Potential health risk assessment of toxic metals contamination in clay eaten as pica (geophagia) among pregnant women of Ho in the Volta Region of Ghana.

Potential health risk assessment of toxic metals contamination in clay eaten as pica (geophagia) among pregnant women of Ho in the Volta Region of Ghana. | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research article Potential health risk assessment of toxic metals contamination in clay eaten as pica (geophagia) among pregnant women of Ho in the Volta Region of Ghana. Nii Korley Kortei, Alice Koryo-Dabrah, Papa Toah Akonor, Nana Yaw Barima Manaphraim, and 4 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.2.16641/v4 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 14 Mar, 2020 Read the published version in BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth → Version 4 posted 4 You are reading this latest preprint version Show more versions Abstract Introduction: Geophagia although pleasurable and somewhat a necessity among pregnant women, also comes along with its own attendant problems such as exposure to potentially hazardous substances like bacteria, fungi, helminthes and ova, radioactive materials, and toxic elemental minerals in the soil depending on the geographical location. Methodology: This study evaluated the potential health risk involved during the exposure of pregnant women to toxic elemental minerals via the consumption of clay as pica (geophagia). Elemental mineral analysis was carried out using Buck Scientific 210VGP Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (Buck Scientific, Inc. East Norwalk, USA). Risk assessment methods were also used to ascertain the various risks factors and the overall risk level. Results: Concentrations of the macro elements investigated were 1.38 ± 1.5, 2.40± 1.5, 7.74± 1.5, 4.01± 1.0, 13.24± 2.2 and 13.76± 2.1 mg/Kg for iron (Fe), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg) and sodium (Na) respectively. While that for the micro elements were 1.63± 0.03 µg/Kg, 4.72±0.8, 0.53±0.02 and 1.85±0.3 mg/kg respectively for arsenic (As), manganese (Mn), lead (Pb) and nickel (Ni). Estimated Daily Intake (EDI), Hazard Quotient (HQ), Target Hazard Quotient (THQ) and Total Target Hazard Quotient (TTHQ) values ranged 0.611- 5.44 (mg/kg Bw/day), 6.26x10 -4 – 106.5, 0.067-10.34 and 15 respectively. Conclusion: There is the likelihood of posing adverse health problems when clay samples obtained from Anfoega which is sited in the Volta region of Ghana is consumed due to the fact that the HQ’s of these elemental minerals were >1 which points to high content of Manganese (Mn) and Nickel (Ni). It is also likely to cause adverse health problems in an individual’s life time since THQ for Arsenic, Lead and Nickel were above 1. Ultimately, the cumulative effect of these toxicants were exceedingly great (≤ 15) which implied a high level of unsafety associated with this clay. Per the results from this study, it is not safe for pregnant women to consume clay as pica since these toxic elements may cause detrimental effects on the foetus of the unborn child. Maternal & Fetal Medicine Pica geophagy clay Volta Region pregnant women risk assessment Ghana Figures Figure 1 Background Pica is universally described as the obstinate ingesting of substances that provide no nutrients and is aptly categorized as a syndrome associated with eating [1, 2]. WHO [3] highlighted that this captures a wide range of excessive and insistent consumption of both nutritional and non-nutritional objects without the intention of deriving nutritional benefits but rather some satisfaction or pleasure. Accordingly, pica may include eating of dust, earth, soil or clay (geophagia), corn or laundry starch (amylophagia) likewise ice or freezer frost (pagophagia), and a host of other materials as elaborated by [2]. Geissler et al [4] reiterated that geophagy or geophagia is utterly applicable to the eating of soil which is most common. Its practiced daily amongst healthy school going children in Kenya: it is not stigmatized and continues well into their period of adolescence. Geophagy is mostly practiced by adult pregnant women and sometimes young women. By implication, geophagy is probably much more prevalent in the tropics than previously estimated. Archival records shown by [5] suggests that women of the Ewe tribe in Ghana, for instance, can consume an average quantities of 30 g of clay per day. In Uganda, according to reports by Kilbride and Kilbride [6] as well as Ziegler [7] also suggest that women have a penchant for the peculiar taste and flavor of clay obtained from mounds of termite, ant hills or walls of the hut, of which they will often cook over the fire for its improvement before consumed. An inadvertent and common form of geophagy occurs when individuals enjoy inhaling dust arising from the soil prior to rainfall or drizzle [5]. Clay consumption is a common practice especially among women and is often linked with pregnancy, famine, idleness and insufficiency [8, 9]. In Ghana, it is estimated that about 28% of women of reproductive age who practice geophagy, consume a daily average of 70g of clay [10]. Apparently, eating of clay and or soil as a habit was observed to be less frequent in boys than in girls. Furthermore, soil eating in boys is reported to decrease with age [11]. Geophagia has been shown to be prevalent among females in the teenage bracket and that by intensifying the education of these females, geophagia and its consequences can be minimized significantly [12]. Harmful heavy metals such as arsenic, lead, mercury and cadmium have been confirmed to have a strong correlation with human health according to some research works [13, 9]. In the same light, other researchers linked geophagy to potential bacterial, fungal and parasitic infections [14, 15] while there could also be a potential exposure to radioisotopes [16] in the soil via geophagia. Notwithstanding, some beneficial microbiological health effects associated with geophagia in humans include the use of kaolin (a form of clay) to treat diarrhoea and improve upon bioactivities [11]. A similar phenomenom was demonstrated by Ngole et al [17] in their study of the physicochemical properties of geophagic clayey soils from South Africa and Swaziland. The presence of iron oxide in clay and the water retention capacity of clay was also found to alleviate anemia and diarrhea respectively. Geophagia has taken another twist in Ghana where there has been reports of craving for geophagical soils which are commercially mined or excavated from known (and usually uncontaminated) sources at depth, rather than from the surface. Likewise, a penchant to eat termite mounds owing to its peculiar aroma and other attributes as pica by pregnant women. Although clay or soil consumption in Ghana has gone on for a very long time, perusal of pertinent literature reveals scanty publications on the levels of heavy metals and the risks assessments likewise how it impacts on consumers and its health implication to affect policy formulation. Some studies done by previous researchers such as Macheka et al, 2016 [18], Meel, 2012 [19], Mensah et al,[2] and Nkansah et al,[25] have pointed to varied health problems associated with its consumption. The objective of this study was therefore to assess the potential health risk associated with clay prepared for consumption as pica from Anfoega by pregnant women in the Volta Region of Ghana as well as people from immediate neighboring countries Togo, Benin, Burkina Faso etc. who may consume it. Methods Study area, location The Kaolin samples were purchased from Anfoega in the Volta Region. Anfoega is positioned in North Dayi district of the Kpando Municipality of the Volta Region, Ghana. It has geographical coordinates of 6° 53' 0" North, 0° 18' 0" East and its original name (with diacritics) is Anfoega Akukome. Sampling of kaolin Anfoega in the Volta region of Ghana was where baked kaolin samples were obtained from. It’s a location where majority of the kaolin ore is mined and processed (moulded and baked) for distribution and sale to markets in and around Ghana (especially Togo and Benin) for consumption. They were packaged in plastic containers and kept in low freezing temperatures (ice chest) at 4°C and transported under aseptic conditions to the laboratory. Sample preparation for mineral analysis The clay ore specimens were ground with mortar and pestle into powder and sieved using a 0.1 mm mesh. About 100 ml of distilled water was added to 100 grams of the weighed specimen. The specimen was then placed on a shaker at 125 rpm for 12 hrs and then allowed to settle. The samples were filtered using a whatman 40 filter paper. The supernatant was then used for the analysis. Determination of mineral elements in clay The dry ashing method was used for atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS) analysis as described by AOAC [20]. One percent (1%) nitric acid was used to wash all glass wares followed by demineralised water. Three millilitres (3ml) each of the clay supernatants were weighed into platinum crucibles. The crucible and the test portion were placed in a Muffle furnace at a temperature of 550°C for 8 hrs. The crucible with ash was put in a desiccator to cool. Five millilitres (5 ml) of nitric acid of mass fraction not less than 65%, having a density of approximately ρ (HNO 3 ) = 1400 mgml -1 was added, ensuring that all the ash came in contact with the acid and the resultant solution heated on hot plate until the ash was dissolved. Ten millilitres (10 ml) of 0.1 mol l -1 nitric acid was added and filtered into 50 ml volumetric flask. The resultant solution was topped up to the mark with 0.1 mol l -1 nitric acid. Blank solution was treated the same way as the sample. Absorbance values at appropriate wavelengths of the interested metal in the sample solution were read using the Buck Scientific 210VGP Flame AAS (Buck Scientific, Inc. East Norwalk, USA). Cathode lamps used were copper (Cu) (wavelength 324.8 nm, lamp current 1.5 mA), iron (Fe) (wavelength 248.3 nm, lamp current 7.0 mA), manganese (Mn) (wavelength 279.5 nm, lamp current 3.0 mA), lead (Pb) (wavelength 217.0 nm, lamp current 3.0 mA) and zinc (Zn) (wavelength 213.9 nm, lamp current 2.0 mA). Air/acetylene gas was used for all the analyses. Calibration curves made up of a minimum of three standards were used to detect the metal contents of the samples. H uman health risk assessment of heavy metals in clay In the risk assessment involved with the consumption of contaminated clay samples pose to humans, several health risk estimation methods have been proposed and used by some researchers [21-23]. One method is the Estimated Daily Intake (EDI), which helps to identify the quantity of pollutant consumed daily [24]. The EDI of potentially toxic elements (PTE) relies on the concentrations of PTE in the clay and the daily clay consumption. In addition, human body weight has an important influence on the tolerance to contaminants [24]. T olerable daily intake and Estimated Daily Intake The estimated daily intake (EDI) depends on the metal concentration, food consumption, and body weight. Table 3 shows the Permitted Daily Intake (PMTDI) of the heavy metals. To evaluate the risk of heavy metals from clay consumption at the extreme, we made the following assumptions in this research: the ingested dose was equal to the absorbed pollutant dose [25]; cooking (baking) has no effect on the pollutants [26]; the average adult body weight of Ghanaians was 60 kg [27]; Average daily consumption of clay in Ghana is 70 g clay per day [10]. Therefore, the EDI of heavy metals for adults was calculated as follows: See formula 1 in the supplementary files. where C is the concentration of heavy metals in clay sample (mg/kg wet weight), C cons is the average daily consumption of clay in the local area (70 g/day Bw) [10], and Bw represents the female body weight (60 kg) [27]. Table 1 shows the international guidelines and exposure parameters used for the risk estimations. Determination of Target Hazard Quotient ( THQ ) Target hazard quotients (THQ) were developed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency for the estimation of potential health risks associated with long term exposure to chemical pollutants. THQ is a ratio between the measured concentration and the oral reference dose, weighed by the length and frequency of exposure, amount ingested and body weight. THQ value is a dimensionless index of risk associated with long term exposure, amount ingested and body weight. The THQ, the ratio of the exposure dose to the reference dose (RfD), represents the risk of non-carcinogenic effects. If it is less than 1, exposure level is less than the RfD. This indicates the daily exposure at this level is unlikely to cause adverse effects during a person's lifetime, and vice versa. The dose calculations were performed using standard assumptions from the integrated USEPA risk analysis [26]. The model for estimating THQ was determined by the following equation [26]: See formula 2 in the supplementary files. where EFr is the exposure frequency (350 days/year); EDtot is the exposure duration (30 years); FIR is the clay ingestion rate (g/day), and 10 −3 is the unit conversion factor; C is the heavy metal concentration in clay (mg/kg wet weight); RfDo is the oral RfD (mg/kg-day); Bw is the average adult body weight (60 kg); and ATn is the average exposure time for non-carcinogens (365 days/year × number of exposure years, assuming 30 years). Non-Carcinogenic Effect See formula 3 in the supplementary files. where HQ is the hazard quotient and RfD is the reference dose (mg kg – 1 day – 1 ). HQ values of 1 indicate a likely adverse health effect. Carcinogenic Risk Assessment Carcinogenic risk assessment estimates the probability of an individual developing cancer over a lifetime due to exposure to the potential carcinogen is presented in Table 1. In this assessment, a caner slope factor was used to convert the EDI of the heavy metals over a lifetime exposure to risk of an individual developing cancer [28]. Risk= ∑ n , I=1 EDI x CSF CSF= Cancer Slope Factor Total Target Hazard Quotient In this study, the total THQ was expressed as the arithmetic sum of the individual metal THQ values according to the method of [26]: See formula 4 in the supplementary files. Statistical Analysis Results obtained was analyzed using IBM SPSS statistics version 22.0. Elemental minerals concentrations were obtained from duplicates and presented as mean concentration and standard deviations. Results Results of the different concentrations of minerals both micro and macro elements are presented in Tables 2 and 3. Concentrations of the macro elements investigated were 1.38 ± 1.5, 2.40± 1.5, 7.74± 1.5, 4.01± 1.0, 13.24± 2.2 and 13.76± 2.1 mg/Kg for Fe, Cu, Zn, K, Mg and Na respectively. While that for the micro elements were 1.63± 0.03 µg/Kg, 4.72±0.8, 0.53±0.02 and 1.85±0.3 mg/kg respectively for As, Mn, Pb and Ni. Reference doses for the various elemental minerals were of range 3.0x10 -4 – 0.14 mg kg -1 day -1 as used in this study (Table 4). Estimated Daily Intakes of toxic metals in clay samples of this study recorded range values of 0.611- 5.44 (mg/kg Bw/day). Hazard Quotient which is expressed as a quotient of the Estimated Daily Intake (EDI) to the Reference Dose (RfD) were also of range 6.26 x10 -4 – 106.5. Values of the THQ and TTHQ (Total Target Hazard Quotient) ranged 0.067-10.34 and 15 respectively. Cancer risk analysis yielded a range of values of 0.052-19.38. Arsenic and Nickel potentially posed cancer risk to clay consumers (Table 5). Discussion Exposures to chemicals during early life stages can result in adverse effects during the stage when exposure occurred or may not manifest themselves until later stages. Depending on the dose of the chemical and the susceptibility during that life stage to the mode of action of the chemical, effects can range in severity from functional deficits to growth restriction to malformations to ultimate mortality [29, 30]. There has been an increased risks of a range of antagonistic neuro-cognitive developmental effects and increased neonatal and postnatal mortality, spontaneous abortion, suggest: low weight at birth, increased number of still births [30]. Al-Rmalli et al [9] suggested that an uncertain consumption of 50.0 grams of soil taken from an arsenic contaminated area per day is equivalent to 0.370 mg of Arsenic ingestion. From our results, the levels of Arsenic obtained was below the mean exposure level of 3.0 µg/Kg BW/day set by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives [31]. Tayie et al [10] reported 0.0 (nil) mg/Kg of Arsenic in clay samples in Accra were found to be lower than results obtained in this study. However, Nkansah et al [27] reported a range of 218-271 ppm from clay samples obtained from different parts of Kumasi Metropolis. Furthermore, Doe et al [32] also reported Arsenic levels of range 2.7-22.74 µg/g in nine (9) samples of clay samples collected from both Greater Accra and Kumasi of Ghana. Gastric symptoms such as stomach upset, nausea, vomiting, obstruction in the circulatory as well as nervous systems and ultimately death according to Mahurpawah [33], can be a consequence of intakes of large quantities of Arsenic. Lead concentrations were observed to be below the mean exposure levels and was in contrast with findings of range of values 549- 622.92 µg/Kg reported by Nkansah et al [27]. In line with our results, Tayie et al [10] reported 2.36 ± 0.08 mg/100g. Lead consumption can result in adverse health effects such as the dysfunction of some vital organs such as kidneys, liver and heart. Also, multiple organs in the body are targeted by Lead due to systemic toxicity as emphasized by Mahurpawar [33]. Manganese and Nickel levels