Financial Management Practices among Patent and Proprietary Medicine Vendors (PPMVs) in Kaduna and Lagos States, Nigeria: A Mixed-Methods Study

Financial Management Practices among Patent and Proprietary Medicine Vendors (PPMVs) in Kaduna and Lagos States, Nigeria: A Mixed-Methods Study | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Financial Management Practices among Patent and Proprietary Medicine Vendors (PPMVs) in Kaduna and Lagos States, Nigeria: A Mixed-Methods Study Uchenna Igbokwe, Oluwaleke Jegede, Ibrahim Babashehu Ahmed, Olasheni Somotun, and 7 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8829255/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 6 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background Patent and Proprietary Medicine Vendors (PPMVs) provide important healthcare access in rural and underprivileged communities in Nigeria. They are often considered the first line of call for illnesses. PPMVs would need sound financial management practices to actualize sustainable growth. This study investigated the financial management practices of PPMVs in selected Local Government Areas (LGAs) of Kaduna and Lagos states. Method We employed a mixed-methods explanatory sequential design. First, quantitative data were collected from PPMVs in sixteen LGAs of Kaduna and Lagos States, Nigeria, focusing on their business practices, financial management, inventory, and client engagement. This was followed by a qualitative cross-sectional study to contextualize the quantitative findings. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, bivariate tests, and regression models while qualitative data were analyzed thematically. Result Only 32.3% of PPMVs keep financial records, with the majority relying on paper-based systems (94.2%) and minimal use of digital tools, which was exclusive to Lagos (0% vs.100%) and Tier 1 PPMVs (100%), citing challenges related to digital competency. Awareness of loan opportunities was low (13.9%), and only 19.6% of PPMVs have applied for loans, with business tax payment being a significant predictor of loan success (AOR = 2.53; p = 0.045). Kaduna PPMVs were more likely to keep financial records. In both states, except for the use of notebooks in record keeping, there were varying differences in relationships between sociodemographic variables and the operational/financial practices. Generally, Tier 1 PPMVs were more likely to adopt formal financial practices than Tier 2. Conclusion This study underscored the gap in financial practices and operations in PPMVs; these were shaped by gender, tier, and region. The use of digital financial tools was more in Lagos, females and the upper tier of categorization. To close these gaps, strategies should target capacity building and digital tool adoption, in order to catalyse improved access to financial services within these contexts for better sustainability of the PPMVs. Patent and Proprietary Medicine Vendors (PPMVs) Financial Management Practices Access to finance Loans Figures Figure 1 INTRODUCTION Patent and Proprietary Medicine Vendors (PPMVs) provide important healthcare access in rural and underprivileged communities in Nigeria [ 1 , 2 ]. PPMVs are often licensed individuals who sell over-the-counter (OTC) medications to the lay public [ 2 ], and to many of these people, they serve as their primary healthcare provider, especially for those who do not have access to primary healthcare facilities [ 3 ]. They are often considered the first line of call for illnesses such as malaria, cough, gastrointestinal diseases, and other common illnesses, as well as for family planning services in many localities [ 4 ]. They have become an indispensable part of the health system, and very little has been done in these settings to assess the financial practices of PPMVs, which will subsequently impact their sustainability and service delivery [ 5 ]. In order to keep appropriate stock levels, reinvest in their business capital when necessary, and grow other aspects of the services they offer, the PPMVs would need sound financial management practices to actualize sustainable growth [ 5 ]. On the other hand, bad financial management can result in stockouts, poorer service delivery and, ultimately, fewer healthcare services with fewer commodities for the communities served [ 6 ]. It has been observed that committed financial management also ensures that PPMVs would stay in business and cushion market challenges such as fluctuating drug prices, compliance costs and rising capital constraints [ 7 ]. Notably, limited access to credit and financing options increases the financial management challenges that PPMVs experience [ 8 ]. Most PPMVs could hardly get loans or microcredit from financial institutions as they do not have good record-keeping and financial documentation. Not having sufficient capital limits their ability to grow, satisfy customer demand consistently, and address the health care needs in their communities [ 6 ]. This, therefore, becomes a greater albatross to sustainable health care delivery in the communities of service. PPMVs are therefore expected to have sound financial management in the discharge of health care services. Indeed, good financial management, which includes maintaining proper books of accounts and tracking sales, is important for business sustainability [ 7 , 9 ]. These practices not only assist vendors in managing their cash and tracking their performance but also increase their credibility with financing partners [ 10 ]. Vendor access to credit resourcing, such as microcredit or loan schemes, is often dependent on the vendor being able to show retrospective management history and perspective skills in good financial management. Yet, it seems that most PPMVs are lacking basic skills in managing their finances, which could limit their business development and, as such, impact their potential and the overall quality of care they provide to the community [ 10 ]. Access to capital for working, microcredit or loans is a critical sustainability pathway for PPMVs and their ability to grow and replenish stock. Loan applications for financial institutions usually require clean financial records that most PPMVs may not easily provide owing to their weak record-keeping practices. The lack of access to credit also restricts their growth potential and ability to respond to unforeseen financial challenges, leaving them susceptible to market fluctuations or economic crises at times threatening their very survival [ 10 ]. However, the density and distribution of PPMVs differ by state, and an evaluation of some financial management practices in Lagos and Kano States can illustrate to what extent financial barriers or enablers may impact PPMVs' capacity to operate effectively. Such disparities in economic and regulatory settings across these states may also help to differentiate between important opportunities and constraints unique to PPMV operations of interest. This knowledge allows policymakers and planners to identify practices where improvement is needed and facilitate improving the economic robustness of PPMVs to serve as ongoing providers of health care services in their various communities. The Pharmacy Council of Nigeria (PCN) has implemented an accreditation system for PPMVs that is three-tiered to enhance regulation and service quality. This system categorizes PPMVs based on their educational background and healthcare qualifications, defining the scope of services they are authorised to provide [ 1 ]. Tier 1 describes: Eligibility : Individuals without formal health qualifications, typically possessing at least a secondary school certificate. Scope of Services : Authorized to market over-the-counter medications and care for common illnesses. Family planning services include providing condoms, cycle beads, emergency contraceptives, and pill refills (but not initiation). They may also offer counselling and referrals. Tier 2 describes: Eligibility : Individuals with health-related qualifications such as a diploma or degree in nursing, midwifery, or as Community Health Extension Workers (CHEWs), recognized by the PCN. Scope of Services : In addition to Tier 1 services, Tier 2 PPMVs can use Rapid Diagnostic Test kits, administer medications like amoxicillin dispersible tablets, conduct HIV self-testing, provide self-injectable contraceptives, and initiate and administer long-acting reversible contraceptives (e.g., implants) if appropriately trained. And Tier 3 is classified as: Eligibility : Individuals qualified as Pharmacy Technicians. Scope of Services : Similar to Tier 2, with the added authorization to provide selected primary healthcare services in line with the Federal Ministry of Health Task Shifting and Task Sharing policy for essential health care services in Nigeria. This tiered accreditation system aims to ensure that PPMVs operate within their competencies, thereby improving access to quality healthcare services, especially in underserved areas. This study investigates the financial management practices of PPMVs in selected Local Government Areas (LGAs) of Kaduna and Lagos states. The key objectives are mainly to identify the gaps in financial management practices, including record-keeping and sales tracking, among PPMVs in the selected LGAs and explore the relationship between financial management practices and access to microcredits or loans for PPMVs. METHODS Study design This study adopted a mixed-methods design integrating quantitative and qualitative approaches to provide understanding of the financial and operational practices of PPMVs. The quantitative component employed a cross-sectional survey of PPMVs across urban and rural LGAs in Lagos and Kaduna States. The qualitative component followed an explanatory sequential approach, involving eight focus group discussions (FGDs) conducted across both states to generate deeper contextual insights and complement the survey findings. Study setting Two states, namely Lagos and Kaduna are quite popular states in Nigeria. They are characterized by distinctive socio-economic and geographical traits that significantly reflect on their healthcare systems. Lagos State, is located in the southwestern region of Nigeria, is the second most populous state, a former capital of the country, which still serves as a major economic hub of the nation. Lagos, which is home to an estimated 21 million people, is a significant hub for innovation, trade, and business in West Africa. It is an important player in the national economy, with a diversified economy that accounts for around 30% of Nigeria's GDP [ 11 , 12 , 13 ]. Lagos has a strong but diverse healthcare system that includes both public and private facilities. The Lagos State Ministry of Health supervises health service delivery in the state, across the three tiers of care namely; primary, secondary, and tertiary care levels. A key operational initiative in the health sector is the Lagos State Health Scheme (LSHS), branded as "Ilera Eko," and launched in 2015 to ensure affordable and equity in healthcare for all residents. This scheme, administered by the Lagos State Health Management Agency (LASHMA), focuses on universal health coverage and equitable access to services [ 12 , 14 , 15 ]. Regulatory oversight in the Lagos healthcare delivery system is carried out by several agencies, the Health Facilities Monitoring and Accreditation Agency (HEFAMAA), the key agency which ensures that health facilities meet established standards of care in their operations. This regulatory framework aims to enhance service quality and accessibility across the state [ 12 , 15 ]. Kaduna State is situated in northwestern Nigeria, with a population of about half that of Lagos State, is renowned for its cultural diversity and historical significance as a political centre. The state operates with a more decentralized healthcare system compared to Lagos, reflecting its unique socio-economic landscape. The healthcare system in Kaduna also has three distinct categories namely primary, secondary, and tertiary care levels. The "Primary Health Care Under One Roof" (PHCUOR) policy is a noteworthy and enthusiastic endeavour that seeks to integrate primary healthcare services for increased efficiency. To guarantee that each ward has at least one operational primary healthcare facility, the state is implementing the nation strategy of "One Functional PHC Centre per Ward". These programs are managed by the Kaduna State Primary Health Care Development Agency (SPHCDA), which is dedicated to improving community health outcomes. Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs), private companies, government agencies, and foreign donors are some of the stakeholders involved in healthcare delivery in Kaduna. While federal institutions are funded by the federal government, state governments provide health services through state-owned facilities. This collaborative approach aims to address gaps in service delivery and improve health indices [ 14 , 16 ]. But generally, in Lagos and Kaduna, PPMVs are an essential part of the health care system in these states. Often found in both urban neighbourhoods and in remote communities, PPMVs typically provide some care services for people seeking quick, affordable treatment for common health issues. In addition to over-the-counter medications, their typically modest and well-known local stores offer some basic health advice and assistance. In these states, as in other parts of Nigeria, PPMVs play a crucial role in the health system due to their accessibility, local knowledge, and community trust, even though the majority of them lack formal training as health professionals. Over the years, they have become recognized in this role, and there is considerable government and partner effort to make them safer and more effective. The revision of the Task-Shifting and Task-Sharing (TSTS) policy of the Federal Government of Nigeria now allows PPMVs to provide some essential family planning services like injectable contraceptives and implant insertion in Nigeria [ 1 ]. Study population This study population were PPMVs who were operating within selected LGAs in Kaduna and Lagos States within the country. The selection of PPMVs was made to ensure that the sample of PPMVs represented both demographic and geographical diversity. The inclusion criteria for selected PPMVs required that participants were actively operating in the LGA at the time of the survey, registered with the PCN, or were in the process of renewing their licenses with the council. PPMVs that were not aligned with the goals of the Promoting Accreditation for Community Health Services (PACS) project were not prioritised in order to maximize representativeness, as well as considerations of security and efficiency. Sample size The quantitative sample was derived using a census-based enumeration of eligible PPMVs within purposively selected LGAs, ensuring comprehensive coverage of operationally active providers within the defined geographic clusters. A total of 914 PPMVs (280 in Lagos and 634 in Kaduna) were included in the study. For the qualitative component, eight FGDs (two urban and two rural per state) were conducted with a total of 63 participants, with each FGD comprising 6 to 9 participants. This group size is consistent with qualitative research standards and was considered sufficient to achieve thematic saturation while maintaining balanced representation across urban and rural contexts. Sampling Technique For each state in the study, a total of four urban and four rural LGAs were identified and chosen. Equity, representativeness, and practical relevance are the major factors taken into account when choosing LGAs. The following eight LGAs were chosen from each state: Igabi, Giwa, Kudan, Kaduna North, Zaria, Sabon-Gari, Chikun, and Kaduna South while Badagry, Oshodi-Isolo, Ikorodu, Ifako-Ijaiye, Ibeju-Lekki, Epe, Ojo, and Alimosho were the LGAs in Kaduna State and Lagos State, respectively. Several important factors were integrated into a structured LGA selection process. These included the geographic distribution of rural and urban areas, the security status of the LGAs, and the density of PPMVs within them. In prioritisation of LGAs for selection, LGAs with a higher percentage of female-owned PPMVs were considered in the interest of inclusivity. Despite being purposeful, the selection procedure was carefully matched with the goals of the PACS project, guaranteeing contextual security, operational viability, and representativeness of the states under study. Among