Lithofacies architecture of Middle-Upper Jurassic succession of the Ler Dome, Kachchh, western India: implications for depositional environments and palaeogeography

Lithofacies architecture of Middle-Upper Jurassic succession of the Ler Dome, Kachchh, western India: implications for depositional environments and palaeogeography | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Lithofacies architecture of Middle-Upper Jurassic succession of the Ler Dome, Kachchh, western India: implications for depositional environments and palaeogeography Asma A. Ghaznavi, B. P Singh, Mohammad Masroor Alam This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4346748/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Facies associations of the Middle-Upper Jurassic (Callovian-Oxfordian) sequences of the Ler Dome, Kachchh, western India are studied to determine suitable depositional environments and fluctuations in the sealevel during their deposition. In the present study, nine lithofacies are recognized that are grouped into four facies associations. The facies associations are tide-dominated estuarine facies, foreshore-offshore facies, onshore-offshore facies and lagoonal-tidal flat facies. These facies associations in ascending order suggest at least two transgressive and two regressive phases in a cyclic manner. During Callovian- Oxfordian, India belonged to the Indo-East African Province where shallow water of the Indo-Malagasy or Indo-East African Gulf was present, including the Kachchh Basin. Jurassic facies association texture stratigraphy depositional environment Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 1 Introduction The Kachchh Basin (Fig. 1 .a) on the western margin of the Indian Plate exposes Jurassic sequences that provide ample opportunities for geoscientists to carry out sedimentological, stratigraphical, palaeoecological and taxonomic studies. The region has also been widely worked for hydrocarbon exploration in view of its potentiality as a potential reservoir. Here, the sedimentary sequences occur in three east-west trending fault-bounded anticlinal ranges constituting ‘Island belt’ of Patcham, Kadir, Bela and Chorad between the salt marshes of Great Rann of Kachchh. The other two ranges are the ‘Wagad uplift’ near the eastern boundary and ‘Kachchh Mainland’ that cover the central part of the basin. The Kachchh Mainland is the most significant part of the basin as it contains the best Jurassic sections occupied in a large area. It is comprised of many quaquaversal units that are referred to as domes which extend from Jara Dome in the west to Habo Dome in the east, and Jumara, Nara (Kaiya), Keera and Jhurio domes in between. The Ler Dome lies to the southeast of the district headquarter (Bhuj) of Kachchh district (Fig. 1 .b). Several studies have shown that facies and facies associations are useful in interpreting sedimentation processes and depositional environments (Reineck and Singh, 1980 ; Reading, 1996 ; Miall 1990 ). Grain size is a physical parameter that helps in identifying facies and interpreting depositional environments (Amaral and Pryor, 1977 ; Friedman, 1979 ; Kalicki, 2000 ; Rani et al. 2011 ; Kanhaiya et al. 2017 ). A combined study of graphic mean, standard deviation, skewness and kurtosis are significant for understanding the hydrodynamic factors of transportation (Folk and Ward 1957 ; Friedman 1979 ; Srivastava and Mankar 2009 ). They also provide clues of energy conditions and depositional environments (Udden, 1914 ; Wentworth, 1929 ; Keller, 1949 ; Inman and Chamberlein, 1955; Folk and Ward, 1957 ; Sun et al. 2002 ; Flemming 2007 ; Kanhaiya et al. 2017 ). Ample investigations have already been carried out regarding palaeontology and biostratigraphy (e.g., Pandey and Dave, 1993 ; Fürsich et al. 2001; Fürsich and Pandey, 2003 ; Rai et al. 2015 ), palaeogeography (Talib and Gaur, 2008 ), palaeoecology (Fürsich et al. 2004 ; Patel et al. 2009 ), but very few studies are carried out regarding facies analysis and their role in determining depositional environment. Hence, the present study involves various sedimentological parameters, including texture, in interpreting depositional environments and organizing the litofacies associations into transgressive and regressive sequences based on the Upper-Middle Jurassic exposures around the Ler Dome. 2 Geological framework The initial rifting of Gondwana had a moderate sinistral rotation that took place along the Precambrian Dharwar trend that also led to the initial opening of the Kachchh rift along the Precambrian Delhi trend (Biswas, 1982 ). In Middle Jurassic times, Gondwanaland broke into two smaller continents; West Gondwana constituting Africa and East Gondwana comprising Antarctica, Australia, India, the Seychelles and Madagascar (Gombos et al. 1995 ). The eastern Gondwana further fragmented during the Early Cretaceous along the old Eastern Ghat that separated Antarctica-Australia from India, Seychelles and Madagascar (Gombos et al. 1995 ). The N-S trending Cambay rift opened up with the extension of the West Coast fault along the Dharwar trend. This intracratonic graben was bounded by faults (Biswas, 1987 ). The E-W trending Narmada rift and its offshore extension Surat Depression started to open across and to the south of the Cambay rift, and the Kathiawar block separated from the Indian craton. The counter-clockwise rotations led to the widening of the Kachchh rift that converted into the Kachchh basin (Biswas, 1982 ). Furthermore, the opening of the Arabian Sea inundated the Kachchh Basin and the Malagassy Gulf, which opened between Africa and Madagascar-India and this led to the sedimentation in the Kachchh Basin during Early and Middle Jurassic period. The Lower Jurassic sequences have been named as the Patcham Formation by Waagen (1873-75) and Rajnath ( 1932 ). The Patcham Formation contains mainly limestones and shales. The Patcham Formation is overlain by the Chari Formation that begins with Gypsiferous Shale Member (Table 1 ). The Gypsiferous Shale Member is overlain by the Dhosa Sandstone Member. This latter member mainly consists of argillaceous coarse silt to fine-grained sandstones (Ramkumar et al. 2013 ). The gradual boundary between Dhosa Sandstone Member and Gypsiferous shale is diachronous and the coarsening sequence is indicative of a continuous sedimentation (Alberti et al. 2013 ). Sandstones mostly occur at the base and towards the top of the Dhosa Sandstone Member. They further grade upward into the Dhosa Oolite Member which belongs to Early Oxfordian (Alberti et al. 2011 ). The Dhosa Oolite Member is a characteristic marker horizon in most areas of the Kachchh Basin (Singh, 1989 ; Fürsich et al. 1992). Table 1 Lithostratigraphy of Middle-Upper Jurassic rocks of the Kachchh Basin (Fursich et al. 1992 , 2001 ; Pandey et al. 2009). Age Formation Member Cretaceous Albian-Tithonian Umia Bhuj Member Ukra Member Ghuneri Member Late Jurassic Umia Member Tithonian-Kimmeridgian Katrol Oxfordian Chari Dhosa Oolite Member Dhosa Sandstone Member Middle Jurassic Callovian Gypsiferous Shale Member Ridge Sandstone Member Shelly Shale/Keera Golden Oolite Member 3 Material and methods A complete section was measured on the exposures of the Ler Dome with the help of measuring tape and various beds were indentified. Detailed lithologs were prepared to represent vertical and lateral variations in the constituent lithofacies. Grain size, primary physical structures, geometry of the lithounits, and biogenic structures were observed. Palaeocurrent directions were measured from the cross-beds with the help of the clinometer compass. Lithofacies associations were made based on the variation in lithofacies that facilitated determination of the depositional environments and depo-sequences. Thin-sections of the sandstone samples were prepared for grain-size analysis. The statistical parameters such as mean size, sorting, skewness and kurtosis were calculated using the formulae of Folk and Ward ( 1957 ). Interrelationship plots were prepared for further interpretation of the depositional environments. 4 Lithofacies analysis 4.1 Shell bed facies Shell beds are skeletal concentrations that are dense accumulation of fossils formed by a combination of mechanical and biological processes (Kidwell et al. 1986 ). In the Ler Dome, these 60 cm thick beds (Fig. 2 .a) are dominated by mollusc, largely bivalves (Fig. 3.a). At a few places brachiopods are also found. Majority of the shells are disarticulated and locally encrusted although fragmentation and abrasion are trivial. The biofabric and preservation quality of the components varies among individual beds. At places the shell beds are accompanied by pebbles that are reworked concretions (Fig. 3b) formed either by syn-sedimentary processes or during early diagenesis and indicate low net rate of sedimentation (Fürsich et al. 1992). 4.2 Interbedded gypsiferous shale and sandstone/siltstone facies This unit of yellowish brown colour is dominated by argillaceous rocks. Here, thick- to thin-bedded sandstone shows a medium- to fine-grained texture (Fig. 3c). Veins and sheets of gypsum of varying thickness are abundant and cross-cut the beds. There is an absence of current induced sedimentary structures. However, biogenic structures are common along with rich fossil content of molluscs, ammonoids and brachiopods. 4.3 Planar cross-bedded sandstone facies This reddish brown to whitish brown facies is composed of medium- to coarse-grained sandstones (Fig. 3.d). The sandstones are moderately well sorted- to well-sorted. Thickness of the individual beds ranges from 4.3–6.4 m. This sandstone contains planar cross-beds. The foresets show bimodal palaeocurrent pattern in the measured sections. 4.4 Laminated sandstone facies This facies is composed of moderately-well to moderately-sorted, medium- to coarse- and fine- grained texture and display planar stratification (Fig. 4a). The upper and lower bounding surfaces are sharp. The framework grains are sub -angular to sub- rounded. Some of the beds show a combination of planar lamination and low angle cross-stratification with sharp contacts. 4.5 Trough cross-bedded sandstone facies This sandstone facies is whitish to reddish brown in color having moderate to well-sorted texture. The medium- to coarse-grained framework grains are sub-angular to sub-rounded. Both large- and small-scale trough cross-beds are observed in this facies (Fig. 3e). The foresets show a bimodal palaeocurrent pattern directed towards NNW and N, E and NE. Conspicuously, this facies contains highly bioturbated reddish sandstone layers in places that are recognizable from a distance because of spotted and mottled nature. 4.6 Massive sandstone facies This facies is structure less and looks massive. Its color varies from white to reddish brown. This is a sandstones that is medium- to coarse-grained, moderately-sorted to moderately well-sorted having sub-rounded shape (Fig. 4b). 