were also below the set limits. In Tanzania, ranges of 2.3-128 and 2.9-1400 mg/Kg for Nickel and Manganese respectively were reported by Nyanza et al [34]. Conversely, [32] did not detect any Manganese in the clay samples from Ghana. Essentially, for bone formation and carbohydrate metabolism, Manganese is an essential nutrient involved. The estimated safe and adequate intake for copper is 1.5 -3.0 mg/day. Excessive ingestion of Copper could lead to severe mucosal irritation and corrosion; capillary, hepatic and renal damages; and gastrointestinal and neural disturbances [35]. Copper toxicity seldom occurs but may occur and its consequences may be severe. Intakes of supplements exceeding 3mg copper/day for a protracted period of time may be a cause for concern [36]. Results obtained in this study was observed to be far below and so contradicted that reported by Nyanza et al [34] of range 3.9-169 mg/Kg for geophagic soils in Tanzania. Health risk assessment Bonglaisin et al [37] highlighted that the possibility and the danger of lead or heavy metals getting into human food chain through eating contaminated clay (by birds, animals etc.,) should be dreaded. In children for example, such an exposure would lead to adversarial health consequences on the developing brain, which may result in long-term cerebral deficits as evidenced in records. Results obtained in this research is in agreement with published findings of [38] in a related study to investigate the health risks posed to pregnant women and children who practice geophagia in Nigeria and found in their study high Arsenic, Lead and Cadmium to be in excess above tolerable limits which yielded hazard quotient and Target Harzard Quotient values of >1 made clay consumption as pica unsafe and likely to cause adverse effects. Clay samples obtained from Kumasi, Ghana as worked on by Nkansah et al [27] recorded Hazard index values of range 0.064. Arsenic was identified as the most hazardous element. A cancer risk assessment confirmed this as a calculated value of 2.2x 10 -5 was reached. Although the hazard index (HI) was below the prescribed unity (1), their cumulative effect was of concern. It could be estimated that the overall non-carcinogenic risk assessment on the health of consumers within the Kumasi Metropolis pointed to more risk via the ingestion route (HI = 0.064). In another related study by Kamunda et al [39] in South Africa on toxic elements in soils of a Gold mining basin, they reported HQ values of 2.13 suggestive of non-carcinogenic effects noteworthy to the adult population. Nonetheless, a much greater value of 43.80 was recorded for children oral exposure which posed severe non-carcinogenic risk effects to children living in the mining area. Again, their carcinogenic risks (1.7 x10 -4 ) have been found to be to be greater than acceptable values. From China, Liu et al [40] reported a potential health risk linked with Arsenic and Chromium exposure for residents while risk assessment results which suggested that there were carcinogenic risks of Arsenic and Chromium via corresponding exposure pathways which exceeded the safety limit of 10 - 6 (the acceptable level of carcinogenic risk for humans). Cancer causing risk of heavy metals is the summation effect of the individual metals contributing to the cancer risk. Results of this study indicated that the sum of cancer risks of the individual metals for the examined toxic metals could pose cancer risk effect to both children and adults through the consumption of examined clay samples contaminated with Lead, Arsenic and Nickel from the Anfoega clay mining site. Conclusions Essential nutrients such as Potassium, Iron, Calcium and Zinc; and toxic metals such as Arsenic, Lead and Mercury were detected in white clay soils mainly from Anfoega, Volta Region and sold for consumption in almost all markets within the region and beyond. The presence of these metals in the clay could be largely due to natural occurrence and a less likely influence of human activities such as handling and or the baking process. The estimated levels of heavy metals contained in 70 g of the geophagic clay consumed by inhabitants in the Ho municipality and beyond were found to be high compared to the Permitted Maximum Tolerable Daily Intake (PMTDI) prescribed by (WHO/FAO). There is a possibility of bioaccumulation after the consumption of these clays by adult pregnant women especially over a long period of time which poses a potential health menace. Human consumption of these clay materials which contain high levels of toxic metals render them obnoxious. Apparently, it is inevitable that geophagy practice will persist despite urbanization and civilization, we therefore support finding ways of reducing heavy metal pollutants in geophagic clays through suitable remediation technology that could minimize the effects of toxic metals on the human system. Declarations Collection of specimen (soils) used in our study complied with guidelines outlined by the Research and Ethics Committee of the University of Health and Allied Sciences, Ho, Ghana. Ethics approval and consent to participate Research did not involve human subjects Consent to publish Not applicable Availability of Data and materials The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Competing interests We have no conflicts of interest to disclose Funding This work received no funding other than salary support from respective employers. Authors contributions NKK, AK-D, PTA and NYBM designed the study, NKK, EKE and NYBM carried out the experiment, data collection and analysis and wrote the first version of the manuscript. NOB, AK-D, PTA, CT and MA-A contributed to interpretation of data and critically revised the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Acknowledgements We acknowledge and sincerely extend our heartfelt appreciation to Mr. Sowah and all the laboratory technicians of Department of Biochemistry laboratory, University of Ghana for carrying out the elemental mineral analysis. ORCID Nii Korley Kortei http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8863-4694 Paa Toah Akonor https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2459-7206 Matilda Ayim-Akonor https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4435-3206 Nathaniel Owusu Boadi https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2673-7011 Abbreviations EDI: Estimated Daily Intake, HQ: Hazard Quotient, THQ: Target Hazard Quotient, TTHQ: Total Target Hazard Quotient, PMTDI: Permitted Maximum Tolerable Daily Intake, WHO: World Health Organization, FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization, USEPA: United States Environmental Protection Agency, RDI: Recommended Dietary Intake, SPSS: Statistical Package for Social Sciences. References [1] Corbett RW, Ryan C, Weinrich SP. Pica in pregnancy: does it affect pregnancy outcomes? MCN Am J Matern Child Nurs 2003; 28:183–9, quiz 190-1. [2] Mensah FO, Twumasi P, Amenawonyo XK , Larbie C, Baffo Jnr AK. Pica practice among pregnant women in the Kumasi metropolis of Ghana. International Health. 2010; 2:282-286. [3] WHO Expert Committee on Maternal and Child Health. Public health aspects of low birth-weight. In: Maternal nutrition and the course of pregnancy. Washington DC: Food and Nutrition Board, National Academy of Science; 1961. [4] Geissler PW, Mwaniki DL, Thiong’o F, Friis H. Geophagy among school children in western Kenya. Trop. Med. Internat. Health 1997; 2(7):624-630. [5] Vermeer DE. Geophagy among the ewe of Ghana. Ethnology 1971;10:56-72. [6] Kilbride PL, Kilbride JC. Changing Family Life in East Africa. GS Were, Nairobi. 1990. [7] Ziegler JL. Geophagy: a vestige of paleonutrition? Tropical Medicine and International Health 1997;2(7):609-611. [8] Woywodt A, Kiss A. Geophagia: The history of earth-eating. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 2002;95:143-146. [9] Al-Rmalli SW, Jenkins RO, Watts MJ, Haris P. Risk of human exposure to arsenic and other toxic elements from geophagy: trace element analysis of baked clay using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Environ Health 2010;9:79-81. [10] Tayie FA, Koduah G, Mork SAP. Geophagia clay soil as a source of mineral nutrients and toxicants, Afr. J. Food Agric. Nutr. Dev. 2013;13(1):7157–7170. [11] Bisi-Johnson MA, Obi CL, Ekosse GE. Microbiological and health related perspectives of geophagia: An overview. African Journal of Biotechnology 2010; 9(19):5784-5791. [12] Woode A .Factors influencing the ingestion of clay in the greater Accra region of Ghana”. A paper presented at the CAPA International conference in Gambia, June 2013. [13] WHO. Ten chemicals of major public health. 2013. [14] Tano-Debrah K, Bruce-Baiden G. Microbiological characterization of dry white clay, a pica element in Ghana, 2010. http://www.sciencepub.net/report . [15] Shinondo CJ, Mwikuma G. Geophagy as a risk factor for helminth infections in pregnant women in Lusaka, Zambia. Medical Journal of Zambia 2010;35(2):48-52. [16] International Atomic Energy Agency. Measurement of Radionuclides in Food and the Environment—Technical Report Series No. 295; International Atomic Energy Agency: Vienna, Austria, 1989. [17] Ngole VM , Ekosse GE, de Jager L, Songca S. Physicochemical characteristics of geophagic clayey soils from South Africa and Swaziland. African Journal of Biotechnology. 2010; 9(36):5929-5937. [18] Macheka LR, Olowoyo JO, Matsela L, Khine AA. Prevalence of geophagia and its contributing factors among pregnant women at Dr. George Mukhari Academic Hospital, Pretoria. Afri Health Sci 2016;16(4): 972-978. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/ahs.v16i4.13 [19] Meel BL. Geophagia in Transkei region of South Africa: Case Reports, African Health Sciences 2012; (4): 566 – 568. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/ahs.v12i4.27 [20] AOAC. Official method of Analysis. 18 th Edition, Association of Officiating Analytical Chemists, Washington DC, Method 935.14 and 992.24. 2005. [21] Yi Y, Tang C, Yi T, Yang Z, Zhang S. Health risk assessment of heavy metals in fish and accumulation patterns in food web in the upper Yangtze river, China. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 2017;145:295-305. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2017.07.022 [22] Griboff J, Wunderlin DA, Monferran MV. Metals, As and Se determination by inductivelycoupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) in edible fish collected from three eutrophic reservoirs. Their consumption represents a risk for human health? Microchem. J. 2017; 130:236–244. [23] Varol M, Sünbül MR. Multiple approaches to assess human health risks from carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic metals via consumption of five fish species from a large reservoir in Turkey. Sci. Total Environ. 2018; 633: 684–694. [24] Vrhovnik P, Arrebola JP, Serafimovski T, Dolenec T, Šmuc NR, Dolenec M, Mutch E. Potentially toxic contamination of sediments, water and two animal species in Lake Kalimanci, FYR Macedonia: relevance to human health. Environ. Pollut. 2013; 180: 92–100. [25] USEPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). Risk Assessment: Guidance for Superfund Volume 1 Human Health Evaluation Manual (Part A) 291. 1989. [26] Chien LC, Hung TC, Choang KY, Yeh CY, Meng PJ, Shieh MJ, Han BC. Daily intake of TBT, Cu, Zn, Cd and As for fishermen in Taiwan. Sci. Total Environ. 2002; 285: 177–185. [27] Nkansah MA, Korankye M, Darko G, Dodd M. Heavy Metal content and potential health risk of geophagic white clay from the Kumasi Metropolis in Ghana. Toxicology Reports 2016; 3: 644-651. [28] USEPA. Edition of the Drinking Water Standards and Health Advisories. EPA 822-S-12-001, 2012 Edition of the Drinking Water Standards and Health Advisories, Office of Water, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. 2012. [29] Felter SP, Daston GP, Euling SY, Piersma AH, Tassinari MS. Assessment of health risks resulting from early-life exposures: Are current chemical toxicity testing protocols and risk assessment methods adequate?, Critical Reviews in Toxicology, 2015;45:3, 219-244, DOI: 10.3109/10408444.2014.993919 [30] Korfali SI, Hawi T, Mroueh M. Evaluation of heavy metals content in dietary supplements in Lebanon. Chem. Cent J. 2013;7: 10. doi:10.1186/1752-153X-7-10. [31] WHO. Food Additive and contaminants (Flavours; Cadmium and lead, in: Seventy-third Meeting of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee On Food Additives (JECFA), Geneva. 2011; 1–535. [32] Doe ED, Awua A, Achoribo SEA, Adu-Bobi NAK, Donko S, Baidoo I, Opata NS, Ampong AG. Essential and toxic element present in clay obtained from Ghanaian Market. Applied Biology 2012; 47: 8633–8636. [33] Mahurpawar M. Effects of heavy metals on human health. Social issues and environmental problems. Int. J. Res. 2015; 3(9):23-24. [34] Nyanza EC, Joseph M, Premji SS, Thomas DSK, Mannion C. Geophagy practices and the content of chemical elements in the soil eaten by pregnant women in artisanal and small scale gold mining communities in Tanzania. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth 2014; 14(1): 1-10. http://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2393-14-144 . [35] Sharma RK, Agrawal M. Biological effects of heavy metals: An overview. Journal of Environmental Biology 2005; 26 (2): suppl. 301-313. [36] Shibazaki S, Uchiyama S, Tsuda K, Taniuchi N. Copper deficiency caused by excessive alcohol consumption. BMJ Case Rep. 2017. bcr2017220921 doi: 10.1136/bcr-2017-220921 [37] Bonglaisin JN, Mbofung CMF, Lantum DN. Intake of lead, Cadmium and Mercury in Kaolin eating: Quality assessment. Journal of Medical Sciences 2011; 11(7):267-273. DOI : 10.3923/jms.2011.267.273 [38] Lar AU, Agene JI, Umar AI. Geophagic clay materials from Nigeria: a potential source of heavy metals and human health implications in mostly women and children who practice it. Environmental Geochemistry and Health 2015;37(2):363-375. [39] Kamunda C, Mathuthu M, Madhuku M. Health risk assessment of heavy metals in soils from Witwatersrand Gold Mining Basin, South Africa. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health , 2016; 13: 663. doi:10.3390/ijerph13070663 [40] Liu C, Lu L, Huang T, Huang Y, Ding L, Zhao W. The distribution and health risk assessment of metals in soils in the vicinity of industrial sites in Dongguan, China. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2016;13: 832. doi:10.3390/ijerph13080832 Tables Table 1. Exposure parameters used for the health risk estimations via consumption of clay [27] (US EPA) Parameter Unit Child Adult Body Weight (BW) Kg 15 75 Exposure Days/ years 365 365 Frequency (EF) Exposure Years 6 30 Duration Ingestion Rate (IR clay ) mg/day 200 100 Average Time (AT) Days/years For carcinogenic 365x70 366x70 For non-carcinogenic 365x ED 365x ED Table 2. Concentrations of essential macro and trace elements in clay samples Mineral Element Concentration ( mg/Kg) (Mean ± SD) Recommended Dietary Intake (RDI), WHO [28] Iron 1.38 ± 1.5 18 mg Copper 2.40 ± 1.5 0.9 mg Zinc 7.74 ± 1.5 11 mg Potassium 4.01 ± 1.0 3100-3500 mg Magnesium 13.24 ± 2.2 280-350 mg Sodium 13.76 ± 2.1 500-2400 mg Table 3. Mean concentrations of toxic trace elements in clay sample Mineral element Mean Concentration (Mean ± SD) WHO/FAO PMTDI (µg/Kg BW/day) PMTDI for 60 Arsenic 1.63 ± 0.03 µg/Kg 3.0 180 Manganese 4.72 ± 0.8 mg/Kg 4.9 mg/Kg 294 Lead 0.53 ± 0.02 mg/Kg 3.0 180 Nickel 1.85 ± 0.3 mg/Kg 5.0 300 Table 4: Reference doses (RFD) mg kg -1 day -1 for heavy metals used in this study Heavy metals Reference Doses Cancer slope factor References Arsenic 3.0x10 -4 1.50 [27] [31] Copper 4.0x10 -2 N/A [31] Lead 3.5x10 -3 8.5 x 10 -3 [27] Manganese 0.14 N/A [31] Nickel 0.02 9.10 x 10 -1 [31] [32] Table 5: Calculated Estimated Daily Intake, Hazard Quotient, Target Hazard Quotients and Cancer Risks of the Heavy metals in clay samples Heavy Metal Sample EDI (mg/kg Bw/day) HQ THQ Cancer Risk Arsenic Clay 1.88 6.26x10 -4 2.62 2.82 Copper Clay 2.767 0.069 0.067 N/A Lead Clay 0.611 1.75x10 -3 1.69 0.052 Manganese Clay 5.44 38.86 0.377 N/A Nickel Clay 2.13 106.5 10.34 19.38 N/A – Not available Total Target Harzard Quotient (Clay) = 2.62 + 0.067 +1.69 + 0.377 + 10.34 =15 Supplementary Files formulas.