the requirements for eligibility were: IntegrateE partner PPMVs : To ensure efficiency and alignment with ongoing private-sector health system strengthening initiatives, priority was given to LGAs with PPMVs participating in the IntegratE project – a national programme led by the Pharmacy Council of Nigeria that accredits and integrates PPMVs into the formal health system through structured training, supervision, and routine health data reporting. This approach leveraged existing, functional PPMV networks within the selected states. Security status : To ensure the safety of field teams and study participants, security considerations influenced the selection of LGAs. This decision was based on the Kaduna Security Report (September 2023), which identified insecure LGAs and enabled their exclusion from the study. PPMV density : LGAs with a higher concentration of PPMVs were prioritised in order to guarantee robust and representative selection such that the data collected can accurately reflect the target population. Gender considerations : Areas with a higher proportion of female-owned PPMVs were selected in order to manage gender inclusivity and highlight the importance of acknowledging women-led businesses in the healthcare sector. Geographical distribution : The process ensured an even distribution between urban and rural LGAs to enhance equitable representation and logistical convenience. The proximity to state capitals was also considered to streamline project operations. Only eight LGAS were chosen in Kaduna using these criteria out of the initial pool of 23 LGAs. Similarly, only 8 LGAs were chosen from the initial pool of 20 LGAs in Lagos (see Fig. 1 ). Data Collection Procedure Data were collected using two instruments developed specifically for this study: (1) a structured, interviewer-administered questionnaire for PPMVs and (2) a semi-structured FGD guide for PPMVs. Both instruments were designed by the research team based on the study objectives, a review of relevant literature, and consultation with subject matter experts in private sector health service delivery, regulatory compliance, and financial inclusion. The tools were developed in English and have not been previously published. English-language versions are provided as supplementary files. The PPMV structured questionnaire (Additional File 1) comprised 47 items organized into four thematic sections: (i) background characteristics; (ii) regulatory compliance; (iii) operational health (including inventory management, financial record-keeping, and service provision); and (iv) readiness and willingness for interventions (including awareness of and access to business loans, branding, and accreditation incentives). A team of 24 trained field enumerators conducted the quantitative surveys over a three-month period (December 2023 – February 2024). Enumerators completed a three-day training programme covering study objectives, ethical conduct, informed consent procedures, and proficiency in the electronic data capture platform (SurveyCTO). Role-play simulations and a field pilot test were conducted to ensure consistency and clarity of questionnaire administration. Eligible PPMV outlets within the sampled LGAs were visited by enumerators. Following a standardised introduction to the study and the attainment of verbal informed consent, the questionnaire was administered face-to-face in English, Hausa, or Yoruba, depending on participant preference. Responses were captured directly on Android tablets using the SurveyCTO application. Where participants provided additional consent, photographs of relevant documentation (e.g., PCN licences, financial ledgers, temperature monitoring charts, stock records) were captured and uploaded via the platform. Qualitative data were collected through 8 FGDs with PPMVs, conducted concurrently with the quantitative survey. An FGD guide (Additional File 2) was developed to explore in-depth perspectives across four thematic domains: (1) regulatory compliance; (2) operational health; (3) community reach and impact; and (4) willingness and readiness for interventions. The guide contained 23 open-ended questions with corresponding probe prompts to facilitate detailed, nuanced responses. Participants were purposively selected from the pool of PPMVs who had completed the quantitative survey, ensuring representation across gender, years of operation, and accreditation status. FGDs were facilitated by a trained qualitative moderator, supported by a dedicated note-taker. Sessions were held in neutral, private venues within each community and lasted between 60 and 90 minutes. All discussions were audio-recorded with participants’ explicit verbal and written consent. The moderator followed the semi-structured guide while permitting flexibility to pursue emergent themes. Field notes were taken to capture non-verbal cues, group dynamics, and contextual observations. Data quality assurance Rigorous quality assurance measures were implemented throughout data collection. For the quantitative surveys, supervisors conducted daily reviews of submitted data for completeness, logical consistency, and timeliness. Automated validation checks were programmed into the SurveyCTO platform to minimise entry errors. Spot checks and back-check interviews were conducted for a randomly selected subset (10%) of respondents to verify data accuracy. For qualitative data, audio recordings were transcribed verbatim within 24 hours of each FGD, and transcripts were independently cross-checked against the original recordings to ensure accuracy and completeness. Data management All quantitative data were captured electronically and uploaded to a secure central server with restricted, role-based access. Regular server backups were conducted to prevent data loss. Multiple quality assurance procedures were implemented throughout the data management process. Supervisors routinely reviewed submitted data for completeness and accuracy, and discrepancies were promptly addressed through feedback and clarification with field teams. Dedicated communication platforms were used to provide real-time technical support, resolve protocol-related issues, and address field challenges as they arose. Following completion of data collection, quantitative datasets were cleaned using Microsoft Excel 2019. Missing values, duplicates, and inconsistencies were identified and resolved prior to analysis. Cleaned datasets were subsequently exported to IBM SPSS version 26 for statistical analysis. Qualitative audio recordings were transcribed verbatim, and transcripts were cross-checked against the original recordings to ensure accuracy and completeness. Data analysis Quantitative and qualitative data were analysed using complementary analytical approaches. Quantitative analysis was conducted using IBM SPSS version 26. Descriptive statistics were used to summarise key variables, with results presented as frequencies and percentages. Bivariate analyses were performed using chi-square tests to assess associations between categorical variables, with statistical significance set at p < 0.05. Multivariable logistic regression models were developed to identify predictors of key outcomes, with adjusted odds ratios (AORs) and 95% confidence intervals reported to account for potential confounders. This multivariable approach provided deeper insights into the enabling and constraining factors influencing financial inclusion among PPMVs. Qualitative data were analysed thematically using NVivo version 12. Transcripts were coded using a combination of deductive codes informed by the study objectives and inductive codes emerging from the data. Themes were refined through iterative team discussions to ensure analytical consistency. Integration of quantitative and qualitative findings was achieved through triangulation, enabling qualitative insights to contextualise quantitative results and provide a comprehensive interpretation of the study findings. RESULTS Demographic characteristics of respondents As shown in Table 1 , most respondents were from Kaduna (69.4%), female (64.8%), aged 35–44 years (36.1%), and based in urban areas (79.3%). The majority had post-secondary education (75.3%), nearly half had operated for over 10 years (49.5%), and respondents were fairly distributed across tiers, with no respondents in tier three categorization. Table 1 Distribution of Socio-demographic variables Variable Category N (%) State Kaduna 634 (69.37%) Lagos 280 (30.63%) Sex Male 322 (35.23%) Female 592 (64.77%) Age 26–34 182 (19.91%) 35–44 330 (36.11%) 45–54 267 (29.21%) 55–73 135 (14.77%) Settlement Urban 725 (79.32%) Rural 189 (20.68%) Education Completed Primary and Secondary 226 (24.7%) Post-secondary 688 (75.3%) Tier Tier 1 430 (47.05%) Tier 2 484 (52.95%) Years of Operation Less than 5 years 235 (25.71%) 6–10 years 227 (24.84%) More than 10 years 452 (49.45%) PCN Registration Yes 840 (91.9%) In process 55 (6.02%) No 19 (2.08%) Completed Accreditation Yes 722 (78.99%) In process 93 (10.18%) No 25 (2.74%) Distribution of Financial management practices in Lagos and Kaduna State Table 2 presents the results of financial and operational practices among PPMVs. It shows that 32.28% of respondents admit to keeping financial records, with a predominant use of paper-based systems (94.24%) and minimal adoption of digital systems (1.36%) or a combination of both (4.07%). In terms of stock management, 96.05% of respondents do not utilize digital tracking, while 79.06% engage in physical stock counting, 31.69% use notebooks, and 11.51% rely on bin/stock cards. Cash is the most preferred payment method (99.89%), followed by bank transfers (81.07%) and point of sale (POS) systems (29.21%). Although only 21.01% of respondents have corporate bank accounts, the majority (79.1%) report paying business taxes, indicating a strong reliance on traditional operational systems within the PPMVS, with limited integration of digital tools. Table 2 Distribution of Financial Management Practices Variable Category N (%) Keeping financial records Yes 295 (32.28%) No 619 (67.72%) Type of financial records Paper-based 278 (94.24%) Digital systems 4 (1.36%) Both 12 (4.07%) Type of stock tracking Digital check Yes 36 (3.95%) No 876 (96.05%) Physical stock counting Yes 721 (79.06%) No 191 (20.94%) Bin card/Stock card Yes 105 (11.51%) No 807 (88.49%) Notebook Yes 289 (31.69%) No 623 (68.31%) Payment methods used by clients Cash Yes 913 (99.89%) No 1 (0.11%) Point of sale (POS) Yes 267 (29.21%) No 647 (70.79%) Bank Transfer Yes 741 (81.07%) No 173 (18.93%) Ownership of corporate bank account Yes 192 (21.01%) No 722 (78.99%) Payment of business tax Yes 723 (79.1%) No 191 (20.9%) Gender differences in financial and operational practices among PPMVs Table 3 presents the gender-based differences in financial and operational practices among PPMVs. There was a significant difference in the use of POS systems (p-value = 0.049), with more females using them than males. Bank transfer usage also showed a significant difference (p-value = 0.003), with more females using it than males. Additionally, there was a significant difference in business tax payment (p-value = 0.001), with males more likely to pay business tax. There was no significant difference in financial record-keeping, the method of keeping financial records, commodity/stock tracking, physical stock counting, bin/stock card usage, notebook usage, and the method of payment (cash). Table 3 Association of financial management practices across gender (both states) Financial Management Practice Category Gender Chi-square p-value Male Female Financial record keeping in PPMVs Yes 106 (35.9%) 189 (64.1%) 0.094 0.759 No 216 (34.9%) 403 (65.1%) Method of record-keeping by PPMVs Paper-based 101 (36.3%) 177 (63.7%) 2.633 0.452 Digital systems 1 (25%) 3 (75%) Both 3 (25%) 9 (75%) Tracking of stock by PPMVs Digital Check No 310 (35.4%) 566 (64.6%) 0.064 0.800 Yes 12 (33.3%) 24 (66.7%) Physical stock counting No 63 (33%) 128 (67%) 0.571 0.450 Yes 259 (35.9%) 462 (64.1%) Bin card/Stock card No 279 (34.6%) 528 (65.4%) 1.656 0.198 Yes 43 (41%) 62 (59%) Notebook No 223 (35.8%) 400 (64.2%) 0.205 0.651 Yes 99 (34.3%) 190 (65.7%) Methods of Payment used by PPMVs Cash No 0 (0%) 1 (100%) 0.545 0.461 Yes 322 (35.3%) 591 (64.7%) Point of sale (POS) No 215 (33.2%) 432 (66.8%) 3.88 0.049* Yes 107 (40.1%) 160 (59.9%) Bank Transfer No 44 (25.4%) 129 (74.6%) 8.974 0.003* Yes 278 (37.5%) 463 (62.5%) Ownership of corporate Yes 74 (38.5%) 118 (61.5%) 1.168 0.280 No 248 (34.3%) 474 (65.7%) Payment of tax by PPMVs Yes 274 (37.9%) 449 (62.1%) 10.792 0.001* No 48 (25.1%) 143 (74.9%) Bold with * indicate statistical significance at p < 0.05 Association of financial management practices across states & Tiers Table 4 shows the association of financial management practices across states and tiers for PPMVs. Across both states, significant differences in financial management practices were observed. More respondents in Kaduna keep financial records (56.3% vs. 43.7%, p < 0.001) and use paper-based methods (57.9% vs. 42.1%, p = 0.032), while digital systems are exclusive to Lagos (0% vs.100%). The use of digital checks is lower in Kaduna (70% vs 30%, p = 0.028), and bin card usage is also significantly lower (11.4% vs. 88.6%, p < 0.001). POS usage is higher in Lagos (40.8% vs. 59.2%, p < 0.001), as are corporate bank accounts (55.2% vs. 44.8%, p < 0.001). Conversely, bank transfers are more common in Kaduna (64.8% vs. 35.2%, p < 0.001). No significant differences were observed in physical stock counting, notebook usage, cash payments, or business tax payments. Also, Table 4 presents the association of financial management practices across Tier 1 and Tier 2 PPMVs as categorized by the Pharmacy Council of Nigeria. There was a significant difference in keeping financial records (p < 0.001), with more Tier 1 PPMVs keeping records (58.6% vs. 41.4%) compared to Tier 2. The use of digital checks also showed a significant difference (p < 0.001), with more Tier 1 PPMVs adopting this method (83.3% vs. 16.7%). Additionally, the use of bin cards/stock cards differed significantly (p = 0.001), with higher usage among Tier 2 PPMVs (68.6% vs. 31.4%). Payment practices also varied significantly. More Tier 1 PPMVs utilized Point of Sale (POS) systems (60.7% vs. 39.3%, p < 0.001), while bank transfers were more common among Tier 1 PPMVs (51.6% vs. 48.4%, p < 0.001). A significant difference was observed in the possession of corporate bank accounts (p = 0.002), with more Tier 1 PPMVs having accounts (56.8% vs. 43.2%). Business tax payment also showed a significant difference (p < 0.001), with Tier 1 PPMVs more likely to pay taxes (51.5% vs. 48.5%). Table 4 Association of Financial Management Practices Across States and Tiers Financial Management Practice Category State Tier Kaduna n(%) Lagos n(%) χ 2 p-value Tier 1 n(%) Tier 2 n(%) χ 2 p-value Financial record keeping Yes 166 (56.3%) 129 (43.7%) 35.147 < 0.001 * 173 (58.6%) 122 (41.4%) 23.52 < 0.001 * No 468 (75.6%) 151 (24.4%) 257 (41.5%) 362 (58.5%) Methods of financial record keeping Paper-based 161 (57.9%) 117 (42.1%) 8.795 0.032 * 164 (59.0%) 114 (41.0%) 5.679 0.128 Digital Systems 0 (0.0%) 4 (100.0%) 4 (100.0%) 0 (0.0%) Both 4 (33.3%) 8 (66.7%) 5 (41.7%) 7 (58.3%) Method of stock tracking by PPMV Digital Check No 613 (70.0%) 263 (30.0%) 4.808 0.028 * 400 (45.7%) 476 (54.3%) 19.693 < 0.001 * Yes 19 (52.8%) 17 (47.2%) 30 (83.3%) 6 (16.7%) Physical Count No 125 (65.4%) 66 (34.6%) 1.686 0.194 88 (46.1%) 103 (53.9%) 0.112 0.738 Yes 507 (70.3%) 214 (29.7%) 342 (47.4%) 379 (52.6%) Bin card/Stock Card No 539 (66.8%) 268 (33.2%) 20.717 < 0.001 * 397 (49.2%) 410 (50.8%) 11.768 0.001 * Yes 93 (88.6%) 12 (11.4%) 33 (31.4%) 72 (68.6%) Notebook No 441 (70.8%) 182 (29.2%) 2.047 0.153 300 (48.2%) 323 (51.8%) 0.797 0.372 Yes 191 (66.1%) 98 (33.9%) 130 (45.0%) 159 (55.0%) Payment methods by PPMVs Cash No 0 (0.0%) 1 (100.0%) 2.267 0.132 0 (0.0%) 1 (100.0%) 0.889 0.346 Yes 634 (69.4%) 279 (30.6%) 430 (47.1%) 483 (52.9%) POS No 476 (73.6%) 171 (26.4%) 18.429 < 0.001 * 268 (41.4%) 379 (58.6%) 28.12 < 0.001 * Yes 158 (59.2%) 109 (40.8%) 162 (60.7%) 105 (39.3%) Bank Transfer No 154 (89.0%) 19 (11.0%) 38.782 < 0.001 * 48 (27.7%) 125 (72.3%) 31.907 < 0.001 * Yes 480 (64.8%) 261 (35.2%) 382 (51.6%) 359 (48.4%) Ownership of corporate account by PPMVs Yes 86 (44.8%) 106 (55.2%) 69.071 < 0.001 * 109 (56.8%) 83 (43.2%) 9.227 0.002 * No 548 (75.9%) 174 (24.1%) 321 (44.5%) 401 (55.5%) Payment of tax by PPMVs Yes 495 (68.5%) 228 (31.5%) 1.321 0.250 372 (51.5%) 