Detection of Aflatoxigenic Molds and Aflatoxin Levels in Groundnuts Marketed in Zaria Kaduna State Nigeria

Detection of Aflatoxigenic Molds and Aflatoxin Levels in Groundnuts Marketed in Zaria Kaduna State Nigeria | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Detection of Aflatoxigenic Molds and Aflatoxin Levels in Groundnuts Marketed in Zaria Kaduna State Nigeria Usman Liman Gambo, Abdullahi Isah Obansa, Clement Myah Zaman Whong This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7290071/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Globally, studies on identification and detection of Aflatoxins have gained massive attention, especially in recent times. Consequently, the present work aimed to detect aflatoxigenic molds and aflatoxin levels in groundnuts marketed in Zaria metropolis, Kaduna state, Nigeria. A sum of 72 groundnut specimens comprising 24 specimens each from the three selected markets; Samaru, Sabon-Gari, and City market Zaria, were collected and analyzed in the study. The proximate compositions of the groundnuts were determined according to standard procedure of AOAC. Freshly prepared potato dextrose agar (PDA) was used to isolates molds, which were further identified microscopically (X 40) using wet preparation. All Aspergilli isolates were then screened for the ability to produce aflatoxin on desiccated coconut agar (DCA) supplemented with phenol red as indicator. The fungal cultures, aged 72 hours, were examined under ultraviolet (UV) light at a wavelength of 365 nm to assess fluorescence on DCA plates. Although the observed differences were not statistically significant, the compositional analysis indicated that groundnut samples from Samaru market exhibited the highest moisture content (4.92 ± 0.38%) and crude fat (53.87 ± 0.58%). The study also revealed the presence of Aspergillus flavus (19.44%), Aspergillus parasiticus (6.94%), Aspergillus niger (34.73%), Rhizopus sp. (29.17%), and Trichoderma sp. (9.72%) fungal isolates from samples collected from the selected markets. Furthermore, groundnut samples sourced from the Samaru market recorded the highest average aflatoxin concentration at 248.01 µg/kg and lowest concentration was found in samples from Sabon Gari, which measured 203.72 µg/kg. Biological sciences/Biological techniques Biological sciences/Biotechnology Biological sciences/Microbiology Aflatoxins Aspergillus DCA Groundnuts Markets Molds ELISA Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Introduction Groundnuts exhibit a significant dietary and economic significance owing to their content of fatty acids, proteins, carbohydrates, minerals, and vitamins (Dania and Eze, 2020 ). Additionally, groundnuts are advocated in Nigeria by nutritionists and agriculturists as a viable alternative to animal protein due to its substantial protein content (Udo et al., 2021 ). This is attributable to the fact that groundnuts are regarded as an agricultural commodity that possesses a significant concentration of nutrients, characterized by high levels of fat and protein, which consequently renders them exceptionally energy-dense (Odeniyi et al., 2019 ). Furthermore, they are recognized as an excellent source of protein and vitamin E, with their derivatives being acknowledged by individuals across all demographics as Ready-To-Eat (RTE) food products (Okwu et al., 2011 ; Ezekiel et al., 2020). Despite the importance of groundnut in Nigeria, this crop is highly vulnerable to contamination by aflatoxigenic molds, specifically Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. Such infections can lead to aflatoxin contamination at various stages, including pre-harvest, harvest, transportation, and post-harvest storage (Bandyopadhyay et al., 2016 ; Ortega-Beltran and Cotty, 2020 ). Many subsistence farmers in developing countries, including Nigeria, often employ inadequate drying methods for harvested groundnuts in the field before storage. This practice can create warm and humid conditions that increase the risk of contamination (Khan et al., 2021 ). Furthermore, freshly harvested groundnuts are frequently stored in reused bags, which can serve as vectors for cross-contamination (Anjorin et al., 2021 ). Inadequate storage practices contribute to aflatoxin accumulation during storage, exacerbated by the high humidity and temperature typical of tropical climates (Mabruki et al., 2022 ; Fasoyiro et al., 201Aflatoxins are a group of secondary metabolites produced by the fungi Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus , commonly found as contaminants in various agricultural products, including grains, oilseeds, tree nuts, and spices (Nnedinma et al., 2019 ; Pandey et al., 2023 ). These toxins thrive in warm and humid environments, which facilitate the growth of mold species that generate aflatoxins, posing significant risks particularly in tropical regions (Atanda et al., 2005 ; Ortega-Beltran et al., 2021 ). The occurrence of aflatoxin contamination is often linked to a combination of climatic variables, environmental factors, and poor agricultural practices, such as inadequate harvesting and storage techniques (Adetunji et al., 2018 ; Awuchi et al., 2021 ). The aflatoxin group comprises over 20 identified metabolites, with the most notable being the naturally occurring forms B1, B2, G1, and G2 (Nnedinma et al., 2019 ; Ibitoye et al., 2021 ). Among these, AFB1 is particularly notorious as a potent hepatocarcinogen and genotoxic agent, classified as a Group 1 carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) (Ezekiel et al., 2012 ; Salisu et al., 2022 ). It is estimated that approximately 25% of global food crops, including various groundnuts, are contaminated annually, resulting in considerable economic losses across both agricultural and industrial sectors (Bandyopadhyay et al., 2019 ; Mabruki et al., 2022 ). However, Nigeria's climatic conditions, marked by elevated humidity and temperatures, create an atmosphere conducive to mold proliferation in groundnuts. Therefore, it is imperative to evaluate agricultural products available in the Nigerian markets of possible contamination and to determine the adverse effects. Ultimately, this study sought to examine fungal contamination in groundnuts available in some selected markets within Zaria metropolis and to identify the aflatoxin producing fungi present in the specimens. In addition, the study incorporated the quantification of aflatoxins utilizing ELISA. Materials and Methods Study area Figure 1 shows the map of Zaria Metropolis situated at a latitude of 11° 07’ N and a longitude of 07° 42’ E, making it one of the key cities in Northern Nigeria. Covering an area of 300 km², it comprises six principal settlements: Zaria City, Tudun Wada, Sabon Gari, Danmagaji, Kwangila, and Samaru. According to reports from 2007, the population of Zaria Metropolis was approximately 1,018,827. The region experiences a tropical continental climate characterized by a significant rainy season that lasts up to six months, from May to October. Additionally, a cooler period typically occurs during the dry season, spanning from November to February. Study design The study employed a market-based cross-sectional design. Groundnut samples were collected from the selected markets using a simple random sampling method for subsequent laboratory analysis. Collection of Groundnut Samples Groundnut samples were collected randomly from various retail outlets across three markets in Zaria Metropolis: Samaru Market, Sabon-Gari Market, and City Market Zaria. A total of thirty-six retail sales points were identified within these markets where agricultural products, including groundnuts, are sold. Throughout the study, a total of 72 samples were collected in two batches from these retail locations. Each sample was placed in clean, sterile containers, securely sealed and labeled accordingly, and then promptly transported to the laboratory for analysis. Proximate Analysis of Groundnuts To ascertain the nutrient composition of groundnut samples, the proximate composition analyses were conducted in accordance with the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC, 2019 ) method. The following components were examined: moisture, ash, proteins, fats, crude fiber and carbohydrates. Isolation and Identification of Aflatoxigenic Molds The isolation of aflatoxigenic molds from the samples was conducted in accordance with the procedure described by (Hassan et al., 2014 ). Three groundnut seeds were selected and subjected to surface sterilization by immersion in a 2% hypochlorite solution contained in a 250 ml conical flask for 1 minute, followed by three rinses with sterile distilled water. The seeds were then dried using sterile filter paper within a laminar flow hood and subsequently inoculated onto Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) plates supplemented with chloramphenicol at a concentration of 125 mg/l. The inoculated plates were incubated at room temperature (37°C) for 120 hours. Following incubation, the plates were examined for the growth of Aspergillus and spore formation. Colonies displaying morphological characteristics typical of aflatoxin-producing Aspergilli were transferred to fresh PDA plates using sterilized needles for sub-culturing, thereby facilitating the establishment of pure cultures. Mycological investigation media The Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) medium employed in the current investigation was of a high analytical standard and was formulated in accordance with the specifications provided by the manufacturer. Morphological Identification of Isolates The isolated molds were identified after growth on the PDA medium by observing their macroscopic characteristics. The isolates were identified using the methodology described by Ezekiel et al. , (2020), which involved evaluating characteristics such as the formation of concentric rings, conidia development, pigmentation, and the texture of the mycelium (Ezekiel et al., 2014 ). The Morphological characteristics and appearance of the mould isolates from groundnut were confirmed and authenticated with the help of Mycological Atlas (Shittu et al., 2022 ). Microscopic Characterization of the Isolates Lacto phenol Cotton Blue Staining A pinch of the isolated mold was teased on a clean, grease-free slide with a drop of Lacto phenol cotton blue stain and covered with a coverslip. The slides were subsequently examined under a compound light microscope using both 10× and 40× objectives to assess their microscopic characteristics. In this preparation, lactic acid serves as a preservative for the fungi, while the phenol component effectively kills the fungal cells. The cotton blue dye stains the fungal structures a deep blue, contrasting with a pale blue background (Yang et al., 2023 ). The morphological characteristics and appearance of the mould isolates from groundnut were confirmed and authenticated with the help of Mycological Atlas (Shittu et al., 2022 ). Assessment of Aflatoxin Levels in Groundnut Samples The 8031 Veratox Direct Aflatoxin Test Kit was used to test groundnut samples for aflatoxin. The process involved blending the samples in 70% methanol, filtering, and mixing with conjugate. The resulting solution was incubated with antibodies, rinsed, and then added to wells. A calibration curve was established, and absorbance was measured at 650 nm. The ELISA kit's limit of detection was determined to be 0.5. Data Analysis Data processing was conducted, and the results obtained from the aflatoxin mean concentrations and proximate compositions of the samples were examined by mean comparison using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), facilitated by Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 20 for Windows. Results were presented using tables and charts where appropriate. Results and Discussion Proximate Composition of Groundnuts The proximate composition of groundnut samples is displayed in Table 1, depicting the mean ± S.D. The groundnut from Samaru market exhibited the greatest moisture content (4.92±0.38%), followed by Sabon-gari market (4.67±0.30%), and the lowest moisture content was observed in groundnut from Zaria-city market (4.62±0.13%). The highest crude fat content was found in groundnut from Samaru (53.87±0.58), followed by Sabon-gari (52.50±0.52%), while Zaria-city (52.10±0.98%) had the least. Protein content was highest in groundnut from Zaria-city (19.12±0.06%), followed by Sabon-gari (19.08±0.29%), and Samaru recorded (17.67±0.14%) the least. The proximate composition values, however, did not displayed any statistical significance when compared to one another. Table 1: Percentage (%) Proximate Composition of Groundnuts Obtained from Sampled Markets Location Moisture Content Ash Crude Fat Crude Protein Crude Fibre Carbohydrate SBG 4.67±0.03 a 1.75±0.15 a 52.5±0.52 a 19.08±0.29 a 8.08±0.95 a 22.00±0.78 a SMR 4.92±0.38 a 1.82±0.13 a 53.87±0.58 a 17.67±0.14 a 7.79±0.70 a 21.73±0.91 a ZAR 4.62+0.13 a 2.02±0.20 a 52.1±0.98 a 19.12±0.06 a 8.12±0.52 a 22.15±1.11 a Mean values with