Pixels of Wisdom: Philosophical Health via a Self-Knowledge Digital Survey

Pixels of Wisdom: Philosophical Health via a Self-Knowledge Digital Survey | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Pixels of Wisdom: Philosophical Health via a Self-Knowledge Digital Survey Luis de Miranda This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5265520/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study explores the concept of philosophical health through the lens of digital knowledge platforms. It addresses the relative underrepresentation of philosophy in digital humanities and explores new avenues for philosophical inquiry and practice in the digital age. We employed an online survey to gather responses from 239 participants across six key elements of philosophical health: bodily sense, sense of self, sense of belonging, sense of the possible, sense of purpose, and philosophical sense. Using this pilot case, we examine how philosophy may utilize digital knowledge infrastructures to explore complex existential questions on a broader scale than analog methods allow. Our findings reveal insights into contemporary philosophical perspectives, including for example widespread feelings of disconnection from one’s body, a high percentage believing their self to be evolving, and prevalent feelings of loneliness which might or might not be digitally enhanced. We further discuss the ethical implications of using digital platforms for philosophical health assessment, including issues of privacy, informed consent, algorithmic bias, and the potential commodification of philosophical practice. We examine future directions, including AI-assisted philosophical counseling and non-metaphorical “wisdom of the crowds” research. Additionally, we explore how a digital approach may contribute to the accessibility of philosophical practice, potentially supporting ideas of “citizen science” in philosophy. Humanities/Health humanities Humanities/Philosophy Social science/Science technology and society 1. Introduction The intersection of philosophical inquiry and digital knowledge infrastructures presents unique opportunities and challenges. On one hand, digital platforms offer unprecedented access to philosophical ideas, archives, and practices, potentially democratizing philosophical discourse and expanding its reach beyond traditional academic boundaries. On the other hand, the translation of nuanced philosophical concepts into digital formats and self-inquiry protocols raises questions about the depth of philosophical understanding as well as the role of technology in shaping our worldviews and well-being. We have entered an era of rapid digitalization in research and higher education, and philosophy finds itself at a critical juncture. While digital humanities have flourished in other disciplines, philosophy has been less represented in this domain. This study aims to address and question this gap by exploring the concept of philosophical health through a digital lens, utilizing the experimental case of an online survey based on the SMILE_PH framework, an acronym for Sense-Making Interviews Looking at Elements of Philosophical Health (de Miranda, 2023) In recent decades, there has been a growing recognition of the importance of mental health and well-being in various aspects of human life. While psychological and psychiatric approaches have dominated this field, there is an emerging interest in the concept of “philosophical health” as a complementary perspective on human flourishing (Tukiainen, 2010; de Miranda, 2024). This concept, rooted both in ancient philosophical traditions and contemporary philosophical practice, suggests that engaging with fundamental questions about existence, meaning, purpose, and worldview can contribute to overall well-being and life satisfaction. The notion of philosophical health draws from various philosophical traditions, including ancient Greek philosophy, existentialism, and phenomenology, as well as contemporary approaches to philosophical counseling and therapy (Raabe, 2001; Achenbach, 1984). It posits that individuals can achieve a state of well-being not just through addressing psychological symptoms or achieving material success, but through cultivating a coherent philosophical sense and inquisitive sense of purpose (Lahav & Tillmanns, 1995). The SMILE_PH method provides a framework for examining six key aspects of our existential condition: bodily sense, sense of self, sense of belonging, sense of the possible, sense of purpose, and philosophical sense. While typically employed in one-on-one analog philosophical counseling sessions, its potential for broader application through digital platforms is here explored for the first time. Conducted between July 2023 and September 2024, our study gathered online responses from 239 participants across these six key aspects of philosophical health. To date, most research on philosophical health and philosophical counselling has been qualitative, focusing on case studies or theoretical explorations. Our study points critically to a novel approach and question: how does using digital tools to gather quantitative data allow us to understand the prevalence of different philosophical perspectives and their potential relationships to global well-being? How do individuals from diverse backgrounds perceive and experience different aspects of their philosophical health when engaging through a digital platform? This approach aligns with recent calls for more interdisciplinary research at the intersection of applied philosophy and philosophical psychology (Fowers et al., 2021), while also addressing the need for philosophy to engage more fully with digitality. Additionally, we sought to identify patterns in responses that could inform future research and practice in the field of philosophical health, particularly in digital contexts. Our work also contributes to the growing field of digital humanities by demonstrating how philosophical inquiry can be structured and analyzed using digital tools. This could inspire new methodologies in other humanities disciplines, fostering a broader digital humanities approach to understanding human thought and culture (Berry & Fagerjord, 2017). In the following sections, we will detail our methodology, present our findings, and discuss their implications and limitations not only for the field of philosophical health but also for the broader and more systematic integration of philosophy into the digital humanities landscape. Through this analysis, we call for more research on the complex and multifaceted nature of philosophical health in the digital age, offering insights that can inform practical applications in digitally-enhanced philosophical counseling, education, and beyond. 2. Background and Theoretical Framework The concept of “philosophical health”, while relatively new in its explicit phrasing, has deep roots in the history of philosophy. The idea that philosophical reflection can contribute to well-being was prevalent in ancient philosophical traditions. In ancient Greece, philosophy was often seen as a way of life rather than merely an academic discipline (Hadot, 1995 ). Socrates famously claimed that the unexamined life is not worth living, emphasizing the importance of critical self-reflection and ethical inquiry in the existence of the citizen (Plato, Apology, 38a). Similarly, Aristotle and later Stoic philosophers like Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius advocated for the cultivation of wisdom and virtue as paths to eudaimonia, or human flourishing (Sellars, 2006 ). In the Eastern philosophical tradition, practices like Buddhist mindfulness and Taoist wu-wei (non-action) have long been associated with psychological and spiritual well-being (Kabat-Zinn, 2003 ; Slingerland, 2003 ). These approaches emphasize the importance of cultivating awareness, acceptance, and harmony with the natural world. The contemporary concept of philosophical health builds on these traditions while also incorporating insights from contemporary philosophy, psychology, and cognitive science (de Miranda, 2024 ). A part of the larger philosophical counselling movement, it seeks to bridge the gap between abstract philosophical inquiry and practical approaches to improving quality of life. The emergence of democratically accessible philosophical counseling in the late 20th century marked a significant step towards the practical application of philosophical ideas to personal well-being. Pioneers like Achenbach in Germany and Marinoff in the United States developed approaches that used philosophical dialogue and reflection to address life challenges and existential questions (Achenbach, 1984 ; Marinoff, 2002 ). Philosophical practice, as it has also come to be known, differs from psychotherapy in its dynamic questioning of normative imperatives and existential issues, rather than the application of psychological grids of diagnoses or disorders. Moreover, philosophical care remains untied to chemical medication, contrary to a significant part of contemporary psychological care approaches. Philosophical practice, which has been called a “therapy for the sane” (Marinoff, 2002 ), aims to help individuals clarify their values, examine their beliefs, and develop more coherent worldviews, using the sole clarifying – and to a certain extent healing – power of our intellects in dialogue. One of the important questions for the future of philosophical counselling is its relationship with digital platforms. Digital philosophy, as a field, encompasses both the use of digital tools for philosophical inquiry and the philosophical examination of digital technologies themselves (Bynum & Moor, 1998 ). The use of digital tools in philosophy has led to new methodologies and approaches. For instance, the development of large-scale text analysis tools has enabled philosophers to examine vast corpora of philosophical texts, potentially revealing patterns and connections that were previously difficult to discern (Ess, 2004 ). Similarly, online platforms for philosophical discussion and debate have created new spaces for the exchange of ideas, potentially democratizing access to philosophical discourse. It is important to consider how traditional approaches to philosophical health may intersect with emerging digital technologies. The digitalization of philosophy raises important questions about the nature of philosophical inquiry itself. As Dreyfus ( 2001 ) argues in his critique of digital intelligence, there may be aspects of human understanding and wisdom that resist formalization and digitalization, such as know-how, dialectic interactions, or intuition. This tension between the benefits of digital tools and the potential limitations of digital approaches to philosophical depth informs our decision to critically examine the expansion of philosophical health through online data collection. The SMILE_PH Method The SMILE_PH method (Sense-Making Interviews Looking at Elements of Philosophical Health) offers a promising approach to understanding and fostering human well-being (de Miranda, 2023 ). By integrating insights from various philosophical traditions, psychological theories, and cognitive science, this approach provides a framework for exploring the complex interplay between our bodily experiences, sense of self, social connections, perceptions of possibility, sense of purpose, and broader worldviews. Existentialism insists on individual meaning-making and confronting existential questions such as the ones displayed in the work of philosophers like Sartre ( 2007 ) and Camus ( 1955 ). These thinkers emphasized the importance of personal authenticity and constructively confronting the absurdity of existence to discover a more personal sense of the possible. Sartre’s equal recognition of the social and cultural influences on philosophical perspectives resonates with social constructionist approaches in sociology and psychology, which are important for example to understand our sense of belonging (Gergen, 1985 ). Another genealogical intellectual influence on the SMILE_PH method is phenomenology, which focuses on lived experience and first-person embodied existence, particularly the work of Merleau-Ponty ( 2012 ) on embodied perception and Heidegger ( 1962 ) on being-in-the-world. SMILE_PH relies on – and trusts a priori – the first-person narrative of the person even if it may question its overall philosophical and logical coherence. The importance of coherent life narratives and alignment between personal values and actions in philosophical health echoes narrative approaches in psychology, which emphasize the role of storytelling in identity formation and sense-making (McAdams, 2001 ). While philosophical health is distinct from purely psychological approaches, it shares some common ground with positive psychology’s focus on well-being, flourishing, and human strengths (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000 ). Both approaches seek to move beyond a focus on pathology to explore what contributes to and what constitutes a fulfilling embodied life. Recent developments in cognitive science, particularly in embodied and enactive cognition (Varela et al., 1991 ; Thompson, 2007 ), provide support for the interconnected nature of mind, body, and environment emphasized in the SMILE_PH approach. Building on these diverse foundations and others, the SMILE_PH method offers a semi-structured approach to exploring and fostering philosophical health on an individual and collective level. This method identifies six key elements of philosophical health: (A) bodily sense, (B) sense of self, (C) sense of belonging, (D) sense of the possible, (E) sense of purpose, and (F) philosophical sense. These six elements are not intended to be exhaustive or mutually exclusive, but rather to provide a comprehensive framework for progressively exploring or unveiling different aspects of a person’s philosophical perspective and existential well-being. A. Bodily Sense: This element explores the individual’s experienced relationship with their physical body and embodied existence. It draws on phenomenological approaches to embodiment (Merleau-Ponty, 2012 ) and recent research in embodied cognition (Shapiro, 2011 ). In a digital context, this aspect may in the future take on new significance when considering the impact of virtual environments and digital interfaces on our bodily sense (Hansen, 2007 ). B. Sense of Self: This aspect examines the person’s perception of their own identity and self-concept. It engages from a first-person’s perspective, with philosophical debates about personal identity (Parfit, 1984 ) and psychological research on self-concept clarity (Campbell et al., 1996 ). The digital age raises new questions about the nature of identity, particularly in the context of online personas, virtual realities, and loneliness (Turkle, 2011 ). This may be reflected in our results, as we will see in section 4 . C. Sense of Belonging: This element investigates the individual’s feelings of connection to others and to broader communities or contexts. It relates to psychological theories of belongingness (Baumeister & Leary, 1995 ) and sociological concepts of social cohesion (Durkheim, 1951 ). In the digital realm, this aspect take on new dimensions as we consider online communities of meaning and digital forms of social connection (Rheingold, 2000 ). D. Sense of the Possible: This aspect explores the individual’s perception of potential and possibility in their life. It connects speculatively to philosophical discussions of modality and possible worlds (Lewis, 1986 ), and more pragmatically to psychological research on self-confidence, optimism and hope (Snyder, 2002 ). Digital technologies, with their capacity to simulate and model alternative realities, may in the future offer new ways of engaging with the possible, such as virtual thought experiments (Brey, 2008 ). E. Sense of Purpose: This element examines the person’s sense of higher meaning and deep orientation in life. It engages with existential philosophical approaches for which meaningfulness is essential (Frankl, 2006 ) and recent psychological research showing that purpose in life is highly beneficial (Ryff & Singer, 2008 ). The digital age presents both specific challenges and opportunities for finding and maintaining a sense of purpose, as traditional sources of meaning are continuously disrupted, while new ones constantly emerge (Floridi, 2014 ). F. Philosophical Sense: This last aspect investigates the person’s broader worldview and explicit or implicit intellectual approach to understanding reality. It relates partly to epistemological and metaphysical debates about systems in philosophy (Chalmers, 1996 ), as well as research on the importance of worldviews to understand our mental ecosystems (Koltko-Rivera, 2004 ). In the context of digital knowledge infrastructures, this aspect takes on new significance as we consider how digital tools and platforms shape our access to and engagement with philosophical ideas and ideologies (Ess, 2009 ). Empirical Support and Challenges While the specific concept of “philosophical health” is relatively new, there is a growing body of research that supports the potential benefits of philosophical reflection and related practices. Research has shown for instance that a sense of meaning in life is associated with better physical and mental health outcomes (Steger et al., 2009 ; Czekierda et al., 2017 ). As aforementioned, other studies have found that coherent worldviews can contribute to psychological well-being and resilience (Koltko-Rivera, 2004 ; Janoff-Bulman & Yopyk, 2004 ). Research on mindfulness and other contemplative practices, which share some – but only partial – common ground with philosophical reflection, has shown various psychological and physiological benefits (Kabat-Zinn, 2003 ; Davidson et al., 2003 ). While empirical research on philosophical counseling is limited, some studies have suggested potential benefits in terms of increased self-coherence and problem-solving skills (Raabe, 2001 ). Researchers have argued for the potential therapeutic benefits of addressing existential concerns and fostering personal growth (Schneider, 2008 ; Yalom, 1980 ). There is still a need for more direct support for the specific concept of philosophical health and its proposed benefits. There is ongoing debate about how to define and measure the benefits of philosophical practice, given its multifaceted and somewhat subjective nature (Tukiainen, 2010 ). Some critics argue that the concept may be biased towards Western philosophical traditions and may not adequately account for diverse cultural perspectives on well-being (Christopher, 1999 ). There are also questions about how philosophical health relates to more established concepts of mental health and whether it can be distinguished from psychological well-being (Fowers et al., 2021 ). In the context of digital philosophy, one may look at emerging research on the impact of digital tools on philosophical practice and education. Studies have for example explored the effectiveness of online philosophy courses (Volek, 2021) or the potential of digital tools for enhancing philosophical argumentation and analysis (Breivik, 2020 ). These rare studies suggest that digital knowledge infrastructures may indeed support and enhance philosophical inquiry, though they also highlight potential challenges and limitations. These include questions about the authenticity of digital philosophical interactions, concerns about privacy and data ethics in online philosophical health assessments, and debates about the potential for digital technologies to enhance or hinder genuine philosophical reflection (Capurro & Hjørland, 2003 ; Floridi, 2013 ). Regarding our use of the SMILE_PH framework, the translation of this person-centered approach into a digital survey format raises questions about the potential for technology to mediate existential reflection. This aligns with ongoing debates in the philosophy of technology about the impact of digital mediation on human experience and understanding (Ihde, 1990 ; Verbeek, 2005 ). Nevertheless, the growing interest in philosophical approaches to well-being as well as their application via digital mediation should not be ignored. The present study aims to contribute to this emerging field and explore the use of quantitative tools in future research and practice at the intersection of philosophy, well-being, and digital knowledge. 