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 14 Mar, 2020 Read the published version in BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth → Version 4 posted Editorial decision: Accept 05 Mar, 2020 Editor assigned by journal 04 Mar, 2020 Submission checks completed at journal 03 Mar, 2020 Editor invited by journal 03 Mar, 2020 You are reading this latest preprint version Show more versions Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7279","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":392989,"identity":"6c0f30f7-7023-479f-ad03-032073f1071b","order_by":1,"name":"Nii Korley Kortei","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA30lEQVRIie3QsQrCMBCA4ROhXQ5cK+o7pAQqYtFXqRQyVVd1y1QnnfUtfIRIoS4VN9GtIji5uNVJg24isd1E8sORW74bAqDT/WJovJ4K4HMpcQAjB/EAq7woASLykibGvdM4c+t0319dM3AbS2HuUhVpTcPITjyGzn7g1xAYXQocEhUhWzOsci+SJCA1gKgnCbNykDvSeUBvGdxzkE0YSyKQWIFjIQhJzFhNkti3OfPRSi5OG4lPFxEaXwizj9ztdCuTgB6yUacxW0/OSvJ+QU4ZlR/2MTMtTHQ6ne6vewB3LkfG2OrhvwAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8863-4694","institution":"University of Health and Allied Sciences","correspondingAuthor":true,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Nii","middleName":"Korley","lastName":"Kortei","suffix":""},{"id":392990,"identity":"07b7ad85-7771-4da6-903f-ae6324fee9d2","order_by":2,"name":"Alice Koryo-Dabrah","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Health and Allied Sciences","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Alice","middleName":"","lastName":"Koryo-Dabrah","suffix":""},{"id":392991,"identity":"9456cc8b-9631-48da-854d-8a7dcda34a52","order_by":3,"name":"Papa Toah Akonor","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"CSIR-Food Research Institute","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Papa","middleName":"Toah","lastName":"Akonor","suffix":""},{"id":392992,"identity":"8d63b25f-07da-4adb-8a20-de9d9792ee03","order_by":4,"name":"Nana Yaw Barima Manaphraim","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Health and Allied Sciences","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Nana","middleName":"Yaw Barima","lastName":"Manaphraim","suffix":""},{"id":392993,"identity":"7f9a6131-a60f-4539-af2b-77fa39575919","order_by":5,"name":"Matilda Ayim-Akonor","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"CSIR-Animal Research Institute","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Matilda","middleName":"","lastName":"Ayim-Akonor","suffix":""},{"id":392994,"identity":"5c7feffc-bb32-480a-8ea2-c120a7b8a523","order_by":6,"name":"Nathaniel Owusu Boadi","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology College of Agriculture and Natural Resources","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Nathaniel","middleName":"Owusu","lastName":"Boadi","suffix":""},{"id":392995,"identity":"4e78009f-5951-4e57-ac74-47a59f25c526","order_by":7,"name":"Edward Ken Essuman","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Health and Allied Sciences","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Edward","middleName":"Ken","lastName":"Essuman","suffix":""},{"id":392996,"identity":"79f269d3-d46a-4933-9854-e35925ee677e","order_by":8,"name":"Clement Tettey","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Health and Allied Sciences","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Clement","middleName":"","lastName":"Tettey","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2019-10-26 12:06:03","currentVersionCode":4,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.2.16641/v4","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.2.16641/v4","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-020-02857-4","type":"published","date":"2020-03-14T20:30:44+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":618398,"identity":"54d1a24b-8d41-4d48-9832-b2a1f9f506d2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2020-03-10 00:38:49","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":53614,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"Map of Ghana showing sampling site of clay samples used in the study","description":"","filename":"Figure1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7279/v4/Figure 1.jpg"},{"id":13492663,"identity":"86eb06a2-287f-45e9-8bf2-3fe1349a595e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2021-09-16 22:32:27","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":526694,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7279/v4/9f9c7699-b4c3-4566-8145-3eb60c45edc8.pdf"},{"id":618397,"identity":"1142c021-9460-456c-9020-fe3149a7b8b9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2020-03-10 00:38:49","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":12559,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"formulas.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7279/v4/formulas.docx"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003ePotential health risk assessment of toxic metals contamination in clay eaten as pica (geophagia) among pregnant women of Ho in the Volta Region of Ghana.\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"Background","content":"\u003cp\u003ePica is universally described as the obstinate ingesting of substances that provide no nutrients and is aptly categorized as a syndrome associated with eating [1, 2]. WHO [3] highlighted that this captures a wide range of excessive and insistent consumption of both nutritional and non-nutritional objects without the intention of deriving nutritional benefits but rather some satisfaction or pleasure. Accordingly, pica may include eating of dust, earth, soil or clay (geophagia), corn or laundry starch (amylophagia) likewise ice or freezer frost (pagophagia), and a host of other materials as elaborated by [2].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGeissler et al [4] reiterated that geophagy or geophagia is utterly applicable to the eating of soil which is most common. Its practiced daily amongst healthy school going children in Kenya: it is not stigmatized and continues well into their period of adolescence. Geophagy is mostly practiced by adult pregnant women and sometimes young women. By implication, geophagy is probably much more prevalent in the tropics than previously estimated. Archival records shown by [5] suggests that women of the Ewe tribe in Ghana, for instance, can consume an average quantities of 30 g of clay per day. In Uganda, according to reports by Kilbride and Kilbride [6] as well as Ziegler [7] also suggest that women have a penchant for the peculiar taste and flavor of clay obtained from mounds of termite, ant hills or walls of the hut, of which they will often cook over the fire for its improvement before consumed. An inadvertent and common form of geophagy occurs when individuals enjoy inhaling dust arising from the soil prior to rainfall or drizzle [5].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eClay consumption is a common practice especially among women and is often linked with pregnancy, famine, idleness and insufficiency [8, 9]. In Ghana, it is estimated that about 28% of women of reproductive age who practice geophagy, consume a daily average of 70g of clay [10]. Apparently, eating of clay and or soil as a habit was observed to be less frequent in boys than in girls. Furthermore, soil eating in boys is reported to decrease with age [11]. Geophagia has been shown to be prevalent among females in the teenage bracket and that by intensifying the education of these females, geophagia and its consequences can be minimized significantly [12].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHarmful heavy metals such as arsenic, lead, mercury and cadmium have been confirmed to have a strong correlation with human health according to some research works [13, 9]. In the same light, other researchers linked geophagy to potential bacterial, fungal and parasitic infections [14, 15] while there could also be a potential exposure to radioisotopes [16] in the soil via geophagia. Notwithstanding, some beneficial microbiological health effects associated with geophagia in humans include the use of kaolin (a form of clay) to treat diarrhoea and improve upon bioactivities [11]. A similar phenomenom was demonstrated by Ngole et al [17] in their study of the physicochemical properties of geophagic clayey soils from South Africa and Swaziland. The presence of iron oxide in clay and the water retention capacity of clay was also found to alleviate anemia and diarrhea respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGeophagia has taken another twist in Ghana where there has been reports of craving for geophagical soils which are commercially mined or excavated from known (and usually uncontaminated) sources at depth, rather than from the surface. Likewise, a penchant to eat termite mounds owing to its peculiar aroma and other attributes as pica by pregnant women.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlthough clay or soil consumption in Ghana has gone on for a very long time, perusal of pertinent literature reveals scanty publications on the levels of heavy metals and the risks assessments likewise how it impacts on consumers and its health implication to affect policy formulation. Some studies done by previous researchers such as Macheka et al, 2016 [18], Meel, 2012 [19], Mensah et al,[2] and Nkansah et al,[25] have pointed to varied health problems associated with its consumption. The objective of this study was therefore to assess the potential health risk associated with clay prepared for consumption as pica from Anfoega by pregnant women in the Volta Region of Ghana as well as people from immediate neighboring countries Togo, Benin, Burkina Faso etc. who may consume it.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStudy area, location\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Kaolin samples were purchased from Anfoega in the Volta Region. Anfoega is positioned in North Dayi district of the Kpando Municipality of the Volta Region, Ghana. It has geographical coordinates of 6\u0026deg; 53' 0\" North, 0\u0026deg; 18' 0\" East and its original name (with diacritics) is Anfoega Akukome.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSampling of kaolin\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnfoega in the Volta region of Ghana was where baked kaolin samples were obtained from. It\u0026rsquo;s a location where majority of the kaolin ore is mined and processed (moulded and baked) for distribution and sale to markets in and around Ghana (especially Togo and Benin) for consumption. They were packaged in plastic containers and kept in low freezing temperatures (ice chest) at 4\u0026deg;C and transported under aseptic conditions to the laboratory.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSample preparation for mineral analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe clay ore specimens were ground with mortar and pestle into powder and sieved using a 0.1 mm mesh. About 100 ml of distilled water was added to 100 grams of the weighed specimen. The specimen was then placed on a shaker at 125 rpm for 12 hrs and then allowed to settle. The samples were filtered using a whatman 40 filter paper. The supernatant was then used for the analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDetermination of mineral elements in clay\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe dry ashing method was used for atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS) analysis as described by AOAC [20]. One percent (1%) nitric acid was used to wash all glass wares followed by demineralised water. Three millilitres (3ml) each of the clay supernatants were weighed into platinum crucibles. The crucible and the test portion were placed in a Muffle furnace at a temperature of 550\u0026deg;C for 8 hrs. The crucible with ash was put in a desiccator to cool. Five millilitres (5 ml) of nitric acid of mass fraction not less than 65%, having a density of approximately \u0026rho; (HNO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e) = 1400 mgml\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e was added, ensuring that all the ash came in contact with the acid and the resultant solution heated on hot plate until the ash was dissolved. Ten millilitres (10 ml) of 0.1 mol l\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e nitric acid was added and filtered into 50 ml volumetric flask. The resultant solution was topped up to the mark with 0.1 mol l\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e nitric acid. Blank solution was treated the same way as the sample. Absorbance values at appropriate wavelengths of the interested metal in the sample solution were read using the Buck Scientific 210VGP Flame AAS (Buck Scientific, Inc. East Norwalk, USA). Cathode lamps used were copper (Cu) (wavelength 324.8 nm, lamp current 1.5 mA), iron (Fe) (wavelength 248.3 nm, lamp current 7.0 mA), manganese (Mn) (wavelength 279.5 nm, lamp current 3.0 mA), lead (Pb) (wavelength 217.0 nm, lamp current 3.0 mA) and zinc (Zn) (wavelength 213.9 nm, lamp current 2.0 mA). Air/acetylene gas was used for all the analyses. Calibration curves made up of a minimum of three standards were used to detect the metal contents of the samples.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eH\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003euman health risk assessment of heavy metals in \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eclay\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the risk assessment involved with the consumption of contaminated clay samples pose to humans, several health risk estimation methods have been proposed and used by some researchers [21-23]. One method is the Estimated Daily Intake (EDI), which helps to identify the quantity of pollutant consumed daily [24]. The EDI of potentially toxic elements (PTE) relies on the concentrations of PTE in the clay and the daily clay consumption. In addition, human body weight has an important influence on the tolerance to contaminants [24].\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eT\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eolerable daily intake and Estimated Daily Intake\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe estimated daily intake (EDI) depends on the metal concentration, food consumption, and body weight. Table 3 shows the Permitted Daily Intake (PMTDI) of the heavy metals. To evaluate the risk of heavy metals from clay consumption at the extreme, we made the following assumptions in this research: the ingested dose was equal to the absorbed pollutant dose [25]; cooking (baking) has no effect on the pollutants [26]; the average adult body weight of Ghanaians was 60 kg [27]; Average daily consumption of clay in Ghana is 70 g clay per day [10]. Therefore, the EDI of heavy metals for adults was calculated as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSee formula 1 in the supplementary files.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ewhere C is the concentration of heavy metals in clay sample (mg/kg wet weight), C cons is the average daily consumption of clay in the local area (70 g/day Bw) [10], and Bw represents the female body weight (60 kg) [27].\u0026nbsp; Table 1 shows the international guidelines and exposure parameters used for the risk estimations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003ca name=\"_Toc5392925\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDetermination of \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTarget Hazard Quotient (\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTHQ\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTarget hazard quotients (THQ) were developed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency for the estimation of potential health risks associated with long term exposure to chemical pollutants. THQ is a ratio between the measured concentration and the oral reference dose, weighed by the length and frequency of exposure, amount ingested and body weight. THQ value is a dimensionless index of risk associated with long term exposure, amount ingested and body weight.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe THQ, the ratio of the exposure dose to the reference dose (RfD), represents the risk of non-carcinogenic effects. If it is less than 1, exposure level is less than the RfD. This indicates the daily exposure at this level is unlikely to cause adverse effects during a person's lifetime, and vice versa.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe dose calculations were performed using standard assumptions from the integrated USEPA risk analysis [26]. The model for estimating THQ was determined by the following equation [26]:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSee formula 2 in the supplementary files.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ewhere EFr is the exposure frequency (350 days/year); EDtot is the exposure duration (30 years); FIR is the clay ingestion rate (g/day), and 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;3\u003c/sup\u003e is the unit conversion factor; C is the heavy metal concentration in clay (mg/kg wet weight); RfDo is the oral RfD (mg/kg-day); Bw is the average adult body weight (60 kg); and ATn is the average exposure time for non-carcinogens (365 days/year \u0026times; number of exposure years, assuming 30 years).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003ca name=\"_Toc5392926\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNon-Carcinogenic Effect\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSee formula 3 in the supplementary files.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ewhere HQ is the hazard quotient and RfD is the reference dose (mg kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e day\u003csup\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e). HQ values of \u0026lt; 1 signify unlikely adverse health effects, while HQ values \u0026gt;1 indicate a likely adverse health effect.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003ca name=\"_Toc5392927\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCarcinogenic Risk Assessment\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCarcinogenic risk assessment estimates the probability of an individual developing cancer over a lifetime due to exposure to the potential carcinogen is presented in Table 1.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn this assessment, a caner slope factor was used to convert the EDI of the heavy metals over a lifetime exposure to risk of an individual developing cancer [28].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRisk= \u0026sum; n , I=1\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;EDI x CSF\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCSF= Cancer Slope Factor\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003ca name=\"_Toc5392929\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal Target Hazard Quotient\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn this study, the total THQ was expressed as the arithmetic sum of the individual metal THQ values according to the method of [26]:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSee formula 4 in the supplementary files.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStatistical Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResults obtained was analyzed using IBM SPSS statistics version 22.0. Elemental minerals concentrations were obtained from duplicates and presented as mean concentration and standard deviations.