distinct superscripts across the columns are statistically significant (P < 0.05). Where SBG= Sabon-Gari Market, SMR= Samaru Market, and ZAR= Zaria Market Fungal Isolates Detected from the Groundnut Samples Generally, 100% of the groundnut tested on potato dextrose agar were contaminated with molds fungi. Three (3) genera were identified which include; Aspergillus section flavi ( Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus ), Aspergillus niger, Rhizopus sp , and Trichoderma sp. Table.2 shows the identification of fungal isolates using microscopic and macroscopic characteristics. Figure 2 presents a visual representation of the total occurrence frequency at which fungal isolates were found in the various markets sampled. A. niger had the highest percentage occurrence of 25 (34.72) while A. parasiticus with 5 (6.94) had the least. Table 2: Cultural and Microscopic Characteristics of the Fungal Isolates Colonial Morphology Microscopic Appearance Tentative Identity Initially colonies acquire the white colour of the mycelia; later become raised and quickly become yellowish-green with conidial production. The underside of the colonies was pale yellow. Hyphae are septate, conidiophores are colourless, rough-texture and unbranched, subglobose to globose vesicles, and globose conidia with thin walls Aspergillus flavus Initially colonies acquire the white colour of the mycelia; later become raised and quickly become dark-green with conidial production. The underside of the colonies was pale yellow. Hyphae are septate, conidiophores are colourless, rough-texture and unbranched, subglobose to globose vesicles, and globose conidia with thin walls Aspergillus parasiticus Colonies on PDA plate are initially white; colonies become raised and quickly become black with conidial production. Underside was pale yellow. Hyphae are septate and hyaline, conidial head are radiate, conidiophores are long and smooth, conidia are brown Aspergillus niger Colonies are fast growing, covering the surface of the agar, dark greyish brown, sporangiophores are brownish. Non-septate broad coenocytic hyphae sporangia, sporangiospores and rhizoids, Rhizopus sp. Blue-green colony pigmentation on PDA, reverse side was pale or yellowish colour. Septate hyaline hyphae, conidiophores, phaliades and conidia are present. Trichoderma sp. Aflatoxin Levels in Groundnut Samples Table 3 illustrates aflatoxin mean concentration in groundnuts in the different markets sampled in Zaria metropolis. The distribution of aflatoxin contamination for groundnut samples from the three (3) markets is given in Table 4. In general, the majority of samples in all the three markets were in the range of 101-500 μg/kg, 4 samples in the range of 21-100 and only one (1) sample in the range of 5-20 μg/kg. Conversely, only two samples from Samaru and Zaria-city markets recoded >500 μg/kg. Table 3: Aflatoxin Mean Concentrations of Groundnuts based on Sampled Markets. Location Number Examined Aflatoxin Concentrations Range (µg/kg) Average (µg/kg) Samaru 9 43.9 – 506.8 248.01 a Sabon Gari 7 11.9 – 482.0 203.72 b Zaria City 6 65.1 – 505.6 239.80 c Mean values with distinct superscript across the columns are statistically significant (P < 0.05). Table 4: Distribution of Aflatoxin in Groundnut from the Markets Sampled in Zaria Metropolis Aflatoxin range ( μg/kg ) Samaru n = 9 Sabon-Gari n = 7 Zaria-City n = 6 Total (%) n = 22 0- 4 0 (0.00) 0 (0.00) 0 (0.00) 0 (0.00) 5- 20 0 (0.00) 1 (14.29) 0 (0.00) 1 (4.55) 21- 100 0 (0.00) 1 (14.29) 3 (50.00) 4 (18.18) 101– 500 8 (88.89) 5 (71.43) 2 (33.33) 15 (68.18) >500 1 (11.11) 0 (0.00) 1 (16.67) 2 (9.09) Key: Numbers in parenthesis show percentage of infected samples Discussion The contamination of groundnuts with mycotoxin producing fungi is considered to be one of the most serious food safety problems in the world (Adebo et al., 2017 ). Moisture content in crops plays a pivotal role in the contamination of agricultural products by aflatoxin-producing molds, mainly Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus (Jonathan and Esho, 2010 ). In the present study, the moisture level of 4.62–4.92% detected in the groundnut samples examined was low. However, it is possible for the fungal growth to increase during prolonged storage of the groundnut samples. The moisture levels observed in this study differed from those reported by Shitu et al. ( 2021 ), who reported a moisture content range of 2.85–9.60% in groundnuts. Based on our findings, the moisture content aligns with the values of (4.11% for raw groundnut) as reported by Shitu et al. ( 2018 ). Notably, while moisture is a critical factor, other environmental parameters such as temperature and relative humidity further complicates the dynamics of aflatoxin production. Ortega-Beltran et al. ( 2020 ) reported moisture and temperature as the primary factors that have an impact on post-harvest contamination of stored commodities by aflatoxigenic molds. High moisture levels combined with elevated temperatures (typically between 28°C and 30°C) create an environment that favors both fungal proliferation and aflatoxin biosynthesis (Hassane et al., 2017 ). The percentage of crude protein in the groundnuts indicated that they serve as valuable sources of nitrogen, which is necessary for the growth of molds as well as the production of aflatoxin. The observed crude protein content of 17.67–19.12% in the present study surpassed the value 16.33% reported by Ajiboye et al. 2014 in his study on groundnuts. Conversely, it falls slightly below the recorded value of 20.38% reported by (Odeniyi et al., 2019 ; Udo et al., 2021 ). The study revealed the presence of molds such as; A. flavus, A. parasiticus, A. niger, Rhizopus sp and Trichoderma sp in the groundnut samples examined. Among the isolates A. niger has the highest percentage of occurrence of (34.73%) while A. parasiticus (6.94%) had the least occurrence. The detection of the above-mentioned genera might be as a result of the greater adaptation of these fungi to the substrate, especially during storage (Sharma et al., 2020 ). The occurrence of Aspergillus sp, Rhizopus sp and Trichoderma sp was similar to the findings of other researchers studying peanuts from Southwest (Bankole and Mabekoje, 2004 ; Fapohunda et al., 2012 ; Shittu et al., 2022 ) and Northern Nigeria (Odeniyi et al., 2019 ; Anjorin et al., 2021 ) using traditional Methods for isolation and identification of molds fungi on plate agar. Among the molds detected, A. flavus and A. parasiticus are the most important because of their potential ability to produce aflatoxins which could exact negative effect in human and animals (Nnedinma et al., 2019 ). Moreover, it is well established that numerous factors contribute to the proliferation of fungi that produces aflatoxins in crops at the storage phase, including the temperature and moisture levels of the seeds, which result in an escalation of aflatoxin contamination (Makun et al., 2011 ). Additionally, other pivotal factors that affect the development of molds responsible for aflatoxin production encompass environmental humidity, moisture absorption, prolong storage, mechanical damage and infestation by insects (Awuchi et al., 2021 ). The differences between the current investigation and previous investigations may be attributed to the differences in geographical locations, climatic and environmental conditions, the type of sample (specimen) and the size of the sample examined, the techniques employed for sampling, the methods utilized for the isolation of aflatoxigenic molds and the socioeconomic status. Therefore, as long as these factors diverge, it is anticipated that the results will exhibit a discrepancy. It is worth mentioning in the present study, 3 samples namely; SMR 22, SBG 10 and ZAR 14 each from the different markets under study contain aflatoxins but no aflatoxigenic molds isolated in the samples analyzed. This observation could be due to the presence of other competing fungi such as Rhizopus sp which grows rapidly and tend to colonize and over grown aflatoxigenic molds in addition to other unfavorable conditions of temperature, humidity and moisture content which was not favourable for the survival and growth of the toxigenic isolates but may have produced aflatoxins before entering death phase of growth (Frimpong et al., 2019 ). The total aflatoxin levels identified in this study were notably higher than those reported by Shitu et al. ( 2017 ), Shitu et al. ( 2018 ), and Shitu et al. ( 2021 ), which focused on groundnuts and cereal grains in the Zaria metropolis. Additionally, a study by Omeiza et al. ( 2018 ) in northern Nigeria found that the mean concentration of aflatoxins ranged from 0.5 to 24.8 µg/kg. In 2013, a study conducted in Sokoto aimed to evaluate the presence of aflatoxins in groundnut and groundnut-based snack samples. The findings revealed that the average concentration of aflatoxins in groundnuts was 14 µg/kg, while groundnut-based snacks exhibited a significantly higher mean concentration of 1041 µg/kg (Kayode et al., 2013). Similarly, a 2017 study by Oyedele et al. in Nigeria reported that aflatoxin B1 levels in groundnut samples reached 216 µg/kg, with total aflatoxins measuring 2076 µg/kg. Furthermore, Leong et al. ( 2011 ) analyzed 196 samples of peanuts and peanut products, discovering substantial aflatoxin contamination levels ranging from 16.6 to 711 µg/kg. In our research, the levels of aflatoxin detected in groundnuts surpassed the permissible limits established by both NAFDAC and SON (20 µg/kg) as well as the threshold set by the EU Commission (4 µg/kg). This elevated aflatoxin contamination in groundnuts can be attributed to various factors, including environmental conditions before and after harvest, along with inadequate management practices during planting, harvesting, drying, transportation, and storage (Ekpakpale et al., 2021 ). Additionally, pest damage and a lack of awareness regarding good agricultural practices (GAPs), good manufacturing practices (GMPs), and good storage practices (GSPs) are likely significant contributors to increased aflatoxin contamination during storage. These detrimental practices create favorable conditions for fungal growth and aflatoxin production (Omeiza et al., 2018 ). Various studies have confirmed that the issue of aflatoxin is more severe in developing nations, where favorable conditions of temperature and humidity, substandard marketing and transportation methodologies, along with insufficient storage techniques, create a conducive environment for the proliferation of fungi and synthesis of aflatoxins (Olatunde Farombi, 2006 ; Githang’a et al., 2019 ). Conclusion The analysis of groundnut seeds indicated a variety of compositional parameters, including moisture content (4.62±0.13 - 4.92±0.38%), crude proteins ((17.67±0.14 - 19.12±0.06%) and carbohydrates content (21.73±0.91 - 22.15±0.78%), which are necessary for the proliferation of molds and subsequent aflatoxin production. The study involving 72 groundnut samples from various markets in the Zaria metropolis provided significant findings regarding fungal and aflatoxin contamination. The results revealed a notable presence of fungal isolates, specifically A. flavus (19.44%), A. parasiticus (6.94%), A. niger (34.73%), Rhizopus sp (29.17%), and Trichoderma sp (9.72%) in the samples collected from these markets. Moreover, among the isolates that were screened for aflatoxin production, a significant number exhibited the presence of visible blue fluorescence. This observation strongly suggests their potential to produce aflatoxin. Furthermore, the aflatoxin levels detected in the groundnut samples ranged from 203.72 to 248.01 μg/kg, surpassing the maximum acceptable limits set by NAFDAC and FAO. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate Not applicable. Consent for publication All authors have read and approved the final version of the manuscript and consent to its publication. Availability of data and material The datasets used in this manuscript are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Competing interest The authors of this article state that they have no competing interests with respect to the topic of this paper. Funding The research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial or nonprofit organizations. Authors’ contributions U.L. Gambo designed the study, conducted the experiments and drafted the manuscript. While I.O. Abdullahi and C.M.Z. Whong contributed equally through data interpretation and manuscript revisions. All authors read and approve the final manuscript. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the department of microbiology, Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, for their technical support, insightful feedback or other contributions to the study. References Adebo, O. A., Njobeh, P. B., Gbashi, S., Nwinyi, O. C., & Mavumengwana, V. (2017). Review on microbial degradation of aflatoxins. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition , 57 (15), 3208–3217. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2015.1106440 Adetunji, M. C., Alika, O. P., Awa, N. P., Atanda, O. O., & Mwanza, M. (2018). Microbiological quality and risk assessment for aflatoxins in groundnuts and roasted cashew nuts meant for human consumption. Journal of Toxicology , 2018. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/1308748 Ajiboye, T. O., Yakubu, M. T., & Oladiji, A. T. (2014). Lophirones B and C Extenuate AFB1-Mediated Oxidative Onslaught on Cellular Proteins, Lipids, and DNA through Nrf-2 Expression. Journal of Biochemical and Molecular Toxicology , 28 (12), 558–567. https://doi.org/10.1002/jbt.21598 Anjorin, T. S., Usman, A., Fapohunda, S. O., Kwanashie, A., Sulyok, M., & Krska, R. (2021). Mycobiota and Fungal Metabolites in Improved Groundnut Varieties in Nigeria. Jordan Journal of Biological Sciences , 14 (4), 719–726. Atanda, O. O., Akpan, I., Rati, E. R., & Ozoje, M. (2005). Palm kernel: A potential substrate for rapid detection of aflatoxigenic fungi. Food Science and Technology International , 11 (1), 67–74. https://doi.org/10.1177/1082013205051293 AOAC (2019) Official Methods of Analysis of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists: Official Methods of Analysis of AOAC International. 21st Edition, AOAC, Washington DC. Awuchi, C. G., Ondari, E. N., Ogbonna, C. U., Upadhyay, A. K., Baran, K., Okpala, C. O. R., Korzeniowska, M., & Guiné, R. P. F. (2021). Mycotoxins affecting animals, foods, humans and plants: Types, occurrence, toxicities, action mechanisms, prevention and detoxification strategies-a revisit. Foods , 10 (6), 1–48 . https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10061279 Bandyopadhyay, R., Atehnkeng, J., Ortega-Beltran, A., Akande, A., Falade, T. D. O., & Cotty, P. J. (2019). “Ground-Truthing” Efficacy of Biological Control for Aflatoxin Mitigation in Farmers’ Fields in Nigeria: From Field Trials to Commercial Usage, a 10-Year Study. Frontiers in Microbiology , 10 (2528), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2019.02528 Bandyopadhyay, R., Ortega-Beltran, A., Akande, A., Mutegi, C., Atehnkeng, J., Kaptoge, L., Senghor, A. L., Adhikari, B. N., & Cotty, P. J. (2016). Biological control of aflatoxins in Africa: Current status and potential challenges in the face of climate change. World Mycotoxin Journal , 9 (5), 771–789. https://doi.org/10.3920/WMJ2016.2130 Bankole, S. A., & Mabekoje, O. O. (2004). Mycoflora and occurrence of aflatoxin B1 in dried yam chips from markets in Ogun and Oyo States, Nigeria. Mycopathologia , 157 (1), 111–115. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:MYCO.0000012211.31618.18 Dania, V. O., & Eze, S. E. (2020). Using trichoderma species in combination with cattle dung as soil amendment improves yield and reduces pre-harvest Aflatoxin contamination in groundnut. Agrivita , 42 (3), 449–461. https://doi.org/10.17503/agrivita.v42i3.2670 Ekpakpale, D. O., Kraak, B., Meijer, M., Ayeni, K. I., Houbraken, J., & Ezekiel, C. N. (2021). Fungal diversity and aflatoxins in maize and rice grains and cassava-based flour (Pupuru) from Ondo state, Nigeria. Journal of Fungi , 7 (8), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7080635 Ezekiel, C. N., Adetunji, M. C., Atanda, O. O., Frisvad, J. C., Houbraken, J., & Samson, R. A. (2014). Phenotypic differentiation of species from Aspergillus section Flavi on neutral red desiccated coconut agar. World Mycotoxin Journal , 7 (3), 335–344. https://doi.org/10.3920/WMJ2014.1727 Ezekiel, C. N., Kayode, F. O., Fapohunda, S. O., Olorunfemi, M. F., & Kponi, B. T. (2012). Aflatoxigenic molds and aflatoxins in street-vended snacks in Lagos , Nigeria. Frontiers in Microbiology , 14 (Iarc 2006), 83–88. Fapohunda, S. O., Moore, G. G., Ganiyu, O. T., & Beltz, S. B. (2012). Toxigenic Aspergillus flavus and other fungi of public health concern in food and organic matter in southwest Nigeria. Mycology , 3 (3), 210–219. https://doi.org/10.1080/21501203.2012.722566 Fasoyiro, S. B., Gourama, H., & Cutter, C. N. (2017). Stability and safety of maize–legume-fortified flours stored in various packaging materials. European Food Research and Technology , 243 (10), 1861–1868. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-017-2892-4 Frimpong, G. K., Adekunle, A. A., Ogundipe, O. T., Solanki, M. K., Sadhasivam, S., & Sionov, E. (2019). Identification and toxigenic potential of fungi isolated from capsicum peppers. Microorganisms , 7 (9), 1–17 . https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms7090303 Githang’a, D., Wangia, R. N., Mureithi, M. W., Wandiga, S. O., Mutegi, C., Ogutu, B., Agweyu, A., Wang, J.-S., & Anzala, O. (2019). The effects of aflatoxin exposure on Hepatitis B-vaccine induced immunity in Kenyan children. Current Problems in Pediatric and Adolescent Health Care , 49 (5), 117–130 . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cppeds.2019.04.005 Hassan, F. F., Jibouri, M. H. A.-, & Kareem, A. (2014). Isolation and Identification of Fungal Propagation in Stored Maize and detection of aflatoxin B1 Using TLC and ELISA Technique Isolation and Identification of Fungal Propagation in Stored Maize and detection of aflatoxin B1 Using TLC and ELISA Technique م . Iraqi Journal of Science , 55 (2), 634–642. Hassane, A. M. A., El-Shanawany, A. A., Abo-Dahab, N. F., Abdel-Hadi, A. M., Abdul-Raouf, U. M., & Mwanza, M. (2017). Influence of Different Moisture Contents and Temperature on Growth and Production of Aflatoxin B1 by a Toxigenic Aspergillus flavus Isolate in Wheat Flour. Journal of Ecology of Health & Environment , 5 (3), 77–83. https://doi.org/10.18576/jehe/050302 Ibitoye, O. A., Olaniyi, O. O., Ogidi, C. O., & Akinyele, B. J. (2021). Lactic acid bacteria bio-detoxified aflatoxins contaminated cereals, ameliorate toxicological effects and improve haemato-histological parameters in albino rats. Toxin Reviews , 40 (4), 985–996. https://doi.org/10.1080/15569543.2020.1817088 Jonathan, S. G., & Esho, E. O. (2010). Fungi and aflatoxin detection in two stored oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus and Pleurotus pulmonarius) from Nigeria. Electronic Journal of Environmental, Agricultural and Food Chemistry , 9 (11), 1722–1730. Khan, M. H., Rafii, M. Y., Ramlee, S. I., & Jusoh, M. (2021). Bambara Groundnut ( Vigna subterranea L . Verdc ): A Crop for the New Millennium , Its Genetic Diversity , and Improvements to Mitigate Future Food and Nutritional Challenges. Journal of Agricultural and Marine Sciences , 27 (2), 1–27. Leong, Y., Rosma, A., Latiff, A., & Ahmad, N. I. (2011). Malaysia. Mycotoxin Research , 27 (3), 207–214 . https://doi.org/10.1007/s12550-011-0097-4 Mabruki, F., Makundi, I., & Temba, B. A. (2022). Occurrence of Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus on Stored Maize in Morogoro municipality and Makambako district , Tanzania. Archives of Ecotoxicology , 4 (2), 59–66. Makun, H. A., Dutton, M. F., Njobeh, P. B., Phoku, J. Z., & Yah, C. S. (2011). Incidence, phylogeny and mycotoxigenic potentials of fungi isolated from rice in niger state, nigeria. Journal of Food Safety , 31 (3), 334–349. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-4565.2011.00305.x Nnedinma, A. A., Ejiofor, A. J., Blessing, U. C., & Nkechukwu, I. M. (2019). Identification and control of specific aflatoxin-producing fungi in stored maize seeds in awka using azadirachta indica (neem) and garcinia kola seeds. Pakistan Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences , 32 (4), 1679–1686. Odeniyi, O., Ojo, C., Adebayo-Tayo, B., & Olasehinde, K. (2019). Mycological, toxigenic and nutritional characteristics of some vended groundnut and groundnut products from three Northern Nigerian ecological zones. African Journal of Biomedical Research , 22 (1), 65–71 . Okwu, G. I., Achar, P. N., Ikenebomeh, M. J., & Sreenivasa, M. Y. (2011). Studies of food thickeners in Nigeria for contamination by aflatoxigenic forms of Aspergillus and their detection by PCR. African Journal of Biotechnology , 10 (43), 8641–8646. https://doi.org/10.5897/ajb10.1635 Olatunde Farombi, E. (2006). Aflatoxin contamination of foods in developing countries: Implications for hepatocellular carcinoma and chemopreventive strategies. African Journal of Biotechnology , 5 (1), 1–14. Omeiza, G. K., Kabir, J., Kwaga, J. K. P., Kwanashie, C. N., Mwanza, M., & Ngoma, L. (2018). A risk assessment study of the occurrence and distribution of aflatoxigenic Aspergillus flavus and aflatoxin B1 in dairy cattle feeds in a central northern state, Nigeria. Toxicology Reports , 5 (10), 846–856. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxrep.2018.08.011 Ortega-Beltran, A., Agbetiameh, D., Atehnkeng, J., Falade, T. D. O., & Bandyopadhyay, R. (2021). Does Use of Atoxigenic Biocontrol Products to Mitigate Aflatoxin in Maize Increase Fumonisin Content in Grains? Plant Disease , 105 (8), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1094/PDIS-07-20-1447-RE Ortega-Beltran, A., Callicott, K. A., & Cotty, P. J. (2020). Founder events influence structures of Aspergillus flavus populations. Environmental Microbiology , 22 (8), 3522–3534 . https://doi.org/10.1111/1462-2920.15122 Ortega-Beltran, A., & Cotty, P. J. (2020). Influence of Wounding and Temperature on Resistance of Maize Landraces From Mexico to Aflatoxin Contamination. Frontiers in Plant Science , 11 (4), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2020.572264 Pandey, A. K., Samota, M. K., Kumar, A., Silva, A. S., & Dubey, N. K. (2023). Fungal mycotoxins in food commodities: present status and future concerns. In Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems (Vol. 7). Frontiers Media S.A. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2023.1162595 Salisu, B., Anua, S. M., Wan Rosli, W. I., Mazlan, N., & Haron, R. (2022). Ultra-fast RP-HPLC-FD-DAD for quantification of total aflatoxins in maize, rice, wheat, peanut and poultry feed without sample clean up, and population exposure risk assessment in Katsina, Nigeria: an optimization study. Journal of Environmental Science and Health - Part B Pesticides, Food Contaminants, and Agricultural Wastes , 57 (7), 541–553. https://doi.org/10.1080/03601234.2022.2073151 Sharma, D., Amgain, K., Panta, P. P., & Pokhrel, B. (2020). Hemoglobin levels and anemia evaluation among pregnant women in the remote and rural high lands of mid-western Nepal : a hospital based study. BMC Health Services Research , 7 (1), 1–7. Shittu, O. B., Iwaloye, O. F., Oloyede, A. R., Oni, E. O., Ajibola, A. T., Arowosegbe, A. O., & Oluwasanya, G. O. (2022). Water safety, antifungal-resistant aflatoxigenic aspergillus flavus and other pathogenic fungi in a community hand-dug wells. Journal of Applied Microbiology , 157 (2), 385–389 . https://doi.org/10.1111/jam.15559 Shitu, S, Attahiru, M and Umar, H. et al. (2021). Determination of Aflatoxin Concentrations in Cereals and Legumes Marketed in Department of Applied Chemistry , College of Science and Technology , Kaduna. UMYU Journal of Microbiology Research , 6 (1), 208–218. https://doi.org/10.47430/ujmr.2161.028 Shitu, S.1, Abba, D.2, Tijjani, M.B.3, and Macchido, D. . (2017). Aflatoxin Contamination in Groundnut and Maize Grains Sold in Selected Markets in Zaria Metropolis. Mycotoxicology Society of Nigeria , 10 (4), 1–7. Shitu, S., Macchido, D. A., & Tijjani, M. B. (2018). Detection of Aflatoxigenic Molds and Aflatoxins in Maize and Millet ’ s Grains Marketed in Zaria Metropolis. Journal of Advance Microbioloy , 13 (2), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.9734/JAMB/2018/40075 Udo, N. N., Effiong, O. O., George, U. E., & Okon, E. J. (2021). Effects of processing on the mineral content and proximate composition of Arachis hypogeae ( Groundnut ) seeds. World Journal of Advanced Review and Research , 12 (1), 387–395. Yang, F., Zhang, L., Zhang, Y., Zeng, Y., Li, Y., & Zeng, P. (2023). Culture-dependent and culture-independent approaches to reveal the aflatoxin B 1 -producing fungi in Pixian Doubanjiang , a typical condiment in Chinese cuisine. Food Control , 149 (January), 109711. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2023.109711 Plates Plates A, B, C and D are available in the Supplementary Files section. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files floatimage2.png Plate A and C: Microscopic and Colonial morphology of A. parasiticus respectively Plate B and D: Microscopic and Colonial morphology of A. flavus respectively Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7290071","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":496511890,"identity":"b2bdcd65-d7b1-435b-8d1a-ea81a26db173","order_by":0,"name":"Usman Liman Gambo","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA7UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYNCCAgkgwf/9958KIM3M3ECEFgMJCMlzBqSFkSgtUI28bSCagBaD86cTPxcYWETzz25IMJCcVxvN3w7U8qNiG24tN3I3S88wkMidcefAgQTDbcdzZxxmbGDsOXMbjxbeDdI8QC0NNxIbDiRuO5bbANTCzNiGR8v5s5t/g7TMv5HM2HBwzrHc+QS1HMjdBrZlw400ZsbGhprcDYS0SN7I3WYN0rLxRg4bM8OxA7kbgVoO4vMLH9Bht3kq6nLngbXUABnnDx988KMCtxZ0cBhMHiBaPRDUkaJ4FIyCUTAKRggAAJnLXYH/pFTkAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Ahmadu Bello University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Usman","middleName":"Liman","lastName":"Gambo","suffix":""},{"id":496511892,"identity":"92b7961f-ea59-4f49-9681-1885c9279954","order_by":1,"name":"Abdullahi Isah Obansa","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Ahmadu Bello University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Abdullahi","middleName":"Isah","lastName":"Obansa","suffix":""},{"id":496511895,"identity":"3c1710e5-b193-47f7-843d-d1a03287121c","order_by":2,"name":"Clement Myah Zaman Whong","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Ahmadu Bello University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Clement","middleName":"Myah Zaman","lastName":"Whong","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-08-04 10:38:10","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7290071/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7290071/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":88598368,"identity":"80dfba82-104e-40a6-aa73-c0fcf0d81028","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-08 07:29:58","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":118000,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMap of Zaria showing sampling locations (Source: GIS Lab, Department of Geography A.B.U. Zaria)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7290071/v1/80690608e98ab98518a47aa7.jpeg"},{"id":88598367,"identity":"78df652b-1aa9-4e23-b6e4-003270b119b2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-08 07:29:58","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":47737,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFrequency of Occurrence of Fungal Isolates in the Selected Markets\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7290071/v1/b343d9f804d5b453465a4d14.jpg"},{"id":95728041,"identity":"2c7f0676-ffea-49cc-ab81-6fcfd5492b48","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-12 10:54:06","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1264457,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7290071/v1/f8cd1e7c-f780-4b16-bfba-08add5e1d4df.pdf"},{"id":88598369,"identity":"d4f5b945-17c9-48bd-8a49-a98e6a986277","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-08 07:29:58","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":604349,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePlate A and C: Microscopic and Colonial morphology of \u003cem\u003eA. parasiticus\u003c/em\u003e respectively\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePlate B and D: Microscopic and Colonial morphology of \u003cem\u003eA. flavus\u003c/em\u003e respectively\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7290071/v1/147d739bfa2dada23e755417.png"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Detection of Aflatoxigenic Molds and Aflatoxin Levels in Groundnuts Marketed in Zaria Kaduna State Nigeria","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eGroundnuts exhibit a significant dietary and economic significance owing to their content of fatty acids, proteins, carbohydrates, minerals, and vitamins (Dania and Eze, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, groundnuts are advocated in Nigeria by nutritionists and agriculturists as a viable alternative to animal protein due to its substantial protein content (Udo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). This is attributable to the fact that groundnuts are regarded as an agricultural commodity that possesses a significant concentration of nutrients, characterized by high levels of fat and protein, which consequently renders them exceptionally energy-dense (Odeniyi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, they are recognized as an excellent source of protein and vitamin E, with their derivatives being acknowledged by individuals across all demographics as Ready-To-Eat (RTE) food products (Okwu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Ezekiel et al., 2020). Despite the importance of groundnut in Nigeria, this crop is highly vulnerable to contamination by aflatoxigenic molds, specifically Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. Such infections can lead to aflatoxin contamination at various stages, including pre-harvest, harvest, transportation, and post-harvest storage (Bandyopadhyay et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Ortega-Beltran and Cotty, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Many subsistence farmers in developing countries, including Nigeria, often employ inadequate drying methods for harvested groundnuts in the field before storage. This practice can create warm and humid conditions that increase the risk of contamination (Khan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, freshly harvested groundnuts are frequently stored in reused bags, which can serve as vectors for cross-contamination (Anjorin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Inadequate storage practices contribute to aflatoxin accumulation during storage, exacerbated by the high humidity and temperature typical of tropical climates (Mabruki et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Fasoyiro et al., 201Aflatoxins are a group of secondary metabolites produced by the fungi \u003cem\u003eAspergillus flavus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eAspergillus parasiticus\u003c/em\u003e, commonly found as contaminants in various agricultural products, including grains, oilseeds, tree nuts, and spices (Nnedinma et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Pandey et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). These toxins thrive in warm and humid environments, which facilitate the growth of mold species that generate aflatoxins, posing significant risks particularly in tropical regions (Atanda et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Ortega-Beltran et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The occurrence of aflatoxin contamination is often linked to a combination of climatic variables, environmental factors, and poor agricultural practices, such as inadequate harvesting and storage techniques (Adetunji et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Awuchi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The aflatoxin group comprises over 20 identified metabolites, with the most notable being the naturally occurring forms B1, B2, G1, and G2 (Nnedinma et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Ibitoye et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Among these, AFB1 is particularly notorious as a potent hepatocarcinogen and genotoxic agent, classified as a Group 1 carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) (Ezekiel et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Salisu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). It is estimated that approximately 25% of global food crops, including various groundnuts, are contaminated annually, resulting in considerable economic losses across both agricultural and industrial sectors (Bandyopadhyay et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Mabruki et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHowever, Nigeria's climatic conditions, marked by elevated humidity and temperatures, create an atmosphere conducive to mold proliferation in groundnuts. Therefore, it is imperative to evaluate agricultural products available in the Nigerian markets of possible contamination and to determine the adverse effects. Ultimately, this study sought to examine fungal contamination in groundnuts available in some selected markets within Zaria metropolis and to identify the aflatoxin producing fungi present in the specimens. In addition, the study incorporated the quantification of aflatoxins utilizing ELISA.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eStudy area\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e shows the map of Zaria Metropolis situated at a latitude of 11\u0026deg; 07\u0026rsquo; N and a longitude of 07\u0026deg; 42\u0026rsquo; E, making it one of the key cities in Northern Nigeria. Covering an area of 300 km\u0026sup2;, it comprises six principal settlements: Zaria City, Tudun Wada, Sabon Gari, Danmagaji, Kwangila, and Samaru. According to reports from 2007, the population of Zaria Metropolis was approximately 1,018,827. The region experiences a tropical continental climate characterized by a significant rainy season that lasts up to six months, from May to October. Additionally, a cooler period typically occurs during the dry season, spanning from November to February.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eStudy design\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study employed a market-based cross-sectional design. Groundnut samples were collected from the selected markets using a simple random sampling method for subsequent laboratory analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCollection of Groundnut Samples\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGroundnut samples were collected randomly from various retail outlets across three markets in Zaria Metropolis: Samaru Market, Sabon-Gari Market, and City Market Zaria. A total of thirty-six retail sales points were identified within these markets where agricultural products, including groundnuts, are sold. Throughout the study, a total of 72 samples were collected in two batches from these retail locations. Each sample was placed in clean, sterile containers, securely sealed and labeled accordingly, and then promptly transported to the laboratory for analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eProximate Analysis of Groundnuts\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo ascertain the nutrient composition of groundnut samples, the proximate composition analyses were conducted in accordance with the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) method. The following components were examined: moisture, ash, proteins, fats, crude fiber and carbohydrates.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eIsolation and Identification of Aflatoxigenic Molds\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe isolation of aflatoxigenic molds from the samples was conducted in accordance with the procedure described by (Hassan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Three groundnut seeds were selected and subjected to surface sterilization by immersion in a 2% hypochlorite solution contained in a 250 ml conical flask for 1 minute, followed by three rinses with sterile distilled water. The seeds were then dried using sterile filter paper within a laminar flow hood and subsequently inoculated onto Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) plates supplemented with chloramphenicol at a concentration of 125 mg/l. The inoculated plates were incubated at room temperature (37\u0026deg;C) for 120 hours. Following incubation, the plates were examined for the growth of Aspergillus and spore formation. Colonies displaying morphological characteristics typical of aflatoxin-producing Aspergilli were transferred to fresh PDA plates using sterilized needles for sub-culturing, thereby facilitating the establishment of pure cultures.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMycological investigation media\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) medium employed in the current investigation was of a high analytical standard and was formulated in accordance with the specifications provided by the manufacturer.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMorphological Identification of Isolates\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe isolated molds were identified after growth on the PDA medium by observing their macroscopic characteristics. The isolates were identified using the methodology described by Ezekiel \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e, (2020), which involved evaluating characteristics such as the formation of concentric rings, conidia development, pigmentation, and the texture of the mycelium (Ezekiel et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). The Morphological characteristics and appearance of the mould isolates from groundnut were confirmed and authenticated with the help of Mycological Atlas (Shittu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMicroscopic Characterization of the Isolates\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLacto phenol Cotton Blue Staining\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA pinch of the isolated mold was teased on a clean, grease-free slide with a drop of Lacto phenol cotton blue stain and covered with a coverslip. The slides were subsequently examined under a compound light microscope using both 10\u0026times; and 40\u0026times; objectives to assess their microscopic characteristics. In this preparation, lactic acid serves as a preservative for the fungi, while the phenol component effectively kills the fungal cells. The cotton blue dye stains the fungal structures a deep blue, contrasting with a pale blue background (Yang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The morphological characteristics and appearance of the mould isolates from groundnut were confirmed and authenticated with the help of Mycological Atlas (Shittu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAssessment of Aflatoxin Levels in Groundnut Samples\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe 8031 Veratox Direct Aflatoxin Test Kit was used to test groundnut samples for aflatoxin. The process involved blending the samples in 70% methanol, filtering, and mixing with conjugate. The resulting solution was incubated with antibodies, rinsed, and then added to wells. A calibration curve was established, and absorbance was measured at 650 nm. The ELISA kit's limit of detection was determined to be 0.5.