence. Written informed consent was obtained, and all data were pseudonymised prior to analysis using Moodle’s native functionality, in line with ethical standards that safeguard confidentiality and privacy. These procedures complied with the ethical provisions of the Declaration of Helsinki and the national regulations applicable to educational research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe dataset was reviewed by the host institution and subsequently published on Zenodo; the DOI has been withheld to preserve anonymity during peer review.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Andalusia (SICEIA-2025-001665), Spain, with an approval date of 31 October 2025.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAkyol, Z. \u0026amp; Garrison, D.R. 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(2024) \u0026lsquo;Investigating cognitive engagement patterns in online collaborative learning: A temporal learning analytic study\u0026rsquo;,\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eInteractive Learning Environments\u003c/em\u003e, 32(10), pp.6997\u0026ndash;7013. doi:10.1080/10494820.2023.2299976\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[{"identity":"c12b4341-2f6d-4d6b-bf47-5a7b6c984bcc","identifier":"10.13039/100014440","name":"Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades","awardNumber":"TED2021-129253B-100","order_by":0},{"identity":"a90333d4-f691-4bad-a562-4a64fbdfe79a","identifier":"10.13039/100014440","name":"Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades","awardNumber":"PID2021-123552OB-I00","order_by":1},{"identity":"5bafbdf5-0ca4-4ea8-9fa6-7b02d091bea0","identifier":"10.13039/501100018943","name":"Consejería de Conocimiento, Investigación y Universidad, Junta de Andalucía","awardNumber":"PROYEXCEL_00320 ","order_by":2}],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"digital literacy, older adults, peer support, Community of Inquiry (CoI) framework, online learning","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8379219/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8379219/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study explores temporal interaction patterns within the Community of Inquiry (CoI) framework using Moodle activity logs from two online courses for older adults. Both courses shared identical content and structure, but differed in facilitation: case (a) involved a single instructor (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;27), while case (b) included peer facilitators (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;45). A total of 4,276 log entries were analysed as proxy variables for teaching, social, and cognitive presence. These were converted into time series and examined through cross-correlation analysis with a three-day lag. The results sugest that accessing the course guide and attending synchronous sessions are key triggers for cognitive and social engagement. Alternating patterns were also observed between individual content processing and social interaction. These findings provide valuable insights into the temporal dynamics of online learning interactions, particularly for instructional planning and process-oriented research.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Temporal Interaction Patterns in Online Learning: A Study Based on the Community of Inquiry Framework in Two Case Studies","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-12-18 05:19:27","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8379219/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"2ad245d4-3b69-4c1a-88d7-d952145d1ac6","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 18th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-12-18T05:19:27+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-12-18 05:19:27","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8379219","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8379219","identity":"rs-8379219","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}