3. Methodology Study Design and Data Collection This study employed a cross-sectional, quantitative design using an online survey to explore various aspects of philosophical health. The temporal portion of the survey that is here analyzed was conducted between July 17, 2023, and September 6, 2024, and was hosted on the website of the Philosophical Health International network ( https://philosophical.health ). This digital platform was chosen for its ability to reach a diverse, international audience and its alignment with our goal of exploring philosophical health through digital means. Participants were anonymous and self-selected, responding to an open invitation posted on the website with a link. This non-intrusive approach, while recognizing the potential limitations of self-selection bias in online surveys (Bethlehem, 2010 ), allowed us to gather a relatively broad sample. Due to the anonymous nature of the poll, no personal identifying information was collected from participants, not even their email. This decision was made to protect participant privacy and encourage candid responses, recognizing the sensitive nature of some of the philosophical questions being asked. In designing the digital survey, we carefully considered the implications of translating the typically in-person SMILE_PH method to an online format. This translation process involved not only adapting the questions but also considering how the digital interface might influence participants’ responses and engagement with the philosophical concepts being explored, of which more later. Participants A total of 239 individuals participated in this stage of the survey. Due to the simple proof-of-concept intention of this survey and the anonymous nature of the data collection, demographic information such as age, gender, education level, or geographic location was not gathered. This limitation in demographic data collection was a deliberate choice to encourage candid responses. However, we recognize that this decision limits our ability to analyze how philosophical perspectives might vary across different demographic groups or to assess the representativeness of our sample. The use of a digital platform for data collection allowed us to reach a potentially more diverse and international sample than traditional in-person methods might have allowed. However, we also acknowledge that this approach may have excluded individuals without internet access or those less comfortable with digital technology, potentially biasing our sample towards more technologically engaged participants. Instrument As aforementioned, the survey is based on the SMILE_PH (Sense-Making Interviews Looking at Elements of Philosophical Health) method. While the SMILE_PH method is typically used in semi-structured individual face-to-face interviews, allowing for a person-centered approach, this survey adapted the framework into a structured format suitable for quantitative data collection in a digital environment. This adaptation of the SMILE_PH method to a digital survey format presents both opportunities and challenges. On one hand, it allows for a larger sample size and standardized data collection. On the other hand, it requires careful consideration of how to maintain at least some of the depth and nuance of philosophical inquiry in a more structured, digital format. The survey consisted of six main categories, each corresponding to a key element of philosophical health as defined by the SMILE_PH method: 1. Bodily Sense; 2. Sense of Self; 3. Sense of Belonging; 4. Sense of the Possible; 5. Sense of Purpose; 6. Philosophical Sense. Within each category, participants were presented with multiple statements and could select all that applied to them. Additionally, an “Other” option was provided in each category, allowing participants to input their own responses if the pre-defined options did not fully capture their perspectives. This feature was designed to capture some of the richness and individuality of responses that might be lost in the transition from in-person interviews to a digital survey format. The full list of options for each category was as follows: 1. Bodily Sense: – My body is mostly my friend – I often listen to my body – My body often brings me joy – My mind and body are one – I discipline my body – The body is not the reflection of the soul – I tend to judge others by how they look like – My mind and body are separate – My body often brings me pain – My body is mostly my enemy – Other (open-ended response) 2. Sense of Self: – My self is evolving – I trust myself – I am hard on myself – Self-esteem is essential – I am self-confident – My self is hard to grasp – I don’t know who I am – I have been the same person all my life – I am the highest version of my possible selves – I don’t think the self is important – Other (open-ended response) 3. Sense of Belonging: – Family is essential – I belong to myself – I feel surrounded by people I care about – I belong to the cosmos – It is better to belong to a purpose rather than to a group – I feel lonely – I belong to a nurturing community – I don’t need to belong to make things happen – I belong to a toxic community – Family is a trap – Other (open-ended response) 4. Sense of the Possible: – My future is filled with possibilities – Everything is possible – I don’t control most of what is possible – I mostly control my possibilities – I decide what is possible – Destiny decides what is possible – In the past, more was possible – The others are obstacles – Everything is written – Not much is possible in this world – Other (open-ended response) 5. Sense of Purpose: – I have many goals that evolve – I have a high sense of purpose – My mission in life shapes my existence – I live in the here and now – The world needs a shared purpose – I live for the future – My purpose is not to suffer – I don’t have a purpose in life – My purpose is to have fun – A higher purpose is dangerous – Other (open-ended response) 6. Philosophical Sense: – Understanding improves our actions – Everything happens for a reason – The universe is a sort of mind – The world needs a shared philosophical vision – There is a higher power above us – We can co-create Paradise on Earth – The universe is random – Life is suffering – Life is about competition and survival – Philosophy is too remote from real life – Other (open-ended response) In designing these options, we aimed to balance the need for standardized responses with the desire to capture the complexity and diversity of philosophical perspectives in each of the six elements of the SMILE_PH method. The inclusion of seemingly contradictory options (e.g., “My mind and body are one” and “My mind and body are separate”) was intentional, allowing for the expression of nuanced or even conflicting philosophical views, since participants could select as many options as they wished. Data Analysis The data analysis for the current study primarily involved simple descriptive statistics, calculating the percentage of respondents who selected each option within the six categories. These percentages provide insights into the prevalence of different philosophical perspectives within the sample. The analysis aimed to identify patterns, surprising or counterintuitive findings, and potential relationships between different aspects of philosophical health. While the nature of the data and the lack of demographic information limit the possibility of inferential statistics, the descriptive results provide a first level of insights into the distribution of philosophical perspectives across the sample. In addition to quantitative analysis, we also conducted a qualitative review of the open-ended responses provided in the “Other” option for each category. This mixed-methods approach allowed us to capture both broad trends and individual nuances in philosophical perspectives. We also considered how the digital nature of the survey might have influenced the results. For example, we considered whether certain types of responses were more common in our digital survey compared to what might be expected in in-person interviews, and reflected on how the online format might have shaped participants’ engagement with the philosophical concepts presented. However, to be entirely valid, this comparison could be in the future done more systematically, for instance with a control group of non-digital respondents. Limitations Several limitations of this methodology should be noted: A. Self-selection bias: Participants voluntarily chose to take part in the questionnaire, which may have resulted in a sample biased towards individuals with a pre-existing interest in philosophy or personal development. B. Lack of demographic data: The absence of demographic information limits our ability to analyze how philosophical perspectives might vary across different groups or to assess the representativeness of the sample. C. Online format: The online nature of the survey may have excluded individuals without internet access or those less comfortable with digital technology. D. Forced-choice format: While the survey allowed for multiple selections and included an “Other” option, the pre-defined choices may have influenced participants’ responses. E. Cross-sectional design: The poll provides a snapshot of participants’ perspectives at a single point in time, limiting our ability to assess how these views might change over time or in response to different circumstances. F. Digital mediation: The use of a digital platform to explore philosophical concepts may have influenced how participants engaged with and responded to the questions, potentially differing from how they might engage in face-to-face philosophical discussions. G. Lack of interactivity: Unlike in-person philosophical counseling, the digital survey format did not allow for follow-up questions or clarifications, potentially limiting the depth of insights gained. Despite these limitations, this study sketches a novel approach to quantitatively exploring philosophical health across a diverse, international sample using digital knowledge infrastructures. It offers valuable insights to inform larger scale research in this emerging field, particularly in the context of digital philosophy and online approaches to philosophical practice. What we propose here is a proof-of-concept that explores the pertinence of the digital and quantitative approach to philosophical health as a complement to (but not a replacement of) qualitative in-depth dialogue. 4. Results and Discussion The results of this study provide a unique snapshot of philosophical health across a diverse, international sample. In this section, we will present and discuss the findings for each of the six categories explored in the poll, focusing here on the surprising or potentially significant results. We will also incorporate insights from the open-ended responses and relate our findings to relevant literature. A. Bodily Sense One of the most striking of our findings in this category was that only 54% of respondents agreed with the statement “My body is mostly my friend.” This result suggests a potentially widespread sense of alienation from one’s own body, which aligns with research on body image issues and embodiment in contemporary society (Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015 ). The fact that nearly half of the respondents do not view their body as a “friend” raises important questions about the nature of embodied experience in modern life. One may ask if this percentage would change if the question was not answered in front of a screen – more on this in the section below regarding implications for digital knowledge. Interestingly, while 39.3% of respondents agreed that “My mind and body are one,” only 19.7% stated that “My mind and body are separate.” This partial division reflects ongoing philosophical debates about the ambiguity of mind-body dualism and its implications for well-being (Thompson, 2007 ). The persistence of mind-body (at least partial) dualism in popular thought, despite mounting scientific evidence for the interconnectedness of mental and physical processes (Varela et al., 1991 ), suggests a potential area for intervention in promoting philosophical health. The open-ended responses in this category provided additional nuance. One respondent noted, “The body is an instrument of my inner feelings and thoughts,” suggesting a view of the body as a medium rather than a separate entity or an integrated part of the self. Another respondent stated, “My mind and body are separate but work together,” indicating a nuanced perspective that acknowledges both distinction and cooperation between mental and physical aspects of experience. These partial findings point to the complex and often conflicted relationship many people have with their bodies. They suggest that promoting a more integrated sense of embodiment could be a key aspect of fostering philosophical health. This aligns with recent research in embodied cognition, which emphasizes the role of bodily experiences in shaping cognitive processes and overall well-being (Shapiro, 2011 ). B. Sense of Self A notable finding was that 74.1% of respondents believed their self is evolving. This high percentage aligns with contemporary psychological theories of identity development as a lifelong process (Kroger & Marcia, 2011 ). However, only 12.6% of respondents considered themselves to be “the highest version of my possible selves,” suggesting a widespread perception of unrealized potential. The fact that 18% of respondents indicated they “don’t know who I am” points to potential issues with identity formation or self-concept clarity, which have been linked to psychological well-being (Campbell et al., 1996 ). This finding is particularly intriguing given that the sample likely skewed towards individuals interested in philosophy and self-reflection. Nevertheless, 18% may also be considered a relatively low percentage. Open-ended responses in this category revealed additional perspectives. One respondent noted, “Self as deep existence, non egoical”, suggesting a view of self that transcends individual ego. Another stated, “The self is an illusion,” echoing Buddhist philosophy and some contemporary neuroscientific perspectives (Metzinger, 2009 ). These partial results highlight the diverse ways in which individuals conceptualize the self and suggest that promoting self-understanding and a sense of personal growth are indeed important aspects of philosophical health interventions. C. Sense of Belonging A concerning finding was that 31.4% of respondents reported feeling lonely. This aligns with growing concerns about a “loneliness epidemic” in many societies (Cacioppo & Cacioppo, 2018 ). The high prevalence of loneliness in a sample likely biased towards philosophical reflection raises questions about the relationship between introspection and social connection. One may also ask if people are more prone to feel loneliness when in front of a screen rather than talking to a person. Interestingly, 37.7% of respondents indicated they “belong to the cosmos,” suggesting a potential tendency towards transcendent or spiritual forms of belonging. This cosmic sense of belonging might serve as a buffer against feelings of isolation, aligning with research on the psychological benefits of awe and transcendent experiences (Yaden et al., 2017 ). The statement “It is better to belong to a purpose rather than a group” garnered 32.6% agreement, reflecting a possible shift towards more individualistic or purpose-driven forms of social connection (only 45,2% considered that “Family is essential”). This aligns with research on the importance of meaning and purpose in psychological well-being (Steger et al., 2009 ). Open-ended responses provided additional insights. One respondent noted, “Creating community is part of life’s meaning”, highlighting the active role individuals can play in fostering belonging. Another stated, “I belong in nature”, suggesting an ecological dimension to belonging that is often overlooked in psychological, philosophical, or digital research. These findings underscore the complex nature of belonging in contemporary society and suggest that fostering diverse forms of connection – to others, to nature, to the cosmos, and to purpose – could be crucial for philosophical health. D. Sense of the Possible While 60.7% of respondents viewed their future as filled with possibilities, only 26.4% believed they decide what is possible. This discrepancy suggests a potential lack of perceived agency or self-efficacy, which could have implications for motivation and goal-setting behaviors (Bandura, 1997 ). The fact that 43.9% of respondents agreed that “Everything is possible” indicates a high level of optimism or at least openness to possibility, which could be a double-edged sword in terms of psychological well-being (Carver & Scheier, 2014 ). While optimism is generally associated with better mental health outcomes, unrealistic optimism could lead to disappointment or poor decision-making. A recent study in the philosophical health of persons living with spinal cord injury suggest nevertheless that the possible that is here unveiled is a metaphysical possible (de Miranda, Levi, & Divanoglou, 2023 ). Open-ended responses in this category revealed nuanced perspectives. One respondent noted, “Possibility is a co-dependent dynamic space”, suggesting a view of possibility as relational rather than absolute. Another stated, “Everything is written but there is free choice within the options”, indicating an intriguing belief in both determinism and free will. These findings highlight the complex relationship between perceived possibility, agency, and well-being. They suggest that fostering a balanced sense of possibility – one that acknowledges both deep potential and constraints – could be an important aspect of philosophical health. E. Sense of Purpose It is noteworthy that while 43.9% of respondents reported having a high sense of purpose, only 38.9% agreed that their mission in life shapes their existence. This discrepancy could indicate a gap between having a sense of purpose and actively living according to that purpose, echoing existential philosophical concerns about authenticity and commitment (Sartre, 2007 ). The finding that 26.8% of respondents believe “The world needs a shared purpose” suggests a desire for collective meaning-making, which aligns with theories of collective consciousness and social cohesion (Durkheim, 1951 ). This collective dimension of purpose is often overlooked in individualistic approaches to well-being and could be an important area for future research and intervention, for instance based on the intellectual history of esprit de corps as sense of purpose (de Miranda, 2020 ). Open-ended responses provided additional perspectives on purpose. One respondent noted, “Purpose changes in life,” highlighting perhaps the voluntary or unvoluntary dynamic nature of purpose. Another stated, “My purpose is to create spaces where life can manifest as life,” suggesting a more process-oriented and more-than-human view of purpose. These findings underscore the multifaceted nature of purpose and confirm that fostering both individual and collective senses of purpose is crucial for philosophical health. Here also we see a clear limit of our study, as we would like to know more about the high sense of purpose reported by nearly half of the participants. F. Philosophical Sense A surprising 37.7% of respondents agreed that “Everything happens for a reason,” indicating a certain prevalence of teleological or analytical thinking. This finding could have implications for how individuals interpret and cope with life events (Banerjee & Bloom, 2014 ). While belief in a higher purpose or cosmic order can provide comfort and meaning, it could also potentially lead to passivity or fatalism. Perhaps related to the former result, the fact that 32.2% of respondents viewed the universe as “a sort of mind” suggests openness to panpsychist or idealist philosophical perspectives, which have seen renewed interest in contemporary philosophy of mind (Goff, 2009 ). This finding is particularly intriguing given the typically materialist bent of contemporary scientific worldviews. Open-ended responses in this category revealed diverse philosophical perspectives. One respondent noted, “We are constantly co-creating the world as self-aware expressions of the universe”, suggesting a participatory view of reality. Another stated, “The world needs a vital creative dialogue,” emphasizing the importance of ongoing philosophical discourse and, within it, critical creativity. These findings highlight the diversity of philosophical worldviews and suggest that fostering philosophical reflection and dialogue could be an important aspect of promoting philosophical health, for instance to explore a shared cosmology. Synthesis and Implications Taken together, these preliminary results paint a complex picture of philosophical health across our sample. Several overarching themes emerge: A. Mind-body integration: The results may suggest a persistent mind-body dualism in popular thought, despite scientific evidence for the interconnectedness of mental and physical processes. This highlights the need for interventions that promote a more integrated sense of embodiment. The persistence of dualism may reflect deeply ingrained cultural beliefs or cognitive biases (Forstmann & Burgmer, 2015 ). However, research in embodied cognition suggests that our bodily states and experiences significantly influence our cognitive processes and emotional states (Barsalou, 2008 ). Interventions that promote body awareness, such as mindfulness-based practices, have shown promise in improving both physical and mental health outcomes (Hölzel et al., 2011 ). Future research could explore how fostering a more integrated mind-body perspective might contribute to overall philosophical health. This could involve developing and testing interventions that combine physical practices with philosophical reflection (for example walking thoughtfully), or investigating how changes in bodily awareness correlate with shifts in philosophical perspectives. B. Identity and growth: While most respondents view their self as evolving, many struggle with self-understanding or feel they haven’t reached their full potential. This suggests a need for approaches that foster self-reflection and personal growth. The high percentage of respondents viewing their self as evolving aligns with narrative identity theories, which posit that individuals construct and revise their sense of self through ongoing life stories (McAdams & McLean, 2013 ). However, the struggle with self-understanding reported by many respondents echoes existential philosophical concerns about authenticity and self-realization (Heidegger, 1962 ). Psychological research has shown that self-concept clarity is associated with better mental health outcomes and life satisfaction (Campbell et al., 1996 ). Interventions that promote narrative identity work, such as expressive