4.7 Fossiliferous facies This facies is 0.5 to 1 m thick (Fig. 2 a) and is rich in fossils. It contains belemnites, ammonites, brachiopod, gastropods and bivalves (mainly oysters). At a few locations teeth and bone fragments are also encountered in these beds. Alberti et al. ( 2013 ) also reported abundant echinoderm debris (crinoid ossicles, echnoid plates and spines), as well as fragments of small gastropods, foraminifera and bryozoans in thin sections of this facies. 4.8 Oolitic limestone facies This limestone facies is characterized by brown and greyish coloured. The beds are thick- to thin and these limestones contain medium to coarse grained oolites. Most of the ooids grew around a small lithoclast or bioclast. A subfacies can be made here as a bioclastic facies depending upon their occurrence. The ooids vary in dimension between 0.25mm and 1mm (Fig. 4c). The framework grains are coated with either ferruginous oomicrite to calcareous micro-sparite. The interbedded buff and greenish coloured shale occur in the oolitic limestone facies. 4.9 Matrix-supported conglomerate facies The matrix-supported conglomerate facies has a maximum thickness of 1m (Fig. 2 a). The clasts are exposed on the surface as a result of differential weathering (Fig. 4d). This conglomerate can be classified as a paraconglomerate that is lenticular in outline and constituted of moderately-sorted to moderately well-sorted pebbles and cobbles. The size of pebbles range between 10 mm and 50 mm and some cases cobbles are as big as 150 mm giving a floating appearance in the silty matrix. These beds have irregular and weathered surface with small pits. 5 Palaeocurrent analysis The dip of the foreset bed varies from 10 to 25 degrees. The planar cross strata are directed towards NNE, NE and NW with major direction in NE. The trough cross beds are directed towards NNW, N, E and NE. The palaeocurrent studies of the cross strata in the Ler Dome suggest bimodal in nature (Fig. 2 .b) with current directions in NNW and NE. 6 Interpretation of facies Shell beds form the basal unit of the Ler Dome section. Disarticulated shells indicate post-mortem reworking by repeated wave/current actions. These taphonomic attributes and genesis of shell accumulation suggest hydraulic composite concentration or current winnowed concentration (Norris, 1986 ; Meldahl, 1993 ; Cantalamessa et al. 2005 ). They are the result of distal storm waves, distal storm flows and weak currents. Only finer materials are removed by the distal storm flows as they are not strong enough to move larger particles, thus, only skeletal elements were preserved. The interbedded gypsiferous shale and sandstone/siltstone facies were formed in low energy protected environmental setting possibly a lagoon. The lack of primary sedimentary structures also supports the aforesaid interpretation. The planar cross-bedded facies and the trough cross bedded sandstones were deposited in a high energy nearshore environment between the wave base and swash zone. The reactivation surfaces and foreset cross-bedding deposition by tidal currents might have resulted from migration of sub-tidal bar under the influence of tides. The planar beds reflect an upright disposition whereas trough cross-bedding shows sideway migration of bed forms (Bourgeois, 1980 ). Thus, the planar-bedded sandstone deposited during agradation and cross-beds deposited as a result of sideway migration. The laminated sandstone facies also belong to a high energy beach environment (Dalrymple et al. 1992 ; Bose and Chakraborty, 1994 ). These facies were formed by the migration of low-amplitude bed forms or plane beds of upper flow regime. Well-sorted, sub-rounded grains and the absence of matrix show formation of mature sandstone that also indicates beach-type depositional setting accompanied by extensive winnowing and physical reworking. The massive sandstones facies that is encountered above the laminated ones are formed both by depositional (McCabe, 1977 ) and /or post-depositional deformation (Allen, 1986 ). In the present case there are no signs of deformation. They can be considered a result of transport and deposition of short-lived mass flows. The fossiliferous beds were resulted during the transgressions when the top of the underlying sandstone was reworked into sand sheets. The presence of winnowed and sorted relics of a shallow-water, high-energy community suggests them to have developed as a trasgressive lag. The co-occurrence of well preserved and winnowed shells together indicates a large time gap between the initial sediment deposition and termination of this facies. The oolitic limestone facies containing bioclastic and nonbioclastic nucleus suggest that the layers were developed around them during to and fro motion may be due to moving tides and waves. The oolitic limestone facies has been earlier interpreted to have deposited above storm wave base (Alberti et al. 2013 ). Also, it has been considered as a condensed horizon (Singh, 1989 ; Fursich et al. 1992 ) resulted from the peak transgression in Oxfordian (Fursich et al. 1991). These strong transgressive pulses probably created erosional surfaces, hardgrounds, ferruginous crusts and major gap in sedimentation. The matrix-supported conglomerate facies overlying the oolitic limestone facies suggest their deposition in a high energy condition. The sharp erosional base of this conglomerate suggests a transgressive phase beginning its deposition. The unsorted nature of this conglomerate unit with pebble imbrications and gradation in clast sizes suggest deposition in a sub-tidal channel due to gravity flow (e.g. Higgs, 1990 ; Myrow and Hiscott, 1991 ). 7 Facies association Based on the facies organization, four facies associations were made in ascending order and those are being described below. 7.1 Facies association I (Lagoonal-Tidal Flat Association) This facies association has interedded gypsiferous shale and sandstone/siltstone facies. Overall coarsening and thickening upward succession reflect regular increase in energy levels. The shale represents quiet-water sedimentation in a lagoon (e.g. Singh, 2012 ), while the sandstone/siltstone represents a high energy condition may be on a tidal flat. The sedimenation of the gypsum suggests evaporative conditions and the brines were supplied through the groundwater in the gypsiferous shale facies. The absence of sedimentary structures in the sandstones/shales may most likely be due to bioturbation and early diagenesis on the tidal flats. 7.2 Facies association II (Onshore-Offshore Association) Shell beds are related to an onshore-offshore gradient with increasing importance in the offshore direction. However, sediment bypassing may cause these beds to become important in nearshore environment as well. There is complexity in the nature and origin of many shell beds due to which same features can be caused by several processes. It may be a component-supported biofabric due to winnowing, transport, or biological productivity. The orientation of shells in convex-up position suggests short-lived storms or oscillatory currents. The distal storms look responsible for the removal of the fines present in the shell bed. Shell bed formation may also be possible as a result of sudden burial even in a relatively high energy environment. 7.3 Facies association III (Foreshore-Offshore Association) This association incorporates tabular and trough cross-bedded sandstone facies, laminated sandstone facies, massive sandstone facies, fossiliferous facies and oolitic limestone facies. The tabular cross-bedding suggest a high energy condition in a lower shoreface environment (e. g. Duke et al. 1991 ; Arnott, 1993 ). The small scale tabular cross-bedding represents deposition as tidal sand sheet bars in upper shore surface. While, high angle trough cross-bedded sandstones oriented in the current direction flowing along shore is the product of upper shoreface deposition by longshore currents. Low angle trough cross-beds indicate storm-dominated deposition above fair weather wave base in the mid to upper shoreface (Plint, 1988 ; Chakraborty et al. 1999 ; Bose et al. 1988 ). The evenly laminated sandstone facies are produced by heavy storms. These storms eroded sand from upper part of the beach and transfered it into the turbulent water (e. g. Ahmad et al. 2015 ). Parallel laminated sandstones offshore transport of sands during storms on the shoreface (Brenchley et al. 1993 ; Allen and Leather, 2006 ). Thus, the parallel laminated sandstone developed on the shoreface during storms. The massive sandstone facies were deposited in middle shoreface environment (e. g. Galloway and Hobday, 1983 ). Ooids form the major component of the bar to bank system and with corresponding maxima of their frequency and clasticity in the higher energy seaward areas subject to high tidal currents. The concentration of brachiopods and ooids in the oolitic limestone facies indicates their deposition under high energy conditions, which were partially dispersed and pushed seaward by currents and tides. The fossiliferous facies containing highly altered ammonites co-occuring with many well-preserved bivalves and brachiopods suggest discontinuous sedimentation, often interrupted by phases of erosion and redistribution of components. Fluctuations in sedimentation rates led to large time gap with weathered shells remaining on the substrate a long time and later mixed with the fresh shells (e.g. Fürsich et al. 1992; Alberti et al. 2013 ). 7.4 Facies association IV (Tide-dominated Estuarine Association) This facies association comprises planar and trough cross-bedded sandstones matrix supported conglomerate facies. Trough cross-beds are formed by the migration of 3-D ripples or dunes in shallow water condition (Breda and Preto, 2011 ). The trough cross-bedded sandstones were deposited by unidirectional migration of mega ripples in active channels during prolonged high water stand in a zone above the wave base. The multi- directional palaeocurrent structures in the trough cross-bedded sandstones suggest variation in the flow pattern and multi-directional channels The overall fining upward facies association develops in the estuaries similar to meandering rivers and planar and cross-bedded sandstones are overlain by the laminated sandstones with the decreasing flow (Singh and Singh, 1995 ). Thus, planar and cross-bedded sandstones most likely deposited in estuaries. The estuaries are either wave-dominated or tide dominated or river-dominated (Dalrymple et al. 1992 ). The estuaries in the present case were tide-dominated, which is supported by the occurrence of the bipolar cross-beds coupled with reactivation surfaces. Erosional base as well as the sedimentation of the matrix-supported conglomerate suggests the highest energy level within the channels. 