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eResults of the different concentrations of minerals both micro and macro elements are presented in Tables 2 and 3. Concentrations of the macro elements investigated were 1.38 \u0026plusmn; 1.5, 2.40\u0026plusmn; 1.5, 7.74\u0026plusmn; 1.5, 4.01\u0026plusmn; 1.0, 13.24\u0026plusmn; 2.2 and 13.76\u0026plusmn; 2.1 mg/Kg for Fe, Cu, Zn, K, Mg and Na respectively. While that for the micro elements were 1.63\u0026plusmn; 0.03 \u0026micro;g/Kg, 4.72\u0026plusmn;0.8, 0.53\u0026plusmn;0.02 and 1.85\u0026plusmn;0.3 mg/kg respectively for As, Mn, Pb and Ni.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eReference doses for the various elemental minerals were of range 3.0x10\u003csup\u003e-4\u003c/sup\u003e \u0026ndash; 0.14 mg kg\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003eday\u003csup\u003e-1 \u003c/sup\u003eas used in this study (Table 4).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEstimated Daily Intakes of toxic metals in clay samples of this study recorded range values of 0.611- 5.44 (mg/kg Bw/day).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHazard Quotient which is expressed as a quotient of the Estimated Daily Intake (EDI) to the Reference Dose (RfD) were also of range 6.26 x10\u003csup\u003e-4 \u003c/sup\u003e\u0026ndash; 106.5.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eValues of the THQ and TTHQ (Total Target Hazard Quotient) ranged 0.067-10.34 and 15 respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCancer risk analysis yielded a range of values of 0.052-19.38. Arsenic and Nickel potentially posed cancer risk to clay consumers (Table 5).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eExposures to chemicals during early life stages can result in adverse effects during the stage when exposure occurred or may not manifest themselves until later stages. Depending on the dose of the chemical and the susceptibility during that life stage to the mode of action of the chemical, effects can range in severity from functional deficits to growth restriction to malformations to ultimate mortality [29, 30].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThere has been an increased risks of a range of antagonistic neuro-cognitive developmental effects and increased neonatal and postnatal mortality, spontaneous abortion, suggest: low weight at birth, increased number of still births [30].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAl-Rmalli et al [9] suggested that an uncertain consumption of 50.0 grams of soil taken from an arsenic contaminated area per day is equivalent to 0.370 mg of Arsenic ingestion. From our results, the levels of Arsenic obtained was below the mean exposure level of 3.0 \u0026micro;g/Kg BW/day set by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives [31]. Tayie et al [10] reported 0.0 (nil) mg/Kg of Arsenic in clay samples in Accra were found to be lower than results obtained in this study. However, Nkansah et al [27] reported a range of 218-271 ppm from clay samples obtained from different parts of Kumasi Metropolis. Furthermore, Doe et al [32] also reported Arsenic levels of range 2.7-22.74 \u0026micro;g/g in nine (9) samples of clay samples collected from both Greater Accra and Kumasi of Ghana. Gastric symptoms such as stomach upset, nausea, vomiting, obstruction in the circulatory as well as nervous systems and ultimately death according to Mahurpawah [33], can be a consequence of intakes of large quantities of Arsenic.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLead concentrations were observed to be below the mean exposure levels and was in contrast with findings of range of values 549- 622.92 \u0026micro;g/Kg reported by Nkansah et al [27]. In line with our results, Tayie et al [10] reported 2.36 \u0026plusmn; 0.08 mg/100g. Lead consumption can result in adverse health effects such as the dysfunction of some vital organs such as kidneys, liver and heart. Also, multiple organs in the body are targeted by Lead due to systemic toxicity as emphasized by Mahurpawar [33].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eManganese and Nickel levels were also below the set limits. In Tanzania, ranges of 2.3-128 and 2.9-1400 mg/Kg for Nickel and Manganese respectively were reported by Nyanza et al [34]. Conversely, [32] did not detect any Manganese in the clay samples from Ghana. Essentially, for bone formation and carbohydrate metabolism, Manganese is an essential nutrient involved.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe estimated safe and adequate intake for copper is 1.5 -3.0 mg/day. Excessive ingestion of Copper could lead to severe mucosal irritation and corrosion; capillary, hepatic and renal damages; and gastrointestinal and neural disturbances [35]. Copper toxicity seldom occurs but may occur and its consequences may be severe. Intakes of supplements exceeding 3mg copper/day for a protracted period of time may be a cause for concern [36]. Results obtained in this study was observed to be far below and so contradicted that reported by Nyanza et al [34] of range 3.9-169 mg/Kg for geophagic soils in Tanzania.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHealth risk assessment\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBonglaisin et al [37] highlighted that the possibility and the danger of lead or heavy metals getting into human food chain through eating contaminated clay (by birds, animals etc.,) should be dreaded. In children for example, such an exposure would lead to adversarial health consequences on the developing brain, which may result in long-term cerebral deficits as evidenced in records.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResults obtained in this research is in agreement with published findings of [38] in a related study to investigate the health risks posed to pregnant women and children who practice geophagia in Nigeria and found in their study high Arsenic, Lead and Cadmium to be in excess above tolerable limits which yielded hazard quotient and Target Harzard Quotient values of \u0026gt;1 made clay consumption as pica unsafe and likely to cause adverse effects.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eClay samples obtained from Kumasi, Ghana as worked on by Nkansah et al [27] recorded Hazard index values of range 0.064. Arsenic was identified as the most hazardous element. A cancer risk assessment confirmed this as a calculated value of 2.2x 10\u003csup\u003e-5\u003c/sup\u003e was reached. Although the hazard index (HI) was below the prescribed unity (1), their cumulative effect was of concern. It could be estimated that the overall non-carcinogenic risk assessment on the health of consumers within the Kumasi Metropolis pointed to more risk via the ingestion route (HI = 0.064).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn another related study by Kamunda et al [39] in South Africa on toxic elements in soils of a Gold mining basin, they reported HQ values of 2.13 suggestive of non-carcinogenic effects noteworthy to the adult population. Nonetheless, a much greater value of 43.80 was recorded for children oral exposure which posed severe non-carcinogenic risk effects to children living in the mining area. Again, their carcinogenic risks (1.7 x10\u003csup\u003e-4\u003c/sup\u003e) have been found to be to be greater than acceptable values.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFrom China, Liu et al [40] reported a potential health risk linked with Arsenic and Chromium exposure for residents while risk assessment results which suggested that there were carcinogenic risks of Arsenic and Chromium via corresponding exposure pathways which exceeded the safety limit of 10\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e (the acceptable level of carcinogenic risk for humans). Cancer causing risk of heavy metals is the summation effect of the individual metals contributing to the cancer risk. Results of this study indicated that the sum of cancer risks of the individual metals for the examined toxic metals could pose cancer risk effect to both children and adults through the consumption of examined clay samples contaminated with Lead, Arsenic and Nickel from the Anfoega clay mining site.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eEssential nutrients such as Potassium, Iron, Calcium and Zinc; and toxic metals such as Arsenic, Lead and Mercury were detected in white clay soils mainly from Anfoega, Volta Region and sold for consumption in almost all markets within the region and beyond. The presence of these metals in the clay could be largely due to natural occurrence and a less likely influence of human activities such as handling and or the baking process. The estimated levels of heavy metals contained in 70 g of the geophagic clay consumed by inhabitants in the Ho municipality and beyond were found to be high compared to the Permitted Maximum Tolerable Daily Intake (PMTDI) prescribed by (WHO/FAO). There is a possibility of bioaccumulation after the consumption of these clays by adult pregnant women especially over a long period of time which poses a potential health menace. Human consumption of these clay materials which contain high levels of toxic metals render them obnoxious. Apparently, it is inevitable that geophagy practice will persist despite urbanization and civilization, we therefore support finding ways of reducing heavy metal pollutants in geophagic clays through suitable remediation technology that could minimize the effects of toxic metals on the human system.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eCollection of specimen (soils) used in our study complied with guidelines outlined by the Research and Ethics Committee of the University of Health and Allied Sciences, Ho, Ghana.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResearch did not involve human subjects\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to publish\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of Data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets used and/or analysed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe have no conflicts of interest to disclose\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis work received no funding other than salary support from respective employers.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNKK, AK-D, PTA and NYBM designed the study, NKK, EKE and NYBM carried out the experiment, data collection and analysis and wrote the first version of the manuscript. NOB, AK-D, PTA, CT and MA-A contributed to interpretation of data and critically revised the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe acknowledge and sincerely extend our heartfelt appreciation to Mr. Sowah and all the laboratory technicians of Department of Biochemistry laboratory, University of Ghana for carrying out the elemental mineral analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eORCID\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNii Korley Kortei \u003c/em\u003e\u003ca href=\"http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8863-4694\"\u003ehttp://orcid.org/0000-0002-8863-4694\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePaa Toah Akonor\u003c/em\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2459-7206\"\u003ehttps://orcid.org/0000-0002-2459-7206\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMatilda Ayim-Akonor\u003c/em\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4435-3206\"\u003ehttps://orcid.org/0000-0003-4435-3206\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNathaniel Owusu Boadi\u003c/em\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2673-7011\"\u003ehttps://orcid.org/0000-0003-2673-7011\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cp\u003eEDI: Estimated Daily Intake, HQ: Hazard Quotient, THQ: Target Hazard Quotient, TTHQ: Total\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTarget Hazard Quotient, PMTDI: Permitted Maximum Tolerable Daily Intake, WHO: World Health Organization, FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization, USEPA: United States Environmental Protection Agency, RDI: Recommended Dietary Intake, SPSS: Statistical Package for Social Sciences.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003cp\u003e[1] Corbett RW, Ryan C, Weinrich SP. Pica in pregnancy: does it affect pregnancy outcomes? MCN Am J Matern Child Nurs 2003; 28:183\u0026ndash;9, quiz 190-1.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[2] Mensah FO, Twumasi P, Amenawonyo XK , Larbie C, Baffo Jnr AK. Pica practice among pregnant women in the Kumasi metropolis of Ghana. International Health. 2010; 2:282-286.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[3] WHO Expert Committee on Maternal and Child Health. Public health aspects of low birth-weight. In: Maternal nutrition and the course of pregnancy. Washington DC: Food and Nutrition Board, National Academy of Science; 1961.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[4] Geissler PW, Mwaniki DL, Thiong\u0026rsquo;o F, Friis H. Geophagy among school children in western Kenya. Trop. Med. Internat. Health 1997; 2(7):624-630.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[5] Vermeer DE. Geophagy among the ewe of Ghana. Ethnology 1971;10:56-72.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[6] Kilbride PL, Kilbride JC. Changing Family Life in East Africa. GS Were, Nairobi. 1990.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[7] Ziegler JL. Geophagy: a vestige of paleonutrition? Tropical Medicine and International Health 1997;2(7):609-611.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[8] Woywodt A, Kiss A. Geophagia: The history of earth-eating. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 2002;95:143-146.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[9] Al-Rmalli SW, Jenkins RO, Watts MJ, Haris P. Risk of human exposure to arsenic and other toxic elements from geophagy: trace element analysis of baked clay using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Environ Health 2010;9:79-81.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[10] Tayie FA, Koduah G, Mork SAP. Geophagia clay soil as a source of mineral nutrients and toxicants, Afr. J. Food Agric. Nutr. Dev. 2013;13(1):7157\u0026ndash;7170.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[11] Bisi-Johnson MA, Obi CL, Ekosse GE. Microbiological and health related perspectives of geophagia: An overview. African Journal of Biotechnology 2010; 9(19):5784-5791.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[12] Woode A .Factors influencing the ingestion of clay in the greater Accra region of Ghana\u0026rdquo;. A paper presented at the CAPA International conference in Gambia, June 2013.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[13] WHO. Ten chemicals of major public health. 2013.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[14] Tano-Debrah K, Bruce-Baiden G. Microbiological characterization of dry white clay, a pica element in Ghana, 2010. \u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencepub.net/report\"\u003ehttp://www.sciencepub.net/report\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[15] Shinondo CJ, Mwikuma G. Geophagy as a risk factor for helminth infections in pregnant women in Lusaka, Zambia. Medical Journal of Zambia 2010;35(2):48-52.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[16] International Atomic Energy Agency. Measurement of Radionuclides in Food and the Environment\u0026mdash;Technical Report Series No. 295; International Atomic Energy Agency: Vienna, Austria, 1989.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;[17] Ngole VM , Ekosse GE, de Jager L, Songca S. Physicochemical characteristics of geophagic clayey soils from South Africa and Swaziland. African Journal of Biotechnology. 2010; 9(36):5929-5937.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[18] Macheka LR, Olowoyo JO, Matsela L, Khine AA. Prevalence of geophagia and its contributing factors among pregnant women at Dr. George Mukhari Academic Hospital, Pretoria. Afri Health Sci 2016;16(4): 972-978. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/ahs.v16i4.13\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[19] Meel BL. Geophagia in Transkei region of South Africa: Case Reports, African Health Sciences 2012; (4): 566 \u0026ndash; 568. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/ahs.v12i4.27\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[20] AOAC. Official method of Analysis. 18\u003csup\u003eth\u003c/sup\u003e Edition, Association of Officiating Analytical Chemists, Washington DC, Method 935.14 and 992.24. 2005.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[21] Yi Y, Tang C, Yi T, Yang Z, Zhang S. Health risk assessment of heavy metals in fish and accumulation patterns in food web in the upper Yangtze river, China. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 2017;145:295-305. \u003ca href=\"http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2017.07.022\"\u003ehttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2017.07.022\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[22] Griboff J, Wunderlin DA, Monferran MV. Metals, As and Se determination by inductivelycoupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) in edible fish collected from three eutrophic reservoirs. Their consumption represents a risk for human health? Microchem. J. 2017; 130:236\u0026ndash;244.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[23] Varol M, S\u0026uuml;nb\u0026uuml;l MR. Multiple approaches to assess human health risks from carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic metals via consumption of five fish species from a large reservoir in Turkey. Sci. Total Environ. 