Rainfall Microphysical Characteristics Observed in The Jakarta Flood Events

Rainfall Microphysical Characteristics Observed in The Jakarta Flood Events | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Rainfall Microphysical Characteristics Observed in The Jakarta Flood Events Findy Renggono, Sopia Lestari, Halda Aditya Belgaman, Rahmawati Syahdiza, and 8 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6166065/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 30 Sep, 2025 Read the published version in Scientific Reports → Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract There has been a dramatic increase in flood events over the Greater Jakarta since 2019. However, little evidence has been found regarding the type of rainfall that is responsible the most to flood events. This study investigates physical characteristics of the rainfall, that is the rainfall drop size distribution during the three cases of severe flood events on 31 December 2019–1 January 2020 (Case 1), 15–16 July 2022 (Case 2), and 6–12 October 2022 (Case 3) over Jakarta and its surrounding regions. The characteristic of rainfall drop size is analysed and categorized based on stratiform, convective, and mixed stratiform and convective rainfall. This research used the Automatic Weather Station, Laser Precipitation Monitor, and ERA5 reanalysis datasets from December 2019 to October 2022. Overall, results show that a total number of raindrops (n > 100) with diameter particle up to 4 mm exists during the three flood Cases over the lowland and mountainous regions. The mountainous region has a higher number of larger diameter sizes (approximately up to 4 mm) compared to the lowland (up to 3 mm). In the wet (Case 1) and dry (Case 2) seasons, the occurrence of the flood is much related to the stratiform rainfall indicated by a larger drop number (n > 100) with a small diameter (≤ 2 mm) over the lowland, with the relative contribution around 60% in Case 1 and 46% in Case 2. Over the mountain, in Case 1, although the stratiform is still predominant, the convective rainfall with a large drop number (n > 100) with a big diameter (2–3 mm) exists. Unlike Cases 1 and 2, over the lowland during Case 3, mixed stratiform and convective rainfall have a significant proportion (50%). Meanwhile, stratiform and convective rainfall over the mountainous region has the same percentage during the flood event in Case 3. The most prominent part is that in Case 1, the stratiform rainfall occurs continuously with a long-duration from 14 LT to 13 LT on the following day, and those days are recognised as the severest flood which has happened over the Jakarta region in a decade. The anomaly of high moisture convergence and substantial negative vertical velocity over the lowland during Case 1 might generate a long-duration stratiform rainfall inducing severe floods. The flood is likely exacerbated by an overflowing river over the downstream (near Jakarta) from the upper stream (mountain) water flow originated from a combined sustained stratiform rainfall and a large diameter of convective rainfall. Earth and environmental sciences/Hydrology Earth and environmental sciences/Natural hazards Earth and environmental sciences/Climate sciences/Atmospheric science Full Text Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files SupplementalFigure.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 30 Sep, 2025 Read the published version in Scientific Reports → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 04 Apr, 2025 Reviews received at journal 01 Apr, 2025 Reviews received at journal 29 Mar, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 20 Mar, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 19 Mar, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 18 Mar, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 18 Mar, 2025 Editor invited by journal 18 Mar, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 14 Mar, 2025 First submitted to journal 05 Mar, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6166065","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":431715681,"identity":"51fa3210-5842-4b0c-afd1-cd6f246911ce","order_by":0,"name":"Findy 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Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6166065/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6166065/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThere has been a dramatic increase in flood events over the Greater Jakarta since 2019. However, little evidence has been found regarding the type of rainfall that is responsible the most to flood events. This study investigates physical characteristics of the rainfall, that is the rainfall drop size distribution during the three cases of severe flood events on 31 December 2019\u0026ndash;1 January 2020 (Case 1), 15\u0026ndash;16 July 2022 (Case 2), and 6\u0026ndash;12 October 2022 (Case 3) over Jakarta and its surrounding regions. The characteristic of rainfall drop size is analysed and categorized based on stratiform, convective, and mixed stratiform and convective rainfall. This research used the Automatic Weather Station, Laser Precipitation Monitor, and ERA5 reanalysis datasets from December 2019 to October 2022. Overall, results show that a total number of raindrops (n\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;100) with diameter particle up to 4 mm exists during the three flood Cases over the lowland and mountainous regions. The mountainous region has a higher number of larger diameter sizes (approximately up to 4 mm) compared to the lowland (up to 3 mm). In the wet (Case 1) and dry (Case 2) seasons, the occurrence of the flood is much related to the stratiform rainfall indicated by a larger drop number (n\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;100) with a small diameter (\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;2 mm) over the lowland, with the relative contribution around 60% in Case 1 and 46% in Case 2. Over the mountain, in Case 1, although the stratiform is still predominant, the convective rainfall with a large drop number (n\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;100) with a big diameter (2\u0026ndash;3 mm) exists. Unlike Cases 1 and 2, over the lowland during Case 3, mixed stratiform and convective rainfall have a significant proportion (50%). Meanwhile, stratiform and convective rainfall over the mountainous region has the same percentage during the flood event in Case 3. The most prominent part is that in Case 1, the stratiform rainfall occurs continuously with a long-duration from 14 LT to 13 LT on the following day, and those days are recognised as the severest flood which has happened over the Jakarta region in a decade. The anomaly of high moisture convergence and substantial negative vertical velocity over the lowland during Case 1 might generate a long-duration stratiform rainfall inducing severe floods. The flood is likely exacerbated by an overflowing river over the downstream (near Jakarta) from the upper stream (mountain) water flow originated from a combined sustained stratiform rainfall and a large diameter of convective rainfall.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Rainfall Microphysical Characteristics Observed in The Jakarta Flood Events","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-03-27 13:16:07","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6166065/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-04-04T05:03:22+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-04-01T19:43:24+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-03-29T10:06:16+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"188973489190043281724678466505562687944","date":"2025-03-20T17:08:50+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"284713483764481567296594340283536672651","date":"2025-03-19T07:36:00+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-03-18T15:53:08+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-03-18T15:45:28+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-03-18T05:17:45+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-03-14T12:14:36+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Scientific Reports","date":"2025-03-06T01:20:55+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"2082ce61-c59a-46da-8fa0-ff0066f8541f","owner":[],"postedDate":"March 27th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[{"id":45985090,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Hydrology"},{"id":45985091,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Natural hazards"},{"id":45985092,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Climate sciences/Atmospheric science"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-10-06T16:13:07+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-6166065","link":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-08328-0","journal":{"identity":"scientific-reports","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Scientific Reports"},"publishedOn":"2025-09-30 15:57:05","publishedOnDateReadable":"September 30th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-03-27 13:16:07","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1038/s41598-025-08328-0","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-08328-0","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6166065","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6166065","identity":"rs-6166065","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}