351 (48.5%) 26.964 < 0.001 * No 139 (72.8%) 52 (27.2%) 58 (30.4%) 133 (69.6%) Bold with * indicate statistical significance at p < 0.05 Comparison of Socio-demographic Factors and Their Association with Financial management/Operational Practices in both states Regional (state) comparisons between Lagos and Kaduna show varying levels of association between socio demographic factors and their financial management/operational practices. In consideration of gender, there is a significant relationship between bank payment use of PoS machines and in Kaduna unlike in Lagos; while in consideration of age, there is a significant relationship between the use of notebook in both States. Educational background is only significantly related to use of a notebook for operational records in Lagos. The tier levels have varying degrees of relationship in the assessed parameters across both states ( see supplementary Figs. 2 to 5 ). Access to loans among PPMVs Supplementary Table 5 presents the distribution of access to loans among PPMVs. Awareness of loan products targeted at PPMVs was low, with only 13.89% of respondents reporting awareness, while 86.11% were unaware. Among those who applied for loans, working capital loans were the most commonly applied for (10.07%), followed by equipment financing (2.95%), and other types of loans (9.63%). Applications for equity financing and start-up loans were minimal, with only 0.88% applying for each. A significant portion of respondents (80.38%) reported not applying for any loan products. Among those who applied, 67.97% successfully obtained the loan, while 32.03% were unsuccessful. Association and predictors of successful loan acquisition among PPMVs based on financial management practices Supplementary Table 6 presents the association between financial management practices and access to loans among PPMVs. There was a significant association between business tax payment and successful loan acquisition (p = 0.036), with 72.1% of respondents who paid business tax successfully obtaining loans compared to 50% of those who did not pay taxes. There was no significant association between successful loan acquisition and other financial management practices, such as keeping financial records (p = 0.693), the method of keeping records (p = 0.778), or having a corporate bank account (p = 0.535). Supplementary Table 7 shows the logistic regression analysis results to identify predictors of successful loan acquisition. Paying business tax was a significant predictor, with respondents who paid taxes being 2.53 times more likely to successfully obtain a loan than those who did not (AOR = 2.533; 95% CI: [1.019, 6.3]; p = 0.045). Keeping financial records (AOR = 1.217; 95% CI: [0.546, 2.711]; p = 0.631) and having a corporate bank account (AOR = 0.786; 95% CI: [0.342, 1.805]; p = 0.570) were not significant predictors. Qualitative result Preference for one digital system for inventory and financial records PPMVs generally preferred using a single digital system to manage both inventory and financial records. This preference was driven by the convenience of having all business data centralized in one place, making it easier to track sales, manage stock, and calculate profits without switching between systems. However, some respondents highlighted concerns about the cost of acquiring and maintaining such systems. "We want one system that can manage both inventory and financial records because it allows us to track our stock, calculate profits, and manage expenses efficiently in one place." (P1, Lagos Urban 1 PPMV) "Having separate systems can be stressful; it’s better when everything is combined so we don’t make mistakes." (P3, Kaduna Rural 1 PPMV) "The main issue with digital systems is the cost. If the government or partners can help us with these tools, it would be easier to adopt." (P5, Lagos, Urban 2 PPMV) Methods of keeping financial records and use of technological tools The majority of PPMVs reported using manual methods for keeping financial records, such as exercise books or notebooks. While some expressed satisfaction with these methods, others acknowledged the limitations, including errors and inefficiencies. A smaller number of respondents used simple digital tools like mobile apps but cited challenges with consistent use and lack of training. "I use an exercise book to record daily sales, and at the end of the week, I calculate profits and expenses manually." (P4, Lagos Rural 1, Ikorodu PPMV) "I have tried using an app, but sometimes I forget to update it because of how busy the shop can get." (P5, Kaduna Rural 1 PPMV) "Keeping records manually works for me, but I know it’s not the best. I just don’t have access to digital tools or the knowledge to use them." (P1, Kaduna Rural 2 PPMV) While a few PPMVs had adopted technological tools such as tablets or software provided by external organizations, most participants reported limited access to such tools. Many expressed a desire to learn about and adopt affordable and user-friendly digital systems to improve efficiency. "I use a tablet provided by M-Pharma for managing stock and printing receipts, but I pay for it in installments." (P5, Lagos Urban 1 PPMV) "I think tools that track sales and inventory automatically would be very helpful, but they are expensive for small businesses like mine." (P4, Kaduna 2 Rural PPMV) "If there were free or subsidized tools for PPMVs, I believe more of us would adopt them." (P5, Lagos Urban 2 PPMV) Types of financial records maintained PPMVs reported maintaining records such as daily sales logs, expense records, and, in some cases, separate savings and business transaction accounts. Most participants emphasized the importance of keeping these records updated to monitor profits and manage expenses effectively. "I keep daily sales records and maintain two accounts: one for savings and one for business transactions." (P3, Lagos Rural 1 Ikorodu PPMV) "I have one account that I use for both personal and business transactions, but most of my sales are cash-based." (P6, Lagos Urban 1 PPMV) "Recording my expenses daily helps me ensure that I am not overspending, even though I still do it manually." (P3, Kaduna 2 PPMV) Experiences with business loans and financial services PPMVs expressed mixed experiences with business loans and financial services. While many appreciated loans for enabling them to grow their businesses, high interest rates and collateral requirements posed significant barriers. Participants emphasized the need for affordable loan schemes tailored to small business owners. "Loans allow us to purchase what we need for our shops and choose the products that are in demand." (P2, Lagos Rural 2 Epe PPMV) "A loan with a low interest rate is acceptable, but 5% is too high for most of us to manage." (P4, Lagos Urban 1 PPMV) "Our licenses and shops should serve as collateral because they reflect our credibility and commitment." (P5, Lagos Rural 1 Ikorodu PPMV) “We need loans that do not require heavy collateral because many of us are already financially stretched.” (P5, Kaduna Rural 1 PPMV) DISCUSSION The study evaluated financial and operational practices among Proprietary Patent Medicine Vendors (PPMVs) by gender, region, and tier classifications. The study sample was characterized by a preponderance of females and more respondents from Kaduna. There was equally a predominance of respondents with more than 10 years of operation, and none were in tier three (by PCN categorization). In particular, findings present opportunities for closing gaps to improve business and operational efficiencies of PPMVs in both Lagos and Kaduna states. A majority of PPMVs do not keep records of their financial transactions, which implies a serious gap in business management practice. Among them, three-quarters principally document their financial transactions with paper, while only about 1 in every 74 PPMVs admit to adopting digital tools, with some citing challenges with consistent use related to poor training. The results indeed corroborate previous studies indicating very low uptake of digital financial tools in similar settings, mainly due to low digital filling and infrastructure hurdles [ 1 , 12 ]. This can inhibit their ability to secure access to financing that can advance their service delivery capacity [ 5 ]. Better training and provision of user-friendly digital tools would address these barriers, improving record keeping and accountability [ 17 ]. Most of the respondents carry out their stock checks physically or use notebooks, while only a few have computerized stock tracking systems. This calls for innovative and tailored strategies to encourage affordable and scalable inventory management solutions that are context-specific. The poor utilisation of bin cards indicates a probable area of interest for strengthening effective stock monitoring [ 18 ]. Though participants also acknowledged the importance of keeping financial records, the implementation seemed poor with some respondents admitting to “ one account that I use for both personal and business transactions” , a clear limitation to accessing financial support to improve service delivery. However, a lower loan interest rate and utilisation of the PPMV licence for collateral were recommended by respondents as strategies to improve loan accessibility. Similar models to improve accessibility were described in the United States [ 19 ]. The payment practice of PPMVs is more inclined towards cash than to bank transfer and point of sales (POS) in their financial practices. This may not enhance transaction experiences. Despite being occasionally plagued by technical difficulties, fraud, and cybercrimes, it has been reported that cashless services are a preferred method of payment for both consumers and organizations due to their convenience (lesser administrative effort), accountability, and accessibility [ 20 ]. However, gender analysis of findings in this study indicated that females are more likely to adopt POS and bank transfer payments than males. This may be related to security issues. Marselina PSP found that the security of the payment system and perceived ease of use are important factors that influence the customer in deciding which payment system to use [ 21 , 21 ]. Gender-based considerations become necessary when migration to digital platforms is desired. PPMVs in Lagos have opted to use digital tools more than those in Kaduna, which prefer the traditional methods. The World Bank reports that digitalized financial tools have the potential to lower costs, increase speed, and security, and allow for more tailored services [ 23 ]. Differences observed in both states may arise due to differences in levels of economic development, access to digital infrastructure, and differences in market forces. In both states, except for the use of notebooks in record keeping, there were varying differences in relationships between sociodemographic variables and the operational/financial practices. Therefore, tailored approaches addressing differences in contexts would have to be unique and consider the socio-economic and infrastructural realities of each region. There are some major tier distinctions, with the upper-tier PPMVs being more likely than lower-tier PPMVs to adopt formalized practices and digital tools. Musantu in Zambia also showed that higher formal education is positively associated with a preference for digital financial tools [ 24 ]. This means that the lower-tier PPMVs may be faced with more operational challenges in upgrading services or seeking better financing. Closing this gap will require specific interventions in training and support programs for low-tier PPMVs to improve their business management skills and catalyse access to credit. High levels of tax compliance were recorded among PPMVs, although ownership of corporate bank accounts was relatively low. Gender differences were also found in tax compliance that might reflect the differences in access to business formalization resources and tax education. Awareness and access to loans for PPMVs were limited, which further highlights the gap in financial literacy initiatives and credit facilities needed for specific engagements. However, findings by Abiola et al, show that financial literacy and good financial practices have a significant effect on the sustainability of the business [ 25 ]. Though the sample selection process purposively, was aligned with the goals of the Promoting Accreditation for Community Health Services (PACS) project to maximize security and efficiency, it can reduce the influence of chance and create selection bias, which in turn limits accurate representativeness in the broader population of PPMVs in Nigeria. Consequently, the findings might reflect the characteristics of the selected sample rather than the entire population, limiting the external validity of the study. However, remarkable efforts were deployed to maximise representation in consideration of density, gender, and geographical spread. Conclusion This study revealed the gap in financial practices and operations in PPMVs; these were shaped by gender, tier, and region. The use of digital financial tools was more in Lagos, females and the upper tier of categorization. To close these gaps, strategies should target capacity building and digital tool adoption in order to catalyse improved access to financial services. The interventions should take into consideration the nuances in place of operation and tier of categorization, as well as context-specific models to enhance access to financing in order to enhance service delivery to consumers and ensure sustainability for PPMVs. Abbreviations AORs adjusted odds ratios CHEWs Community Health Extension Workers FGD focus group discussions HEFAMAA Health Facilities Monitoring and Accreditation Agency LASHMA Lagos State Health Management Agency LGAs Local Government Areas LSHS Lagos State Health Scheme NGOs non-governmental organisations OTC over-the-counter PACS Promoting Accreditation for Community Health Services project PCN Pharmacy Council of Nigeria PHCUOR Primary Health Care Under One Roof PPMVs Patent and Proprietary Medicine Vendors SPHCDA Kaduna State Primary Health Care Development Agency TSTS Task-Shifting and Task-Sharing. Declarations Acknowledgements We acknowledge the support of the study participants and field teams for their time and contributions. We also thank the relevant state and local health authorities for their cooperation and facilitation of data collection. Technical and administrative support provided by collaborating institutions is gratefully acknowledged. Funding and disclosure The research in this publication was supported by funding from MSD, through its MSD for Mothers initiative. MSD had no role in the design, collection, analysis and interpretation of data, in writing of the manuscript or in the decision to submit the manuscript for publication. The content of this publication is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not represent the official views of MSD. MSD for Mothers is an initiative of Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, NJ, U.S.A. Availability of data and materials The data used in this study can be made available to eligible researchers upon request, with the intention of enabling the replication of methods and findings. To request access, interested individuals should reach out to the corresponding author. Access will be granted upon the completion of a data use agreement outlining terms such as crediting data sources, adhering to ethical standards, safeguarding confidentiality, and restricting data dissemination. Authors’ contributions Conceptualization: UI, OJ, EO, EAJr. Methodology and study design: GO, EAJr, PU, OS, OE, AB-A, AN. Data collection and supervision: GO, EAJr, PU, OS, OE, AB-A, AN. Formal analysis and data visualization: OS, PU, AN, EAJr. Writing—original draft: GO, PU. Writing—review and editing: UI, OJ, IB, EAJr, EO, OE. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Ethics approval and consent to participate Ethical approval was obtained from the Lagos State Ministry of Health (LSHREC/2024/0007) and the Kaduna State Ministry of Health (MOH/ADM/744/VOL.1/1110015). Written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to enrolment. This study was performed in line with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Participant anonymity and confidentiality were strictly maintained through the use of anonymized questionnaires and secure data handling procedures. Participants were informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any time without penalty. 