writing or life review processes, have shown promise in fostering self-understanding and personal growth (Pennebaker & Chung, 2011 ). Future research could explore how philosophical approaches to self-reflection, such as Socratic dialogue or phenomenological inquiry, might complement or enhance these psychological interventions. C. Connection and belonging: The high prevalence of loneliness, coupled with diverse forms of belonging (cosmic, purposive, ecological), suggests the need for a multifaceted approach to fostering connection. The loneliness reported by many respondents aligns with growing concerns about social isolation in modern societies (Cacioppo & Cacioppo, 2018 ). However, the diverse forms of belonging reported, including cosmic and ecological connections, suggest that social connection is just one aspect of a broader sense of relatedness. This resonates with deep ecology perspectives that emphasize our fundamental interconnectedness with the natural world (Naess, 1973 ) and with research on the psychological benefits of nature connection (Lumber et al., 2017 ). The emphasis on purposive belonging aligns with research on the importance of meaning and purpose in psychological well-being (Steger et al., 2009 ). Future interventions could explore how fostering diverse forms of connection – to others, to nature, to the cosmos, and to purpose – might contribute to philosophical health. This could involve developing programs that combine social connection activities with nature experiences and philosophical reflection on our place in the universe. D. Possibility and agency: The discrepancy between perceived possibility and personal agency highlights the need for interventions that foster both critical optimism and self-efficacy. The high level of perceived possibility reported by many respondents aligns with research on the psychological benefits of optimism (Carver & Scheier, 2014 ). However, the lower levels of perceived personal agency suggest potential issues with self-efficacy, a belief in one’s capacities which may be crucial for goal achievement and well-being (Bandura, 1997 ). This discrepancy echoes philosophical debates about free will and determinism (Kane, 2005 ). Interventions that address both cognitive (beliefs about possibility) and conative (sense of agency) aspects of possibility thinking could be beneficial. Future research could explore how philosophical reflection on the nature of possibility and free will might influence individuals’ sense of agency and their ability to actualize perceived possibilities. E. Individual and collective purpose: The results suggest a desire for both personal and shared purposes, indicating the need for approaches that address meaning-making at both individual and collective levels. The importance of individual purpose aligns with existential philosophical perspectives (Frankl, 2006 ) and psychological research on the benefits of having a sense of purpose in life (Ryff & Singer, 2008 ). However, the desire for shared purpose echoes sociological theories about collective consciousness and recent psychological research on collective effervescence, the feeling of joy and unity provided by esprit de corps (Gabriel et al., 2020 ; de Miranda, 2020 ). This dual emphasis suggests that philosophical health interventions should address both personal and collective dimensions of sense-making. For example, programs could combine individual purpose-finding exercises with collective visioning processes or community service projects. Future research could explore how individual and collective senses of purpose interact and how fostering both might contribute to overall philosophical health and societal well-being. F. Philosophical diversity: The diversity of philosophical perspectives revealed by the study underscores the importance of fostering philosophical reflection and intellectual dialogue. This diversity aligns with philosophical pluralism, which recognizes the validity of diverse worldviews (James, 1979 ). It also resonates with recent calls for greater intellectual humility in both academic and public discourse (Leary et al., 2017 ). The range of perspectives reported suggests that philosophical health interventions should not aim to promote any single worldview, but rather to foster critical thinking, open-mindedness, and the ability to engage reasonably with diverse perspectives. Approaches such as philosophical counseling or community of inquiry practices (Lipman, 2003 ) could be valuable in this regard. Future research could explore how exposure to diverse philosophical perspectives and engagement in philosophical dialogue might contribute to cognitive flexibility, empathy, and overall philosophical health. These findings have several implications for research and practice in the field of philosophical health: A. Interdisciplinary approach: The complex nature of philosophical health revealed by this study suggests the need for interdisciplinary approaches that integrate insights from philosophy, psychology, cognitive science, and other relevant fields. This aligns with recent calls for more interdisciplinary research in the study of well-being (Fowers et al., 2021 ). For example, investigating the neurobiological correlates of philosophical reflection could provide insights into how contemplative practices influence brain function and structure (Vago & Silbersweig, 2012 ). Similarly, exploring the relationship between philosophical perspectives and psychological constructs like personality traits or cognitive styles could enhance our understanding of individual differences in philosophical health (Nilsson, 2014). Collaborative research teams that bring together philosophers, psychologists, neuroscientists, data scientists and other relevant experts could develop more comprehensive models of philosophical health and design more effective interventions. B. Personalized interventions and dialogue: The diversity of perspectives revealed by the study suggests that one-size-fits-all approaches to promoting philosophical health may be insufficient. Personalized interventions that take into account individual worldviews and experiences may be more effective. This might involve developing a range of philosophical practices or reflection exercises that can be matched to individual needs and preferences. Future research could explore the effectiveness of such personalized approaches compared to more general interventions, potentially using methods from philosophical counselling, such as the SMILE_PH method (Sense-Making Interviews Looking at Elements of Philosophical Health) in its dialogic version (de Miranda, 2023 ). This aligns with dialogical approaches in philosophy and psychology, which emphasize the importance of open, critical discourse in developing understanding (Buber, 1970 ; Hermans, 2001 ). Interventions could focus on developing skills for engaging in productive philosophical dialogue, such as active listening, critical thinking, and intellectual humility. Research could explore how engagement in philosophical dialogue influences cognitive flexibility, intellectual empathy, and overall well-being. Additionally, investigating the potential of new technologies, such as AI-facilitated philosophical discussions or virtual reality environments for philosophical exploration, could unveil new avenues for promoting philosophical health in the digital age. C. Collective dimensions: The results highlight the importance of collective aspects of philosophical health, such as shared purposes and cosmic belonging. This suggests the need for interventions that address not just individual well-being, but also social and ecological dimensions of health. This aligns with social ecological models of health (Stokols, 1996 ) and recent calls for more systemic approaches to well-being (Burns, 2015 ). Interventions could be designed to foster collective philosophical reflection and dialogue, perhaps through community philosophy groups or online platforms for global philosophical exchange. Research could explore how participation in such collective philosophical forums influences both individual and community well-being. Additionally, investigating how shared philosophical perspectives might contribute to social cohesion and collective action on global challenges could be a fruitful area for future study. Implications for Digital Knowledge Infrastructures in Philosophy Our findings not only provide insights into philosophical health but also offer valuable implications for the development and use of digital knowledge platforms in philosophy. The successful implementation of the SMILE_PH method in a digital survey format points to the potential for translating philosophical concepts and practices into accessible digital tools. A. Democratization of philosophical practice: The relatively high engagement with our online survey (239 participants), without any advertising or marketing, suggests that digital platforms can effectively reach a broad audience interested in philosophical reflection. This democratization of access to philosophical tools and concepts aligns with the growing trend of open access in academia and the potential for digital technologies to bridge gaps in educational access (Willinsky, 2006 ). In the future, the SMILE_PH method could be integrated into a massive open online course (MOOC) focused on practical philosophy or well-being. This could provide learners worldwide with structured tools for philosophical self-reflection, potentially enhancing the depth and personal relevance of online philosophy education. B. Personalized philosophical exploration: The diverse responses across the six categories of philosophical health indicate that individuals have varying philosophical needs and perspectives. Digital platforms offer unique opportunities for personalization that could enhance philosophical practice and education. We envision an interactive digital application of the SMILE_PH method where users could receive personalized philosophical exercises and readings based on their responses. For example, someone scoring low on “sense of belonging” might be guided through philosophical texts and exercises exploring concepts of community and interconnectedness. C. Data-driven insights in philosophical research: The quantitative nature of our study demonstrates how digital tools can generate large-scale data on philosophical perspectives. This approach could be expanded to create a dynamic, continually updated database of philosophical views, allowing researchers to track trends and patterns in real-time. Such a database could inform curriculum development in philosophy education, helping to ensure that philosophical teaching remains relevant to contemporary concerns. It could also guide the development of new areas of philosophical inquiry based on emerging patterns in public philosophical thought. D. Enhanced interdisciplinary connections: Our findings – and the present article itself – highlight entangled connections between philosophical health and other disciplines such as psychology and cognitive science. Digital knowledge infrastructures could facilitate more seamless integration of these fields. An interdisciplinary digital platform could combine philosophical health assessments with relevant insights from psychology, neuroscience, and other fields. This could provide users with a more holistic understanding of their mental and philosophical well-being, while also fostering cross-disciplinary research collaborations. E. Ethical considerations in digital philosophy: more systematic implementations of the SMILE_PH method in a digital format may in the future raise significant ethical considerations about data privacy, the potential for misuse of philosophical profiling, and the limitations of algorithmic approaches to philosophical guidance. We recommend, especially in the case of AI-enhanced philosophical counselling, the development of ethical guidelines for digital philosophical practice, addressing issues such as data protection, transparency in algorithmic decision-making, and the importance of human oversight in philosophical guidance. F. Augmenting traditional philosophical practice: While our digital approach demonstrated effectiveness, it also revealed limitations, such as the inability to probe deeper into responses or engage in Socratic dialogue. This suggests that digital tools might best serve as augmentations to, rather than replacements for, traditional philosophical practice. We envision a hybrid model where digital SMILE_PH assessments could be used as preliminary tools, followed by in-person or video-based philosophical counseling sessions. This could enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of philosophical practice by providing practitioners with initial insights into their users’ philosophical perspectives. G. Fostering global philosophical dialogue: The international nature of our sample points to the potential for digital platforms to foster global philosophical dialogue. Building on the SMILE_PH framework, we would welcome the development of an online forum where individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds can engage in structured philosophical exchanges about their perspectives on bodily sense, self, belonging, possibility, purpose, and overall philosophical outlook. Such a platform could contribute to a more inclusive approach to philosophy, helping to address critiques about the Western-centric nature of much philosophical discourse (Van Norden, 2017 ). Our study demonstrates the potential for integrating structured philosophical methods like SMILE_PH into digital knowledge infrastructures. This integration could significantly enhance the accessibility, personalization, and global reach of philosophical practice and education. However, it also underscores the need for careful consideration of the ethical implications and limitations of digital approaches to philosophy. As we move forward, the challenge will be to harness the power of digital tools while maintaining the depth, nuance, and human element that are central to meaningful philosophical inquiry. Limitations of the study and Future Directions While our study provides thought-provoking and promising insights into philosophical health across a diverse sample, it has several limitations that should be acknowledged. These limitations also point to important directions for future research in this emerging field. Below we list 8 most salient limitations. Limitations A. Sample bias: The self-selected nature of the sample, while ethical, is a significant limitation. Participants voluntarily chose to take part in the poll, which may have resulted in a sample biased towards individuals with a pre-existing interest in philosophy or personal development. This self-selection bias limits the generalizability of the findings to the broader population (Bethlehem, 2010 ). B. Lack of demographic data: The absence of demographic information, while intentional for the sake of full anonymity, limits our ability to analyze how philosophical perspectives might vary across different groups or to assess the representativeness of the sample. This limitation prevents us from exploring potentially important relationships between demographic factors (e.g., age, gender, cultural background) and philosophical health (Hammer, 2011 ). C. Online format: The online nature of the survey may have excluded individuals without internet access or those less comfortable with digital technology. This could have resulted in an underrepresentation of certain populations, for example older adults or those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds (Fricker et al., 2005 ). D. Forced-choice format: While the survey allowed for multiple selections and included an “Other” option, the pre-defined choices may have influenced participants’ responses. This format does not capture the full complexity and nuance of individuals’ philosophical perspectives, and this lack of nuance is a general problem within surveys (Krosnick, 1999 ). E. Cross-sectional design: The survey provides a snapshot of participants’ perspectives at a single point in time, limiting our ability to assess how these views might change over time or in response to different circumstances. This design prevents us from understanding the developmental trajectories of philosophical health (Levin, 2006 ). F. Depth of exploration: The survey format, while allowing in principle for a broad exploration of philosophical health, does not capture the depth and complexity of individuals’ philosophical perspectives. In-depth dialogue or qualitative methods will provide richer insights into the nuances of personal philosophical health (Creswell & Poth, 2017 ). G. Potential for social desirability bias: Participants may have been inclined to select responses they perceived as more socially acceptable or philosophically sophisticated, potentially skewing the results, in particular the claim about having a higher purpose in life (Krumpal, 2013 ). H. Limited validation: While the SMILE_PH method has been tested in post-clinical and non-clinical contexts, the overall concept of philosophical health and its measurement require further validation studies to establish their reliability and validity across diverse populations. A Future Direction The limitations of the current study, combined with the promising insights it has generated, point to several important directions for future research, particularly in the realm of AI-assisted philosophical counseling and research. One of the most promising avenues is indeed the development of AI-enhanced data collection and analysis tools. By leveraging machine learning and natural language processing, researchers could collect and analyze data from much larger and more diverse samples, potentially reducing self-selection bias and increasing generalizability. These AI systems could implement adaptive questioning techniques, probing more deeply into individual responses and capturing more nuanced philosophical perspectives. Furthermore, they could facilitate longitudinal data collection, tracking changes in philosophical health over time and using predictive algorithms to identify trends and potential interventions. The field of AI-assisted philosophical counseling also holds significant potential. Building on the SMILE_PH framework, researchers could develop sophisticated chatbots capable of engaging users in Socratic dialogues about their philosophical health. These AI systems could analyze a person’s responses to philosophical questions and suggest relevant concepts or readings for further exploration. Moreover, over long periods of time, collective insights could be derived from large sets of data and users, allowing users to explore ethical dilemmas or existential questions in more collective ways. As AI systems become more involved in philosophical practice and research, it will be crucial to explore the ethical implications of these developments. Some part of the future research should focus on developing ethical guidelines for the use of AI in philosophical counseling and education, exploring how engagement with AI systems might impact individuals’ philosophical health, and investigating how frameworks like SMILE_PH can inform the development of more ethically aligned AI systems. To address potential cultural biases, future research could also focus on developing AI systems trained on diverse philosophical traditions, capable of providing culturally sensitive philosophical guidance. Machine learning could be used to identify and analyze cultural differences in philosophical perspectives, contributing to a more global understanding of philosophical health. Building on the idea of fostering global philosophical dialogue, future research could explore the use of AI to facilitate large-scale collective philosophical inquiry. This might include AI-moderated online forums that can guide productive philosophical discussions among large groups of participants, or collaborative AI systems that can synthesize insights from many individual philosophical perspectives into coherent collective viewpoints. These future directions, among others, represent intriguing possibilities for expanding the scope and depth of research in digital philosophical health, particularly through the integration of AI and machine learning technologies. However, as we pursue these avenues, it will be crucial to maintain a critical and reflective stance, continuously examining the implications of these technologies for our understanding of philosophy, consciousness, and human flourishing. The goal should be to leverage AI as a tool to enhance, rather than replace, human philosophical inquiry, always keeping in mind the fundamental questions about existence, meaning, and ethics that lie at the heart of philosophy. Ethical Implications and Broader Impact of Digital Philosophical Health Platforms The use of digital platforms for philosophical health assessment and intervention, as demonstrated in our study, opens up a range of ethical considerations and opportunities that align with the growing interest in the ethical dimensions of digital technologies in research and education (Floridi & Taddeo, 2016 ). Ethical Implications Privacy and Data Protection: One of the primary ethical concerns in using digital platforms for philosophical health assessment is the protection of personal data. The intimate nature of philosophical reflection means that the data collected could be highly sensitive. Our study’s approach of maintaining full anonymity is one way to address this, but more useful implementations might require sophisticated data protection measures, especially if longitudinal or personalized interventions are offered (Mittelstadt & Floridi, 2016 ). A. Informed consent and autonomy Digital platforms must ensure that users fully understand how their data will be used and the potential implications of engaging with philosophical health assessments. There’s a need to develop clear, accessible consent procedures that respect user autonomy while explaining the complexities of data use in digital environments (Capurro & Pingel, 2002 ). B. Algorithmic bias and fairness: If we move towards more sophisticated AI-assisted philosophical assesments, we must be vigilant about potential biases in algorithms. These could manifest in various ways, from cultural biases in the philosophical perspectives presented to unfair treatment of certain demographic groups. Regular audits of AI systems and diverse representation in the development teams will be crucial (Barocas & Selbst, 2016 ). C. Digital divide and accessibility: While digital platforms can increase access to philosophical practice, they may also exacerbate existing inequalities. Those without reliable internet access or digital literacy might be excluded. Future developments should consider how to make these tools accessible to a wide range of populations, including options for offline use or integration with community-based programs (van Dijk, 2020 ). D. Commodification of philosophy: There’s a risk that the digitalization of philosophical health could lead to its commodification, potentially reducing profound philosophical inquiry to simplistic self-help formulae. Maintaining the integrity and depth of philosophical practice in digital formats will be an ongoing challenge. Accessibility and Citizen Science in Philosophy While the use of digital platforms for philosophical health assessment and intervention presents significant ethical challenges, it also offers unprecedented opportunities for expanding access to philosophical practice, fostering citizen engagement with philosophy, and promoting interdisciplinary research. Our research demonstrates the potential for digital platforms to dramatically increase the accessibility of philosophical self-reflection. By providing a structured framework for philosophical reflection that can be accessed online, we’re moving towards a model of “philosophy for all”, where engagement with philosophical ideas is not limited to academic settings (Kitcher, 2011 ). This increased accessibility aligns with the principles of citizen science, where non-professional scientists participate in scientific research (Bonney et al., 2009 ). In the context of philosophy, our digital approach could foster a form of “citizen philosophy”, where individuals not only engage with philosophical ideas but also contribute to our understanding of philosophical health through their participation. The anonymity and broad reach of digital platforms could encourage participation from individuals who might feel intimidated by traditional philosophical settings. This could lead to a more diverse range of perspectives being represented in philosophical discourse, potentially challenging and expanding traditional philosophical canon (Van Norden, 2017 ). Moreover, the quantitative data gathered through these platforms could provide valuable insights into how philosophical ideas are understood and applied in everyday life. This “real-world” philosophy data could inform both academic philosophy and practical applications of philosophical ideas in fields like education, mental health, and public policy (Frodeman & Briggle, 2016 ). 5. Conclusion This study, exploring philosophical health through a digital survey based on the SMILE_PH framework, represents a step towards integrating philosophy more fully into the digital humanities landscape. It addresses the under-representation of philosophy in digital humanities, demonstrating how philosophical inquiry can effectively leverage digital knowledge platforms to expand its reach, methodologies, and impact. Our research embodies the multifaceted relationship between philosophy and digital knowledge infrastructures. By implementing the SMILE_PH method as an online survey, we have shown how philosophical concepts and practices can be embedded within digital platforms. This integration allows for the collection and analysis of philosophical data on a scale previously unattainable, opening new possibilities for understanding how individuals engage with fundamental philosophical questions in their daily lives. Our study also raises important philosophical questions about the nature of digital mediation in philosophical inquiry. It prompts us to consider how digital platforms might shape our engagement with philosophical concepts, and what it means to practice philosophy or even to think in a digital age. These questions contribute to the ongoing philosophical discourse on technology and its impact on human thought and experience. The SMILE_PH framework, adapted for digital use, also provides a structured approach to philosophical reflection that may inform the design of future digital knowledge infrastructures. It offers a model for how philosophical methodologies can be translated into digital formats, potentially influencing the development of philosophically informed digital tools across various disciplines. While digital platforms provide new tools for philosophical inquiry, philosophical reflection is equally crucial in guiding the ethical and meaningful development of these digital infrastructures. The study presented in this paper, while still rudimentary or minimalist in its design, not only contributes to the field of philosophical health but also serves as a proof of concept for how philosophy can engage more fully with digital humanities. By quantifying philosophical perspectives and making them accessible through digital means, we contribute to critically bridging the gap between the often abstract nature of philosophical inquiry and the data-driven approaches common in digital humanities. Looking forward, this research opens numerous possibilities for further integration of philosophy into digital knowledge infrastructures. Future developments could include AI-assisted philosophical counseling, large-scale analysis of philosophical perspectives using machine learning, and interactive digital platforms for philosophical education, purposeful development and dialogue. At the same time, as we move towards greater integration of philosophy and digital technologies, we must remain mindful of the ethical implications and potential limitations of this approach. The digitalization of philosophy should enhance, rather than replace, the depth and nuance of traditional philosophical inquiry. As we continue to explore this intersection, we envision a future where philosophy plays a central role in shaping our digital knowledge landscapes, ensuring that our technological advancements are guided by deep, critical, and meaningful reflection on the fundamental questions of human existence and understanding. Future studies should aim to address the study limitations we outlined through larger, more representative samples, longitudinal designs, and mixed-methods approaches. Another valid view would be to state that philosophical health should not become a scientific and quantitatively studied field, to preserve the ambivalence and purity of philosophical enquiry. But since data science won’t be stopped, we might as well use philosophy to limit its danger; in this paper we have argued for the possibility of a careful and self-critical mix of quantitative and qualitative results. While the use of digital platforms for philosophical health assessment and intervention presents significant ethical challenges, it also offers unprecedented opportunities for expanding access to philosophical practice, fostering citizen engagement with philosophy, and promoting interdisciplinary research. In an age of artificial cognitive enhancement, the question of what constitutes authentically human intelligence and flourishing becomes increasingly pressing. The emphasis on philosophical health reminds us that our uniquely human capacities for self-reflection, meaning-making, and ethical reasoning are not obsolete but are, in fact, more crucial than ever (Floridi, 2014 ). The proposed integration of AI technologies in future research, presents challenging possibilities for expanding our understanding of philosophical health. It is not too late to think and act about human flourishing in the 21st century. By leveraging digital tools in general, and AI in particular, for data collection and analysis, researchers may be able to gather insights from larger and more diverse populations, potentially uncovering patterns and relationships that are radically new. Perhaps then digital tools will play the role of what Plato called a pharmakon, by being both the disease and its cure… Declarations Informed Consent Statement No identifying personal data was collected to perform this fully anonymous study. Freely-given, informed consent to participate in the study was obtained from participants, who were informed that by answering the questionnaire, they agreed that overall percentage results of the anonymous answers may be used in the future for research purposes. Ethical Approval Statement All procedures performed in this study were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments. The study was approved prior to be conducted by the Ethics Committee of the Philosophical Health International (No. 001-18062023). This project has received support from the European Union’s Horizon Europe research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions agreement No. 101081293. Author Contribution Luis de Miranda is the sole author of all the steps of this article, including the method used and the survey design Data Availability “Data is provided within the manuscript or supplementary information files” References Achenbach G (1984) Philosophische Praxis. Jürgen Dinter, Köln Bandura A (1997) Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. 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Oxford University Press, Oxford Kaplan JT, Gimbel SI, Harris S (2017) Neural correlates of maintaining one’s political beliefs in the face of counterevidence. Sci Rep 6:39589 Keegan P (2012) Teaching philosophy online. Teach Philos 35(3):277–291 Kitcher P (2011) Philosophy inside out. Metaphilosophy 42(3):248–260 Koltko-Rivera ME (2004) The psychology of worldviews. Rev Gen Psychol 8(1):3–58 Kroger J, Marcia JE (2011) The identity statuses: Origins, meanings, and interpretations. In: Schwartz SJ, Luyckx K, Vignoles VL (eds) Handbook of identity theory and research. Springer Science, Berlin, pp 31–53 Krosnick JA (1999) Survey research. Ann Rev Psychol 50(1):537–567 Krumpal I (2013) Determinants of social desirability bias in sensitive surveys: A literature review. Qual Quant 47(4):2025–2047 Lahav R, Tillmanns M d. V. (eds) (1995) Essays on philosophical counselling. Lanham, MD: University Press of America Leary MR, Diebels KJ, Davisson EK, Jongman-Sereno KP, Isherwood JC, Raimi KT, Hoyle RH (2017) Cognitive and interpersonal features of intellectual humility. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 43(6):793–813 Levin KA (2006) Study design III: Cross-sectional studies. Evid-Based Dent 7(1):24–25 Lewis DK (1986) On the plurality of worlds. Blackwell, Oxford Lipman M (2003) Thinking in education. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Lumber R, Richardson M, Sheffield D (2017) Beyond knowing nature: Contact, emotion, compassion, meaning, and beauty are pathways to nature connection. PLoS ONE, 12(5), e0177186 Marinoff L (2002) Philosophical practice. Academic, San Diego McAdams DP (2001) The psychology of life stories. Rev Gen Psychol 5(2):100–122 McAdams DP, McLean KC (2013) Narrative identity. Curr Dir Psychol Sci 22(3):233–238 Merleau-Ponty M (2012) Phenomenology of perception. Routledge, London. 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MIT Press Ryff CD, Singer BH (2008) Know thyself and become what you are: A eudaimonic approach to psychological well-being. J Happiness Stud 9(1):13–39 Sartre JP (2007) Existentialism is a humanism. Yale University Press, New Haven Schneider KJ (ed) (2008) Existential-integrative psychotherapy: Guideposts to the core of practice. Routledge, New York Seligman ME, Csikszentmihalyi M (2000) Positive psychology: An introduction. Am Psychol 55(1):5–14 Sellars J (2006) Stoicism. University of California Press, Berkeley Shapiro L (2011) Embodied cognition. Routledge, New York Slingerland E (2003) Effortless action: Wu-wei as conceptual metaphor and spiritual ideal in early China. Oxford University Press, Oxford Snyder CR (2002) Hope theory: Rainbows in the mind. Psychol Inq 13(4):249–275 Steger MF, Oishi S, Kashdan TB (2009) Meaning in life across the life span: Levels and correlates of meaning in life from emerging adulthood to older adulthood. J Posit Psychol 4(1):43–52 Stokols D (1996) Translating social ecological theory into guidelines for community health promotion. Am J Health Promotion 10(4):282–298 Thompson E (2007) Mind in life: Biology, phenomenology, and the sciences of mind. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA Tiberius V (2013) Philosophical methods in happiness research. In: David SA, Boniwell I, Ayers AC (eds) The Oxford handbook of happiness. Oxford University Press, pp 315–325 Tukiainen A (2010) Philosophical counselling as a process of fostering wisdom in the form of virtues. Practical Philos 10(1):47–56 Turkle S (2011) Alone together: Why we expect more from technology and less from each other. Basic Books Tylka TL, Wood-Barcalow NL (2015) What is and what is not positive body image? Conceptual foundations and construct definition. Body Image 14:118–129 Vago DR, Silbersweig DA (2012) Self-awareness, self-regulation, and self-transcendence (S-ART): A framework for understanding the neurobiological mechanisms of mindfulness. Front Hum Neurosci 6:296 van Dijk JA (2020) The digital divide. Wiley, London Van Norden BW (2017) Taking back philosophy: A multicultural manifesto. Columbia University, New York Varela FJ, Thompson E, Rosch E (1991) The embodied mind: Cognitive science and human experience. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA Verbeek PP (2005) What things do: Philosophical reflections on technology, agency, and design. Penn State Willinsky J (2006) The access principle: The case for open access to research and scholarship. MIT Press, Cambridge Yaden DB, Haidt J, Hood RW, Vago DR, Newberg AB (2017) The Varieties of Self-Transcendent Experience. Rev Gen Psychol 21(2):143–160 Yalom ID (1980) Existential psychotherapy. Basic Books, New York Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe intersection of philosophical inquiry and digital knowledge infrastructures presents unique opportunities and challenges. On one hand, digital platforms offer unprecedented access to philosophical ideas, archives, and practices, potentially democratizing philosophical discourse and expanding its reach beyond traditional academic boundaries. On the other hand, the translation of nuanced philosophical concepts into digital formats and self-inquiry protocols raises questions about the depth of philosophical understanding as well as the role of technology in shaping our worldviews and well-being.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe have entered an era of rapid digitalization in research and higher education, and philosophy finds itself at a critical juncture. While digital humanities have flourished in other disciplines, philosophy has been less represented in this domain. This study aims to address and question this gap by exploring the concept of philosophical health through a digital lens, utilizing the experimental case of an online survey based on the SMILE_PH framework, an acronym for Sense-Making Interviews Looking at Elements of Philosophical Health (de Miranda, 2023)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn recent decades, there has been a growing recognition of the importance of mental health and well-being in various aspects of human life. While psychological and psychiatric approaches have dominated this field, there is an emerging interest in the concept of \u0026ldquo;philosophical health\u0026rdquo; as a complementary perspective on human flourishing (Tukiainen, 2010; de Miranda, 2024). This concept, rooted both in ancient philosophical traditions and contemporary philosophical practice, suggests that engaging with fundamental questions about existence, meaning, purpose, and worldview can contribute to overall well-being and life satisfaction.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe notion of philosophical health draws from various philosophical traditions, including ancient Greek philosophy, existentialism, and phenomenology, as well as contemporary approaches to philosophical counseling and therapy (Raabe, 2001; Achenbach, 1984). It posits that individuals can achieve a state of well-being not just through addressing psychological symptoms or achieving material success, but through cultivating a coherent philosophical sense and inquisitive sense of purpose (Lahav \u0026amp; Tillmanns, 1995).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe SMILE_PH method provides a framework for examining six key aspects of our existential condition: bodily sense, sense of self, sense of belonging, sense of the possible, sense of purpose, and philosophical sense. While typically employed in one-on-one analog philosophical counseling sessions, its potential for broader application through digital platforms is here explored for the first time. Conducted between July 2023 and September 2024, our study gathered online responses from 239 participants across these six key aspects of philosophical health.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo date, most research on philosophical health and philosophical counselling has been qualitative, focusing on case studies or theoretical explorations. Our study points critically to a novel approach and question: how does using digital tools to gather quantitative data allow us to understand the prevalence of different philosophical perspectives and their potential relationships to global well-being? How do individuals from diverse backgrounds perceive and experience different aspects of their philosophical health when engaging through a digital platform? This approach aligns with recent calls for more interdisciplinary research at the intersection of applied philosophy and philosophical psychology (Fowers et al., 2021), while also addressing the need for philosophy to engage more fully with digitality. Additionally, we sought to identify patterns in responses that could inform future research and practice in the field of philosophical health, particularly in digital contexts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur work also contributes to the growing field of digital humanities by demonstrating how philosophical inquiry can be structured and analyzed using digital tools. This could inspire new methodologies in other humanities disciplines, fostering a broader digital humanities approach to understanding human thought and culture (Berry \u0026amp; Fagerjord, 2017).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the following sections, we will detail our methodology, present our findings, and discuss their implications and limitations not only for the field of philosophical health but also for the broader and more systematic integration of philosophy into the digital humanities landscape. Through this analysis, we call for more research on the complex and multifaceted nature of philosophical health in the digital age, offering insights that can inform practical applications in digitally-enhanced philosophical counseling, education, and beyond.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Background and Theoretical Framework","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe concept of \u0026ldquo;philosophical health\u0026rdquo;, while relatively new in its explicit phrasing, has deep roots in the history of philosophy. The idea that philosophical reflection can contribute to well-being was prevalent in ancient philosophical traditions. In ancient Greece, philosophy was often seen as a way of life rather than merely an academic discipline (Hadot, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e). Socrates famously claimed that the unexamined life is not worth living, emphasizing the importance of critical self-reflection and ethical inquiry in the existence of the citizen (Plato, Apology, 38a).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSimilarly, Aristotle and later Stoic philosophers like Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius advocated for the cultivation of wisdom and virtue as paths to eudaimonia, or human flourishing (Sellars, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). In the Eastern philosophical tradition, practices like Buddhist mindfulness and Taoist wu-wei (non-action) have long been associated with psychological and spiritual well-being (Kabat-Zinn, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Slingerland, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). These approaches emphasize the importance of cultivating awareness, acceptance, and harmony with the natural world.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe contemporary concept of philosophical health builds on these traditions while also incorporating insights from contemporary philosophy, psychology, and cognitive science (de Miranda, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). A part of the larger philosophical counselling movement, it seeks to bridge the gap between abstract philosophical inquiry and practical approaches to improving quality of life.