8 Textural parameters The granulometric analysis of the sandstone samples are given in Table 2 and roundness and sphericity are given in Tables 3 and 4 . Table 2 Statistical parameters of grain size distribution of Dhosa Sandstone of Chari Formation, Kachchh, western India (modified after Ghaznavi et al. 2019 ). Mz Verbal limits σI Verbal limits SKI Verbal limits KG Verbal limits Median Min. 0.38 0.18 -0.10 0.42 0.34 Max. 3.09 0.99 1.41 1.49 1.16 Avg. 1.01 Coarse grained 0.46 Very-Well sorted 0.39 Fine-skewed 0.91 Mesokurtic 0.54 Table 3 Range and average of roundness of detrital grains of Dhosa Sandstone, Chari Formation, Kachchh, western India (modified after Ghaznavi et al. 2019 ). Very Angular Angular Sub-angular Sub-rounded Rounded Well Rounded Total Grains Mean Roundness (0.12–0.17) (0.17–0.25) (0.25–0.35) (0.35–0.49) (0.49–0.70) (0.70-1.0) N % N % N % N % N % N % Min. 0.00 0.00 11.00 8.87 11.00 12.22 6.00 8.82 1.00 1.59 0.00 0.00 53.00 0.32 Max. 12.00 13.33 75.00 57.35 69.00 37.50 69.00 47.97 48.00 38.16 17.00 12.59 222.00 0.53 Avg. 2.73 2.55 32.48 28.25 31.45 25.49 31.27 25.15 21.09 17.67 1.09 0.90 120 0.42 Table 4 Range and average of sphericity of detrital grains of Dhosa Sandstone, Chari Formation, Kachchh, western India (modified after Ghaznavi et al. 2019 ). Low (0-0.3) Medium (0.3–0.9) High (> .9) Mean Sphericity N % N % N % Min. 24.00 61.40 4.00 8.33 3.00 3.53 0.26 Max. 90.00 80.56 28.00 26.92 18.00 18.48 0.37 Avg. 53 71.80 13 17.23 8 10.96 0.32 8.1 Standard deviation The sorting and uniformity of grains that indicates the state of energy condition prevailing during transport and in the basin of deposition is defined by the standard deviation. The sorting in the sandstone samples has been moderately well-sorted to well-sorted that indicate the dominance of smooth and stable currents. There are small scale variations in sorting where moderately-sorted sediments are encountered. This might be a result of difference of water turbulence and a slight variability in the velocity of currents. Hence, the outcrops of the study area can be interpreted as sites of local shoaling in a shallow marine environment that has undergone variability in current flow pattern, eddying and wave-generated turbulence. 8.2 Skewness According to Folk and Ward ( 1957 ) the river sands are commonly symmetrically to positively skewed. Also, dune sands are generally positively-skewed irrespective of whether the dunes are barrier islands, coastal, lake, river or desert dunes (Mason and Folk, 1958 ; Friedman, 1961 . Nearly all the samples under study show positive skewness. This may be due to their sedimentation either in the river channel or coastal dunes. 8.3 Interrelationship plots On plotting the graphic mean size versus standard deviation, we get a positive correlation (r = 0.80) (Fig. 5a). This relation clearly depict that grains size finning leads to an increase in sorting of sediments. Mean size versus skewness plot (Fig. 5b) gives a positive correlation of 0.75 between the two parameters which shows that skewness increases with increase in the grain size. However, the plot between mean size and mean roundness shows a negative correlation of -0.10 (Fig. 5c) which shows that decrease in size of grains leads to a decrease in roundness. The bivariant between mean size and mean sphericity shows a positive correlation of 0.28 (Fig. 5d) which shows that grains achieve spherical shapes as they increase in size. Sorting versus mean roundness shows a moderate to negative relationship (Fig. 5e). Decrease in roundness decrease the sorting of the grains. Mean sphericity versus mean sorting shows a moderate relationship which shows an increase in roundness with increase in sorting (Fig. 5f). In order to have a better insight of the depositional environment the above textural parameters were also plotted in the bivariate plots where each of them has more than one discriminatory field. This is because a different boundary proposed by another author or a different boundary for distinguishing between another set of environments. Mean size is plotted against standard deviation in order to distinguish between river, dune and beach sands (Friedman, 1961 ; Moiola and Weiser, 1968 ). Here, most of the samples fall in the coastal dune environment (Fig. 6). Stewart ( 1958 ) distinguished between wave and river processes by plotting median size versus standard deviation (sorting) (Fig. 7). In this diagram, the mean size- sorting boundaries of Moila and Weiser (1968) were redrawn for illustrative purpose. The plot shows that most of the sandstones are of beach environment. In the bivariate plot of skewness versus kurtosis proposed by Folk and Ward ( 1957 ), the samples almost entirely fall in the coastal dune environment. However some of the samples occupy the river environment (Fig. 8). Stratigraphic as well as regional variation in the grain size is influenced strongly by the local topographic relief and the regional palaeoslope (Amaral and Pryor, 1977 ). Stratigraphic changes in grain size in the Callovian-Oxfordian sandstones also suggest that the local topography and regional palaeoslope played a larger role. This is also reflected in the palaeocurrent data. The studied sandstones are mainly coarse-grained, which suggests an intensified wave or current action over the topographic highs of the palaeoenvironment. The lithofacies and grain size data suggest that the sedimentation took place in a mixed environment where sediments brought by the rivers were redistributed in the lagoons, tidal flats, in foreshore region and estuaries. For details of the depositional model see Fig. 9 . 9 Palaeogeography In Late Triassic, rifting began between India and Africa during fragmentation of Gondwanaland (Biswas, 1982 , 1991 ). The Jurassic-Cretaceous Sea transgressed into parts of western India (Krishnan, 1960 ) along with the coastal areas of East Africa, including Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania and Madagascar (Cannon et al. 1981 ). It coincided with the opening of Kachchh Basin to the north of uplifted Saurashtra Peninsula for the first time with the ingression of a shallow epicontinental Jurassic sea (Biswas, 1987 ). The basin is considered an elongated extensional trough where up and down rifting lead to basin formation and sedimentation at first in the northern part (as the Jurassic of Kachchh) and later in the southern part (Early Cretaceous of Saurashtra/?Kachchh) (Casshyap and Aslam, 1992 ). These rift basins bounded by major faults/mega-lineaments (Biswas, 1982 ) are examples of a pericratonic composite rift system (Sengor et al. 1978 ). This system coincided with the eastern failed arm of triple -rift junction. The pericratonic rift system was developed in response to the extensional forces when the Indian plate ruptured from Somalia/ Madagascar/Oman and moved northward with the opening of Indian Ocean (Arabian Sea) to the west. Similar pericratonic failed rifts/grabens were also formed during plate separation in Jurassic and Early Cretaceous in other parts of Gondwanaland that had rapid accumulation of continental to marine clastics and/or calcareous sediments (Tankard et al. 1982 ). During Middle to Upper Jurassic, India along with its adjoining regions of Afghanistan, Iran, Jordan, Egypt, Somalia, Ethiopia, and Malagasy, occupying the shallow water of the Indo-Malagasy or Indo-East African Gulf belonged to the Indo-East African Province (Talib and Gaur, 2008 ) (Fig. 10 ). During its evolution, the basin has also encountered a changing palaeoshoreline (Balagopal and Srivastava, 1975 ; Casshyap and Aslam, 1992 ) from north-south to dominantly northwest-southeast. There was a global rise in sea level which transgressed and deposited sediments during Oxfordian. There are two major tectonic phases in the Mesozoic Kachchh Basin i.e, early rift phase and termination of this phase by failing of the rifting processes (Biswas, 1982 ). The sedimentation in Kachchh Basin corresponds to the early rift representing a transgressive succession interspersed by small cycles of transgression and regression (Osman and Mahender, 1997 ). A discrete assemblage of lithofacies or its succession cannot be a characteristic to the failed rift and aulacogens (Miall, 1984 ). However, graben stage with transgressive or regressive shoreline can be described with the continental to shallow or deep marine, clastic or carbonate facies. Their energy conditions can be explained with the help of the facies encountered in the field. For example, the matrix- supported conglomerate and medium- to coarse -grained thick to thin laminated, friable soft to compact cross-bedded sandstone facies can be interpreted as high energy coastal deposits may be a stand-still period with low sediment supply within the transgressive phase. On the contrary, an agitated offshore setting rendered the deposition of the oolitic limestone facies. Deposition of the Ler Dome sequences took place in different ways. The channelized flows resulted in cross-beds and parallel laminated sandstones along with the un-channelized flows that deposited more or less high energy facies alternately in form of coarse/medium- to fine-grained sandstones and inter-bedded sequence of interbedded gypsiferous shale and sandstone/siltstone facies. The interbedded sequence may be an indication of frequent upheaval of the source area and frequent fluctuation of sea level. 10 Conclusions The Upper Callovian to Oxfordian sequences of the Kachchh Basin occur in four facies associations with the prevalence of lagonal-tidal, foreshore and estaurine depositional environments possibly in a low to moderate energy condition. The depositional model also suggest cycles of transgression and regression that are the result of the eustatic sea level changes which enhances the textural attributes of the sediments. Bimodality is prevalent in the palaeocurrent pattern of these sandstones and depositional pattern is transitional that is well depicted in the modulation pattern of the deposited sediments. Bimodality is prevalent in the palaeocurrent pattern of the cross-bedded sandstones and suggests strong tidal influence during their sedimentation. Variation in the lateral and vertical thickness of the facies is attributed to the regional tectonics that was influenced by the rifting and faulting. Declarations Conflict of interest On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest. Author Contribution AAG collected data and wrote the manuscript. BPS modified the structure of the manuscript and reviewed it. MMA reviewed the manuscript Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to Chairperson, Dept. of Geology, A.M.U for providing all the necessary facilities during the study and Dr. S.K Ghosh for his valuable suggestions. 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Method of computing mechanical composition types of sediments. Geological Society of America Bulletin , 40 , 771–790. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4346748","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":297523143,"identity":"207c62df-40ca-4a25-a70f-596e27e55c38","order_by":0,"name":"Asma A. 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P Singh","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Banaras Hindu University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"B.","middleName":"P","lastName":"Singh","suffix":""},{"id":297523145,"identity":"d6e0b9ca-a293-4d76-b959-91ddf4787f49","order_by":2,"name":"Mohammad Masroor Alam","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"ZH College of Engineering and Technology, Aligarh Muslim University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mohammad","middleName":"Masroor","lastName":"Alam","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-04-30 06:38:22","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4346748/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4346748/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":55985787,"identity":"e40eef50-42b6-496f-b21d-2763dc40af0e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-07 07:51:35","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2049188,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ea. \u003c/strong\u003eGeological map of Kachchh Basin (after Biswas, 1977). b. Ler hill (modified after Ghaznavi, et al. 2018b).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4346748/v1/5404faa84e7353315a56f27d.png"},{"id":55985783,"identity":"0b7c9740-0aa9-4c27-844f-9e8bf9404719","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-07 07:51:35","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2258004,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ea. \u003c/strong\u003eLithostratigraphic columns showing lithofacies of the Ler Dome Kachchh, western India exposed at the river section (left) and village section (right). b) Palaeocurrent pattern of the measured sections at Ler (modified after Ghaznavi et al. 2018b; Ghaznavi et al. 2019).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4346748/v1/568042b7a8aadc55da43d269.png"},{"id":55985052,"identity":"120f2e53-d43f-43da-95cd-b3065900c5ed","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-07 07:43:35","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":16580458,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eField photograph showing (a) shell bed composed of bivalves that are disarticulated and have no preferred orientation. (b) reworked concretions with fissures and borrows (c) interbedded gypsiferous siltstone/sandstone with light brown thick to thin bedded fine sandstones with veins of parallel as well cross cutting gypsum (d) Reddish brown planar cross bedded sandstone (e) trough cross bedded sandstone (after Ghaznavi et al. 2019).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4346748/v1/a7db3cab939f6bf4b7490787.png"},{"id":55985053,"identity":"d45b6511-70d3-4bff-9ec3-3396d990456b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-07 07:43:36","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":16681757,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eField photograph showing (a) Laminated sandstone with beds showing planar lamination and low angle cross bedding with sharp contacts (b) Reddish brown structurless massive sandstones ( c ) oolitic limestone bed (d) conglomerate beds with pebbles and cobbles floating in silty matrix (Ghaznavi et al. 2019).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4346748/v1/44622c6f907fb005c9ee1fd5.png"},{"id":55985044,"identity":"32a1e849-ee61-43f2-a1f2-c6fa0fa8bf88","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-07 07:43:35","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":511142,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eBivariant plot showing variation between (a) mean size versus standard deviation, (b) mean size versus skewness, ( c ) mean size versus mean roundness, (d) mean size versus mean sphericity, (e) mean roundness versus sorting and (f) mean sphericity versus mean sorting.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4346748/v1/5f24891e5c57737c71a6d96c.png"},{"id":55986363,"identity":"40f005ae-dca9-4870-b2cd-07fe79a9d6d2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-07 07:59:35","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2137815,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eBivariant plot of mean size vs. inclusive graphic standard deviation after Friedman (1961) and Moiola and Weiser (1968) (Ghaznavi et al. 2019).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4346748/v1/3c936b8f9950007eac4c5c28.png"},{"id":55985047,"identity":"907c10d5-c460-4bea-90b6-7197c2f2ca40","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-07 07:43:35","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1804089,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eBivariant plot of inclusive graphic standard deviation vs. mean diameter after after Stewart (1958) and Moiola and Weiser (1968) (Ghaznavi et al. 2019).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4346748/v1/449f51300e905cfab0a0d628.png"},{"id":55985050,"identity":"af365a87-39a9-46b2-a76c-7447291d6b26","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-07 07:43:35","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1066176,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eBivariant plot of skewnessvs kurtosis after Folk and Ward (1957) (Ghaznavi et al. 2019).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4346748/v1/c0e043c691335e06d01c0792.png"},{"id":55985048,"identity":"fee30327-036a-457b-9d83-7fdb5baa4927","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-07 07:43:35","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":867547,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDepositional model of Jurassic rocks of Ler Dome, Kachchh, western India (Ghaznavi, 2019).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4346748/v1/b4f1c2911b92dae768d4f7f9.png"},{"id":55985786,"identity":"2724002b-91d0-4ad6-9d48-f2a8ec7c9b36","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-07 07:51:35","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1780641,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePalaeogeography of western India including Kachchh during Middle to Upper Jurassic time showing Indo-East African Province (after Talib \u0026amp; Gaur, 2008; continental assembly after Enay \u0026amp; Cariou, 1997).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4346748/v1/7adf4bf0dba7692132edc946.png"},{"id":75988528,"identity":"a6aee09a-b5e8-4055-8a49-25000cd647ba","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-11 08:48:02","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":64614476,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4346748/v1/6eb7694b-0c89-4f2d-a246-eb7731181e32.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Lithofacies architecture of Middle-Upper Jurassic succession of the Ler Dome, Kachchh, western India: implications for depositional environments and palaeogeography","fulltext":[{"header":"1 Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe Kachchh Basin (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.a) on the western margin of the Indian Plate exposes Jurassic sequences that provide ample opportunities for geoscientists to carry out sedimentological, stratigraphical, palaeoecological and taxonomic studies. The region has also been widely worked for hydrocarbon exploration in view of its potentiality as a potential reservoir. Here, the sedimentary sequences occur in three east-west trending fault-bounded anticlinal ranges constituting \u0026lsquo;Island belt\u0026rsquo; of Patcham, Kadir, Bela and Chorad between the salt marshes of Great Rann of Kachchh. The other two ranges are the \u0026lsquo;Wagad uplift\u0026rsquo; near the eastern boundary and \u0026lsquo;Kachchh Mainland\u0026rsquo; that cover the central part of the basin.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Kachchh Mainland is the most significant part of the basin as it contains the best Jurassic sections occupied in a large area. It is comprised of many quaquaversal units that are referred to as domes which extend from Jara Dome in the west to Habo Dome in the east, and Jumara, Nara (Kaiya), Keera and Jhurio domes in between. The Ler Dome lies to the southeast of the district headquarter (Bhuj) of Kachchh district (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.b).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral studies have shown that facies and facies associations are useful in interpreting sedimentation processes and depositional environments (Reineck and Singh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1980\u003c/span\u003e; Reading, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e; Miall \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e). Grain size is a physical parameter that helps in identifying facies and interpreting depositional environments (Amaral and Pryor, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1977\u003c/span\u003e; Friedman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1979\u003c/span\u003e; Kalicki, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Rani et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Kanhaiya et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). A combined study of graphic mean, standard deviation, skewness and kurtosis are significant for understanding the hydrodynamic factors of transportation (Folk and Ward \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1957\u003c/span\u003e; Friedman \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1979\u003c/span\u003e; Srivastava and Mankar \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). They also provide clues of energy conditions and depositional environments (Udden, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1914\u003c/span\u003e; Wentworth, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1929\u003c/span\u003e; Keller, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1949\u003c/span\u003e; Inman and Chamberlein, 1955; Folk and Ward, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1957\u003c/span\u003e; Sun et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Flemming \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Kanhaiya et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmple investigations have already been carried out regarding palaeontology and biostratigraphy (e.g., Pandey and Dave, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e; F\u0026uuml;rsich et al. 2001; F\u0026uuml;rsich and Pandey, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Rai et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), palaeogeography (Talib and Gaur, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e), palaeoecology (F\u0026uuml;rsich et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Patel et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e), but very few studies are carried out regarding facies analysis and their role in determining depositional environment. Hence, the present study involves various sedimentological parameters, including texture, in interpreting depositional environments and organizing the litofacies associations into transgressive and regressive sequences based on the Upper-Middle Jurassic exposures around the Ler Dome.