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Financial literacy, financial capabilities, and sustainable business model practice among small business owners in Nigeria. J Sustain Finance Invest. 2023;13(4):1670–92. https://doi.org/10.1080/20430795.2021.196266 . Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files SupplementaryFiguresofResults.pdf SupplementaryTableofResults.docx AdditionalFile1PACSLANDSCAPEASSESSMENTQUESTIONNAIREFORPPMVs.pdf AdditionalFile2FGDGuideforPPMVPACS.pdf Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Reviewers agreed at journal 10 Mar, 2026 Reviewers invited by journal 05 Mar, 2026 Editor assigned by journal 04 Mar, 2026 Editor invited by journal 12 Feb, 2026 Submission checks completed at journal 11 Feb, 2026 First submitted to journal 11 Feb, 2026 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Uahomo","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"","institution":"Solina Centre for International Development and Research (SCIDaR)","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Precious","middleName":"","lastName":"Uahomo","suffix":""},{"id":602317339,"identity":"b3ee83e8-0aa5-43aa-b477-e10ce71dc14e","order_by":10,"name":"Eric Aigbogun Jr.","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Solina Centre for International Development and Research (SCIDaR)","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Eric","middleName":"","lastName":"Aigbogun","suffix":"Jr."}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-02-09 10:38:57","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8829255/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8829255/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":104328132,"identity":"4dd59172-3047-440a-85f5-1f7bd3640648","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-10 14:27:18","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":698407,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCriteria for LGA Selection in the Study (Source: SCIDaR 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14:27:12","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":1067434,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"SupplementaryFiguresofResults.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8829255/v1/479f7bd11ba8234935a772f8.pdf"},{"id":104328124,"identity":"293aea47-4352-4a87-b758-11500cb8adc4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-10 14:27:13","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":18850,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"SupplementaryTableofResults.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8829255/v1/bcf1fe968429636edf197190.docx"},{"id":104328125,"identity":"738531e0-24e0-4dc0-a4d5-943e44a71a7c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-10 14:27:13","extension":"pdf","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":656502,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"AdditionalFile1PACSLANDSCAPEASSESSMENTQUESTIONNAIREFORPPMVs.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8829255/v1/48133b9f6326ce351585c262.pdf"},{"id":104328170,"identity":"d30bddc7-af16-4036-b9ef-3e58150a97d1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-10 14:27:36","extension":"pdf","order_by":3,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":198532,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"AdditionalFile2FGDGuideforPPMVPACS.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8829255/v1/785839f22c3089ad69ea4c07.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Financial Management Practices among Patent and Proprietary Medicine Vendors (PPMVs) in Kaduna and Lagos States, Nigeria: A Mixed-Methods Study","fulltext":[{"header":"INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003ePatent and Proprietary Medicine Vendors (PPMVs) provide important healthcare access in rural and underprivileged communities in Nigeria [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. PPMVs are often licensed individuals who sell over-the-counter (OTC) medications to the lay public [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e], and to many of these people, they serve as their primary healthcare provider, especially for those who do not have access to primary healthcare facilities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. They are often considered the first line of call for illnesses such as malaria, cough, gastrointestinal diseases, and other common illnesses, as well as for family planning services in many localities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. They have become an indispensable part of the health system, and very little has been done in these settings to assess the financial practices of PPMVs, which will subsequently impact their sustainability and service delivery [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn order to keep appropriate stock levels, reinvest in their business capital when necessary, and grow other aspects of the services they offer, the PPMVs would need sound financial management practices to actualize sustainable growth [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. On the other hand, bad financial management can result in stockouts, poorer service delivery and, ultimately, fewer healthcare services with fewer commodities for the communities served [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. It has been observed that committed financial management also ensures that PPMVs would stay in business and cushion market challenges such as fluctuating drug prices, compliance costs and rising capital constraints [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNotably, limited access to credit and financing options increases the financial management challenges that PPMVs experience [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Most PPMVs could hardly get loans or microcredit from financial institutions as they do not have good record-keeping and financial documentation. Not having sufficient capital limits their ability to grow, satisfy customer demand consistently, and address the health care needs in their communities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. This, therefore, becomes a greater albatross to sustainable health care delivery in the communities of service.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePPMVs are therefore expected to have sound financial management in the discharge of health care services. Indeed, good financial management, which includes maintaining proper books of accounts and tracking sales, is important for business sustainability [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. These practices not only assist vendors in managing their cash and tracking their performance but also increase their credibility with financing partners [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. Vendor access to credit resourcing, such as microcredit or loan schemes, is often dependent on the vendor being able to show retrospective management history and perspective skills in good financial management. Yet, it seems that most PPMVs are lacking basic skills in managing their finances, which could limit their business development and, as such, impact their potential and the overall quality of care they provide to the community [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccess to capital for working, microcredit or loans is a critical sustainability pathway for PPMVs and their ability to grow and replenish stock. Loan applications for financial institutions usually require clean financial records that most PPMVs may not easily provide owing to their weak record-keeping practices. The lack of access to credit also restricts their growth potential and ability to respond to unforeseen financial challenges, leaving them susceptible to market fluctuations or economic crises at times threatening their very survival [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, the density and distribution of PPMVs differ by state, and an evaluation of some financial management practices in Lagos and Kano States can illustrate to what extent financial barriers or enablers may impact PPMVs' capacity to operate effectively. Such disparities in economic and regulatory settings across these states may also help to differentiate between important opportunities and constraints unique to PPMV operations of interest. This knowledge allows policymakers and planners to identify practices where improvement is needed and facilitate improving the economic robustness of PPMVs to serve as ongoing providers of health care services in their various communities. The Pharmacy Council of Nigeria (PCN) has implemented an accreditation system for PPMVs that is three-tiered to enhance regulation and service quality. This system categorizes PPMVs based on their educational background and healthcare qualifications, defining the scope of services they are authorised to provide [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTier 1 describes:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eEligibility\u003c/b\u003e: Individuals without formal health qualifications, typically possessing at least a secondary school certificate.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eScope of Services\u003c/b\u003e: Authorized to market over-the-counter medications and care for common illnesses. Family planning services include providing condoms, cycle beads, emergency contraceptives, and pill refills (but not initiation). They may also offer counselling and referrals.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTier 2 describes:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eEligibility\u003c/b\u003e: Individuals with health-related qualifications such as a diploma or degree in nursing, midwifery, or as Community Health Extension Workers (CHEWs), recognized by the PCN.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eScope of Services\u003c/b\u003e: In addition to Tier 1 services, Tier 2 PPMVs can use Rapid Diagnostic Test kits, administer medications like amoxicillin dispersible tablets, conduct HIV self-testing, provide self-injectable contraceptives, and initiate and administer long-acting reversible contraceptives (e.g., implants) if appropriately trained.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnd Tier 3 is classified as:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eEligibility\u003c/b\u003e: Individuals qualified as Pharmacy Technicians.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eScope of Services\u003c/b\u003e: Similar to Tier 2, with the added authorization to provide selected primary healthcare services in line with the Federal Ministry of Health Task Shifting and Task Sharing policy for essential health care services in Nigeria.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis tiered accreditation system aims to ensure that PPMVs operate within their competencies, thereby improving access to quality healthcare services, especially in underserved areas.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study investigates the financial management practices of PPMVs in selected Local Government Areas (LGAs) of Kaduna and Lagos states. The key objectives are mainly to identify the gaps in financial management practices, including record-keeping and sales tracking, among PPMVs in the selected LGAs and explore the relationship between financial management practices and access to microcredits or loans for PPMVs.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"METHODS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy design\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study adopted a mixed-methods design integrating quantitative and qualitative approaches to provide understanding of the financial and operational practices of PPMVs. The quantitative component employed a cross-sectional survey of PPMVs across urban and rural LGAs in Lagos and Kaduna States. The qualitative component followed an explanatory sequential approach, involving eight focus group discussions (FGDs) conducted across both states to generate deeper contextual insights and complement the survey findings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eStudy setting\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTwo states, namely Lagos and Kaduna are quite popular states in Nigeria. They are characterized by distinctive socio-economic and geographical traits that significantly reflect on their healthcare systems. Lagos State, is located in the southwestern region of Nigeria, is the second most populous state, a former capital of the country, which still serves as a major economic hub of the nation. Lagos, which is home to an estimated 21\u0026nbsp;million people, is a significant hub for innovation, trade, and business in West Africa. It is an important player in the national economy, with a diversified economy that accounts for around 30% of Nigeria's GDP [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. Lagos has a strong but diverse healthcare system that includes both public and private facilities. The Lagos State Ministry of Health supervises health service delivery in the state, across the three tiers of care namely; primary, secondary, and tertiary care levels. A key operational initiative in the health sector is the Lagos State Health Scheme (LSHS), branded as \"Ilera Eko,\" and launched in 2015 to ensure affordable and equity in healthcare for all residents. This scheme, administered by the Lagos State Health Management Agency (LASHMA), focuses on universal health coverage and equitable access to services [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. Regulatory oversight in the Lagos healthcare delivery system is carried out by several agencies, the Health Facilities Monitoring and Accreditation Agency (HEFAMAA), the key agency which ensures that health facilities meet established standards of care in their operations. This regulatory framework aims to enhance service quality and accessibility across the state [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eKaduna State is situated in northwestern Nigeria, with a population of about half that of Lagos State, is renowned for its cultural diversity and historical significance as a political centre. The state operates with a more decentralized healthcare system compared to Lagos, reflecting its unique socio-economic landscape. The healthcare system in Kaduna also has three distinct categories namely primary, secondary, and tertiary care levels. The \"Primary Health Care Under One Roof\" (PHCUOR) policy is a noteworthy and enthusiastic endeavour that seeks to integrate primary healthcare services for increased efficiency. To guarantee that each ward has at least one operational primary healthcare facility, the state is implementing the nation strategy of \"One Functional PHC Centre per Ward\". These programs are managed by the Kaduna State Primary Health Care Development Agency (SPHCDA), which is dedicated to improving community health outcomes. Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs), private companies, government agencies, and foreign donors are some of the stakeholders involved in healthcare delivery in Kaduna. While federal institutions are funded by the federal government, state governments provide health services through state-owned facilities. This collaborative approach aims to address gaps in service delivery and improve health indices [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBut generally, in Lagos and Kaduna, PPMVs are an essential part of the health care system in these states. Often found in both urban neighbourhoods and in remote communities, PPMVs typically provide some care services for people seeking quick, affordable treatment for common health issues. In addition to over-the-counter medications, their typically modest and well-known local stores offer some basic health advice and assistance. In these states, as in other parts of Nigeria, PPMVs play a crucial role in the health system due to their accessibility, local knowledge, and community trust, even though the majority of them lack formal training as health professionals. Over the years, they have become recognized in this role, and there is considerable government and partner effort to make them safer and more effective. The revision of the Task-Shifting and Task-Sharing (TSTS) policy of the Federal Government of Nigeria now allows PPMVs to provide some essential family planning services like injectable contraceptives and implant insertion in Nigeria [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eStudy population\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study population were PPMVs who were operating within selected LGAs in Kaduna and Lagos States within the country. The selection of PPMVs was made to ensure that the sample of PPMVs represented both demographic and geographical diversity. The inclusion criteria for selected PPMVs required that participants were actively operating in the LGA at the time of the survey, registered with the PCN, or were in the process of renewing their licenses with the council. PPMVs that were not aligned with the goals of the Promoting Accreditation for Community Health Services (PACS) project were not prioritised in order to maximize representativeness, as well as considerations of security and efficiency.