2018; 633: 684\u0026ndash;694.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[24] Vrhovnik P, Arrebola JP, Serafimovski T, Dolenec T, \u0026Scaron;muc NR, Dolenec M, Mutch E. Potentially toxic contamination of sediments, water and two animal species in Lake Kalimanci, FYR Macedonia: relevance to human health. Environ. Pollut. 2013; 180: 92\u0026ndash;100.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[25] USEPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). Risk Assessment: Guidance for Superfund Volume 1 Human Health Evaluation Manual (Part A) 291. 1989.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[26] Chien LC, Hung TC, Choang KY, Yeh CY, Meng PJ, Shieh MJ, Han BC. Daily intake of TBT, Cu, Zn, Cd and As for fishermen in Taiwan. Sci. Total Environ. 2002; 285: 177\u0026ndash;185.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[27] Nkansah MA, Korankye M, Darko G, Dodd M. Heavy Metal content and potential health risk of geophagic white clay from the Kumasi Metropolis in Ghana. Toxicology Reports 2016; 3: 644-651.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[28] USEPA. Edition of the Drinking Water Standards and Health Advisories. EPA 822-S-12-001, 2012 Edition of the Drinking Water Standards and Health Advisories, Office of Water, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. 2012.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;[29] Felter SP, Daston GP, Euling SY, Piersma AH, Tassinari MS. Assessment of health risks resulting from early-life exposures: Are current chemical toxicity testing protocols and risk assessment methods adequate?, Critical Reviews in Toxicology, 2015;45:3, 219-244,\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDOI: 10.3109/10408444.2014.993919\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[30] Korfali SI, Hawi T, Mroueh M. Evaluation of heavy metals content in dietary supplements in Lebanon. Chem. Cent J. 2013;7: 10. doi:10.1186/1752-153X-7-10.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[31] WHO. Food Additive and contaminants (Flavours; Cadmium and lead, in: Seventy-third Meeting of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee On Food Additives (JECFA), Geneva. 2011; 1\u0026ndash;535.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[32] Doe ED, Awua A, Achoribo SEA, Adu-Bobi NAK, Donko S, Baidoo I, Opata NS, Ampong AG. Essential and toxic element present in clay obtained from Ghanaian Market. Applied Biology 2012; 47: 8633\u0026ndash;8636.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[33] Mahurpawar M. Effects of heavy metals on human health. Social issues and environmental problems. Int. J. Res. 2015; 3(9):23-24.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[34] Nyanza EC, Joseph M, Premji SS, Thomas DSK, Mannion C. Geophagy practices and the content of chemical elements in the soil eaten by pregnant women in artisanal and small scale gold mining communities in Tanzania. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth 2014; 14(1): 1-10. \u003ca href=\"http://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2393-14-144\"\u003ehttp://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2393-14-144\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[35] Sharma RK, Agrawal M. Biological effects of heavy metals: An overview. Journal of Environmental Biology 2005; 26 (2): suppl. 301-313.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[36] Shibazaki S, Uchiyama S, Tsuda K, Taniuchi N. Copper deficiency caused by excessive alcohol consumption. BMJ Case Rep. 2017. bcr2017220921 doi:\u0026nbsp;\u003ca href=\"https://dx.doi.org/10.1136%2Fbcr-2017-220921\"\u003e10.1136/bcr-2017-220921\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[37] Bonglaisin JN, Mbofung CMF, Lantum DN. Intake of lead, Cadmium and Mercury in Kaolin eating: Quality assessment. Journal of Medical Sciences 2011; 11(7):267-273. DOI\u003cstrong\u003e:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003ca href=\"http://dx.doi.org/10.3923/jms.2011.267.273\"\u003e10.3923/jms.2011.267.273\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[38] Lar AU, Agene JI, Umar AI. Geophagic clay materials from Nigeria: a potential source of heavy metals and human health implications in mostly women and children who practice it. Environmental Geochemistry and Health 2015;37(2):363-375.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[39] Kamunda C, Mathuthu M, Madhuku M. Health risk assessment of heavy metals in soils from Witwatersrand Gold Mining Basin, South Africa. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health\u003cem\u003e, \u003c/em\u003e2016; 13: 663. doi:10.3390/ijerph13070663\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[40] Liu C, Lu L, Huang T, Huang Y, Ding L, Zhao W. The distribution and health risk assessment of metals in soils in the vicinity of industrial sites in Dongguan, China. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2016;13: 832. doi:10.3390/ijerph13080832\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align:center;\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size: 16px; font-family: \u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e1.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003eExposure parameters used for the health risk estimations via consumption of clay\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003e[27]\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003e(US EPA)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"width:436.95pt;border-collapse:collapse;border:none;\" width=\"583\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 152.75pt;border-top: 1.5pt solid windowtext;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1.5pt solid windowtext;border-right: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 25.05pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"34.99142367066895%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:200%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align: justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 200%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eParameter\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 103.5pt;border-top: 1.5pt solid windowtext;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1.5pt solid windowtext;border-right: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 25.05pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"23.670668953687823%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:200%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align: justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 200%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eUnit\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 1.25in;border-top: 1.5pt solid windowtext;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1.5pt solid windowtext;border-right: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 25.05pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"20.58319039451115%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:200%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align: justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 200%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eChild\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90.7pt;border-top: 1.5pt solid windowtext;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1.5pt solid windowtext;border-right: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 25.05pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"20.754716981132077%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:200%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align: justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 200%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eAdult\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 152.75pt;border: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 28.35pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"34.99142367066895%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:200%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align: justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 200%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eBody Weight (BW)\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 103.5pt;border: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 28.35pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"23.670668953687823%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:200%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align: justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 200%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eKg\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 1.25in;border: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 28.35pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"20.58319039451115%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:200%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align: justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 200%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90.7pt;border: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 28.35pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"20.754716981132077%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:200%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align: justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 200%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e75\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 152.75pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 28.35pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"34.99142367066895%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:200%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align: justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 200%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eExposure\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 103.5pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 28.35pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"23.670668953687823%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:200%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align: justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 200%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eDays/ years\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 1.25in;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 28.35pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"20.58319039451115%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:200%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align: justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 200%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e365\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90.7pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 28.35pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"20.754716981132077%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:200%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align: justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 200%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e365\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 152.75pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 28.35pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"34.99142367066895%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:200%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align: justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 200%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eFrequency (EF)\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 103.5pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 28.35pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"23.670668953687823%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:200%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align: justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 200%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 1.25in;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 28.35pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"20.58319039451115%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:200%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align: justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 200%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90.7pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 28.35pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"20.754716981132077%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:200%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align: justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 200%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 152.75pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 28.35pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"34.99142367066895%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:200%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align: justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 200%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eExposure\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 103.5pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 28.35pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"23.670668953687823%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:200%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align: justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 200%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eYears\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 1.25in;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 28.35pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"20.58319039451115%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:200%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align: justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 200%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90.7pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 28.35pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"20.754716981132077%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:200%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align: justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 200%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 152.75pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 28.35pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"34.99142367066895%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:200%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align: justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 200%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eDuration\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 103.5pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 28.35pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"23.670668953687823%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:200%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align: justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 200%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 1.25in;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 28.35pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"20.58319039451115%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:200%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align: justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 200%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90.7pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 28.35pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"20.754716981132077%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:200%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align: justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 200%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 152.75pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 28.35pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"34.99142367066895%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:200%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align: justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 200%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eIngestion Rate (IR\u003csub\u003eclay\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 103.5pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 28.35pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"23.670668953687823%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:200%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align: justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 200%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003emg/day\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 1.25in;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 28.35pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"20.58319039451115%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:200%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align: justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 200%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e200\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90.7pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 28.35pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"20.754716981132077%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:200%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align: justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 200%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e100\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 152.75pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 