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2 Geological framework","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe initial rifting of Gondwana had a moderate sinistral rotation that took place along the Precambrian Dharwar trend that also led to the initial opening of the Kachchh rift along the Precambrian Delhi trend (Biswas, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1982\u003c/span\u003e). In Middle Jurassic times, Gondwanaland broke into two smaller continents; West Gondwana constituting Africa and East Gondwana comprising Antarctica, Australia, India, the Seychelles and Madagascar (Gombos et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e). The eastern Gondwana further fragmented during the Early Cretaceous along the old Eastern Ghat that separated Antarctica-Australia from India, Seychelles and Madagascar (Gombos et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e). The N-S trending Cambay rift opened up with the extension of the West Coast fault along the Dharwar trend. This intracratonic graben was bounded by faults (Biswas, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1987\u003c/span\u003e). The E-W trending Narmada rift and its offshore extension Surat Depression started to open across and to the south of the Cambay rift, and the Kathiawar block separated from the Indian craton. The counter-clockwise rotations led to the widening of the Kachchh rift that converted into the Kachchh basin (Biswas, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1982\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, the opening of the Arabian Sea inundated the Kachchh Basin and the Malagassy Gulf, which opened between Africa and Madagascar-India and this led to the sedimentation in the Kachchh Basin during Early and Middle Jurassic period.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Lower Jurassic sequences have been named as the Patcham Formation by Waagen (1873-75) and Rajnath (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1932\u003c/span\u003e). The Patcham Formation contains mainly limestones and shales. The Patcham Formation is overlain by the Chari Formation that begins with Gypsiferous Shale Member (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The Gypsiferous Shale Member is overlain by the Dhosa Sandstone Member. This latter member mainly consists of argillaceous coarse silt to fine-grained sandstones (Ramkumar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). The gradual boundary between Dhosa Sandstone Member and Gypsiferous shale is diachronous and the coarsening sequence is indicative of a continuous sedimentation (Alberti et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Sandstones mostly occur at the base and towards the top of the Dhosa Sandstone Member. They further grade upward into the Dhosa Oolite Member which belongs to Early Oxfordian (Alberti et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). The Dhosa Oolite Member is a characteristic marker horizon in most areas of the Kachchh Basin (Singh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1989\u003c/span\u003e; F\u0026uuml;rsich et al. 1992).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLithostratigraphy of Middle-Upper Jurassic rocks of the Kachchh Basin (Fursich et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Pandey et al. 2009).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFormation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMember\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCretaceous\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlbian-Tithonian\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUmia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBhuj Member\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUkra Member\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGhuneri Member\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLate Jurassic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUmia Member\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTithonian-Kimmeridgian\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKatrol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOxfordian\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChari\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDhosa Oolite Member\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDhosa Sandstone Member\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMiddle Jurassic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCallovian\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGypsiferous Shale Member\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRidge Sandstone Member\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShelly Shale/Keera Golden Oolite Member\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3 Material and methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eA complete section was measured on the exposures of the Ler Dome with the help of measuring tape and various beds were indentified. Detailed lithologs were prepared to represent vertical and lateral variations in the constituent lithofacies. Grain size, primary physical structures, geometry of the lithounits, and biogenic structures were observed. Palaeocurrent directions were measured from the cross-beds with the help of the clinometer compass. Lithofacies associations were made based on the variation in lithofacies that facilitated determination of the depositional environments and depo-sequences. Thin-sections of the sandstone samples were prepared for grain-size analysis. The statistical parameters such as mean size, sorting, skewness and kurtosis were calculated using the formulae of Folk and Ward (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1957\u003c/span\u003e). Interrelationship plots were prepared for further interpretation of the depositional environments.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4 Lithofacies analysis","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1 Shell bed facies\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eShell beds are skeletal concentrations that are dense accumulation of fossils formed by a combination of mechanical and biological processes (Kidwell et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e). In the Ler Dome, these 60 cm thick beds (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.a) are dominated by mollusc, largely bivalves (Fig.\u0026nbsp;3.a). At a few places brachiopods are also found. Majority of the shells are disarticulated and locally encrusted although fragmentation and abrasion are trivial. The biofabric and preservation quality of the components varies among individual beds. At places the shell beds are accompanied by pebbles that are reworked concretions (Fig.\u0026nbsp;3b) formed either by syn-sedimentary processes or during early diagenesis and indicate low net rate of sedimentation (F\u0026uuml;rsich et al. 1992).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2 Interbedded gypsiferous shale and sandstone/siltstone facies\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis unit of yellowish brown colour is dominated by argillaceous rocks. Here, thick- to thin-bedded sandstone shows a medium- to fine-grained texture (Fig.\u0026nbsp;3c). Veins and sheets of gypsum of varying thickness are abundant and cross-cut the beds. There is an absence of current induced sedimentary structures. However, biogenic structures are common along with rich fossil content of molluscs, ammonoids and brachiopods.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.3 Planar cross-bedded sandstone facies\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis reddish brown to whitish brown facies is composed of medium- to coarse-grained sandstones (Fig.\u0026nbsp;3.d). The sandstones are moderately well sorted- to well-sorted. Thickness of the individual beds ranges from 4.3\u0026ndash;6.4 m. This sandstone contains planar cross-beds. The foresets show bimodal palaeocurrent pattern in the measured sections.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.4 Laminated sandstone facies\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis facies is composed of moderately-well to moderately-sorted, medium- to coarse- and fine- grained texture and display planar stratification (Fig.\u0026nbsp;4a). The upper and lower bounding surfaces are sharp. The framework grains are sub -angular to sub- rounded. Some of the beds show a combination of planar lamination and low angle cross-stratification with sharp contacts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.5 Trough cross-bedded sandstone facies\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis sandstone facies is whitish to reddish brown in color having moderate to well-sorted texture. The medium- to coarse-grained framework grains are sub-angular to sub-rounded. Both large- and small-scale trough cross-beds are observed in this facies (Fig.\u0026nbsp;3e). The foresets show a bimodal palaeocurrent pattern directed towards NNW and N, E and NE. Conspicuously, this facies contains highly bioturbated reddish sandstone layers in places that are recognizable from a distance because of spotted and mottled nature.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.6 Massive sandstone facies\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis facies is structure less and looks massive. Its color varies from white to reddish brown. This is a sandstones that is medium- to coarse-grained, moderately-sorted to moderately well-sorted having sub-rounded shape (Fig.\u0026nbsp;4b).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.7 Fossiliferous facies\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis facies is 0.5 to 1 m thick (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ea) and is rich in fossils. It contains belemnites, ammonites, brachiopod, gastropods and bivalves (mainly oysters). At a few locations teeth and bone fragments are also encountered in these beds. Alberti et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) also reported abundant echinoderm debris (crinoid ossicles, echnoid plates and spines), as well as fragments of small gastropods, foraminifera and bryozoans in thin sections of this facies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.8 Oolitic limestone facies\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis limestone facies is characterized by brown and greyish coloured. The beds are thick- to thin and these limestones contain medium to coarse grained oolites. Most of the ooids grew around a small lithoclast or bioclast. A subfacies can be made here as a bioclastic facies depending upon their occurrence. The ooids vary in dimension between 0.25mm and 1mm (Fig.