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eData processing was conducted, and the results obtained from the aflatoxin mean concentrations and proximate compositions of the samples were examined by mean comparison using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), facilitated by Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 20 for Windows. Results were presented using tables and charts where appropriate.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eProximate Composition of Groundnuts\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe proximate composition of groundnut samples is displayed in Table 1, depicting the mean \u0026plusmn; S.D. The groundnut from Samaru market exhibited the greatest moisture content (4.92\u0026plusmn;0.38%), followed by Sabon-gari market (4.67\u0026plusmn;0.30%), and the lowest moisture content was observed in groundnut from Zaria-city market (4.62\u0026plusmn;0.13%). The highest crude fat content was found in groundnut from Samaru (53.87\u0026plusmn;0.58), followed by Sabon-gari (52.50\u0026plusmn;0.52%), while Zaria-city (52.10\u0026plusmn;0.98%) had the least. Protein content was highest in groundnut from Zaria-city (19.12\u0026plusmn;0.06%), followed by Sabon-gari (19.08\u0026plusmn;0.29%), and Samaru recorded (17.67\u0026plusmn;0.14%) the least. The proximate composition values, however, did not displayed any statistical significance when compared to one another.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 1: Percentage (%) Proximate Composition of Groundnuts Obtained from Sampled Markets\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"613\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12.2349%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLocation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13.7031%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMoisture\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eContent\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13.7031%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAsh\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15.0082%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCrude Fat\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15.0082%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCrude Protein\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13.7031%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;Crude Fibre\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16.6395%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCarbohydrate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12.2349%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSBG\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13.7031%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.67\u0026plusmn;0.03\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13.7031%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.75\u0026plusmn;0.15\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15.0082%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e52.5\u0026plusmn;0.52\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15.0082%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.08\u0026plusmn;0.29\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13.7031%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.08\u0026plusmn;0.95\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16.6395%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22.00\u0026plusmn;0.78\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12.2349%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSMR\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13.7031%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.92\u0026plusmn;0.38\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13.7031%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.82\u0026plusmn;0.13\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15.0082%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e53.87\u0026plusmn;0.58\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15.0082%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.67\u0026plusmn;0.14\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13.7031%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.79\u0026plusmn;0.70\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16.6395%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.73\u0026plusmn;0.91\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12.2349%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZAR\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13.7031%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.62+0.13\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13.7031%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.02\u0026plusmn;0.20\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15.0082%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e52.1\u0026plusmn;0.98\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15.0082%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.12\u0026plusmn;0.06\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13.7031%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.12\u0026plusmn;0.52\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16.6395%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22.15\u0026plusmn;1.11\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMean values with distinct superscripts across the columns are statistically significant (P \u0026lt; 0.05). Where SBG= Sabon-Gari Market, SMR= Samaru Market, and ZAR= Zaria Market\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFungal Isolates Detected from the Groundnut Samples\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGenerally, 100% of the groundnut tested on potato dextrose agar were contaminated with molds fungi. Three (3) genera were identified which include; Aspergillus section flavi (\u003cem\u003eAspergillus\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003eflavus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eAspergillus parasiticus\u003c/em\u003e), \u003cem\u003eAspergillus niger, Rhizopus\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003esp\u003cem\u003e,\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eand\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;Trichoderma\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003esp. Table.2 shows the identification of fungal isolates using microscopic and macroscopic characteristics. Figure 2 presents a visual representation of the total occurrence frequency at which fungal isolates were found in the various markets sampled. \u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eA. niger\u003c/em\u003e had the highest percentage occurrence of 25 (34.72) while A.\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;parasiticus\u003c/em\u003e with 5 (6.94) had the least.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 2: Cultural and Microscopic Characteristics of the Fungal Isolates\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"658\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 41.8816%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eColonial Morphology\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 38.695%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMicroscopic Appearance\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 19.4234%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTentative Identity\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 41.8816%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInitially colonies acquire the white colour of the mycelia; later become raised and quickly become yellowish-green with conidial production. The underside of the colonies was pale yellow.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 38.695%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHyphae are septate, conidiophores are colourless, rough-texture and unbranched, subglobose\u0026nbsp;to globose vesicles, and globose conidia with thin walls\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 19.4234%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAspergillus flavus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 41.8816%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInitially colonies acquire the white colour of the mycelia; later become raised and quickly become dark-green with conidial production. The underside of the colonies was pale yellow.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 38.695%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHyphae are septate, conidiophores are colourless, rough-texture and unbranched, subglobose\u0026nbsp;to globose vesicles, and globose conidia with thin walls\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 19.4234%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAspergillus parasiticus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 41.8816%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eColonies on PDA plate are initially white; colonies become raised and quickly become black with conidial production. Underside was pale yellow.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 38.695%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHyphae are septate and hyaline, conidial head are radiate, conidiophores are long and smooth, conidia are brown\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 19.4234%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAspergillus niger\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 41.8816%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eColonies are fast growing, covering the surface of the agar, dark greyish brown, sporangiophores are brownish.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 38.695%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNon-septate broad coenocytic hyphae sporangia, sporangiospores and rhizoids,\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 19.4234%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRhizopus\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003esp.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 41.8816%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBlue-green colony pigmentation on PDA, reverse side was pale or yellowish colour.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 38.695%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSeptate hyaline hyphae, conidiophores, phaliades and conidia are present.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 19.4234%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTrichoderma\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003esp.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAflatoxin Levels in Groundnut Samples\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 3 illustrates aflatoxin mean concentration in groundnuts in the different markets sampled in Zaria metropolis. The distribution of aflatoxin contamination for groundnut samples from the three (3) markets is given in Table 4. \u0026nbsp;In general, the majority of samples in all the three markets were in the range of 101-500 \u0026mu;g/kg, 4 samples in the range of 21-100 and only one (1) sample in the range of 5-20 \u0026mu;g/kg. Conversely, only two samples from Samaru and Zaria-city markets recoded \u0026gt;500 \u0026mu;g/kg.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 3: Aflatoxin Mean Concentrations of Groundnuts based on Sampled Markets.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLocation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 241px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNumber Examined\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 260px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAflatoxin Concentrations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 130px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRange (\u0026micro;g/kg)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 130px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAverage (\u0026micro;g/kg)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSamaru\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 241px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 130px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e43.9 \u0026ndash; 506.