29.9pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"34.99142367066895%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:200%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align: justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 200%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eAverage Time (AT)\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 103.5pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 29.9pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"23.670668953687823%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:200%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align: justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 200%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eDays/years\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 1.25in;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 29.9pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"20.58319039451115%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:200%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align: justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 200%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90.7pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 29.9pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"20.754716981132077%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:200%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align: justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 200%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 152.75pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 28.35pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"34.99142367066895%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:200%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align: justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 200%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eFor carcinogenic\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 103.5pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 28.35pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"23.670668953687823%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:200%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align: justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 200%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 1.25in;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 28.35pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"20.58319039451115%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:200%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align: justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 200%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e365x70\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90.7pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 28.35pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"20.754716981132077%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:200%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align: justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 200%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e366x70\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 152.75pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1.5pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 5.3pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"34.99142367066895%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:200%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align: justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 200%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eFor non-carcinogenic\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 103.5pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1.5pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 5.3pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"23.670668953687823%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:200%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align: justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 200%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 1.25in;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1.5pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 5.3pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"20.58319039451115%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:200%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align: justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 200%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e365x ED\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90.7pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1.5pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 5.3pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"20.754716981132077%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:200%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align: justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 200%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e365x ED\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\n \u003cbr\u003e\n \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:10.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height:115%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eTable 2. Concentrations of \u003cspan style=\"background-image: initial; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial;\"\u003eessential macro and trace elements\u003c/span\u003e in clay samples\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable align=\"left\" border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"width:431.5pt;border-collapse:collapse;border:none;margin-left:6.75pt;margin-right:6.75pt;\" width=\"575\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 143.5pt;border-top: 1pt solid windowtext;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 14pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"33.21739130434783%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:10.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height:115%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eMineral Element \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 139.25pt;border-top: 1pt solid windowtext;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 14pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"32.34782608695652%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:10.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height:115%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Concentration (\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height:115%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003emg/Kg)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:10.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height:115%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; (Mean\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height:115%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003e± SD) \u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 148.75pt;border-top: 1pt solid windowtext;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 14pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"34.43478260869565%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:10.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align:center;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height:115%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eRecommended Dietary Intake (RDI), WHO [28]\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 143.5pt;border: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 14pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"33.21739130434783%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:10.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 115%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eIron\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 139.25pt;border: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 14pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"32.34782608695652%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align: justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e1.38 ± 1.5\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 148.75pt;border: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 14pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"34.43478260869565%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:10.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 115%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e18 mg\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 143.5pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 14pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"33.21739130434783%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:10.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 115%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eCopper\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 139.25pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 14pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"32.34782608695652%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align: justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e2.40 ± 1.5\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 148.75pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 14pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"34.43478260869565%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:10.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: 115%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align:justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height:115%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e0.9 mg\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 143.5pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 0.2in;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"33.21739130434783%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:10.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 115%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eZinc\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 139.25pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 0.2in;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"32.34782608695652%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:10.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 115%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e7.74 ± 1.5\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 148.75pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 0.2in;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"34.43478260869565%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:10.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 115%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e11 mg\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 143.5pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 14pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"33.21739130434783%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:10.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 115%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003ePotassium\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 139.25pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 14pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"32.34782608695652%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:10.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 115%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e4.01 ± 1.0\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 148.75pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 14pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"34.43478260869565%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:10.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: 115%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align:justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height:115%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e3100-3500 mg\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 143.5pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 14pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"33.21739130434783%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:10.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 115%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eMagnesium\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 139.25pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 14pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"32.34782608695652%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:10.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: 115%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align:justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height:115%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e13.24 ± 2.2 \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 148.75pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 14pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"34.43478260869565%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:10.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 115%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e280-350 mg\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 143.5pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 14pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"33.21739130434783%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:10.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height: 115%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eSodium\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 139.25pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 14pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"32.34782608695652%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:10.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: 115%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align:justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height:115%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e13.76 ± 2.1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 148.75pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 14pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"34.43478260869565%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:10.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: 115%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align:justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height:115%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e500-2400 mg\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:10.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height:115%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:10.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height:115%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:10.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height:115%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:107%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;text-align:justify;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:107%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height:107%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:107%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height:107%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:107%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height:107%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:107%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height:107%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:107%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height:107%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:107%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height:107%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:107%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height:107%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:107%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height:107%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eTable 3. Mean concentrations of \u003cspan style=\"background-image: initial; background-position: initial; background-size: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial;\"\u003etoxic trace elements\u003c/span\u003e in clay sample\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:107%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height:107%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"width:443.95pt;border-collapse:collapse;border:none;\" width=\"592\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"border-top: 1pt solid windowtext;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 32.3pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eMineral element\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"border-top: 1pt solid windowtext;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 32.3pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eMean Concentration\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e(Mean\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family: \u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003e± SD)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"border-top: 1pt solid windowtext;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 32.3pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:10.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height:115%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eWHO/FAO PMTDI\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:10.