\u0026nbsp;4c). The framework grains are coated with either ferruginous oomicrite to calcareous micro-sparite. The interbedded buff and greenish coloured shale occur in the oolitic limestone facies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.9 Matrix-supported conglomerate facies\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe matrix-supported conglomerate facies has a maximum thickness of 1m (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ea). The clasts are exposed on the surface as a result of differential weathering (Fig.\u0026nbsp;4d). This conglomerate can be classified as a paraconglomerate that is lenticular in outline and constituted of moderately-sorted to moderately well-sorted pebbles and cobbles. The size of pebbles range between 10 mm and 50 mm and some cases cobbles are as big as 150 mm giving a floating appearance in the silty matrix. These beds have irregular and weathered surface with small pits.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5 Palaeocurrent analysis","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe dip of the foreset bed varies from 10 to 25 degrees. The planar cross strata are directed towards NNE, NE and NW with major direction in NE. The trough cross beds are directed towards NNW, N, E and NE. The palaeocurrent studies of the cross strata in the Ler Dome suggest bimodal in nature (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.b) with current directions in NNW and NE.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"6 Interpretation of facies","content":"\u003cp\u003eShell beds form the basal unit of the Ler Dome section. Disarticulated shells indicate post-mortem reworking by repeated wave/current actions. These taphonomic attributes and genesis of shell accumulation suggest hydraulic composite concentration or current winnowed concentration (Norris, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e; Meldahl, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e; Cantalamessa et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). They are the result of distal storm waves, distal storm flows and weak currents. Only finer materials are removed by the distal storm flows as they are not strong enough to move larger particles, thus, only skeletal elements were preserved.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe interbedded gypsiferous shale and sandstone/siltstone facies were formed in low energy protected environmental setting possibly a lagoon. The lack of primary sedimentary structures also supports the aforesaid interpretation. The planar cross-bedded facies and the trough cross bedded sandstones were deposited in a high energy nearshore environment between the wave base and swash zone. The reactivation surfaces and foreset cross-bedding deposition by tidal currents might have resulted from migration of sub-tidal bar under the influence of tides. The planar beds reflect an upright disposition whereas trough cross-bedding shows sideway migration of bed forms (Bourgeois, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1980\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, the planar-bedded sandstone deposited during agradation and cross-beds deposited as a result of sideway migration.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe laminated sandstone facies also belong to a high energy beach environment (Dalrymple et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e; Bose and Chakraborty, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e). These facies were formed by the migration of low-amplitude bed forms or plane beds of upper flow regime. Well-sorted, sub-rounded grains and the absence of matrix show formation of mature sandstone that also indicates beach-type depositional setting accompanied by extensive winnowing and physical reworking.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe massive sandstones facies that is encountered above the laminated ones are formed both by depositional (McCabe, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1977\u003c/span\u003e) and /or post-depositional deformation (Allen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e). In the present case there are no signs of deformation. They can be considered a result of transport and deposition of short-lived mass flows.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe fossiliferous beds were resulted during the transgressions when the top of the underlying sandstone was reworked into sand sheets. The presence of winnowed and sorted relics of a shallow-water, high-energy community suggests them to have developed as a trasgressive lag. The co-occurrence of well preserved and winnowed shells together indicates a large time gap between the initial sediment deposition and termination of this facies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe oolitic limestone facies containing bioclastic and nonbioclastic nucleus suggest that the layers were developed around them during to and fro motion may be due to moving tides and waves. The oolitic limestone facies has been earlier interpreted to have deposited above storm wave base (Alberti et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Also, it has been considered as a condensed horizon (Singh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1989\u003c/span\u003e; Fursich et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e) resulted from the peak transgression in Oxfordian (Fursich et al. 1991). These strong transgressive pulses probably created erosional surfaces, hardgrounds, ferruginous crusts and major gap in sedimentation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe matrix-supported conglomerate facies overlying the oolitic limestone facies suggest their deposition in a high energy condition. The sharp erosional base of this conglomerate suggests a transgressive phase beginning its deposition. The unsorted nature of this conglomerate unit with pebble imbrications and gradation in clast sizes suggest deposition in a sub-tidal channel due to gravity flow (e.g. Higgs, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e; Myrow and Hiscott, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"7 Facies association","content":"\u003cp\u003eBased on the facies organization, four facies associations were made in ascending order and those are being described below.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e7.1 Facies association I (Lagoonal-Tidal Flat Association)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis facies association has interedded gypsiferous shale and sandstone/siltstone facies. Overall coarsening and thickening upward succession reflect regular increase in energy levels. The shale represents quiet-water sedimentation in a lagoon (e.g. Singh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e), while the sandstone/siltstone represents a high energy condition may be on a tidal flat. The sedimenation of the gypsum suggests evaporative conditions and the brines were supplied through the groundwater in the gypsiferous shale facies. The absence of sedimentary structures in the sandstones/shales may most likely be due to bioturbation and early diagenesis on the tidal flats.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e7.2 Facies association II (Onshore-Offshore Association)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eShell beds are related to an onshore-offshore gradient with increasing importance in the offshore direction. However, sediment bypassing may cause these beds to become important in nearshore environment as well. There is complexity in the nature and origin of many shell beds due to which same features can be caused by several processes. It may be a component-supported biofabric due to winnowing, transport, or biological productivity. The orientation of shells in convex-up position suggests short-lived storms or oscillatory currents. The distal storms look responsible for the removal of the fines present in the shell bed. Shell bed formation may also be possible as a result of sudden burial even in a relatively high energy environment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e7.3 Facies association III (Foreshore-Offshore Association)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis association incorporates tabular and trough cross-bedded sandstone facies, laminated sandstone facies, massive sandstone facies, fossiliferous facies and oolitic limestone facies. The tabular cross-bedding suggest a high energy condition in a lower shoreface environment (e. g. Duke et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e; Arnott, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e). The small scale tabular cross-bedding represents deposition as tidal sand sheet bars in upper shore surface. While, high angle trough cross-bedded sandstones oriented in the current direction flowing along shore is the product of upper shoreface deposition by longshore currents. Low angle trough cross-beds indicate storm-dominated deposition above fair weather wave base in the mid to upper shoreface (Plint, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e; Chakraborty et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e; Bose et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe evenly laminated sandstone facies are produced by heavy storms. These storms eroded sand from upper part of the beach and transfered it into the turbulent water (e. g. Ahmad et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Parallel laminated sandstones offshore transport of sands during storms on the shoreface (Brenchley et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e; Allen and Leather, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, the parallel laminated sandstone developed on the shoreface during storms. The massive sandstone facies were deposited in middle shoreface environment (e. g. Galloway and Hobday, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOoids form the major component of the bar to bank system and with corresponding maxima of their frequency and clasticity in the higher energy seaward areas subject to high tidal currents. The concentration of brachiopods and ooids in the oolitic limestone facies indicates their deposition under high energy conditions, which were partially dispersed and pushed seaward by currents and tides.