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 130px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e248.01\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSabon Gari\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 241px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 130px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.9 \u0026ndash; 482.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 130px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e203.72\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZaria City\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 241px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 130px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e65.1 \u0026ndash; 505.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 130px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e239.80\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMean values with distinct superscript across the columns are statistically significant (P \u0026lt; 0.05).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 4: Distribution of Aflatoxin in Groundnut from the Markets Sampled in Zaria Metropolis\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 133px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAflatoxin range\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026mu;g/kg\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 114px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSamaru\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003en = 9\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSabon-Gari\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003en = 7\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZaria-City\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003en = 6\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003en = 22\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 133px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0- 4\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 114px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0 (0.00)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0 (0.00)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0 (0.00)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0 (0.00)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 133px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5- 20\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 114px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0 (0.00)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (14.29)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0 (0.00)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (4.55)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 133px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e21- 100\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 114px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0 (0.00)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (14.29)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3 (50.00)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4 (18.18)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 133px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e101\u0026ndash; 500\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 114px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8 (88.89)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 (71.43)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 (33.33)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15 (68.18)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 133px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026gt;500\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 114px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (11.11)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0 (0.00)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (16.67)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 (9.09)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKey: Numbers in parenthesis show percentage of infected samples\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe contamination of groundnuts with mycotoxin producing fungi is considered to be one of the most serious food safety problems in the world (Adebo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Moisture content in crops plays a pivotal role in the contamination of agricultural products by aflatoxin-producing molds, mainly \u003cem\u003eAspergillus flavus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eAspergillus parasiticus\u003c/em\u003e (Jonathan and Esho, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). In the present study, the moisture level of 4.62\u0026ndash;4.92% detected in the groundnut samples examined was low. However, it is possible for the fungal growth to increase during prolonged storage of the groundnut samples. The moisture levels observed in this study differed from those reported by Shitu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), who reported a moisture content range of 2.85\u0026ndash;9.60% in groundnuts. Based on our findings, the moisture content aligns with the values of (4.11% for raw groundnut) as reported by Shitu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Notably, while moisture is a critical factor, other environmental parameters such as temperature and relative humidity further complicates the dynamics of aflatoxin production. Ortega-Beltran et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) reported moisture and temperature as the primary factors that have an impact on post-harvest contamination of stored commodities by aflatoxigenic molds. High moisture levels combined with elevated temperatures (typically between 28\u0026deg;C and 30\u0026deg;C) create an environment that favors both fungal proliferation and aflatoxin biosynthesis (Hassane et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). The percentage of crude protein in the groundnuts indicated that they serve as valuable sources of nitrogen, which is necessary for the growth of molds as well as the production of aflatoxin. The observed crude protein content of 17.67\u0026ndash;19.12% in the present study surpassed the value 16.33% reported by Ajiboye et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e in his study on groundnuts. Conversely, it falls slightly below the recorded value of 20.38% reported by (Odeniyi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Udo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study revealed the presence of molds such as; \u003cem\u003eA. flavus, A. parasiticus, A. niger, Rhizopus\u003c/em\u003e sp and \u003cem\u003eTrichoderma\u003c/em\u003e sp in the groundnut samples examined. Among the isolates \u003cem\u003eA. niger\u003c/em\u003e has the highest percentage of occurrence of (34.73%) while \u003cem\u003eA. parasiticus\u003c/em\u003e (6.94%) had the least occurrence. The detection of the above-mentioned genera might be as a result of the greater adaptation of these fungi to the substrate, especially during storage (Sharma et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The occurrence of \u003cem\u003eAspergillus\u003c/em\u003e sp, \u003cem\u003eRhizopus\u003c/em\u003e sp and \u003cem\u003eTrichoderma\u003c/em\u003e sp was similar to the findings of other researchers studying peanuts from Southwest (Bankole and Mabekoje, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Fapohunda et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Shittu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) and Northern Nigeria (Odeniyi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Anjorin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) using traditional Methods for isolation and identification of molds fungi on plate agar. Among the molds detected, \u003cem\u003eA. flavus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eA. parasiticus\u003c/em\u003e are the most important because of their potential ability to produce aflatoxins which could exact negative effect in human and animals (Nnedinma et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, it is well established that numerous factors contribute to the proliferation of fungi that produces aflatoxins in crops at the storage phase, including the temperature and moisture levels of the seeds, which result in an escalation of aflatoxin contamination (Makun et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, other pivotal factors that affect the development of molds responsible for aflatoxin production encompass environmental humidity, moisture absorption, prolong storage, mechanical damage and infestation by insects (Awuchi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe differences between the current investigation and previous investigations may be attributed to the differences in geographical locations, climatic and environmental conditions, the type of sample (specimen) and the size of the sample examined, the techniques employed for sampling, the methods utilized for the isolation of aflatoxigenic molds and the socioeconomic status. Therefore, as long as these factors diverge, it is anticipated that the results will exhibit a discrepancy.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIt is worth mentioning in the present study, 3 samples namely; SMR 22, SBG 10 and ZAR 14 each from the different markets under study contain aflatoxins but no aflatoxigenic molds isolated in the samples analyzed. This observation could be due to the presence of other competing fungi such as \u003cem\u003eRhizopus\u003c/em\u003e sp which grows rapidly and tend to colonize and over grown aflatoxigenic molds in addition to other unfavorable conditions of temperature, humidity and moisture content which was not favourable for the survival and growth of the toxigenic isolates but may have produced aflatoxins before entering death phase of growth (Frimpong et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe total aflatoxin levels identified in this study were notably higher than those reported by Shitu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), Shitu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), and Shitu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), which focused on groundnuts and cereal grains in the Zaria metropolis. Additionally, a study by Omeiza et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) in northern Nigeria found that the mean concentration of aflatoxins ranged from 0.5 to 24.8 \u0026micro;g/kg.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn 2013, a study conducted in Sokoto aimed to evaluate the presence of aflatoxins in groundnut and groundnut-based snack samples. The findings revealed that the average concentration of aflatoxins in groundnuts was 14 \u0026micro;g/kg, while groundnut-based snacks exhibited a significantly higher mean concentration of 1041 \u0026micro;g/kg (Kayode et al., 2013). Similarly, a 2017 study by Oyedele et al. in Nigeria reported that aflatoxin B1 levels in groundnut samples reached 216 \u0026micro;g/kg, with total aflatoxins measuring 2076 \u0026micro;g/kg. Furthermore, Leong et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) analyzed 196 samples of peanuts and peanut products, discovering substantial aflatoxin contamination levels ranging from 16.6 to 711 \u0026micro;g/kg.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn our research, the levels of aflatoxin detected in groundnuts surpassed the permissible limits established by both NAFDAC and SON (20 \u0026micro;g/kg) as well as the threshold set by the EU Commission (4 \u0026micro;g/kg). This elevated aflatoxin contamination in groundnuts can be attributed to various factors, including environmental conditions before and after harvest, along with inadequate management practices during planting, harvesting, drying, transportation, and storage (Ekpakpale et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, pest damage and a lack of awareness regarding good agricultural practices (GAPs), good manufacturing practices (GMPs), and good storage practices (GSPs) are likely significant contributors to increased aflatoxin contamination during storage. These detrimental practices create favorable conditions for fungal growth and aflatoxin production (Omeiza et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Various studies have confirmed that the issue of aflatoxin is more severe in developing nations, where favorable conditions of temperature and humidity, substandard marketing and transportation methodologies, along with insufficient storage techniques, create a conducive environment for the proliferation of fungi and synthesis of aflatoxins (Olatunde Farombi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Githang\u0026rsquo;a et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe analysis of groundnut seeds indicated a variety of compositional parameters, including moisture content (4.62\u0026plusmn;0.13 - 4.92\u0026plusmn;0.38%), crude proteins ((17.67\u0026plusmn;0.14 - 19.12\u0026plusmn;0.06%) and carbohydrates content (21.73\u0026plusmn;0.91 - 22.15\u0026plusmn;0.78%), which are necessary for the proliferation of molds and subsequent aflatoxin production. The study involving 72 groundnut samples from various markets in the Zaria metropolis provided significant findings regarding fungal and aflatoxin contamination. The results revealed a notable presence of fungal isolates, specifically A. flavus (19.44%), \u003cem\u003eA. parasiticus\u003c/em\u003e (6.94%), \u003cem\u003eA. niger\u003c/em\u003e (34.73%), \u003cem\u003eRhizopus\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003esp (29.17%), and \u003cem\u003eTrichoderma\u003c/em\u003e sp (9.72%) in the samples collected from these markets. Moreover, among the isolates that were screened for aflatoxin production, a significant number exhibited the presence of visible blue fluorescence. This observation strongly suggests their potential to produce aflatoxin. Furthermore, the aflatoxin levels detected in the groundnut samples ranged from 203.72 to 248.01 \u0026mu;g/kg, surpassing the maximum acceptable limits set by NAFDAC and FAO.