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height:115%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e(µg/Kg BW/day)\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"border-top: 1pt solid windowtext;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 32.3pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003ePMTDI for 60\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"border: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 32.3pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eArsenic\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"border: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 32.3pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e1.63 ± 0.03 µg/Kg \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"border: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 32.3pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e3.0\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"border: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 32.3pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;180\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 32.3pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eManganese\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 32.3pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e4.72 ± 0.8 mg/Kg\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 32.3pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e4.9 mg/Kg\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 32.3pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;294\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 32.3pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eLead\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 32.3pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e0.53 ± 0.02 mg/Kg\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 32.3pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e3.0\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 32.3pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;180\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 32.3pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eNickel \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 32.3pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e1.85 ± 0.3 \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; mg/Kg \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 32.3pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e5.0\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 32.3pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;300\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:107%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height:107%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:107%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height:107%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:107%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height:107%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:107%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height:107%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:107%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height:107%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:107%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height:107%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eTable 4: Reference doses (RFD) mg kg\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003eday\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e for heavy metals used in this study\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"width:467.5pt;border-collapse:collapse;border:none;\" width=\"623\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 103.85pt;border-top: 1pt solid windowtext;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 36.6pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"22.150882825040128%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eHeavy metals\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96.1pt;border-top: 1pt solid windowtext;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 36.6pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"20.545746388443018%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eReference Doses\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 128.8pt;border-top: 1pt solid windowtext;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 36.6pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"27.608346709470304%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eCancer slope factor\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 138.75pt;border-top: 1pt solid windowtext;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 36.6pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"29.69502407704655%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eReferences\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 103.85pt;border: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 36.6pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"22.150882825040128%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eArsenic\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96.1pt;border: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 36.6pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"20.545746388443018%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e3.0x10\u003csup\u003e-4\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 128.8pt;border: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 36.6pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"27.608346709470304%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e1.50\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 138.75pt;border: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 36.6pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"29.69502407704655%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e[27] [31]\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 103.85pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 36.6pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"22.150882825040128%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eCopper\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96.1pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 36.6pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"20.545746388443018%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e4.0x10\u003csup\u003e-2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 128.8pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 36.6pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"27.608346709470304%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eN/A\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 138.75pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 36.6pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"29.69502407704655%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e[31]\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 103.85pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 36.6pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"22.150882825040128%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eLead\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96.1pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 36.6pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"20.545746388443018%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e3.5x10\u003csup\u003e-3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 128.8pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 36.6pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"27.608346709470304%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e8.5 x 10\u003csup\u003e-3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 138.75pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 36.6pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"29.69502407704655%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e[27]\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 103.85pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 36.6pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"22.150882825040128%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eManganese\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96.1pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 36.6pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"20.545746388443018%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e0.14\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 128.8pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 36.6pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"27.608346709470304%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eN/A\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 138.75pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 36.6pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"29.69502407704655%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e[31]\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 103.85pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 36.6pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"22.150882825040128%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003eNickel\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96.1pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 36.6pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"20.545746388443018%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e0.02\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 128.8pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 36.6pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"27.608346709470304%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e9.10 x 10\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 138.75pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 36.6pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\" width=\"29.69502407704655%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size: 16px; font-family: \u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;, serif; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);\"\u003e[31] [32]\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\n \u003cbr\u003e\n \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:107%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height:107%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003eTable 5: Calculated Estimated Daily Intake, Hazard Quotient, Target Hazard Quotients and Cancer Risks of the Heavy metals in clay samples\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"width:467.5pt;border-collapse:collapse;border:none;\" width=\"623\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94.25pt;border-top: 1pt solid windowtext;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 39.5pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003eHeavy Metal\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 1in;border-top: 1pt solid windowtext;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 39.5pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003eSample\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 81pt;border-top: 1pt solid windowtext;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 39.5pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003eEDI\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003e(mg/kg Bw/day)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76.5pt;border-top: 1pt solid windowtext;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 39.5pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003eHQ\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 68.45pt;border-top: 1pt solid windowtext;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 39.5pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003eTHQ\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"border-top: 1pt solid windowtext;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 39.5pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003eCancer\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003eRisk\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94.25pt;border: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 39.5pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003eArsenic\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 1in;border: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 39.5pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003eClay\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 81pt;border: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 39.5pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003e1.88\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76.5pt;border: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 39.5pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003e6.26x10\u003csup\u003e-4\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 68.45pt;border: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 39.5pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003e2.62\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"border: none;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 39.5pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003e2.82\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94.25pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 39.5pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003eCopper\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 1in;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 39.5pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003eClay\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 81pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 39.5pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003e2.767\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76.5pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 39.5pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003e0.069\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 68.45pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 39.5pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003e0.067\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 39.5pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003eN/A\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94.25pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 39.5pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003eLead\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 1in;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 39.5pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003eClay\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 81pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 39.5pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003e0.611\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76.5pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 39.5pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003e1.75x10\u003csup\u003e-3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 68.45pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 39.5pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003e1.69\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 39.5pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003e0.052\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94.25pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 39.5pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003eManganese\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 1in;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 39.5pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003eClay\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 81pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 39.5pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003e5.44\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76.5pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 39.5pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003e38.86\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 68.45pt;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 39.5pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003e0.377\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 39.5pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003eN/A\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94.25pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 39.5pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003eNickel\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 1in;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 39.5pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003eClay\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 81pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 39.5pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003e2.13\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76.5pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 39.5pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003e106.5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 68.45pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 39.5pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003e10.34\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0in 5.4pt;height: 39.5pt;vertical-align: top;\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;margin-left:0in;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003e19.38\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:107%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height:107%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:107%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height:107%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003eN/A – Not available\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:107%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height:107%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:107%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:16px;line-height:107%;font-family:\u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;,serif;\"\u003eTotal Target Harzard Quotient (Clay)\u003csub\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sub\u003e= 2.62 + 0.067 +1.69 + 0.377 + 10.34\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp style=\"margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:107%;font-size:15px;font-family:\u0026quot;Calibri\u0026quot;,sans-serif;\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size: 16px; line-height: 107%; font-family: \u0026quot;Times New Roman\u0026quot;, serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);\"\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;=15\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-pregnancy-and-childbirth","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"prch","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth](http://bmcpregnancychildbirth.