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSample size\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe quantitative sample was derived using a census-based enumeration of eligible PPMVs within purposively selected LGAs, ensuring comprehensive coverage of operationally active providers within the defined geographic clusters. A total of 914 PPMVs (280 in Lagos and 634 in Kaduna) were included in the study. For the qualitative component, eight FGDs (two urban and two rural per state) were conducted with a total of 63 participants, with each FGD comprising 6 to 9 participants. This group size is consistent with qualitative research standards and was considered sufficient to achieve thematic saturation while maintaining balanced representation across urban and rural contexts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSampling Technique\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor each state in the study, a total of four urban and four rural LGAs were identified and chosen. Equity, representativeness, and practical relevance are the major factors taken into account when choosing LGAs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe following eight LGAs were chosen from each state: Igabi, Giwa, Kudan, Kaduna North, Zaria, Sabon-Gari, Chikun, and Kaduna South while Badagry, Oshodi-Isolo, Ikorodu, Ifako-Ijaiye, Ibeju-Lekki, Epe, Ojo, and Alimosho were the LGAs in Kaduna State and Lagos State, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral important factors were integrated into a structured LGA selection process. These included the geographic distribution of rural and urban areas, the security status of the LGAs, and the density of PPMVs within them. In prioritisation of LGAs for selection, LGAs with a higher percentage of female-owned PPMVs were considered in the interest of inclusivity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite being purposeful, the selection procedure was carefully matched with the goals of the PACS project, guaranteeing contextual security, operational viability, and representativeness of the states under study. Among the requirements for eligibility were:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003col\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIntegrateE partner PPMVs\u003c/em\u003e: To ensure efficiency and alignment with ongoing private-sector health system strengthening initiatives, priority was given to LGAs with PPMVs participating in the IntegratE project \u0026ndash; a national programme led by the Pharmacy Council of Nigeria that accredits and integrates PPMVs into the formal health system through structured training, supervision, and routine health data reporting. This approach leveraged existing, functional PPMV networks within the selected states.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSecurity status\u003c/em\u003e: To ensure the safety of field teams and study participants, security considerations influenced the selection of LGAs. This decision was based on the Kaduna Security Report (September 2023), which identified insecure LGAs and enabled their exclusion from the study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePPMV density\u003c/em\u003e: LGAs with a higher concentration of PPMVs were prioritised in order to guarantee robust and representative selection such that the data collected can accurately reflect the target population.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGender considerations\u003c/em\u003e: Areas with a higher proportion of female-owned PPMVs were selected in order to manage gender inclusivity and highlight the importance of acknowledging women-led businesses in the healthcare sector.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGeographical distribution\u003c/em\u003e: The process ensured an even distribution between urban and rural LGAs to enhance equitable representation and logistical convenience. The proximity to state capitals was also considered to streamline project operations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOnly eight LGAS were chosen in Kaduna using these criteria out of the initial pool of 23 LGAs. Similarly, only 8 LGAs were chosen from the initial pool of 20 LGAs in Lagos (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData Collection Procedure\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eData were collected using two instruments developed specifically for this study: (1) a structured, interviewer-administered questionnaire for PPMVs and (2) a semi-structured FGD guide for PPMVs. Both instruments were designed by the research team based on the study objectives, a review of relevant literature, and consultation with subject matter experts in private sector health service delivery, regulatory compliance, and financial inclusion. The tools were developed in English and have not been previously published. English-language versions are provided as supplementary files.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe PPMV structured questionnaire (Additional File 1) comprised 47 items organized into four thematic sections: (i) background characteristics; (ii) regulatory compliance; (iii) operational health (including inventory management, financial record-keeping, and service provision); and (iv) readiness and willingness for interventions (including awareness of and access to business loans, branding, and accreditation incentives).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA team of 24 trained field enumerators conducted the quantitative surveys over a three-month period (December 2023 \u0026ndash; February 2024). Enumerators completed a three-day training programme covering study objectives, ethical conduct, informed consent procedures, and proficiency in the electronic data capture platform (SurveyCTO). Role-play simulations and a field pilot test were conducted to ensure consistency and clarity of questionnaire administration.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEligible PPMV outlets within the sampled LGAs were visited by enumerators. Following a standardised introduction to the study and the attainment of verbal informed consent, the questionnaire was administered face-to-face in English, Hausa, or Yoruba, depending on participant preference. Responses were captured directly on Android tablets using the SurveyCTO application. Where participants provided additional consent, photographs of relevant documentation (e.g., PCN licences, financial ledgers, temperature monitoring charts, stock records) were captured and uploaded via the platform.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eQualitative data were collected through 8 FGDs with PPMVs, conducted concurrently with the quantitative survey. An FGD guide (Additional File 2) was developed to explore in-depth perspectives across four thematic domains: (1) regulatory compliance; (2) operational health; (3) community reach and impact; and (4) willingness and readiness for interventions. The guide contained 23 open-ended questions with corresponding probe prompts to facilitate detailed, nuanced responses. Participants were purposively selected from the pool of PPMVs who had completed the quantitative survey, ensuring representation across gender, years of operation, and accreditation status.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFGDs were facilitated by a trained qualitative moderator, supported by a dedicated note-taker. Sessions were held in neutral, private venues within each community and lasted between 60 and 90 minutes. All discussions were audio-recorded with participants\u0026rsquo; explicit verbal and written consent. The moderator followed the semi-structured guide while permitting flexibility to pursue emergent themes. Field notes were taken to capture non-verbal cues, group dynamics, and contextual observations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eData quality assurance\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRigorous quality assurance measures were implemented throughout data collection. For the quantitative surveys, supervisors conducted daily reviews of submitted data for completeness, logical consistency, and timeliness. Automated validation checks were programmed into the SurveyCTO platform to minimise entry errors. Spot checks and back-check interviews were conducted for a randomly selected subset (10%) of respondents to verify data accuracy. For qualitative data, audio recordings were transcribed verbatim within 24 hours of each FGD, and transcripts were independently cross-checked against the original recordings to ensure accuracy and completeness.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eData management\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll quantitative data were captured electronically and uploaded to a secure central server with restricted, role-based access. Regular server backups were conducted to prevent data loss. Multiple quality assurance procedures were implemented throughout the data management process. Supervisors routinely reviewed submitted data for completeness and accuracy, and discrepancies were promptly addressed through feedback and clarification with field teams. Dedicated communication platforms were used to provide real-time technical support, resolve protocol-related issues, and address field challenges as they arose. Following completion of data collection, quantitative datasets were cleaned using Microsoft Excel 2019. Missing values, duplicates, and inconsistencies were identified and resolved prior to analysis. Cleaned datasets were subsequently exported to IBM SPSS version 26 for statistical analysis. Qualitative audio recordings were transcribed verbatim, and transcripts were cross-checked against the original recordings to ensure accuracy and completeness.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuantitative and qualitative data were analysed using complementary analytical approaches. Quantitative analysis was conducted using IBM SPSS version 26. Descriptive statistics were used to summarise key variables, with results presented as frequencies and percentages. Bivariate analyses were performed using chi-square tests to assess associations between categorical variables, with statistical significance set at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05. Multivariable logistic regression models were developed to identify predictors of key outcomes, with adjusted odds ratios (AORs) and 95% confidence intervals reported to account for potential confounders. This multivariable approach provided deeper insights into the enabling and constraining factors influencing financial inclusion among PPMVs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eQualitative data were analysed thematically using NVivo version 12. Transcripts were coded using a combination of deductive codes informed by the study objectives and inductive codes emerging from the data. Themes were refined through iterative team discussions to ensure analytical consistency. Integration of quantitative and qualitative findings was achieved through triangulation, enabling qualitative insights to contextualise quantitative results and provide a comprehensive interpretation of the study findings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDemographic characteristics of respondents\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, most respondents were from Kaduna (69.4%), female (64.8%), aged 35\u0026ndash;44 years (36.1%), and based in urban areas (79.3%). The majority had post-secondary education (75.3%), nearly half had operated for over 10 years (49.5%), and respondents were fairly distributed across tiers, with no respondents in tier three categorization.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDistribution of Socio-demographic variables\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eState\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKaduna\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e634 (69.37%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLagos\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e280 (30.63%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSex\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e322 (35.23%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e592 (64.77%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u0026ndash;34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e182 (19.91%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u0026ndash;44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e330 (36.11%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u0026ndash;54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e267 (29.21%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55\u0026ndash;73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e135 (14.77%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSettlement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrban\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e725 (79.32%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRural\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e189 (20.68%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEducation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompleted Primary and Secondary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e226 (24.7%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost-secondary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e688 (75.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTier\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTier 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e430 (47.05%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTier 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e484 (52.95%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYears of Operation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLess than 5 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e235 (25.71%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u0026ndash;10 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e227 (24.84%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMore than 10 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e452 (49.45%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePCN Registration\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e840 (91.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn process\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55 (6.02%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19 (2.08%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompleted Accreditation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e722 (78.99%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn process\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e93 (10.18%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25 (2.74%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDistribution of Financial management practices in Lagos and Kaduna State\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e presents the results of financial and operational practices among PPMVs. It shows that 32.28% of respondents admit to keeping financial records, with a predominant use of paper-based systems (94.24%) and minimal adoption of digital systems (1.36%) or a combination of both (4.07%). In terms of stock management, 96.05% of respondents do not utilize digital tracking, while 79.06% engage in physical stock counting, 31.69% use notebooks, and 11.51% rely on bin/stock cards. Cash is the most preferred payment method (99.89%), followed by bank transfers (81.07%) and point of sale (POS) systems (29.21%). Although only 21.01% of respondents have corporate bank accounts, the majority (79.1%) report paying business taxes, indicating a strong reliance on traditional operational systems within the PPMVS, with limited integration of digital tools.