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe fossiliferous facies containing highly altered ammonites co-occuring with many well-preserved bivalves and brachiopods suggest discontinuous sedimentation, often interrupted by phases of erosion and redistribution of components. Fluctuations in sedimentation rates led to large time gap with weathered shells remaining on the substrate a long time and later mixed with the fresh shells (e.g. F\u0026uuml;rsich et al. 1992; Alberti et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e7.4 Facies association IV (Tide-dominated Estuarine Association)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis facies association comprises planar and trough cross-bedded sandstones matrix supported conglomerate facies. Trough cross-beds are formed by the migration of 3-D ripples or dunes in shallow water condition (Breda and Preto, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). The trough cross-bedded sandstones were deposited by unidirectional migration of mega ripples in active channels during prolonged high water stand in a zone above the wave base. The multi- directional palaeocurrent structures in the trough cross-bedded sandstones suggest variation in the flow pattern and multi-directional channels\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe overall fining upward facies association develops in the estuaries similar to meandering rivers and planar and cross-bedded sandstones are overlain by the laminated sandstones with the decreasing flow (Singh and Singh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, planar and cross-bedded sandstones most likely deposited in estuaries. The estuaries are either wave-dominated or tide dominated or river-dominated (Dalrymple et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e). The estuaries in the present case were tide-dominated, which is supported by the occurrence of the bipolar cross-beds coupled with reactivation surfaces. Erosional base as well as the sedimentation of the matrix-supported conglomerate suggests the highest energy level within the channels.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"8 Textural parameters","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe granulometric analysis of the sandstone samples are given in Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e and roundness and sphericity are given in Tables \u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStatistical parameters of grain size distribution of Dhosa Sandstone of Chari Formation, Kachchh, western India (modified after Ghaznavi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMz\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVerbal limits\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eσI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVerbal limits\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSKI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVerbal limits\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKG\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVerbal limits\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedian\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMin.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMax.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAvg.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoarse grained\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVery-Well sorted\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFine-skewed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMesokurtic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRange and average of roundness of detrital grains of Dhosa Sandstone, Chari Formation, Kachchh, western India (modified after Ghaznavi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"15\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c14\" colnum=\"14\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c15\" colnum=\"15\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVery Angular\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAngular\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSub-angular\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSub-rounded\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRounded\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWell Rounded\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal Grains\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean Roundness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(0.12\u0026ndash;0.17)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(0.17\u0026ndash;0.25)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(0.25\u0026ndash;0.35)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(0.35\u0026ndash;0.49)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(0.49\u0026ndash;0.70)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(0.70-1.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMin.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e53.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMax.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e222.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAvg.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e120\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRange and average of sphericity of detrital grains of Dhosa Sandstone, Chari Formation, Kachchh, western India (modified after Ghaznavi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLow (0-0.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedium (0.3\u0026ndash;0.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean Sphericity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMin.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMax.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAvg.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e8.1 Standard deviation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe sorting and uniformity of grains that indicates the state of energy condition prevailing during transport and in the basin of deposition is defined by the standard deviation. The sorting in the sandstone samples has been moderately well-sorted to well-sorted that indicate the dominance of smooth and stable currents. There are small scale variations in sorting where moderately-sorted sediments are encountered. This might be a result of difference of water turbulence and a slight variability in the velocity of currents. Hence, the outcrops of the study area can be interpreted as sites of local shoaling in a shallow marine environment that has undergone variability in current flow pattern, eddying and wave-generated turbulence.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e8.2 Skewness\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to Folk and Ward (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1957\u003c/span\u003e) the river sands are commonly symmetrically to positively skewed. Also, dune sands are generally positively-skewed irrespective of whether the dunes are barrier islands, coastal, lake, river or desert dunes (Mason and Folk, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1958\u003c/span\u003e; Friedman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1961\u003c/span\u003e. Nearly all the samples under study show positive skewness. This may be due to their sedimentation either in the river channel or coastal dunes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e8.3 Interrelationship plots\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOn plotting the graphic mean size versus standard deviation, we get a positive correlation (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.80) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;5a). This relation clearly depict that grains size finning leads to an increase in sorting of sediments. Mean size versus skewness plot (Fig.\u0026nbsp;5b) gives a positive correlation of 0.75 between the two parameters which shows that skewness increases with increase in the grain size. However, the plot between mean size and mean roundness shows a negative correlation of -0.10 (Fig.\u0026nbsp;5c) which shows that decrease in size of grains leads to a decrease in roundness. The bivariant between mean size and mean sphericity shows a positive correlation of 0.28 (Fig.\u0026nbsp;5d) which shows that grains achieve spherical shapes as they increase in size. Sorting versus mean roundness shows a moderate to negative relationship (Fig.\u0026nbsp;5e). Decrease in roundness decrease the sorting of the grains. Mean sphericity versus mean sorting shows a moderate relationship which shows an increase in roundness with increase in sorting (Fig.\u0026nbsp;5f).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn order to have a better insight of the depositional environment the above textural parameters were also plotted in the bivariate plots where each of them has more than one discriminatory field. This is because a different boundary proposed by another author or a different boundary for distinguishing between another set of environments. Mean size is plotted against standard deviation in order to distinguish between river, dune and beach sands (Friedman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1961\u003c/span\u003e; Moiola and Weiser, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1968\u003c/span\u003e). Here, most of the samples fall in the coastal dune environment (Fig.\u0026nbsp;6). Stewart (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1958\u003c/span\u003e) distinguished between wave and river processes by plotting median size versus standard deviation (sorting) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;7). In this diagram, the mean size- sorting boundaries of Moila and Weiser (1968) were redrawn for illustrative purpose. The plot shows that most of the sandstones are of beach environment. In the bivariate plot of skewness versus kurtosis proposed by Folk and Ward (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1957\u003c/span\u003e), the samples almost entirely fall in the coastal dune environment. However some of the samples occupy the river environment (Fig.\u0026nbsp;8).