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe emergence of democratically accessible philosophical counseling in the late 20th century marked a significant step towards the practical application of philosophical ideas to personal well-being. Pioneers like Achenbach in Germany and Marinoff in the United States developed approaches that used philosophical dialogue and reflection to address life challenges and existential questions (Achenbach, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1984\u003c/span\u003e; Marinoff, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). Philosophical practice, as it has also come to be known, differs from psychotherapy in its dynamic questioning of normative imperatives and existential issues, rather than the application of psychological grids of diagnoses or disorders. Moreover, philosophical care remains untied to chemical medication, contrary to a significant part of contemporary psychological care approaches. Philosophical practice, which has been called a \u0026ldquo;therapy for the sane\u0026rdquo; (Marinoff, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e), aims to help individuals clarify their values, examine their beliefs, and develop more coherent worldviews, using the sole clarifying \u0026ndash; and to a certain extent healing \u0026ndash; power of our intellects in dialogue. One of the important questions for the future of philosophical counselling is its relationship with digital platforms.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDigital philosophy, as a field, encompasses both the use of digital tools for philosophical inquiry and the philosophical examination of digital technologies themselves (Bynum \u0026amp; Moor, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e). The use of digital tools in philosophy has led to new methodologies and approaches. For instance, the development of large-scale text analysis tools has enabled philosophers to examine vast corpora of philosophical texts, potentially revealing patterns and connections that were previously difficult to discern (Ess, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, online platforms for philosophical discussion and debate have created new spaces for the exchange of ideas, potentially democratizing access to philosophical discourse.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt is important to consider how traditional approaches to philosophical health may intersect with emerging digital technologies. The digitalization of philosophy raises important questions about the nature of philosophical inquiry itself. As Dreyfus (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e) argues in his critique of digital intelligence, there may be aspects of human understanding and wisdom that resist formalization and digitalization, such as know-how, dialectic interactions, or intuition. This tension between the benefits of digital tools and the potential limitations of digital approaches to philosophical depth informs our decision to critically examine the expansion of philosophical health through online data collection.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe SMILE_PH Method\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe SMILE_PH method (Sense-Making Interviews Looking at Elements of Philosophical Health) offers a promising approach to understanding and fostering human well-being (de Miranda, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). By integrating insights from various philosophical traditions, psychological theories, and cognitive science, this approach provides a framework for exploring the complex interplay between our bodily experiences, sense of self, social connections, perceptions of possibility, sense of purpose, and broader worldviews.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eExistentialism insists on individual meaning-making and confronting existential questions such as the ones displayed in the work of philosophers like Sartre (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e) and Camus (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1955\u003c/span\u003e). These thinkers emphasized the importance of personal authenticity and constructively confronting the absurdity of existence to discover a more personal sense of the possible. Sartre\u0026rsquo;s equal recognition of the social and cultural influences on philosophical perspectives resonates with social constructionist approaches in sociology and psychology, which are important for example to understand our sense of belonging (Gergen, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnother genealogical intellectual influence on the SMILE_PH method is phenomenology, which focuses on lived experience and first-person embodied existence, particularly the work of Merleau-Ponty (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) on embodied perception and Heidegger (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1962\u003c/span\u003e) on being-in-the-world. SMILE_PH relies on \u0026ndash; and trusts \u003cem\u003ea priori\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; the first-person narrative of the person even if it may question its overall philosophical and logical coherence. The importance of coherent life narratives and alignment between personal values and actions in philosophical health echoes narrative approaches in psychology, which emphasize the role of storytelling in identity formation and sense-making (McAdams, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhile philosophical health is distinct from purely psychological approaches, it shares some common ground with positive psychology\u0026rsquo;s focus on well-being, flourishing, and human strengths (Seligman \u0026amp; Csikszentmihalyi, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). Both approaches seek to move beyond a focus on pathology to explore what contributes to and what constitutes a fulfilling embodied life. Recent developments in cognitive science, particularly in embodied and enactive cognition (Varela et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e; Thompson, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e), provide support for the interconnected nature of mind, body, and environment emphasized in the SMILE_PH approach.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBuilding on these diverse foundations and others, the SMILE_PH method offers a semi-structured approach to exploring and fostering philosophical health on an individual and collective level. This method identifies six key elements of philosophical health: (A) bodily sense, (B) sense of self, (C) sense of belonging, (D) sense of the possible, (E) sense of purpose, and (F) philosophical sense. These six elements are not intended to be exhaustive or mutually exclusive, but rather to provide a comprehensive framework for progressively exploring or unveiling different aspects of a person\u0026rsquo;s philosophical perspective and existential well-being.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA. Bodily Sense: This element explores the individual\u0026rsquo;s experienced relationship with their physical body and embodied existence. It draws on phenomenological approaches to embodiment (Merleau-Ponty, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) and recent research in embodied cognition (Shapiro, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). In a digital context, this aspect may in the future take on new significance when considering the impact of virtual environments and digital interfaces on our bodily sense (Hansen, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eB. Sense of Self: This aspect examines the person\u0026rsquo;s perception of their own identity and self-concept. It engages from a first-person\u0026rsquo;s perspective, with philosophical debates about personal identity (Parfit, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1984\u003c/span\u003e) and psychological research on self-concept clarity (Campbell et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e). The digital age raises new questions about the nature of identity, particularly in the context of online personas, virtual realities, and loneliness (Turkle, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). This may be reflected in our results, as we will see in section \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC. Sense of Belonging: This element investigates the individual\u0026rsquo;s feelings of connection to others and to broader communities or contexts. It relates to psychological theories of belongingness (Baumeister \u0026amp; Leary, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e) and sociological concepts of social cohesion (Durkheim, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1951\u003c/span\u003e). In the digital realm, this aspect take on new dimensions as we consider online communities of meaning and digital forms of social connection (Rheingold, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eD. Sense of the Possible: This aspect explores the individual\u0026rsquo;s perception of potential and possibility in their life. It connects speculatively to philosophical discussions of modality and possible worlds (Lewis, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e), and more pragmatically to psychological research on self-confidence, optimism and hope (Snyder, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). Digital technologies, with their capacity to simulate and model alternative realities, may in the future offer new ways of engaging with the possible, such as virtual thought experiments (Brey, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eE. Sense of Purpose: This element examines the person\u0026rsquo;s sense of higher meaning and deep orientation in life. It engages with existential philosophical approaches for which meaningfulness is essential (Frankl, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e) and recent psychological research showing that purpose in life is highly beneficial (Ryff \u0026amp; Singer, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). The digital age presents both specific challenges and opportunities for finding and maintaining a sense of purpose, as traditional sources of meaning are continuously disrupted, while new ones constantly emerge (Floridi, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eF. Philosophical Sense: This last aspect investigates the person\u0026rsquo;s broader worldview and explicit or implicit intellectual approach to understanding reality. It relates partly to epistemological and metaphysical debates about systems in philosophy (Chalmers, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e), as well as research on the importance of worldviews to understand our mental ecosystems (Koltko-Rivera, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). In the context of digital knowledge infrastructures, this aspect takes on new significance as we consider how digital tools and platforms shape our access to and engagement with philosophical ideas and ideologies (Ess, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/span\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEmpirical Support and Challenges\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhile the specific concept of \u0026ldquo;philosophical health\u0026rdquo; is relatively new, there is a growing body of research that supports the potential benefits of philosophical reflection and related practices. Research has shown for instance that a sense of meaning in life is associated with better physical and mental health outcomes (Steger et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Czekierda et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). As aforementioned, other studies have found that coherent worldviews can contribute to psychological well-being and resilience (Koltko-Rivera, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Janoff-Bulman \u0026amp; Yopyk, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). Research on mindfulness and other contemplative practices, which share some \u0026ndash; but only partial \u0026ndash; common ground with philosophical reflection, has shown various psychological and physiological benefits (Kabat-Zinn, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Davidson et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhile empirical research on philosophical counseling is limited, some studies have suggested potential benefits in terms of increased self-coherence and problem-solving skills (Raabe, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). Researchers have argued for the potential therapeutic benefits of addressing existential concerns and fostering personal growth (Schneider, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Yalom, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1980\u003c/span\u003e). There is still a need for more direct support for the specific concept of philosophical health and its proposed benefits. There is ongoing debate about how to define and measure the benefits of philosophical practice, given its multifaceted and somewhat subjective nature (Tukiainen, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Some critics argue that the concept may be biased towards Western philosophical traditions and may not adequately account for diverse cultural perspectives on well-being (Christopher, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e). There are also questions about how philosophical health relates to more established concepts of mental health and whether it can be distinguished from psychological well-being (Fowers et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the context of digital philosophy, one may look at emerging research on the impact of digital tools on philosophical practice and education. Studies have for example explored the effectiveness of online philosophy courses (Volek, 2021) or the potential of digital tools for enhancing philosophical argumentation and analysis (Breivik, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). These rare studies suggest that digital knowledge infrastructures may indeed support and enhance philosophical inquiry, though they also highlight potential challenges and limitations. These include questions about the authenticity of digital philosophical interactions, concerns about privacy and data ethics in online philosophical health assessments, and debates about the potential for digital technologies to enhance or hinder genuine philosophical reflection (Capurro \u0026amp; Hj\u0026oslash;rland, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Floridi, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRegarding our use of the SMILE_PH framework, the translation of this person-centered approach into a digital survey format raises questions about the potential for technology to mediate existential reflection. This aligns with ongoing debates in the philosophy of technology about the impact of digital mediation on human experience and understanding (Ihde, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e; Verbeek, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNevertheless, the growing interest in philosophical approaches to well-being as well as their application via digital mediation should not be ignored. The present study aims to contribute to this emerging field and explore the use of quantitative tools in future research and practice at the intersection of philosophy, well-being, and digital knowledge.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. Methodology","content":"\u003cp\u003eStudy Design and Data Collection\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study employed a cross-sectional, quantitative design using an online survey to explore various aspects of philosophical health. The temporal portion of the survey that is here analyzed was conducted between July 17, 2023, and September 6, 2024, and was hosted on the website of the Philosophical Health International network (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://philosophical.health\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e). This digital platform was chosen for its ability to reach a diverse, international audience and its alignment with our goal of exploring philosophical health through digital means.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants were anonymous and self-selected, responding to an open invitation posted on the website with a link. This non-intrusive approach, while recognizing the potential limitations of self-selection bias in online surveys (Bethlehem, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), allowed us to gather a relatively broad sample. Due to the anonymous nature of the poll, no personal identifying information was collected from participants, not even their email. This decision was made to protect participant privacy and encourage candid responses, recognizing the sensitive nature of some of the philosophical questions being asked.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn designing the digital survey, we carefully considered the implications of translating the typically in-person SMILE_PH method to an online format. This translation process involved not only adapting the questions but also considering how the digital interface might influence participants\u0026rsquo; responses and engagement with the philosophical concepts being explored, of which more later.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA total of 239 individuals participated in this stage of the survey. Due to the simple proof-of-concept intention of this survey and the anonymous nature of the data collection, demographic information such as age, gender, education level, or geographic location was not gathered. This limitation in demographic data collection was a deliberate choice to encourage candid responses. However, we recognize that this decision limits our ability to analyze how philosophical perspectives might vary across different demographic groups or to assess the representativeness of our sample.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe use of a digital platform for data collection allowed us to reach a potentially more diverse and international sample than traditional in-person methods might have allowed. However, we also acknowledge that this approach may have excluded individuals without internet access or those less comfortable with digital technology, potentially biasing our sample towards more technologically engaged participants.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInstrument\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs aforementioned, the survey is based on the SMILE_PH (Sense-Making Interviews Looking at Elements of Philosophical Health) method. While the SMILE_PH method is typically used in semi-structured individual face-to-face interviews, allowing for a person-centered approach, this survey adapted the framework into a structured format suitable for quantitative data collection in a digital environment. This adaptation of the SMILE_PH method to a digital survey format presents both opportunities and challenges. On one hand, it allows for a larger sample size and standardized data collection. On the other hand, it requires careful consideration of how to maintain at least some of the depth and nuance of philosophical inquiry in a more structured, digital format.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe survey consisted of six main categories, each corresponding to a key element of philosophical health as defined by the SMILE_PH method: 1. Bodily Sense; 2. Sense of Self; 3. Sense of Belonging; 4. Sense of the Possible; 5. Sense of Purpose; 6. Philosophical Sense. Within each category, participants were presented with multiple statements and could select all that applied to them. Additionally, an \u0026ldquo;Other\u0026rdquo; option was provided in each category, allowing participants to input their own responses if the pre-defined options did not fully capture their perspectives. This feature was designed to capture some of the richness and individuality of responses that might be lost in the transition from in-person interviews to a digital survey format.