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDistribution of Financial Management Practices\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKeeping financial records\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e295 (32.28%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e619 (67.72%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eType of financial records\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePaper-based\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e278 (94.24%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDigital systems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4 (1.36%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12 (4.07%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eType of stock tracking\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDigital check\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36 (3.95%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e876 (96.05%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysical stock counting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e721 (79.06%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e191 (20.94%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBin card/Stock card\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e105 (11.51%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e807 (88.49%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNotebook\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e289 (31.69%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e623 (68.31%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePayment methods used by clients\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCash\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e913 (99.89%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1 (0.11%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoint of sale (POS)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e267 (29.21%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e647 (70.79%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBank Transfer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e741 (81.07%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e173 (18.93%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOwnership of corporate bank account\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e192 (21.01%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e722 (78.99%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePayment of business tax\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e723 (79.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e191 (20.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eGender differences in financial and operational practices among PPMVs\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e presents the gender-based differences in financial and operational practices among PPMVs. There was a significant difference in the use of POS systems (p-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.049), with more females using them than males. Bank transfer usage also showed a significant difference (p-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.003), with more females using it than males. Additionally, there was a significant difference in business tax payment (p-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.001), with males more likely to pay business tax. There was no significant difference in financial record-keeping, the method of keeping financial records, commodity/stock tracking, physical stock counting, bin/stock card usage, notebook usage, and the method of payment (cash).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssociation of financial management practices across gender (both states)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinancial Management Practice\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChi-square\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinancial record keeping in PPMVs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e106 (35.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e189 (64.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.094\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.759\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e216 (34.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e403 (65.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMethod of record-keeping by PPMVs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePaper-based\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e101 (36.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e177 (63.7%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.633\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.452\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDigital systems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1 (25%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3 (75%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3 (25%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9 (75%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTracking of stock by PPMVs\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDigital Check\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e310 (35.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e566 (64.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.064\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.800\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12 (33.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24 (66.7%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysical stock counting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63 (33%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e128 (67%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.571\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.450\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e259 (35.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e462 (64.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBin card/Stock card\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e279 (34.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e528 (65.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.656\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.198\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43 (41%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62 (59%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNotebook\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e223 (35.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e400 (64.2%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.205\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.651\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99 (34.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e190 (65.7%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMethods of Payment used by PPMVs\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCash\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0 (0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1 (100%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.545\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.461\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e322 (35.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e591 (64.7%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoint of sale (POS)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e215 (33.2%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e432 (66.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.049*\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e107 (40.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e160 (59.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBank Transfer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44 (25.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e129 (74.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.974\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.003*\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e278 (37.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e463 (62.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOwnership of corporate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e74 (38.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e118 (61.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.168\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.280\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e248 (34.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e474 (65.7%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePayment of tax by PPMVs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e274 (37.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e449 (62.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.792\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.001*\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48 (25.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e143 (74.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBold with * indicate statistical significance at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAssociation of financial management practices across states \u0026amp; Tiers\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e shows the association of financial management practices across states and tiers for PPMVs. Across both states, significant differences in financial management practices were observed. More respondents in Kaduna keep financial records (56.3% vs. 43.7%, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) and use paper-based methods (57.9% vs. 42.1%, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.032), while digital systems are exclusive to Lagos (0% vs.100%). The use of digital checks is lower in Kaduna (70% vs 30%, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.028), and bin card usage is also significantly lower (11.4% vs. 88.6%, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). POS usage is higher in Lagos (40.8% vs. 59.2%, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), as are corporate bank accounts (55.2% vs. 44.8%, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). Conversely, bank transfers are more common in Kaduna (64.8% vs. 35.2%, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). No significant differences were observed in physical stock counting, notebook usage, cash payments, or business tax payments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlso, Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e presents the association of financial management practices across Tier 1 and Tier 2 PPMVs as categorized by the Pharmacy Council of Nigeria. There was a significant difference in keeping financial records (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), with more Tier 1 PPMVs keeping records (58.6% vs. 41.4%) compared to Tier 2. The use of digital checks also showed a significant difference (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), with more Tier 1 PPMVs adopting this method (83.3% vs. 16.7%). Additionally, the use of bin cards/stock cards differed significantly (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.001), with higher usage among Tier 2 PPMVs (68.6% vs. 31.4%). Payment practices also varied significantly. More Tier 1 PPMVs utilized Point of Sale (POS) systems (60.7% vs. 39.3%, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), while bank transfers were more common among Tier 1 PPMVs (51.6% vs. 48.4%, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). A significant difference was observed in the possession of corporate bank accounts (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.002), with more Tier 1 PPMVs having accounts (56.8% vs. 43.2%). Business tax payment also showed a significant difference (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), with Tier 1 PPMVs more likely to pay taxes (51.5% vs. 48.5%).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssociation of Financial Management Practices Across States and Tiers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinancial Management Practice\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eState\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTier\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKaduna\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003en(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLagos\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003en(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eχ\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTier 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003en(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTier 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003en(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eχ\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinancial record keeping\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e166 (56.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e129 (43.7%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.147\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e173 (58.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e122 (41.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e468 (75.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e151 (24.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e257 (41.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e362 (58.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMethods of financial record keeping\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePaper-based\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e161 (57.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e117 (42.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.795\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.032\u003c/b\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e164 (59.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e114 (41.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.679\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.128\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDigital Systems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0 (0.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4 (100.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4 (100.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0 (0.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4 (33.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8 (66.7%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5 (41.7%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7 (58.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"10\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMethod of stock tracking by PPMV\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDigital Check\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e613 (70.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e263 (30.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.808\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.028\u003c/b\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e400 (45.7%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e476 (54.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.693\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19 (52.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17 (47.2%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 (83.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6 (16.7%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysical Count\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e125 (65.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66 (34.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.686\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.194\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e88 (46.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e103 (53.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.112\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.738\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e507 (70.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e214 (29.7%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e342 (47.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e379 (52.