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStratigraphic as well as regional variation in the grain size is influenced strongly by the local topographic relief and the regional palaeoslope (Amaral and Pryor, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1977\u003c/span\u003e). Stratigraphic changes in grain size in the Callovian-Oxfordian sandstones also suggest that the local topography and regional palaeoslope played a larger role. This is also reflected in the palaeocurrent data. The studied sandstones are mainly coarse-grained, which suggests an intensified wave or current action over the topographic highs of the palaeoenvironment. The lithofacies and grain size data suggest that the sedimentation took place in a mixed environment where sediments brought by the rivers were redistributed in the lagoons, tidal flats, in foreshore region and estuaries. For details of the depositional model see Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"9 Palaeogeography","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn Late Triassic, rifting began between India and Africa during fragmentation of Gondwanaland (Biswas, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1982\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e). The Jurassic-Cretaceous Sea transgressed into parts of western India (Krishnan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1960\u003c/span\u003e) along with the coastal areas of East Africa, including Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania and Madagascar (Cannon et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1981\u003c/span\u003e). It coincided with the opening of Kachchh Basin to the north of uplifted Saurashtra Peninsula for the first time with the ingression of a shallow epicontinental Jurassic sea (Biswas, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1987\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe basin is considered an elongated extensional trough where up and down rifting lead to basin formation and sedimentation at first in the northern part (as the Jurassic of Kachchh) and later in the southern part (Early Cretaceous of Saurashtra/?Kachchh) (Casshyap and Aslam, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e). These rift basins bounded by major faults/mega-lineaments (Biswas, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1982\u003c/span\u003e) are examples of a pericratonic composite rift system (Sengor et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1978\u003c/span\u003e). This system coincided with the eastern failed arm of triple -rift junction. The pericratonic rift system was developed in response to the extensional forces when the Indian plate ruptured from Somalia/ Madagascar/Oman and moved northward with the opening of Indian Ocean (Arabian Sea) to the west. Similar pericratonic failed rifts/grabens were also formed during plate separation in Jurassic and Early Cretaceous in other parts of Gondwanaland that had rapid accumulation of continental to marine clastics and/or calcareous sediments (Tankard et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1982\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuring Middle to Upper Jurassic, India along with its adjoining regions of Afghanistan, Iran, Jordan, Egypt, Somalia, Ethiopia, and Malagasy, occupying the shallow water of the Indo-Malagasy or Indo-East African Gulf belonged to the Indo-East African Province (Talib and Gaur, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e). During its evolution, the basin has also encountered a changing palaeoshoreline (Balagopal and Srivastava, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1975\u003c/span\u003e; Casshyap and Aslam, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e) from north-south to dominantly northwest-southeast. There was a global rise in sea level which transgressed and deposited sediments during Oxfordian.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere are two major tectonic phases in the Mesozoic Kachchh Basin i.e, early rift phase and termination of this phase by failing of the rifting processes (Biswas, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1982\u003c/span\u003e). The sedimentation in Kachchh Basin corresponds to the early rift representing a transgressive succession interspersed by small cycles of transgression and regression (Osman and Mahender, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA discrete assemblage of lithofacies or its succession cannot be a characteristic to the failed rift and aulacogens (Miall, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1984\u003c/span\u003e). However, graben stage with transgressive or regressive shoreline can be described with the continental to shallow or deep marine, clastic or carbonate facies. Their energy conditions can be explained with the help of the facies encountered in the field. For example, the matrix- supported conglomerate and medium- to coarse -grained thick to thin laminated, friable soft to compact cross-bedded sandstone facies can be interpreted as high energy coastal deposits may be a stand-still period with low sediment supply within the transgressive phase. On the contrary, an agitated offshore setting rendered the deposition of the oolitic limestone facies. Deposition of the Ler Dome sequences took place in different ways. The channelized flows resulted in cross-beds and parallel laminated sandstones along with the un-channelized flows that deposited more or less high energy facies alternately in form of coarse/medium- to fine-grained sandstones and inter-bedded sequence of interbedded gypsiferous shale and sandstone/siltstone facies. The interbedded sequence may be an indication of frequent upheaval of the source area and frequent fluctuation of sea level.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"10 Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe Upper Callovian to Oxfordian sequences of the Kachchh Basin occur in four facies associations with the prevalence of lagonal-tidal, foreshore and estaurine depositional environments possibly in a low to moderate energy condition. The depositional model also suggest cycles of transgression and regression that are the result of the eustatic sea level changes which enhances the textural attributes of the sediments. Bimodality is prevalent in the palaeocurrent pattern of these sandstones and depositional pattern is transitional that is well depicted in the modulation pattern of the deposited sediments. Bimodality is prevalent in the palaeocurrent pattern of the cross-bedded sandstones and suggests strong tidal influence during their sedimentation. Variation in the lateral and vertical thickness of the facies is attributed to the regional tectonics that was influenced by the rifting and faulting.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eConflict of interest\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOn behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAAG collected data and wrote the manuscript. BPS modified the structure of the manuscript and reviewed it. MMA reviewed the manuscript\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors are grateful to Chairperson, Dept. of Geology, A.M.U for providing all the necessary facilities during the study and Dr. S.K Ghosh for his valuable suggestions. Asma Amjad Ghaznavi is also thankful to University Grant Commission (UGC) for providing financial support as Maulana Azad National Fellowship (No. F1-17.1/2015-16/MANF-2015-17-UTT-58619/ (SAIII/Website).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAhmad, A. H. M., Irshad, R., \u0026amp; Bhat, G. M. (2015). Facies and diagenetic evolution of the Bathonian- Oxfordian mixed siliciclastic-carbonate sediments of the Habo Dome, Kachchh Basin, India. \u003cem\u003eVolumina Jurassica\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e13\u003c/em\u003e(1), 83\u0026ndash;104.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAlberti, M., F\u0026uuml;rsich, F. T., \u0026amp; Pandey, D. K. (2013). Deciphering condensed sequences: a case study from the Oxfordian (Upper Jurassic) Dhosa Oolite member of the Kachchh Basin, western India. \u003cem\u003eSedimentology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e60\u003c/em\u003e, 574\u0026ndash;598.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAlberti, M., Pandey, D. K., \u0026amp; F\u0026uuml;rsich, F. T. (2011). Ammonites of the genus Peltoceratoides SPATH, 1924 from the Oxfordian of Kachchh, Western India. \u003cem\u003eNeuesJahrbuchf\u0026uuml;rGeologie und Pal\u0026auml;ontologieAbhandlungen\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e262\u003c/em\u003e(1), 1\u0026ndash;18.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAllen, J. R. L. (1986). In V. P. Wright (Ed.), \u003cem\u003ePedogenic calcretes in the Old Red Sandstone facies (Late Siluian - Early Carboniferous) of the Anglo-Welsh area. Southern Britain\u003c/em\u003e (pp. 58\u0026ndash;82). Princeton Univ. Press.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAllen, P. A., \u0026amp; Leather, J. (2006). Post-Marinoan marine siliciclastic sedimentation: The Masirah Bay Formation, NeoproterozoicHuqfSupergroup of Oman. \u003cem\u003ePrecambrian Research\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e144\u003c/em\u003e(3\u0026ndash;4), 167\u0026ndash;198.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAmaral, E. A., \u0026amp; Pryor, W. A. (1977). Depositional environment of St. Peters sandstone deduced by textural analysis. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Sedimentary Petrology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e47\u003c/em\u003e(1), 32\u0026ndash;52.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eArnott, R. W. C. (1993). 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Method of computing mechanical composition types of sediments. \u003cem\u003eGeological Society of America Bulletin\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e40\u003c/em\u003e, 771\u0026ndash;790.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Jurassic, facies association, texture, stratigraphy, depositional environment","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4346748/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4346748/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eFacies associations of the Middle-Upper Jurassic (Callovian-Oxfordian) sequences of the Ler Dome, Kachchh, western India are studied to determine suitable depositional environments and fluctuations in the sealevel during their deposition. In the present study, nine lithofacies are recognized that are grouped into four facies associations. The facies associations are tide-dominated estuarine facies, foreshore-offshore facies, onshore-offshore facies and lagoonal-tidal flat facies. These facies associations in ascending order suggest at least two transgressive and two regressive phases in a cyclic manner. During Callovian- Oxfordian, India belonged to the Indo-East African Province where shallow water of the Indo-Malagasy or Indo-East African Gulf was present, including the Kachchh Basin.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Lithofacies architecture of Middle-Upper Jurassic succession of the Ler Dome, Kachchh, western India: implications for depositional environments and palaeogeography","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-05-07 07:43:30","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4346748/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"14a87e78-21f8-458d-837b-7b687d6863f5","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 7th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-02-11T08:38:54+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-05-07 07:43:30","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4346748","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4346748","identity":"rs-4346748","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}