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe full list of options for each category was as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1. Bodily Sense:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; My body is mostly my friend\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; I often listen to my body\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; My body often brings me joy\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; My mind and body are one\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; I discipline my body\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; The body is not the reflection of the soul\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; I tend to judge others by how they look like\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; My mind and body are separate\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; My body often brings me pain\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; My body is mostly my enemy\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; Other (open-ended response)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2. Sense of Self:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; My self is evolving\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; I trust myself\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; I am hard on myself\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; Self-esteem is essential\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; I am self-confident\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; My self is hard to grasp\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; I don\u0026rsquo;t know who I am\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; I have been the same person all my life\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; I am the highest version of my possible selves\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; I don\u0026rsquo;t think the self is important\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; Other (open-ended response)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3. Sense of Belonging:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; Family is essential\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; I belong to myself\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; I feel surrounded by people I care about\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; I belong to the cosmos\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; It is better to belong to a purpose rather than to a group\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; I feel lonely\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; I belong to a nurturing community\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; I don\u0026rsquo;t need to belong to make things happen\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; I belong to a toxic community\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; Family is a trap\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; Other (open-ended response)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4. Sense of the Possible:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; My future is filled with possibilities\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; Everything is possible\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; I don\u0026rsquo;t control most of what is possible\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; I mostly control my possibilities\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; I decide what is possible\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; Destiny decides what is possible\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; In the past, more was possible\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; The others are obstacles\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; Everything is written\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; Not much is possible in this world\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; Other (open-ended response)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5. Sense of Purpose:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; I have many goals that evolve\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; I have a high sense of purpose\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; My mission in life shapes my existence\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; I live in the here and now\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; The world needs a shared purpose\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; I live for the future\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; My purpose is not to suffer\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; I don\u0026rsquo;t have a purpose in life\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; My purpose is to have fun\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; A higher purpose is dangerous\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; Other (open-ended response)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6. Philosophical Sense:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; Understanding improves our actions\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; Everything happens for a reason\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; The universe is a sort of mind\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; The world needs a shared philosophical vision\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; There is a higher power above us\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; We can co-create Paradise on Earth\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; The universe is random\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; Life is suffering\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; Life is about competition and survival\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; Philosophy is too remote from real life\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; Other (open-ended response)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn designing these options, we aimed to balance the need for standardized responses with the desire to capture the complexity and diversity of philosophical perspectives in each of the six elements of the SMILE_PH method. The inclusion of seemingly contradictory options (e.g., \u0026ldquo;My mind and body are one\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;My mind and body are separate\u0026rdquo;) was intentional, allowing for the expression of nuanced or even conflicting philosophical views, since participants could select as many options as they wished.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData Analysis\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data analysis for the current study primarily involved simple descriptive statistics, calculating the percentage of respondents who selected each option within the six categories. These percentages provide insights into the prevalence of different philosophical perspectives within the sample. The analysis aimed to identify patterns, surprising or counterintuitive findings, and potential relationships between different aspects of philosophical health. While the nature of the data and the lack of demographic information limit the possibility of inferential statistics, the descriptive results provide a first level of insights into the distribution of philosophical perspectives across the sample.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn addition to quantitative analysis, we also conducted a qualitative review of the open-ended responses provided in the \u0026ldquo;Other\u0026rdquo; option for each category. This mixed-methods approach allowed us to capture both broad trends and individual nuances in philosophical perspectives.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe also considered how the digital nature of the survey might have influenced the results. For example, we considered whether certain types of responses were more common in our digital survey compared to what might be expected in in-person interviews, and reflected on how the online format might have shaped participants\u0026rsquo; engagement with the philosophical concepts presented. However, to be entirely valid, this comparison could be in the future done more systematically, for instance with a control group of non-digital respondents.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLimitations\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSeveral limitations of this methodology should be noted:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA. Self-selection bias: Participants voluntarily chose to take part in the questionnaire, which may have resulted in a sample biased towards individuals with a pre-existing interest in philosophy or personal development.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eB. Lack of demographic data: The absence of demographic information limits our ability to analyze how philosophical perspectives might vary across different groups or to assess the representativeness of the sample.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC. Online format: The online nature of the survey may have excluded individuals without internet access or those less comfortable with digital technology.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eD. Forced-choice format: While the survey allowed for multiple selections and included an \u0026ldquo;Other\u0026rdquo; option, the pre-defined choices may have influenced participants\u0026rsquo; responses.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eE. Cross-sectional design: The poll provides a snapshot of participants\u0026rsquo; perspectives at a single point in time, limiting our ability to assess how these views might change over time or in response to different circumstances.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eF. Digital mediation: The use of a digital platform to explore philosophical concepts may have influenced how participants engaged with and responded to the questions, potentially differing from how they might engage in face-to-face philosophical discussions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eG. Lack of interactivity: Unlike in-person philosophical counseling, the digital survey format did not allow for follow-up questions or clarifications, potentially limiting the depth of insights gained.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/span\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite these limitations, this study sketches a novel approach to quantitatively exploring philosophical health across a diverse, international sample using digital knowledge infrastructures. It offers valuable insights to inform larger scale research in this emerging field, particularly in the context of digital philosophy and online approaches to philosophical practice. What we propose here is a proof-of-concept that explores the pertinence of the digital and quantitative approach to philosophical health as a complement to (but not a replacement of) qualitative in-depth dialogue.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe results of this study provide a unique snapshot of philosophical health across a diverse, international sample. In this section, we will present and discuss the findings for each of the six categories explored in the poll, focusing here on the surprising or potentially significant results. We will also incorporate insights from the open-ended responses and relate our findings to relevant literature.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA. Bodily Sense\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOne of the most striking of our findings in this category was that only 54% of respondents agreed with the statement \u0026ldquo;My body is mostly my friend.\u0026rdquo; This result suggests a potentially widespread sense of alienation from one\u0026rsquo;s own body, which aligns with research on body image issues and embodiment in contemporary society (Tylka \u0026amp; Wood-Barcalow, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). The fact that nearly half of the respondents do not view their body as a \u0026ldquo;friend\u0026rdquo; raises important questions about the nature of embodied experience in modern life. One may ask if this percentage would change if the question was not answered in front of a screen \u0026ndash; more on this in the section below regarding implications for digital knowledge.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInterestingly, while 39.3% of respondents agreed that \u0026ldquo;My mind and body are one,\u0026rdquo; only 19.7% stated that \u0026ldquo;My mind and body are separate.\u0026rdquo; This partial division reflects ongoing philosophical debates about the ambiguity of mind-body dualism and its implications for well-being (Thompson, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). The persistence of mind-body (at least partial) dualism in popular thought, despite mounting scientific evidence for the interconnectedness of mental and physical processes (Varela et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e), suggests a potential area for intervention in promoting philosophical health.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe open-ended responses in this category provided additional nuance. One respondent noted, \u0026ldquo;The body is an instrument of my inner feelings and thoughts,\u0026rdquo; suggesting a view of the body as a medium rather than a separate entity or an integrated part of the self. Another respondent stated, \u0026ldquo;My mind and body are separate but work together,\u0026rdquo; indicating a nuanced perspective that acknowledges both distinction and cooperation between mental and physical aspects of experience.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese partial findings point to the complex and often conflicted relationship many people have with their bodies. They suggest that promoting a more integrated sense of embodiment could be a key aspect of fostering philosophical health. This aligns with recent research in embodied cognition, which emphasizes the role of bodily experiences in shaping cognitive processes and overall well-being (Shapiro, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eB. Sense of Self\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA notable finding was that 74.1% of respondents believed their self is evolving. This high percentage aligns with contemporary psychological theories of identity development as a lifelong process (Kroger \u0026amp; Marcia, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). However, only 12.6% of respondents considered themselves to be \u0026ldquo;the highest version of my possible selves,\u0026rdquo; suggesting a widespread perception of unrealized potential.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe fact that 18% of respondents indicated they \u0026ldquo;don\u0026rsquo;t know who I am\u0026rdquo; points to potential issues with identity formation or self-concept clarity, which have been linked to psychological well-being (Campbell et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e). This finding is particularly intriguing given that the sample likely skewed towards individuals interested in philosophy and self-reflection. Nevertheless, 18% may also be considered a relatively low percentage.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOpen-ended responses in this category revealed additional perspectives. One respondent noted, \u0026ldquo;Self as deep existence, non egoical\u0026rdquo;, suggesting a view of self that transcends individual ego. Another stated, \u0026ldquo;The self is an illusion,\u0026rdquo; echoing Buddhist philosophy and some contemporary neuroscientific perspectives (Metzinger, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese partial results highlight the diverse ways in which individuals conceptualize the self and suggest that promoting self-understanding and a sense of personal growth are indeed important aspects of philosophical health interventions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eC. Sense of Belonging\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA concerning finding was that 31.4% of respondents reported feeling lonely. This aligns with growing concerns about a \u0026ldquo;loneliness epidemic\u0026rdquo; in many societies (Cacioppo \u0026amp; Cacioppo, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). The high prevalence of loneliness in a sample likely biased towards philosophical reflection raises questions about the relationship between introspection and social connection. One may also ask if people are more prone to feel loneliness when in front of a screen rather than talking to a person.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInterestingly, 37.7% of respondents indicated they \u0026ldquo;belong to the cosmos,\u0026rdquo; suggesting a potential tendency towards transcendent or spiritual forms of belonging. This cosmic sense of belonging might serve as a buffer against feelings of isolation, aligning with research on the psychological benefits of awe and transcendent experiences (Yaden et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe statement \u0026ldquo;It is better to belong to a purpose rather than a group\u0026rdquo; garnered 32.6% agreement, reflecting a possible shift towards more individualistic or purpose-driven forms of social connection (only 45,2% considered that \u0026ldquo;Family is essential\u0026rdquo;). This aligns with research on the importance of meaning and purpose in psychological well-being (Steger et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOpen-ended responses provided additional insights. One respondent noted, \u0026ldquo;Creating community is part of life\u0026rsquo;s meaning\u0026rdquo;, highlighting the active role individuals can play in fostering belonging. Another stated, \u0026ldquo;I belong in nature\u0026rdquo;, suggesting an ecological dimension to belonging that is often overlooked in psychological, philosophical, or digital research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese findings underscore the complex nature of belonging in contemporary society and suggest that fostering diverse forms of connection \u0026ndash; to others, to nature, to the cosmos, and to purpose \u0026ndash; could be crucial for philosophical health.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eD. Sense of the Possible\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhile 60.7% of respondents viewed their future as filled with possibilities, only 26.4% believed they decide what is possible. This discrepancy suggests a potential lack of perceived agency or self-efficacy, which could have implications for motivation and goal-setting behaviors (Bandura, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe fact that 43.9% of respondents agreed that \u0026ldquo;Everything is possible\u0026rdquo; indicates a high level of optimism or at least openness to possibility, which could be a double-edged sword in terms of psychological well-being (Carver \u0026amp; Scheier, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). While optimism is generally associated with better mental health outcomes, unrealistic optimism could lead to disappointment or poor decision-making. A recent study in the philosophical health of persons living with spinal cord injury suggest nevertheless that the possible that is here unveiled is a metaphysical possible (de Miranda, Levi, \u0026amp; Divanoglou, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOpen-ended responses in this category revealed nuanced perspectives. One respondent noted, \u0026ldquo;Possibility is a co-dependent dynamic space\u0026rdquo;, suggesting a view of possibility as relational rather than absolute. Another stated, \u0026ldquo;Everything is written but there is free choice within the options\u0026rdquo;, indicating an intriguing belief in both determinism and free will.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese findings highlight the complex relationship between perceived possibility, agency, and well-being. They suggest that fostering a balanced sense of possibility \u0026ndash; one that acknowledges both deep potential and constraints \u0026ndash; could be an important aspect of philosophical health.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eE. Sense of Purpose\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt is noteworthy that while 43.9% of respondents reported having a high sense of purpose, only 38.9% agreed that their mission in life shapes their existence. This discrepancy could indicate a gap between having a sense of purpose and actively living according to that purpose, echoing existential philosophical concerns about authenticity and commitment (Sartre, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe finding that 26.8% of respondents believe \u0026ldquo;The world needs a shared purpose\u0026rdquo; suggests a desire for collective meaning-making, which aligns with theories of collective consciousness and social cohesion (Durkheim, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1951\u003c/span\u003e). This collective dimension of purpose is often overlooked in individualistic approaches to well-being and could be an important area for future research and intervention, for instance based on the intellectual history of esprit de corps as sense of purpose (de Miranda, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOpen-ended responses provided additional perspectives on purpose. One respondent noted, \u0026ldquo;Purpose changes in life,\u0026rdquo; highlighting perhaps the voluntary or unvoluntary dynamic nature of purpose. Another stated, \u0026ldquo;My purpose is to create spaces where life can manifest as life,\u0026rdquo; suggesting a more process-oriented and more-than-human view of purpose.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese findings underscore the multifaceted nature of purpose and confirm that fostering both individual and collective senses of purpose is crucial for philosophical health. Here also we see a clear limit of our study, as we would like to know more about the high sense of purpose reported by nearly half of the participants.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eF. Philosophical Sense\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA surprising 37.7% of respondents agreed that \u0026ldquo;Everything happens for a reason,\u0026rdquo; indicating a certain prevalence of teleological or analytical thinking. This finding could have implications for how individuals interpret and cope with life events (Banerjee \u0026amp; Bloom, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). While belief in a higher purpose or cosmic order can provide comfort and meaning, it could also potentially lead to passivity or fatalism.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePerhaps related to the former result, the fact that 32.2% of respondents viewed the universe as \u0026ldquo;a sort of mind\u0026rdquo; suggests openness to panpsychist or idealist philosophical perspectives, which have seen renewed interest in contemporary philosophy of mind (Goff, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). This finding is particularly intriguing given the typically materialist bent of contemporary scientific worldviews.