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBin card/Stock Card\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e539 (66.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e268 (33.2%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.717\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e397 (49.2%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e410 (50.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.768\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.001\u003c/b\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e93 (88.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12 (11.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33 (31.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72 (68.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNotebook\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e441 (70.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e182 (29.2%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.047\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.153\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e300 (48.2%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e323 (51.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.797\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.372\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e191 (66.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e98 (33.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e130 (45.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e159 (55.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"10\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePayment methods by PPMVs\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCash\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0 (0.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1 (100.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.267\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.132\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0 (0.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1 (100.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.889\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.346\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e634 (69.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e279 (30.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e430 (47.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e483 (52.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePOS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e476 (73.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e171 (26.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.429\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e268 (41.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e379 (58.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e158 (59.2%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e109 (40.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e162 (60.7%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e105 (39.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBank Transfer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e154 (89.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19 (11.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.782\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48 (27.7%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e125 (72.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.907\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e480 (64.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e261 (35.2%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e382 (51.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e359 (48.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOwnership of corporate account by PPMVs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e86 (44.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e106 (55.2%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69.071\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e109 (56.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e83 (43.2%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.227\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.002\u003c/b\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e548 (75.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e174 (24.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e321 (44.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e401 (55.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePayment of tax by PPMVs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e495 (68.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e228 (31.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.321\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.250\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e372 (51.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e351 (48.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.964\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e139 (72.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52 (27.2%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58 (30.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e133 (69.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBold with * indicate statistical significance at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eComparison of Socio-demographic Factors and Their Association with Financial management/Operational Practices in both states\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegional (state) comparisons between Lagos and Kaduna show varying levels of association between socio demographic factors and their financial management/operational practices. In consideration of gender, there is a significant relationship between bank payment use of PoS machines and in Kaduna unlike in Lagos; while in consideration of age, there is a significant relationship between the use of notebook in both States. Educational background is only significantly related to use of a notebook for operational records in Lagos. The tier levels have varying degrees of relationship in the assessed parameters across both states (\u003cb\u003esee supplementary Figs.\u0026nbsp;2 to 5\u003c/b\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAccess to loans among PPMVs\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eSupplementary Table\u0026nbsp;5\u003c/b\u003e presents the distribution of access to loans among PPMVs. Awareness of loan products targeted at PPMVs was low, with only 13.89% of respondents reporting awareness, while 86.11% were unaware. Among those who applied for loans, working capital loans were the most commonly applied for (10.07%), followed by equipment financing (2.95%), and other types of loans (9.63%). Applications for equity financing and start-up loans were minimal, with only 0.88% applying for each. A significant portion of respondents (80.38%) reported not applying for any loan products. Among those who applied, 67.97% successfully obtained the loan, while 32.03% were unsuccessful.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAssociation and predictors of successful loan acquisition among PPMVs based on financial management practices\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eSupplementary Table\u0026nbsp;6\u003c/b\u003e presents the association between financial management practices and access to loans among PPMVs. There was a significant association between business tax payment and successful loan acquisition (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.036), with 72.1% of respondents who paid business tax successfully obtaining loans compared to 50% of those who did not pay taxes. There was no significant association between successful loan acquisition and other financial management practices, such as keeping financial records (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.693), the method of keeping records (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.778), or having a corporate bank account (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.535). \u003cb\u003eSupplementary Table\u0026nbsp;7\u003c/b\u003e shows the logistic regression analysis results to identify predictors of successful loan acquisition. Paying business tax was a significant predictor, with respondents who paid taxes being 2.53 times more likely to successfully obtain a loan than those who did not (AOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.533; 95% CI: [1.019, 6.3]; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.045). Keeping financial records (AOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.217; 95% CI: [0.546, 2.711]; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.631) and having a corporate bank account (AOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.786; 95% CI: [0.342, 1.805]; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.570) were not significant predictors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eQualitative result\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePreference for one digital system for inventory and financial records\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePPMVs generally preferred using a single digital system to manage both inventory and financial records. This preference was driven by the convenience of having all business data centralized in one place, making it easier to track sales, manage stock, and calculate profits without switching between systems. However, some respondents highlighted concerns about the cost of acquiring and maintaining such systems.\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\"We want one system that can manage both inventory and financial records because it allows us to track our stock, calculate profits, and manage expenses efficiently in one place.\"\u003c/em\u003e (P1, Lagos Urban 1 PPMV)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\"Having separate systems can be stressful; it\u0026rsquo;s better when everything is combined so we don\u0026rsquo;t make mistakes.\"\u003c/em\u003e (P3, Kaduna Rural 1 PPMV)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\"The main issue with digital systems is the cost. If the government or partners can help us with these tools, it would be easier to adopt.\"\u003c/em\u003e (P5, Lagos, Urban 2 PPMV)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMethods of keeping financial records and use of technological tools\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe majority of PPMVs reported using manual methods for keeping financial records, such as exercise books or notebooks. While some expressed satisfaction with these methods, others acknowledged the limitations, including errors and inefficiencies. A smaller number of respondents used simple digital tools like mobile apps but cited challenges with consistent use and lack of training.\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\"I use an exercise book to record daily sales, and at the end of the week, I calculate profits and expenses manually.\"\u003c/em\u003e (P4, Lagos Rural 1, Ikorodu PPMV)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\"I have tried using an app, but sometimes I forget to update it because of how busy the shop can get.\"\u003c/em\u003e (P5, Kaduna Rural 1 PPMV)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\"Keeping records manually works for me, but I know it\u0026rsquo;s not the best. I just don\u0026rsquo;t have access to digital tools or the knowledge to use them.\"\u003c/em\u003e (P1, Kaduna Rural 2 PPMV)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile a few PPMVs had adopted technological tools such as tablets or software provided by external organizations, most participants reported limited access to such tools. Many expressed a desire to learn about and adopt affordable and user-friendly digital systems to improve efficiency.\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\"I use a tablet provided by M-Pharma for managing stock and printing receipts, but I pay for it in installments.\"\u003c/em\u003e (P5, Lagos Urban 1 PPMV)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\"I think tools that track sales and inventory automatically would be very helpful, but they are expensive for small businesses like mine.\"\u003c/em\u003e (P4, Kaduna 2 Rural PPMV)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\"If there were free or subsidized tools for PPMVs, I believe more of us would adopt them.\"\u003c/em\u003e (P5, Lagos Urban 2 PPMV)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eTypes of financial records maintained\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePPMVs reported maintaining records such as daily sales logs, expense records, and, in some cases, separate savings and business transaction accounts. Most participants emphasized the importance of keeping these records updated to monitor profits and manage expenses effectively.\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\"I keep daily sales records and maintain two accounts: one for savings and one for business transactions.\"\u003c/em\u003e (P3, Lagos Rural 1 Ikorodu PPMV)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\"I have one account that I use for both personal and business transactions, but most of my sales are cash-based.\"\u003c/em\u003e (P6, Lagos Urban 1 PPMV)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\"Recording my expenses daily helps me ensure that I am not overspending, even though I still do it manually.\"\u003c/em\u003e (P3, Kaduna 2 PPMV)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eExperiences with business loans and financial services\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePPMVs expressed mixed experiences with business loans and financial services. While many appreciated loans for enabling them to grow their businesses, high interest rates and collateral requirements posed significant barriers. Participants emphasized the need for affordable loan schemes tailored to small business owners.\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\"Loans allow us to purchase what we need for our shops and choose the products that are in demand.\"\u003c/em\u003e (P2, Lagos Rural 2 Epe PPMV)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\"A loan with a low interest rate is acceptable, but 5% is too high for most of us to manage.\"\u003c/em\u003e (P4, Lagos Urban 1 PPMV)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\"Our licenses and shops should serve as collateral because they reflect our credibility and commitment.\"\u003c/em\u003e (P5, Lagos Rural 1 Ikorodu PPMV)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;We need loans that do not require heavy collateral because many of us are already financially stretched.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e (P5, Kaduna Rural 1 PPMV)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study evaluated financial and operational practices among Proprietary Patent Medicine Vendors (PPMVs) by gender, region, and tier classifications. The study sample was characterized by a preponderance of females and more respondents from Kaduna. There was equally a predominance of respondents with more than 10 years of operation, and none were in tier three (by PCN categorization). In particular, findings present opportunities for closing gaps to improve business and operational efficiencies of PPMVs in both Lagos and Kaduna states.