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll authors have read and approved the final version of the manuscript and consent to its publication.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and material\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets used in this manuscript are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors of this article state that they have no competing interests with respect to the topic of this paper.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial or nonprofit organizations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors’ contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eU.L. Gambo designed the study, conducted the experiments and drafted the manuscript. While I.O. Abdullahi and C.M.Z. Whong contributed equally through data interpretation and manuscript revisions. All authors read and approve the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors would like to thank the department of microbiology, Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, for their technical support, insightful feedback or other contributions to the study.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAdebo, O. A., Njobeh, P. B., Gbashi, S., Nwinyi, O. C., \u0026amp; Mavumengwana, V. (2017). Review on microbial degradation of aflatoxins. \u003cem\u003eCritical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003e57\u003c/strong\u003e(15), \u003cstrong\u003e3208\u0026ndash;3217. \u003c/strong\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2015.1106440\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAdetunji, M. C., Alika, O. P., Awa, N. P., Atanda, O. O., \u0026amp; Mwanza, M. (2018). Microbiological quality and risk assessment for aflatoxins in groundnuts and roasted cashew nuts meant for human consumption. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Toxicology\u003c/em\u003e, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/1308748\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAjiboye, T. O., Yakubu, M. T., \u0026amp; Oladiji, A. T. (2014). Lophirones B and C Extenuate AFB\u0026lt;inf\u0026gt;1\u0026lt;/inf\u0026gt;-Mediated Oxidative Onslaught on Cellular Proteins, Lipids, and DNA through Nrf-2 Expression. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Biochemical and Molecular Toxicology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003e28\u003c/strong\u003e(12), \u003cstrong\u003e558\u0026ndash;567. \u003c/strong\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1002/jbt.21598\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAnjorin, T. S., Usman, A., Fapohunda, S. O., Kwanashie, A., Sulyok, M., \u0026amp; Krska, R. (2021). Mycobiota and Fungal Metabolites in Improved Groundnut Varieties in Nigeria. \u003cem\u003eJordan Journal of Biological Sciences\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003e14\u003c/strong\u003e(4),\u003cstrong\u003e 719\u0026ndash;726.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAtanda, O. O., Akpan, I., Rati, E. R., \u0026amp; Ozoje, M. (2005). Palm kernel: A potential substrate for rapid detection of aflatoxigenic fungi. \u003cem\u003eFood Science and Technology International\u003c/em\u003e,\u003cstrong\u003e 11\u003c/strong\u003e(1), \u003cstrong\u003e67\u0026ndash;74.\u003c/strong\u003e https://doi.org/10.1177/1082013205051293\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAOAC (2019) Official Methods of Analysis of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists: Official Methods of Analysis of AOAC International. 21st Edition, AOAC, Washington DC.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAwuchi, C. G., Ondari, E. N., Ogbonna, C. U., Upadhyay, A. K., Baran, K., Okpala, C. O. R., Korzeniowska, M., \u0026amp; Guin\u0026eacute;, R. P. F. (2021). Mycotoxins affecting animals, foods, humans and plants: Types, occurrence, toxicities, action mechanisms, prevention and detoxification strategies-a revisit. \u003cem\u003eFoods\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003e10\u003c/strong\u003e(6), \u003cstrong\u003e1\u0026ndash;48\u003c/strong\u003e. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10061279\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBandyopadhyay, R., Atehnkeng, J., Ortega-Beltran, A., Akande, A., Falade, T. D. O., \u0026amp; Cotty, P. J. (2019). \u0026ldquo;Ground-Truthing\u0026rdquo; Efficacy of Biological Control for Aflatoxin Mitigation in Farmers\u0026rsquo; Fields in Nigeria: From Field Trials to Commercial Usage, a 10-Year Study. \u003cem\u003eFrontiers in Microbiology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003e10\u003c/strong\u003e(2528), \u003cstrong\u003e1\u0026ndash;18.\u003c/strong\u003e https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2019.02528\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBandyopadhyay, R., Ortega-Beltran, A., Akande, A., Mutegi, C., Atehnkeng, J., Kaptoge, L., Senghor, A. L., Adhikari, B. N., \u0026amp; Cotty, P. J. (2016). Biological control of aflatoxins in Africa: Current status and potential challenges in the face of climate change. \u003cem\u003eWorld Mycotoxin Journal\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003e9\u003c/strong\u003e(5), \u003cstrong\u003e771\u0026ndash;789.\u003c/strong\u003e https://doi.org/10.3920/WMJ2016.2130\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBankole, S. A., \u0026amp; Mabekoje, O. O. (2004). Mycoflora and occurrence of aflatoxin B\u0026lt;inf\u0026gt;1\u0026lt;/inf\u0026gt; in dried yam chips from markets in Ogun and Oyo States, Nigeria. \u003cem\u003eMycopathologia\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003e157\u003c/strong\u003e(1), \u003cstrong\u003e111\u0026ndash;115.\u003c/strong\u003e https://doi.org/10.1023/B:MYCO.0000012211.31618.18\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDania, V. O., \u0026amp; Eze, S. E. (2020). Using trichoderma species in combination with cattle dung as soil amendment improves yield and reduces pre-harvest Aflatoxin contamination in groundnut. \u003cem\u003eAgrivita\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003e42\u003c/strong\u003e(3),\u003cstrong\u003e 449\u0026ndash;461.\u003c/strong\u003e https://doi.org/10.17503/agrivita.v42i3.2670\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEkpakpale, D. O., Kraak, B., Meijer, M., Ayeni, K. I., Houbraken, J., \u0026amp; Ezekiel, C. N. (2021). Fungal diversity and aflatoxins in maize and rice grains and cassava-based flour (Pupuru) from Ondo state, Nigeria. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Fungi\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003e7\u003c/strong\u003e(8),\u003cstrong\u003e 1\u0026ndash;15.\u003c/strong\u003e https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7080635\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEzekiel, C. N., Adetunji, M. C., Atanda, O. O., Frisvad, J. C., Houbraken, J., \u0026amp; Samson, R. A. (2014). Phenotypic differentiation of species from Aspergillus section Flavi on neutral red desiccated coconut agar. \u003cem\u003eWorld Mycotoxin Journal\u003c/em\u003e,\u003cstrong\u003e 7\u003c/strong\u003e(3), \u003cstrong\u003e335\u0026ndash;344. \u003c/strong\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3920/WMJ2014.1727\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEzekiel, C. N., Kayode, F. O., Fapohunda, S. O., Olorunfemi, M. F., \u0026amp; Kponi, B. T. (2012). Aflatoxigenic molds and aflatoxins in street-vended snacks in Lagos , Nigeria. \u003cem\u003eFrontiers in Microbiology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003e14\u003c/strong\u003e(Iarc 2006), \u003cstrong\u003e83\u0026ndash;88.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFapohunda, S. O., Moore, G. G., Ganiyu, O. T., \u0026amp; Beltz, S. B. (2012). Toxigenic Aspergillus flavus and other fungi of public health concern in food and organic matter in southwest Nigeria. \u003cem\u003eMycology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003e3\u003c/strong\u003e(3), \u003cstrong\u003e210\u0026ndash;219.\u003c/strong\u003e https://doi.org/10.1080/21501203.2012.722566\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFasoyiro, S. B., Gourama, H., \u0026amp; Cutter, C. N. (2017). Stability and safety of maize\u0026ndash;legume-fortified flours stored in various packaging materials. \u003cem\u003eEuropean Food Research and Technology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003e243\u003c/strong\u003e(10), \u003cstrong\u003e1861\u0026ndash;1868.\u003c/strong\u003e https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-017-2892-4\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFrimpong, G. K., Adekunle, A. A., Ogundipe, O. T., Solanki, M. K., Sadhasivam, S., \u0026amp; Sionov, E. (2019). Identification and toxigenic potential of fungi isolated from capsicum peppers. \u003cem\u003eMicroorganisms\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003e7\u003c/strong\u003e(9), \u003cstrong\u003e1\u0026ndash;17\u003c/strong\u003e. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms7090303\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGithang\u0026rsquo;a, D., Wangia, R. N., Mureithi, M. W., Wandiga, S. O., Mutegi, C., Ogutu, B., Agweyu, A., Wang, J.-S., \u0026amp; Anzala, O. (2019). The effects of aflatoxin exposure on Hepatitis B-vaccine induced immunity in Kenyan children. \u003cem\u003eCurrent Problems in Pediatric and Adolescent Health Care\u003c/em\u003e,\u003cstrong\u003e 49\u003c/strong\u003e(5),\u003cstrong\u003e 117\u0026ndash;130\u003c/strong\u003e. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cppeds.2019.04.005\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHassan, F. F., Jibouri, M. H. A.-, \u0026amp; Kareem, A. (2014). Isolation and Identification of Fungal Propagation in Stored Maize and detection of aflatoxin B1 Using TLC and ELISA Technique Isolation and Identification of Fungal Propagation in Stored Maize and detection of aflatoxin B1 Using TLC and ELISA Technique \u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003eم\u003c/span\u003e. \u003cem\u003eIraqi Journal of Science\u003c/em\u003e,\u003cstrong\u003e 55\u003c/strong\u003e(2), \u003cstrong\u003e634\u0026ndash;642.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHassane, A. M. A., El-Shanawany, A. A., Abo-Dahab, N. F., Abdel-Hadi, A. M., Abdul-Raouf, U. M., \u0026amp; Mwanza, M. (2017). Influence of Different Moisture Contents and Temperature on Growth and Production of Aflatoxin B1 by a Toxigenic Aspergillus flavus Isolate in Wheat Flour. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Ecology of Health \u0026amp; Environment\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003e5\u003c/strong\u003e(3), \u003cstrong\u003e77\u0026ndash;83. \u003c/strong\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.18576/jehe/050302\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eIbitoye, O. A., Olaniyi, O. O., Ogidi, C. O., \u0026amp; Akinyele, B. J. (2021). Lactic acid bacteria bio-detoxified aflatoxins contaminated cereals, ameliorate toxicological effects and improve haemato-histological parameters in albino rats. \u003cem\u003eToxin Reviews\u003c/em\u003e,\u003cstrong\u003e 40\u003c/strong\u003e(4), \u003cstrong\u003e985\u0026ndash;996. \u003c/strong\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1080/15569543.2020.1817088\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJonathan, S. G., \u0026amp; Esho, E. O. (2010). Fungi and aflatoxin detection in two stored oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus and Pleurotus pulmonarius) from Nigeria. \u003cem\u003eElectronic Journal of Environmental, Agricultural and Food Chemistry\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003e9\u003c/strong\u003e(11), \u003cstrong\u003e1722\u0026ndash;1730.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKhan, M. H., Rafii, M. Y., Ramlee, S. I., \u0026amp; Jusoh, M. (2021). Bambara Groundnut ( Vigna subterranea L . Verdc ): A Crop for the New Millennium , Its Genetic Diversity , and Improvements to Mitigate Future Food and Nutritional Challenges. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Agricultural and Marine Sciences\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003e27\u003c/strong\u003e(2),\u003cstrong\u003e 1\u0026ndash;27.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLeong, Y., Rosma, A., Latiff, A., \u0026amp; Ahmad, N. I. (2011). Malaysia. \u003cem\u003eMycotoxin Research\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003e27\u003c/strong\u003e(3), \u003cstrong\u003e207\u0026ndash;214\u003c/strong\u003e. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12550-011-0097-4\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMabruki, F., Makundi, I., \u0026amp; Temba, B. A. (2022). Occurrence of Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus on Stored Maize in Morogoro municipality and Makambako district , Tanzania. \u003cem\u003eArchives of Ecotoxicology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003e4\u003c/strong\u003e(2),\u003cstrong\u003e 59\u0026ndash;66.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMakun, H. A., Dutton, M. F., Njobeh, P. B., Phoku, J. Z., \u0026amp; Yah, C. S. (2011). Incidence, phylogeny and mycotoxigenic potentials of fungi isolated from rice in niger state, nigeria. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Food Safety\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003e31\u003c/strong\u003e(3), \u003cstrong\u003e334\u0026ndash;349.\u003c/strong\u003e https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-4565.2011.00305.x\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNnedinma, A. A., Ejiofor, A. J., Blessing, U. C., \u0026amp; Nkechukwu, I. M. (2019). Identification and control of specific aflatoxin-producing fungi in stored maize seeds in awka using azadirachta indica (neem) and garcinia kola seeds. \u003cem\u003ePakistan Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003e32\u003c/strong\u003e(4), \u003cstrong\u003e1679\u0026ndash;1686.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOdeniyi, O., Ojo, C., Adebayo-Tayo, B., \u0026amp; Olasehinde, K. (2019). Mycological, toxigenic and nutritional characteristics of some vended groundnut and groundnut products from three Northern Nigerian ecological zones. \u003cem\u003eAfrican Journal of Biomedical Research\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003e22\u003c/strong\u003e(1),\u003cstrong\u003e 65\u0026ndash;71\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOkwu, G. I., Achar, P. N., Ikenebomeh, M. J., \u0026amp; Sreenivasa, M. Y. (2011). Studies of food thickeners in Nigeria for contamination by aflatoxigenic forms of Aspergillus and their detection by PCR. \u003cem\u003eAfrican Journal of Biotechnology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003e10\u003c/strong\u003e(43), \u003cstrong\u003e8641\u0026ndash;8646. \u003c/strong\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.5897/ajb10.1635\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOlatunde Farombi, E. (2006). Aflatoxin contamination of foods in developing countries: Implications for hepatocellular carcinoma and chemopreventive strategies. \u003cem\u003eAfrican Journal of Biotechnology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003e5\u003c/strong\u003e(1), \u003cstrong\u003e1\u0026ndash;14.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOmeiza, G. K., Kabir, J., Kwaga, J. K. P., Kwanashie, C. N., Mwanza, M., \u0026amp; Ngoma, L. (2018). A risk assessment study of the occurrence and distribution of aflatoxigenic Aspergillus flavus and aflatoxin B1 in dairy cattle feeds in a central northern state, Nigeria. \u003cem\u003eToxicology Reports\u003c/em\u003e,\u003cstrong\u003e 5\u003c/strong\u003e(10), \u003cstrong\u003e846\u0026ndash;856.\u003c/strong\u003e https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxrep.2018.08.011\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOrtega-Beltran, A., Agbetiameh, D., Atehnkeng, J., Falade, T. D. O., \u0026amp; Bandyopadhyay, R. (2021). Does Use of Atoxigenic Biocontrol Products to Mitigate Aflatoxin in Maize Increase Fumonisin Content in Grains? \u003cem\u003ePlant Disease\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003e105\u003c/strong\u003e(8),\u003cstrong\u003e 1\u0026ndash;14. \u003c/strong\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1094/PDIS-07-20-1447-RE\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOrtega-Beltran, A., Callicott, K. A., \u0026amp; Cotty, P. J. (2020). Founder events influence structures of Aspergillus flavus populations. \u003cem\u003eEnvironmental Microbiology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003e22\u003c/strong\u003e(8), \u003cstrong\u003e3522\u0026ndash;3534\u003c/strong\u003e. https://doi.org/10.1111/1462-2920.15122\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOrtega-Beltran, A., \u0026amp; Cotty, P. J. (2020). Influence of Wounding and Temperature on Resistance of Maize Landraces From Mexico to Aflatoxin Contamination. \u003cem\u003eFrontiers in Plant Science\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003e11\u003c/strong\u003e(4), \u003cstrong\u003e1\u0026ndash;20.\u003c/strong\u003e https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2020.572264\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePandey, A. K., Samota, M. K., Kumar, A., Silva, A. S., \u0026amp; Dubey, N. K. (2023). Fungal mycotoxins in food commodities: present status and future concerns. In \u003cem\u003eFrontiers in Sustainable Food Systems\u003c/em\u003e (Vol. 7). Frontiers Media S.A. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2023.1162595\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSalisu, B., Anua, S. M., Wan Rosli, W. I., Mazlan, N., \u0026amp; Haron, R. (2022). Ultra-fast RP-HPLC-FD-DAD for quantification of total aflatoxins in maize, rice, wheat, peanut and poultry feed without sample clean up, and population exposure risk assessment in Katsina, Nigeria: an optimization study. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Environmental Science and Health - Part B Pesticides, Food Contaminants, and Agricultural Wastes\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003e57\u003c/strong\u003e(7), \u003cstrong\u003e541\u0026ndash;553. \u003c/strong\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1080/03601234.2022.2073151\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSharma, D., Amgain, K., Panta, P. P., \u0026amp; Pokhrel, B. (2020). Hemoglobin levels and anemia evaluation among pregnant women in the remote and rural high lands of mid-western Nepal : a hospital based study. \u003cem\u003eBMC Health Services Research\u003c/em\u003e,\u003cstrong\u003e 7\u003c/strong\u003e(1), \u003cstrong\u003e1\u0026ndash;7.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eShittu, O. B., Iwaloye, O. F., Oloyede, A. R., Oni, E. O., Ajibola, A. T., Arowosegbe, A. O., \u0026amp; Oluwasanya, G. O. (2022). Water safety, antifungal-resistant aflatoxigenic aspergillus flavus and other pathogenic fungi in a community hand-dug wells. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Applied Microbiology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003e157\u003c/strong\u003e(2), \u003cstrong\u003e385\u0026ndash;389\u003c/strong\u003e. https://doi.org/10.1111/jam.15559\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eShitu, S, Attahiru, M and Umar, H. et al. (2021). Determination of Aflatoxin Concentrations in Cereals and Legumes Marketed in Department of Applied Chemistry , College of Science and Technology , Kaduna. \u003cem\u003eUMYU Journal of Microbiology Research\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003e6\u003c/strong\u003e(1), \u003cstrong\u003e208\u0026ndash;218. \u003c/strong\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.47430/ujmr.2161.028\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eShitu, S.1, Abba, D.2, Tijjani, M.B.3, and Macchido, D. . (2017). Aflatoxin Contamination in Groundnut and Maize Grains Sold in Selected Markets in Zaria Metropolis. \u003cem\u003eMycotoxicology Society of Nigeria\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003e10\u003c/strong\u003e(4), \u003cstrong\u003e1\u0026ndash;7.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eShitu, S., Macchido, D. A., \u0026amp; Tijjani, M. B. (2018). Detection of Aflatoxigenic Molds and Aflatoxins in Maize and Millet \u0026rsquo; s Grains Marketed in Zaria Metropolis. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Advance Microbioloy\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003e13\u003c/strong\u003e(2), \u003cstrong\u003e1\u0026ndash;9. \u003c/strong\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.9734/JAMB/2018/40075\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eUdo, N. N., Effiong, O. O., George, U. E., \u0026amp; Okon, E. J. (2021). Effects of processing on the mineral content and proximate composition of Arachis hypogeae ( Groundnut ) seeds. \u003cem\u003eWorld Journal of Advanced Review and Research\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003e12\u003c/strong\u003e(1), \u003cstrong\u003e387\u0026ndash;395.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYang, F., Zhang, L., Zhang, Y., Zeng, Y., Li, Y., \u0026amp; Zeng, P. (2023). Culture-dependent and culture-independent approaches to reveal the aflatoxin B 1 -producing fungi in Pixian Doubanjiang , a typical condiment in Chinese cuisine. \u003cem\u003eFood Control\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003e149\u003c/strong\u003e(January), 109711. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2023.109711\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Plates","content":"\u003cp\u003ePlates A, B, C and D are available in the Supplementary Files section.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Aflatoxins, Aspergillus, DCA, Groundnuts, Markets, Molds, ELISA","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7290071/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7290071/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eGlobally, studies on identification and detection of Aflatoxins have gained massive attention, especially in recent times. Consequently, the present work aimed to detect aflatoxigenic molds and aflatoxin levels in groundnuts marketed in Zaria metropolis, Kaduna state, Nigeria. A sum of 72 groundnut specimens comprising 24 specimens each from the three selected markets; Samaru, Sabon-Gari, and City market Zaria, were collected and analyzed in the study. The proximate compositions of the groundnuts were determined according to standard procedure of AOAC. Freshly prepared potato dextrose agar (PDA) was used to isolates molds, which were further identified microscopically (X 40) using wet preparation. All Aspergilli isolates were then screened for the ability to produce aflatoxin on desiccated coconut agar (DCA) supplemented with phenol red as indicator. The fungal cultures, aged 72 hours, were examined under ultraviolet (UV) light at a wavelength of 365 nm to assess fluorescence on DCA plates. Although the observed differences were not statistically significant, the compositional analysis indicated that groundnut samples from Samaru market exhibited the highest moisture content (4.92\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.38%) and crude fat (53.87\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58%). The study also revealed the presence of \u003cem\u003eAspergillus flavus\u003c/em\u003e (19.44%), \u003cem\u003eAspergillus parasiticus\u003c/em\u003e (6.94%), \u003cem\u003eAspergillus niger\u003c/em\u003e (34.73%), \u003cem\u003eRhizopus\u003c/em\u003e sp. (29.17%), and \u003cem\u003eTrichoderma\u003c/em\u003e sp. (9.72%) fungal isolates from samples collected from the selected markets. Furthermore, groundnut samples sourced from the Samaru market recorded the highest average aflatoxin concentration at 248.01 \u0026micro;g/kg and lowest concentration was found in samples from Sabon Gari, which measured 203.72 \u0026micro;g/kg.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Detection of Aflatoxigenic Molds and Aflatoxin Levels in Groundnuts Marketed in Zaria Kaduna State Nigeria","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-08-08 07:29:53","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7290071/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"fbd5a688-4f7d-48d8-acb3-3f37f0763021","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 8th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":52738873,"name":"Biological sciences/Biological techniques"},{"id":52738874,"name":"Biological sciences/Biotechnology"},{"id":52738875,"name":"Biological sciences/Microbiology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-11-12T10:53:55+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-08-08 07:29:53","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7290071","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7290071","identity":"rs-7290071","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}