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOpen-ended responses in this category revealed diverse philosophical perspectives. One respondent noted, \u0026ldquo;We are constantly co-creating the world as self-aware expressions of the universe\u0026rdquo;, suggesting a participatory view of reality. Another stated, \u0026ldquo;The world needs a vital creative dialogue,\u0026rdquo; emphasizing the importance of ongoing philosophical discourse and, within it, critical creativity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese findings highlight the diversity of philosophical worldviews and suggest that fostering philosophical reflection and dialogue could be an important aspect of promoting philosophical health, for instance to explore a shared cosmology.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSynthesis and Implications\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTaken together, these preliminary results paint a complex picture of philosophical health across our sample. Several overarching themes emerge:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA. Mind-body integration: The results may suggest a persistent mind-body dualism in popular thought, despite scientific evidence for the interconnectedness of mental and physical processes. This highlights the need for interventions that promote a more integrated sense of embodiment. The persistence of dualism may reflect deeply ingrained cultural beliefs or cognitive biases (Forstmann \u0026amp; Burgmer, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). However, research in embodied cognition suggests that our bodily states and experiences significantly influence our cognitive processes and emotional states (Barsalou, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Interventions that promote body awareness, such as mindfulness-based practices, have shown promise in improving both physical and mental health outcomes (H\u0026ouml;lzel et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Future research could explore how fostering a more integrated mind-body perspective might contribute to overall philosophical health. This could involve developing and testing interventions that combine physical practices with philosophical reflection (for example walking thoughtfully), or investigating how changes in bodily awareness correlate with shifts in philosophical perspectives.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eB. Identity and growth: While most respondents view their self as evolving, many struggle with self-understanding or feel they haven\u0026rsquo;t reached their full potential. This suggests a need for approaches that foster self-reflection and personal growth. The high percentage of respondents viewing their self as evolving aligns with narrative identity theories, which posit that individuals construct and revise their sense of self through ongoing life stories (McAdams \u0026amp; McLean, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). However, the struggle with self-understanding reported by many respondents echoes existential philosophical concerns about authenticity and self-realization (Heidegger, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1962\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePsychological research has shown that self-concept clarity is associated with better mental health outcomes and life satisfaction (Campbell et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e). Interventions that promote narrative identity work, such as expressive writing or life review processes, have shown promise in fostering self-understanding and personal growth (Pennebaker \u0026amp; Chung, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Future research could explore how philosophical approaches to self-reflection, such as Socratic dialogue or phenomenological inquiry, might complement or enhance these psychological interventions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eC. Connection and belonging: The high prevalence of loneliness, coupled with diverse forms of belonging (cosmic, purposive, ecological), suggests the need for a multifaceted approach to fostering connection. The loneliness reported by many respondents aligns with growing concerns about social isolation in modern societies (Cacioppo \u0026amp; Cacioppo, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). However, the diverse forms of belonging reported, including cosmic and ecological connections, suggest that social connection is just one aspect of a broader sense of relatedness. This resonates with deep ecology perspectives that emphasize our fundamental interconnectedness with the natural world (Naess, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1973\u003c/span\u003e) and with research on the psychological benefits of nature connection (Lumber et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). The emphasis on purposive belonging aligns with research on the importance of meaning and purpose in psychological well-being (Steger et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Future interventions could explore how fostering diverse forms of connection \u0026ndash; to others, to nature, to the cosmos, and to purpose \u0026ndash; might contribute to philosophical health. This could involve developing programs that combine social connection activities with nature experiences and philosophical reflection on our place in the universe.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eD. Possibility and agency: The discrepancy between perceived possibility and personal agency highlights the need for interventions that foster both critical optimism and self-efficacy. The high level of perceived possibility reported by many respondents aligns with research on the psychological benefits of optimism (Carver \u0026amp; Scheier, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). However, the lower levels of perceived personal agency suggest potential issues with self-efficacy, a belief in one\u0026rsquo;s capacities which may be crucial for goal achievement and well-being (Bandura, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e). This discrepancy echoes philosophical debates about free will and determinism (Kane, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). Interventions that address both cognitive (beliefs about possibility) and conative (sense of agency) aspects of possibility thinking could be beneficial. Future research could explore how philosophical reflection on the nature of possibility and free will might influence individuals\u0026rsquo; sense of agency and their ability to actualize perceived possibilities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eE. Individual and collective purpose: The results suggest a desire for both personal and shared purposes, indicating the need for approaches that address meaning-making at both individual and collective levels. The importance of individual purpose aligns with existential philosophical perspectives (Frankl, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e) and psychological research on the benefits of having a sense of purpose in life (Ryff \u0026amp; Singer, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). However, the desire for shared purpose echoes sociological theories about collective consciousness and recent psychological research on collective effervescence, the feeling of joy and unity provided by esprit de corps (Gabriel et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; de Miranda, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). This dual emphasis suggests that philosophical health interventions should address both personal and collective dimensions of sense-making. For example, programs could combine individual purpose-finding exercises with collective visioning processes or community service projects. Future research could explore how individual and collective senses of purpose interact and how fostering both might contribute to overall philosophical health and societal well-being.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eF. Philosophical diversity: The diversity of philosophical perspectives revealed by the study underscores the importance of fostering philosophical reflection and intellectual dialogue. This diversity aligns with philosophical pluralism, which recognizes the validity of diverse worldviews (James, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1979\u003c/span\u003e). It also resonates with recent calls for greater intellectual humility in both academic and public discourse (Leary et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). The range of perspectives reported suggests that philosophical health interventions should not aim to promote any single worldview, but rather to foster critical thinking, open-mindedness, and the ability to engage reasonably with diverse perspectives. Approaches such as philosophical counseling or community of inquiry practices (Lipman, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e) could be valuable in this regard. Future research could explore how exposure to diverse philosophical perspectives and engagement in philosophical dialogue might contribute to cognitive flexibility, empathy, and overall philosophical health.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/span\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese findings have several implications for research and practice in the field of philosophical health:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA. Interdisciplinary approach: The complex nature of philosophical health revealed by this study suggests the need for interdisciplinary approaches that integrate insights from philosophy, psychology, cognitive science, and other relevant fields. This aligns with recent calls for more interdisciplinary research in the study of well-being (Fowers et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). For example, investigating the neurobiological correlates of philosophical reflection could provide insights into how contemplative practices influence brain function and structure (Vago \u0026amp; Silbersweig, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, exploring the relationship between philosophical perspectives and psychological constructs like personality traits or cognitive styles could enhance our understanding of individual differences in philosophical health (Nilsson, 2014). Collaborative research teams that bring together philosophers, psychologists, neuroscientists, data scientists and other relevant experts could develop more comprehensive models of philosophical health and design more effective interventions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eB. Personalized interventions and dialogue: The diversity of perspectives revealed by the study suggests that one-size-fits-all approaches to promoting philosophical health may be insufficient. Personalized interventions that take into account individual worldviews and experiences may be more effective. This might involve developing a range of philosophical practices or reflection exercises that can be matched to individual needs and preferences. Future research could explore the effectiveness of such personalized approaches compared to more general interventions, potentially using methods from philosophical counselling, such as the SMILE_PH method (Sense-Making Interviews Looking at Elements of Philosophical Health) in its dialogic version (de Miranda, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). This aligns with dialogical approaches in philosophy and psychology, which emphasize the importance of open, critical discourse in developing understanding (Buber, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1970\u003c/span\u003e; Hermans, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). Interventions could focus on developing skills for engaging in productive philosophical dialogue, such as active listening, critical thinking, and intellectual humility. Research could explore how engagement in philosophical dialogue influences cognitive flexibility, intellectual empathy, and overall well-being. Additionally, investigating the potential of new technologies, such as AI-facilitated philosophical discussions or virtual reality environments for philosophical exploration, could unveil new avenues for promoting philosophical health in the digital age.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC. Collective dimensions: The results highlight the importance of collective aspects of philosophical health, such as shared purposes and cosmic belonging. This suggests the need for interventions that address not just individual well-being, but also social and ecological dimensions of health. This aligns with social ecological models of health (Stokols, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e) and recent calls for more systemic approaches to well-being (Burns, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Interventions could be designed to foster collective philosophical reflection and dialogue, perhaps through community philosophy groups or online platforms for global philosophical exchange. Research could explore how participation in such collective philosophical forums influences both individual and community well-being. Additionally, investigating how shared philosophical perspectives might contribute to social cohesion and collective action on global challenges could be a fruitful area for future study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/span\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eImplications for Digital Knowledge Infrastructures in Philosophy\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur findings not only provide insights into philosophical health but also offer valuable implications for the development and use of digital knowledge platforms in philosophy. The successful implementation of the SMILE_PH method in a digital survey format points to the potential for translating philosophical concepts and practices into accessible digital tools.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA. Democratization of philosophical practice: The relatively high engagement with our online survey (239 participants), without any advertising or marketing, suggests that digital platforms can effectively reach a broad audience interested in philosophical reflection. This democratization of access to philosophical tools and concepts aligns with the growing trend of open access in academia and the potential for digital technologies to bridge gaps in educational access (Willinsky, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). In the future, the SMILE_PH method could be integrated into a massive open online course (MOOC) focused on practical philosophy or well-being. This could provide learners worldwide with structured tools for philosophical self-reflection, potentially enhancing the depth and personal relevance of online philosophy education.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eB. Personalized philosophical exploration: The diverse responses across the six categories of philosophical health indicate that individuals have varying philosophical needs and perspectives. Digital platforms offer unique opportunities for personalization that could enhance philosophical practice and education. We envision an interactive digital application of the SMILE_PH method where users could receive personalized philosophical exercises and readings based on their responses. For example, someone scoring low on \u0026ldquo;sense of belonging\u0026rdquo; might be guided through philosophical texts and exercises exploring concepts of community and interconnectedness.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC. Data-driven insights in philosophical research: The quantitative nature of our study demonstrates how digital tools can generate large-scale data on philosophical perspectives. This approach could be expanded to create a dynamic, continually updated database of philosophical views, allowing researchers to track trends and patterns in real-time. Such a database could inform curriculum development in philosophy education, helping to ensure that philosophical teaching remains relevant to contemporary concerns. It could also guide the development of new areas of philosophical inquiry based on emerging patterns in public philosophical thought.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eD. Enhanced interdisciplinary connections: Our findings \u0026ndash; and the present article itself \u0026ndash; highlight entangled connections between philosophical health and other disciplines such as psychology and cognitive science. Digital knowledge infrastructures could facilitate more seamless integration of these fields. An interdisciplinary digital platform could combine philosophical health assessments with relevant insights from psychology, neuroscience, and other fields. This could provide users with a more holistic understanding of their mental and philosophical well-being, while also fostering cross-disciplinary research collaborations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eE. Ethical considerations in digital philosophy: more systematic implementations of the SMILE_PH method in a digital format may in the future raise significant ethical considerations about data privacy, the potential for misuse of philosophical profiling, and the limitations of algorithmic approaches to philosophical guidance. We recommend, especially in the case of AI-enhanced philosophical counselling, the development of ethical guidelines for digital philosophical practice, addressing issues such as data protection, transparency in algorithmic decision-making, and the importance of human oversight in philosophical guidance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eF. Augmenting traditional philosophical practice: While our digital approach demonstrated effectiveness, it also revealed limitations, such as the inability to probe deeper into responses or engage in Socratic dialogue. This suggests that digital tools might best serve as augmentations to, rather than replacements for, traditional philosophical practice. We envision a hybrid model where digital SMILE_PH assessments could be used as preliminary tools, followed by in-person or video-based philosophical counseling sessions. This could enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of philosophical practice by providing practitioners with initial insights into their users\u0026rsquo; philosophical perspectives.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eG. Fostering global philosophical dialogue: The international nature of our sample points to the potential for digital platforms to foster global philosophical dialogue. Building on the SMILE_PH framework, we would welcome the development of an online forum where individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds can engage in structured philosophical exchanges about their perspectives on bodily sense, self, belonging, possibility, purpose, and overall philosophical outlook. Such a platform could contribute to a more inclusive approach to philosophy, helping to address critiques about the Western-centric nature of much philosophical discourse (Van Norden, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/span\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur study demonstrates the potential for integrating structured philosophical methods like SMILE_PH into digital knowledge infrastructures. This integration could significantly enhance the accessibility, personalization, and global reach of philosophical practice and education. However, it also underscores the need for careful consideration of the ethical implications and limitations of digital approaches to philosophy. As we move forward, the challenge will be to harness the power of digital tools while maintaining the depth, nuance, and human element that are central to meaningful philosophical inquiry.