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/prch/default.aspx","title":"BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth","twitterHandle":"@BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Pica, geophagy, clay, Volta Region, pregnant women, risk assessment, Ghana","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.2.16641/v4","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.2.16641/v4","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eIntroduction: Geophagia although pleasurable and somewhat a necessity among pregnant women, also comes along with its own attendant problems such as exposure to potentially hazardous substances like bacteria, fungi, helminthes and ova, radioactive materials, and toxic elemental minerals in the soil depending on the geographical location.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMethodology: This study evaluated the potential health risk involved during the exposure of pregnant women to toxic elemental minerals via the consumption of clay as pica (geophagia). Elemental mineral analysis was carried out using Buck Scientific 210VGP Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (Buck Scientific, Inc. East Norwalk, USA). Risk assessment methods were also used to ascertain the various risks factors and the overall risk level.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eResults: Concentrations of the macro elements investigated were 1.38 ± 1.5, 2.40± 1.5, 7.74± 1.5, 4.01± 1.0, 13.24± 2.2 and 13.76± 2.1 mg/Kg for iron (Fe), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg) and sodium (Na) respectively. While that for the micro elements were 1.63± 0.03 µg/Kg, 4.72±0.8, 0.53±0.02 and 1.85±0.3 mg/kg respectively for arsenic (As), manganese (Mn), lead (Pb) and nickel (Ni). Estimated Daily Intake (EDI), Hazard Quotient (HQ), Target Hazard Quotient (THQ) and Total Target Hazard Quotient (TTHQ) values ranged 0.611- 5.44 (mg/kg Bw/day), 6.26x10\u003csup\u003e-4 \u003c/sup\u003e– 106.5, 0.067-10.34 and 15 respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eConclusion: There is the likelihood of posing adverse health problems when clay samples obtained from Anfoega which is sited in the Volta region of Ghana is consumed due to the fact that the HQ’s of these elemental minerals were \u0026gt;1 which points to high content of Manganese (Mn) and Nickel (Ni). It is also likely to cause adverse health problems in an individual’s life time since THQ for Arsenic, Lead and Nickel were above 1. Ultimately, the cumulative effect of these toxicants were exceedingly great (≤ 15) which implied a high level of unsafety associated with this clay. Per the results from this study, it is not safe for pregnant women to consume clay as pica since these toxic elements may cause detrimental effects on the foetus of the unborn child.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Potential health risk assessment of toxic metals contamination in clay eaten as pica (geophagia) among pregnant women of Ho in the Volta Region of Ghana.","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":4,"date":"2020-03-10 00:38:48","doi":"10.21203/rs.2.16641/v4","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Accept","date":"2020-03-05T12:00:00+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2020-03-04T12:00:00+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2020-03-03T12:00:00+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2020-03-03T12:00:00+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-pregnancy-and-childbirth","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"prch","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth](http://bmcpregnancychildbirth.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/prch/default.aspx","title":"BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth","twitterHandle":"@BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}},{"code":3,"date":"2020-03-03 19:25:55","doi":"10.21203/rs.2.16641/v3","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2020-03-03T12:00:00+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"decision","content":"Minor revision","date":"2020-03-03T12:00:00+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-pregnancy-and-childbirth","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"prch","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth](http://bmcpregnancychildbirth.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/prch/default.aspx","title":"BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth","twitterHandle":"@BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}},{"code":2,"date":"2020-02-17 19:53:42","doi":"10.21203/rs.2.16641/v2","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Minor revision","date":"2020-02-26T12:00:00+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2020-02-24T12:00:00+00:00","index":3,"fulltext":"Recommendation: Accept after minor essential revisions\nForm responses:\n---\n* Are the methods appropriate and well described?: **Yes**\n* Does the work include the necessary controls?: **Unable to assess**\n* Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the data shown?: **Yes**\n* Are you able to assess any statistics in the manuscript or would you recommend an additional statistical review?: **I am able to assess the statistics**\n* Quality of written English: **Acceptable**\n* Declaration of competing interests: **I declare that I have no competing interests**\n\nComments to Author:\n---\n\nI think geophagy is an important subject that deserves publication.\n\nComments to the revised paper:\n\nI am not quite sure if you base your definition of macro versus micro elements on what you find in soil or in humans.\n\n* In soil the definition of the various elements are: Macro elements are nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), Meso elements are magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca) and sulphur (S) and Micro elements or trace elements are iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), boron (B), copper (Cu), molybdenum (Mo) and silicon (Si). Then there are the toxic micro elements/trace elements: As, Pb or Ni.\n* In humans there are macro elements: Fe, K, Mg and Na and there are trace elements: 1. Essential: Zn, Cu and 2: Toxic: As, pb and Ni.\n\nYou should either use the name (example: lead) or the chemical symbol (Pb), not mix them like in the abstract: Concentrations of the macro elements investigated were ...for Fe, Cu, Zn, K, Mg and Na respectively. While that for the micro elements were...for Arsenic, Manganese, Lead and Nickel.\n"},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2020-02-20T12:00:00+00:00","index":2,"fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2020-02-20T12:00:00+00:00","index":2,"fulltext":"Recommendation: Accept without revision\nForm responses:\n---\n* Are the methods appropriate and well described?: **Yes**\n* Does the work include the necessary controls?: **Yes**\n* Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the data shown?: **Yes**\n* Are you able to assess any statistics in the manuscript or would you recommend an additional statistical review?: **Not relevant to this manuscript**\n* Quality of written English: **Acceptable**\n* Declaration of competing interests: **I declare that I have no competing interests**\n\nComments to Author:\n---\nI accept the corrections made in the paper\n"},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2020-02-20T12:00:00+00:00","index":3,"fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2020-02-19T12:00:00+00:00","index":1,"fulltext":"Recommendation: Accept without revision\nForm responses:\n---\n* Are the methods appropriate and well described?: **Yes**\n* Does the work include the necessary controls?: **Unable to assess**\n* Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the data shown?: **Yes**\n* Are you able to assess any statistics in the manuscript or would you recommend an additional statistical review?: **I am able to assess the statistics**\n* Quality of written English: **Acceptable**\n* Declaration of competing interests: **I declare that I have no competing interests**\n\nComments to Author:\n---\nThe authors met most of the recommendations. And for drawing attention to a common practice (pica) in different cultures that is often ignored by the health professional, it deserves to be published."},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2020-02-17T12:00:00+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2020-02-17T12:00:00+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2020-02-17T12:00:00+00:00","index":1,"fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2020-02-16T12:00:00+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2020-02-16T12:00:00+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-pregnancy-and-childbirth","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"prch","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth](http://bmcpregnancychildbirth.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/prch/default.aspx","title":"BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth","twitterHandle":"@BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}},{"code":1,"date":"2019-10-31 17:23:23","doi":"10.21203/rs.2.16641/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Major revision","date":"2020-01-27T12:00:00+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2020-01-26T12:00:00+00:00","index":3,"fulltext":"Recommendation: Major revisions required\nForm responses:\n---\n* Are the methods appropriate and well described?: **Yes**\n* Does the work include the necessary controls?: **Unable to assess**\n* Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the data shown?: **No**\n* Are you able to assess any statistics in the manuscript or would you recommend an additional statistical review?: **I am able to assess the statistics**\n* Quality of written English: **Needs some language corrections before being published**\n* Declaration of competing interests: **I declare that I have no competing interests**\n\nComments to Author:\n---\n\nManuscript ID: PRCH-D-19-01597\nTitle: Potential health risk assessment of toxic metals contamination in clay eaten as pica (geophagia) among pregnant women of Ho in the Volta Region of Ghana.\n\n\nThe authors have assessed evaluated the potential health risk involved during the exposure of pregnant women to toxic elemental minerals via the consumption of clay as pica (geophagia).\nThey have measured the level of Fe, Cu, Zn, K, Mg and Na, as well as the toxic trace elements Arsenic, Manganese, Lead and Nickel. Based on the concentration in clay they have estimated the following values: Estimated Daily Intake (EDI), Hazard Quotient (HQ), Target Hazard Quotient (THQ) and Total Target Hazard Quotient (TTHQ).\n\nI found it a bit difficult to understand the impact of all the estimated ratios. As divalent ions have the same transporter in the endothelium in the gut, the uptake of various divalent trace elements will vary according to the mixture in the food, so the estimated uptake is difficult to estimate. As an example, uptake of mercury is reduced if the food contains a high level of selenium (Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, Volume 21, Issue 3, June 1991, Pages 348-364)\nThe subject are however interesting.\n\nSome comments:\n* I would suggest to use essential macro and trace elements versus toxic trace elements. Zn and Cu is not macro elements. Mn is categorized asa toxic element, but Mn is also considered to be an essential trace elements. Some trace elements are essential in low doses and toxic in high doses.\n* Table 1 might be omitted.\n* My suggestion is to present the data like this: Mean and SD concentrations in clay for Fe: were 1.38 ± 1.5, for Zn: 2.40± 1.5, and so on\n* The first part of the Discussion is somewhat confusing: what elements are you taking about?\n* Largely, malformations due to hereditary has been linked directly to exposure of chemical elements [33, 34]. What do you mean?\n* I suggest you write the name of the researcher like this: Al-Rmalli et al [9], not just give the reference, like this: A similar phenomenom was demonstrated by [17] in their study\n"},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2020-01-13T12:00:00+00:00","index":3,"fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2019-11-25T12:00:00+00:00","index":2,"fulltext":"Recommendation: Reject\nForm responses:\n---\n* Are the methods appropriate and well described?: **Yes**\n* Does the work include the necessary controls?: **No**\n* Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the data shown?: **No**\n* Are you able to assess any statistics in the manuscript or would you recommend an additional statistical review?: **I am able to assess the statistics**\n* Quality of written English: **Acceptable**\n* Declaration of competing interests: **I declare that I have no competing interests.**\n\nComments to Author:\n---\nDespite the authors' efforts to draft this manuscript as well as to draw attention to the potential risks of toxic metal contamination in pregnant women consuming clay (Ho in the Volta Region of Ghana), according to the study's objective, this analysis was not broken down here. The authors did not clarify if there are cases of health problems arising from this practice in pregnant women and newborns in that region, what percentage of this population still persists with this practice and what is the average and time of consumption among them. This is an analysis with recommendation already consolidated in the literature for the population in general.\nAlso noteworthy is the number of references with more than 5 years of publication that reaches 74% of the total references."},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2019-11-22T12:00:00+00:00","index":1,"fulltext":"Recommendation: Accept after minor essential revisions\nForm responses:\n---\n* Are the methods appropriate and well described?: **No**\n* Does the work include the necessary controls?: **Yes**\n* Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the data shown?: **Yes**\n* Are you able to assess any statistics in the manuscript or would you recommend an additional statistical review?: **I recommend additional statistical review**\n* Quality of written English: **Needs some language corrections before being published**\n* Declaration of competing interests: **'I declare that I have no competing interests'**\n\nComments to Author:\n---\nMy comments are several notes throughout the text, which I will send attachment. An element that was repeated several times throughout the manuscript, was that the authors alluding to some scientific work, instead of describing and properly crafting the author, only marked the reference (Vancouver) in the text, which made the text lose its meaning. sense of many sentences.\nIn methods and results I made two observations that are important to review"},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2019-11-11T12:00:00+00:00","index":2,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2019-11-08T12:00:00+00:00","index":1,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2019-11-04T12:00:00+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2019-10-25T12:00:00+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2019-10-24T12:00:00+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2019-10-23T12:00:00+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"","date":"2019-10-22T12:00:00+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-pregnancy-and-childbirth","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"prch","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth](http://bmcpregnancychildbirth.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/prch/default.aspx","title":"BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth","twitterHandle":"@BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"c3ed03a2-de34-413d-b189-fe48f5e6663b","owner":[],"postedDate":"March 10th, 2020","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[{"id":65519,"name":"Maternal \u0026 Fetal Medicine"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2021-08-24T17:25:24+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-7279","link":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-020-02857-4","journal":{"identity":"bmc-pregnancy-and-childbirth","isVorOnly":false,"title":"BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth"},"publishedOn":"2020-03-14 20:30:44","publishedOnDateReadable":"March 14th, 2020"},"versionCreatedAt":"2020-03-10 00:38:48","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1186/s12884-020-02857-4","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-020-02857-4","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v4","identity":"rs-7279","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"identity":"rs-7279","version":["v4"]},"buildId":"GqpaHPwrfC8PjnIFayRh5","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}