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA majority of PPMVs do not keep records of their financial transactions, which implies a serious gap in business management practice. Among them, three-quarters principally document their financial transactions with paper, while only about 1 in every 74 PPMVs admit to adopting digital tools, with some citing challenges with consistent use related to poor training. The results indeed corroborate previous studies indicating very low uptake of digital financial tools in similar settings, mainly due to low digital filling and infrastructure hurdles [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. This can inhibit their ability to secure access to financing that can advance their service delivery capacity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. Better training and provision of user-friendly digital tools would address these barriers, improving record keeping and accountability [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost of the respondents carry out their stock checks physically or use notebooks, while only a few have computerized stock tracking systems. This calls for innovative and tailored strategies to encourage affordable and scalable inventory management solutions that are context-specific. The poor utilisation of bin cards indicates a probable area of interest for strengthening effective stock monitoring [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. Though participants also acknowledged the importance of keeping financial records, the implementation seemed poor with some respondents admitting to \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eone account that I use for both personal and business transactions\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e, a clear limitation to accessing financial support to improve service delivery. However, a lower loan interest rate and utilisation of the PPMV licence for collateral were recommended by respondents as strategies to improve loan accessibility. Similar models to improve accessibility were described in the United States [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe payment practice of PPMVs is more inclined towards cash than to bank transfer and point of sales (POS) in their financial practices. This may not enhance transaction experiences. Despite being occasionally plagued by technical difficulties, fraud, and cybercrimes, it has been reported that cashless services are a preferred method of payment for both consumers and organizations due to their convenience (lesser administrative effort), accountability, and accessibility [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. However, gender analysis of findings in this study indicated that females are more likely to adopt POS and bank transfer payments than males. This may be related to security issues. Marselina PSP found that the security of the payment system and perceived ease of use are important factors that influence the customer in deciding which payment system to use [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. Gender-based considerations become necessary when migration to digital platforms is desired.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePPMVs in Lagos have opted to use digital tools more than those in Kaduna, which prefer the traditional methods. The World Bank reports that digitalized financial tools have the potential to lower costs, increase speed, and security, and allow for more tailored services [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. Differences observed in both states may arise due to differences in levels of economic development, access to digital infrastructure, and differences in market forces. In both states, except for the use of notebooks in record keeping, there were varying differences in relationships between sociodemographic variables and the operational/financial practices. Therefore, tailored approaches addressing differences in contexts would have to be unique and consider the socio-economic and infrastructural realities of each region. There are some major tier distinctions, with the upper-tier PPMVs being more likely than lower-tier PPMVs to adopt formalized practices and digital tools. Musantu in Zambia also showed that higher formal education is positively associated with a preference for digital financial tools [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. This means that the lower-tier PPMVs may be faced with more operational challenges in upgrading services or seeking better financing. Closing this gap will require specific interventions in training and support programs for low-tier PPMVs to improve their business management skills and catalyse access to credit.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh levels of tax compliance were recorded among PPMVs, although ownership of corporate bank accounts was relatively low. Gender differences were also found in tax compliance that might reflect the differences in access to business formalization resources and tax education. Awareness and access to loans for PPMVs were limited, which further highlights the gap in financial literacy initiatives and credit facilities needed for specific engagements. However, findings by Abiola et al, show that financial literacy and good financial practices have a significant effect on the sustainability of the business [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThough the sample selection process purposively, was aligned with the goals of the Promoting Accreditation for Community Health Services (PACS) project to maximize security and efficiency, it can reduce the influence of chance and create selection bias, which in turn limits accurate representativeness in the broader population of PPMVs in Nigeria. Consequently, the findings might reflect the characteristics of the selected sample rather than the entire population, limiting the external validity of the study. However, remarkable efforts were deployed to maximise representation in consideration of density, gender, and geographical spread.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study revealed the gap in financial practices and operations in PPMVs; these were shaped by gender, tier, and region. The use of digital financial tools was more in Lagos, females and the upper tier of categorization. To close these gaps, strategies should target capacity building and digital tool adoption in order to catalyse improved access to financial services. The interventions should take into consideration the nuances in place of operation and tier of categorization, as well as context-specific models to enhance access to financing in order to enhance service delivery to consumers and ensure sustainability for PPMVs.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionList\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eAORs\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eadjusted odds ratios\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eCHEWs\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommunity Health Extension Workers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eFGD\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003efocus group discussions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eHEFAMAA\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHealth Facilities Monitoring and Accreditation Agency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eLASHMA\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLagos State Health Management Agency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eLGAs\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocal Government Areas\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eLSHS\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLagos State Health Scheme\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eNGOs\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003enon-governmental organisations\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eOTC\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eover-the-counter\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003ePACS\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePromoting Accreditation for Community Health Services project\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003ePCN\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePharmacy Council of Nigeria\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003ePHCUOR\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrimary Health Care Under One Roof\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003ePPMVs\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePatent and Proprietary Medicine Vendors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eSPHCDA\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKaduna State Primary Health Care Development Agency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eTSTS\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTask-Shifting and Task-Sharing.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe acknowledge the support of the study participants and field teams for their time and contributions. We also thank the relevant state and local health authorities for their cooperation and facilitation of data collection. Technical and administrative support provided by collaborating institutions is gratefully acknowledged.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFunding and disclosure\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe research in this publication was supported by funding from MSD, through its MSD for Mothers initiative. MSD had no role in the design, collection, analysis and interpretation of data, in writing of the manuscript or in the decision to submit the manuscript for publication. The content of this publication is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not represent the official views of MSD. MSD for Mothers is an initiative of Merck \u0026amp; Co., Inc., Rahway, NJ, U.S.A.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data used in this study can be made available to eligible researchers upon request, with the intention of enabling the replication of methods and findings. To request access, interested individuals should reach out to the corresponding author. Access will be granted upon the completion of a data use agreement outlining terms such as crediting data sources, adhering to ethical standards, safeguarding confidentiality, and restricting data dissemination.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026rsquo; contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConceptualization: UI, OJ, EO, EAJr. Methodology and study design: GO, EAJr, PU, OS, OE, AB-A, AN. Data collection and supervision: GO, EAJr, PU, OS, OE, AB-A, AN. Formal analysis and data visualization: OS, PU, AN, EAJr. Writing\u0026mdash;original draft: GO, PU. Writing\u0026mdash;review and editing: UI, OJ, IB, EAJr, EO, OE. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical approval was obtained from the Lagos State Ministry of Health (LSHREC/2024/0007) and the Kaduna State Ministry of Health (MOH/ADM/744/VOL.1/1110015). Written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to enrolment. This study was performed in line with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Participant anonymity and confidentiality were strictly maintained through the use of anonymized questionnaires and secure data handling procedures. Participants were informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any time without penalty. The study was conducted in accordance with national and international ethical standards.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOkafor E, Idogho O, Anyanti J, Yusuf D, Diallo R, Alagbile M, Wada YH. Scaling training facilities for patent and proprietary medicine vendors in Nigeria: insights and lessons learned for policy implication and future partnerships. 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Available from: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.ijlrhss.com/paper/volume-3-issue-8/10-HSS-746.pdf\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.ijlrhss.com/paper/volume-3-issue-8/10-HSS-746.pdf\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBabajide A, Osabuohien E, Tunji-Olayeni P, Falola H, Amodu L, Olokoyo F, Adegboye F, Ehikioya B. Financial literacy, financial capabilities, and sustainable business model practice among small business owners in Nigeria. J Sustain Finance Invest. 2023;13(4):1670\u0026ndash;92. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1080/20430795.2021.196266\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1080/20430795.2021.196266\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-health-services-research","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"bhsr","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Health Services Research](http://bmchealthservres.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/BHSR/default.aspx","title":"BMC Health Services Research","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Patent and Proprietary Medicine Vendors (PPMVs), Financial Management Practices, Access to finance, Loans","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8829255/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8829255/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePatent and Proprietary Medicine Vendors (PPMVs) provide important healthcare access in rural and underprivileged communities in Nigeria. They are often considered the first line of call for illnesses. PPMVs would need sound financial management practices to actualize sustainable growth. This study investigated the financial management practices of PPMVs in selected Local Government Areas (LGAs) of Kaduna and Lagos states.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethod\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe employed a mixed-methods explanatory sequential design. First, quantitative data were collected from PPMVs in sixteen LGAs of Kaduna and Lagos States, Nigeria, focusing on their business practices, financial management, inventory, and client engagement. This was followed by a qualitative cross-sectional study to contextualize the quantitative findings. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, bivariate tests, and regression models while qualitative data were analyzed thematically.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResult\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOnly 32.3% of PPMVs keep financial records, with the majority relying on paper-based systems (94.2%) and minimal use of digital tools, which was exclusive to Lagos (0% vs.100%) and Tier 1 PPMVs (100%), citing challenges related to digital competency. Awareness of loan opportunities was low (13.9%), and only 19.6% of PPMVs have applied for loans, with business tax payment being a significant predictor of loan success (AOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.53; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.045). Kaduna PPMVs were more likely to keep financial records. In both states, except for the use of notebooks in record keeping, there were varying differences in relationships between sociodemographic variables and the operational/financial practices. Generally, Tier 1 PPMVs were more likely to adopt formal financial practices than Tier 2.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusion\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study underscored the gap in financial practices and operations in PPMVs; these were shaped by gender, tier, and region. The use of digital financial tools was more in Lagos, females and the upper tier of categorization. To close these gaps, strategies should target capacity building and digital tool adoption, in order to catalyse improved access to financial services within these contexts for better sustainability of the PPMVs.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Financial Management Practices among Patent and Proprietary Medicine Vendors (PPMVs) in Kaduna and Lagos States, Nigeria: A Mixed-Methods Study","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-03-10 14:27:04","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8829255/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"23762276239386142108647238215237516303","date":"2026-03-10T11:56:42+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-03-05T11:47:58+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-03-04T05:53:35+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2026-02-12T08:22:01+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-02-11T17:21:17+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"BMC Health Services Research","date":"2026-02-11T16:31:06+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-health-services-research","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"bhsr","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Health Services Research](http://bmchealthservres.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/BHSR/default.aspx","title":"BMC Health Services Research","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"df35a099-871d-49d2-8115-7d8d53fd5d1d","owner":[],"postedDate":"March 10th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-10T14:27:04+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-03-10 14:27:04","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8829255","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8829255","identity":"rs-8829255","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}