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eLimitations of the study and Future Directions\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhile our study provides thought-provoking and promising insights into philosophical health across a diverse sample, it has several limitations that should be acknowledged. These limitations also point to important directions for future research in this emerging field. Below we list 8 most salient limitations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLimitations\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA. Sample bias: The self-selected nature of the sample, while ethical, is a significant limitation. Participants voluntarily chose to take part in the poll, which may have resulted in a sample biased towards individuals with a pre-existing interest in philosophy or personal development. This self-selection bias limits the generalizability of the findings to the broader population (Bethlehem, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eB. Lack of demographic data: The absence of demographic information, while intentional for the sake of full anonymity, limits our ability to analyze how philosophical perspectives might vary across different groups or to assess the representativeness of the sample. This limitation prevents us from exploring potentially important relationships between demographic factors (e.g., age, gender, cultural background) and philosophical health (Hammer, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC. Online format: The online nature of the survey may have excluded individuals without internet access or those less comfortable with digital technology. This could have resulted in an underrepresentation of certain populations, for example older adults or those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds (Fricker et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eD. Forced-choice format: While the survey allowed for multiple selections and included an \u0026ldquo;Other\u0026rdquo; option, the pre-defined choices may have influenced participants\u0026rsquo; responses. This format does not capture the full complexity and nuance of individuals\u0026rsquo; philosophical perspectives, and this lack of nuance is a general problem within surveys (Krosnick, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eE. Cross-sectional design: The survey provides a snapshot of participants\u0026rsquo; perspectives at a single point in time, limiting our ability to assess how these views might change over time or in response to different circumstances. This design prevents us from understanding the developmental trajectories of philosophical health (Levin, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eF. Depth of exploration: The survey format, while allowing in principle for a broad exploration of philosophical health, does not capture the depth and complexity of individuals\u0026rsquo; philosophical perspectives. In-depth dialogue or qualitative methods will provide richer insights into the nuances of personal philosophical health (Creswell \u0026amp; Poth, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eG. Potential for social desirability bias: Participants may have been inclined to select responses they perceived as more socially acceptable or philosophically sophisticated, potentially skewing the results, in particular the claim about having a higher purpose in life (Krumpal, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eH. Limited validation: While the SMILE_PH method has been tested in post-clinical and non-clinical contexts, the overall concept of philosophical health and its measurement require further validation studies to establish their reliability and validity across diverse populations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/span\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA Future Direction\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe limitations of the current study, combined with the promising insights it has generated, point to several important directions for future research, particularly in the realm of AI-assisted philosophical counseling and research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOne of the most promising avenues is indeed the development of AI-enhanced data collection and analysis tools. By leveraging machine learning and natural language processing, researchers could collect and analyze data from much larger and more diverse samples, potentially reducing self-selection bias and increasing generalizability. These AI systems could implement adaptive questioning techniques, probing more deeply into individual responses and capturing more nuanced philosophical perspectives. Furthermore, they could facilitate longitudinal data collection, tracking changes in philosophical health over time and using predictive algorithms to identify trends and potential interventions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe field of AI-assisted philosophical counseling also holds significant potential. Building on the SMILE_PH framework, researchers could develop sophisticated chatbots capable of engaging users in Socratic dialogues about their philosophical health. These AI systems could analyze a person\u0026rsquo;s responses to philosophical questions and suggest relevant concepts or readings for further exploration. Moreover, over long periods of time, collective insights could be derived from large sets of data and users, allowing users to explore ethical dilemmas or existential questions in more collective ways.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs AI systems become more involved in philosophical practice and research, it will be crucial to explore the ethical implications of these developments. Some part of the future research should focus on developing ethical guidelines for the use of AI in philosophical counseling and education, exploring how engagement with AI systems might impact individuals\u0026rsquo; philosophical health, and investigating how frameworks like SMILE_PH can inform the development of more ethically aligned AI systems.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo address potential cultural biases, future research could also focus on developing AI systems trained on diverse philosophical traditions, capable of providing culturally sensitive philosophical guidance. Machine learning could be used to identify and analyze cultural differences in philosophical perspectives, contributing to a more global understanding of philosophical health. Building on the idea of fostering global philosophical dialogue, future research could explore the use of AI to facilitate large-scale collective philosophical inquiry. This might include AI-moderated online forums that can guide productive philosophical discussions among large groups of participants, or collaborative AI systems that can synthesize insights from many individual philosophical perspectives into coherent collective viewpoints.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese future directions, among others, represent intriguing possibilities for expanding the scope and depth of research in digital philosophical health, particularly through the integration of AI and machine learning technologies. However, as we pursue these avenues, it will be crucial to maintain a critical and reflective stance, continuously examining the implications of these technologies for our understanding of philosophy, consciousness, and human flourishing. The goal should be to leverage AI as a tool to enhance, rather than replace, human philosophical inquiry, always keeping in mind the fundamental questions about existence, meaning, and ethics that lie at the heart of philosophy.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eEthical Implications and Broader Impact of Digital Philosophical Health Platforms\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe use of digital platforms for philosophical health assessment and intervention, as demonstrated in our study, opens up a range of ethical considerations and opportunities that align with the growing interest in the ethical dimensions of digital technologies in research and education (Floridi \u0026amp; Taddeo, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical Implications\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePrivacy and Data Protection: One of the primary ethical concerns in using digital platforms for philosophical health assessment is the protection of personal data. The intimate nature of philosophical reflection means that the data collected could be highly sensitive. Our study\u0026rsquo;s approach of maintaining full anonymity is one way to address this, but more useful implementations might require sophisticated data protection measures, especially if longitudinal or personalized interventions are offered (Mittelstadt \u0026amp; Floridi, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA. Informed consent and autonomy\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDigital platforms must ensure that users fully understand how their data will be used and the potential implications of engaging with philosophical health assessments. There\u0026rsquo;s a need to develop clear, accessible consent procedures that respect user autonomy while explaining the complexities of data use in digital environments (Capurro \u0026amp; Pingel, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eB. Algorithmic bias and fairness: If we move towards more sophisticated AI-assisted philosophical assesments, we must be vigilant about potential biases in algorithms. These could manifest in various ways, from cultural biases in the philosophical perspectives presented to unfair treatment of certain demographic groups. Regular audits of AI systems and diverse representation in the development teams will be crucial (Barocas \u0026amp; Selbst, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC. Digital divide and accessibility: While digital platforms can increase access to philosophical practice, they may also exacerbate existing inequalities. Those without reliable internet access or digital literacy might be excluded. Future developments should consider how to make these tools accessible to a wide range of populations, including options for offline use or integration with community-based programs (van Dijk, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eD. Commodification of philosophy: There\u0026rsquo;s a risk that the digitalization of philosophical health could lead to its commodification, potentially reducing profound philosophical inquiry to simplistic self-help formulae. Maintaining the integrity and depth of philosophical practice in digital formats will be an ongoing challenge.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/span\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAccessibility and Citizen Science in Philosophy\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhile the use of digital platforms for philosophical health assessment and intervention presents significant ethical challenges, it also offers unprecedented opportunities for expanding access to philosophical practice, fostering citizen engagement with philosophy, and promoting interdisciplinary research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur research demonstrates the potential for digital platforms to dramatically increase the accessibility of philosophical self-reflection. By providing a structured framework for philosophical reflection that can be accessed online, we\u0026rsquo;re moving towards a model of \u0026ldquo;philosophy for all\u0026rdquo;, where engagement with philosophical ideas is not limited to academic settings (Kitcher, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). This increased accessibility aligns with the principles of citizen science, where non-professional scientists participate in scientific research (Bonney et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). In the context of philosophy, our digital approach could foster a form of \u0026ldquo;citizen philosophy\u0026rdquo;, where individuals not only engage with philosophical ideas but also contribute to our understanding of philosophical health through their participation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe anonymity and broad reach of digital platforms could encourage participation from individuals who might feel intimidated by traditional philosophical settings. This could lead to a more diverse range of perspectives being represented in philosophical discourse, potentially challenging and expanding traditional philosophical canon (Van Norden, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, the quantitative data gathered through these platforms could provide valuable insights into how philosophical ideas are understood and applied in everyday life. This \u0026ldquo;real-world\u0026rdquo; philosophy data could inform both academic philosophy and practical applications of philosophical ideas in fields like education, mental health, and public policy (Frodeman \u0026amp; Briggle, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study, exploring philosophical health through a digital survey based on the SMILE_PH framework, represents a step towards integrating philosophy more fully into the digital humanities landscape. It addresses the under-representation of philosophy in digital humanities, demonstrating how philosophical inquiry can effectively leverage digital knowledge platforms to expand its reach, methodologies, and impact.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur research embodies the multifaceted relationship between philosophy and digital knowledge infrastructures. By implementing the SMILE_PH method as an online survey, we have shown how philosophical concepts and practices can be embedded within digital platforms. This integration allows for the collection and analysis of philosophical data on a scale previously unattainable, opening new possibilities for understanding how individuals engage with fundamental philosophical questions in their daily lives.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur study also raises important philosophical questions about the nature of digital mediation in philosophical inquiry. It prompts us to consider how digital platforms might shape our engagement with philosophical concepts, and what it means to practice philosophy or even to think in a digital age. These questions contribute to the ongoing philosophical discourse on technology and its impact on human thought and experience.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe SMILE_PH framework, adapted for digital use, also provides a structured approach to philosophical reflection that may inform the design of future digital knowledge infrastructures. It offers a model for how philosophical methodologies can be translated into digital formats, potentially influencing the development of philosophically informed digital tools across various disciplines. While digital platforms provide new tools for philosophical inquiry, philosophical reflection is equally crucial in guiding the ethical and meaningful development of these digital infrastructures.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study presented in this paper, while still rudimentary or minimalist in its design, not only contributes to the field of philosophical health but also serves as a proof of concept for how philosophy can engage more fully with digital humanities. By quantifying philosophical perspectives and making them accessible through digital means, we contribute to critically bridging the gap between the often abstract nature of philosophical inquiry and the data-driven approaches common in digital humanities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLooking forward, this research opens numerous possibilities for further integration of philosophy into digital knowledge infrastructures. Future developments could include AI-assisted philosophical counseling, large-scale analysis of philosophical perspectives using machine learning, and interactive digital platforms for philosophical education, purposeful development and dialogue.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt the same time, as we move towards greater integration of philosophy and digital technologies, we must remain mindful of the ethical implications and potential limitations of this approach. The digitalization of philosophy should enhance, rather than replace, the depth and nuance of traditional philosophical inquiry.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs we continue to explore this intersection, we envision a future where philosophy plays a central role in shaping our digital knowledge landscapes, ensuring that our technological advancements are guided by deep, critical, and meaningful reflection on the fundamental questions of human existence and understanding. Future studies should aim to address the study limitations we outlined through larger, more representative samples, longitudinal designs, and mixed-methods approaches.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother valid view would be to state that philosophical health should not become a scientific and quantitatively studied field, to preserve the ambivalence and purity of philosophical enquiry. But since data science won\u0026rsquo;t be stopped, we might as well use philosophy to limit its danger; in this paper we have argued for the possibility of a careful and self-critical mix of quantitative and qualitative results. While the use of digital platforms for philosophical health assessment and intervention presents significant ethical challenges, it also offers unprecedented opportunities for expanding access to philosophical practice, fostering citizen engagement with philosophy, and promoting interdisciplinary research.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn an age of artificial cognitive enhancement, the question of what constitutes authentically human intelligence and flourishing becomes increasingly pressing. The emphasis on philosophical health reminds us that our uniquely human capacities for self-reflection, meaning-making, and ethical reasoning are not obsolete but are, in fact, more crucial than ever (Floridi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). The proposed integration of AI technologies in future research, presents challenging possibilities for expanding our understanding of philosophical health. It is not too late to think and act about human flourishing in the 21st century. By leveraging digital tools in general, and AI in particular, for data collection and analysis, researchers may be able to gather insights from larger and more diverse populations, potentially uncovering patterns and relationships that are radically new. Perhaps then digital tools will play the role of what Plato called a pharmakon, by being both the disease and its cure\u0026hellip;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eInformed Consent Statement\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo identifying personal data was collected to perform this fully anonymous study. Freely-given, informed consent to participate in the study was obtained from participants, who were informed that by answering the questionnaire, they agreed that overall percentage results of the anonymous answers may be used in the future for research purposes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eEthical Approval Statement\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll procedures performed in this study were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments. The study was approved prior to be conducted by the Ethics Committee of the Philosophical Health International (No. 001-18062023). This project has received support from the European Union\u0026rsquo;s Horizon Europe research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions agreement No. 101081293.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLuis de Miranda is the sole author of all the steps of this article, including the method used and the survey design\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Data is provided within the manuscript or supplementary information files\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAchenbach G (1984) Philosophische Praxis. J\u0026uuml;rgen Dinter, K\u0026ouml;ln\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBandura A (1997) Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. 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Basic Books, New York\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5265520/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5265520/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study explores the concept of philosophical health through the lens of digital knowledge platforms. It addresses the relative underrepresentation of philosophy in digital humanities and explores new avenues for philosophical inquiry and practice in the digital age. We employed an online survey to gather responses from 239 participants across six key elements of philosophical health: bodily sense, sense of self, sense of belonging, sense of the possible, sense of purpose, and philosophical sense. Using this pilot case, we examine how philosophy may utilize digital knowledge infrastructures to explore complex existential questions on a broader scale than analog methods allow.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur findings reveal insights into contemporary philosophical perspectives, including for example widespread feelings of disconnection from one\u0026rsquo;s body, a high percentage believing their self to be evolving, and prevalent feelings of loneliness which might or might not be digitally enhanced. We further discuss the ethical implications of using digital platforms for philosophical health assessment, including issues of privacy, informed consent, algorithmic bias, and the potential commodification of philosophical practice. We examine future directions, including AI-assisted philosophical counseling and non-metaphorical \u0026ldquo;wisdom of the crowds\u0026rdquo; research. Additionally, we explore how a digital approach may contribute to the accessibility of philosophical practice, potentially supporting ideas of \u0026ldquo;citizen science\u0026rdquo; in philosophy.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Pixels of Wisdom: Philosophical Health via a Self-Knowledge Digital Survey","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-12-02 08:52:42","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5265520/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"7c52231b-ed4f-4202-91e3-2c3ff66d5b13","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 2nd, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":40338736,"name":"Humanities/Health humanities"},{"id":40338737,"name":"Humanities/Philosophy"},{"id":40338738,"name":"Social science/Science technology and society"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-02-17T17:38:43+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-12-02 08:52:42","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5265520","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5265520","identity":"rs-5265520","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}