Valorization of Teak Wood Biomass into Nanobiochar for Environmental Remediation

Valorization of Teak Wood Biomass into Nanobiochar for Environmental Remediation | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Valorization of Teak Wood Biomass into Nanobiochar for Environmental Remediation Deshraj Singh Thakur, Dr.Santosh Narayan Chadar This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8878291/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 14 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Industrialization and urbanization have precipitated a sharp escalation in environmental pollution, necessitating sustainable and economical remediation strategies. Biomass-derived biochar has gained prominence in environmental applications due to its porous architecture, surface functional groups, and carbon-rich matrix. Nanobiochar, in particular, has recently attracted substantial interest for its enhanced surface area, reactivity, and adsorption capacity relative to bulk biochar. This investigation converts teak wood biomass into nanobiochar through controlled pyrolysis followed by mechanical size reduction. The product was comprehensively characterized via proximate and ultimate analyses, BET, FTIR, XRD, SEM-EDX, and zeta potential assessments, unveiling superior physicochemical attributes conducive to remediation. Its adsorption performance was appraised for heavy metals and organic pollutants in aqueous media. Collectively, the teak wood under the experimental conditions under investigation, nanobiochar, shows promising removal effectiveness. It is also a cheap and environmentally friendly sorbent that promotes sustainable biomass valorization and pollution reduction. Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental sciences Physical sciences/Materials science Teak wood biomass Nanobiochar Waste valorization Pyrolysis Adsorption Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 1. Introduction Environmental contamination, particularly aqueous pollution from heavy metals and organic contaminants, is a major global concern due to its negative impacts on ecosystems and human health. Conventional remediation methods, including chemical precipitation, ion exchange, and membrane filtration, have three key disadvantages: high operating costs, secondary waste production, and reduced efficacy at low contamination concentrations. Thus, it is essential to create sustainable and reasonably priced materials for environmental restoration. There has been a lot of interest in biochar, a carbon-rich compound made by pyrolyzing organic waste, as a possible solution for pollution cleanup [ 1 ]. However, inherent limitations that restrict raw biochar's effectiveness in a range of environmental conditions, such as its limited adsorption capacity and relatively limited pH adaptation range, usually restrict its use [ 2 ]. To improve biochar efficacy in environmental remediation, several functionalization and modification techniques have been developed to alter their physicochemical and molecular properties. Physical, chemical, and biological treatments are among the changes that aim to enhance certain surface areas, active sites, pore volumes, and functional groups to enhance the sorption and fixation of pollutants [ 3 ],[ 4 ]. Many active sites, including base sites, redox sites, and Brønsted and Lewis acid sites, can be introduced by chemical treatments with acids, alkalis, or metal oxides, for instance. These sites are crucial for binding a range of pollutants [ 5 ],[ 6 ]. Furthermore, strategically incorporating magnetic elements, ligands, or surfactants during the functionalization process improves the material's affinity for specific contaminants and facilitates separation and recovery processes, increasing the adsorbent's overall reusability and viability from an economic standpoint [ 7 ]. Biochar, a promising adsorbent for cleanup applications, is produced by thermochemically converting biomass under oxygen-limited conditions. Because of its many surface functional groups, chemical stability, and porous structure, it is ideal for adsorbing pollutants and soil amendments. However, the adsorption and surface reactivity of conventional micrometer-scale biochar are limited. To overcome these constraints, recent research has focused on enhancing the reactive and adsorptive properties of biochar using nanoparticles to remove organic contaminants and heavy metals [ 8 ]. With its nanoscale dimension, nanobiochar overcomes these limitations by providing a much higher specific surface area, better contaminant interactions, and increased functional group accessibility. Nanobiochar, which has nanoscale dimensions and greatly boosts specific surface area, enhances contaminant interactions and improves functional group accessibility, overcoming these limitations. The selection of biomass precursors has a significant impact on the properties and capabilities of nanobiochar. The variations in lignocellulosic composition, porosity, and inorganic content among feedstocks impact the final nanomaterial's surface area, pore volume, and functional group density [ 9 ]. A plentiful but mostly underutilized lignocellulosic byproduct of sawmilling, forestry, and furniture production is teak wood biomass. A plentiful but mostly underutilized lignocellulosic byproduct of sawmilling, forestry, and furniture production is teak wood biomass. Its conversion to nanobiochar enables sustainable waste valorization and yields a high-performing remediation material. This paper investigates the synthesis, characteristics, and efficacy of nanobiochar made from teak wood for environmental remediation. To prove its promise as a better alternative to conventional adsorbents like carbon nanotubes and activated carbon, this work specifically evaluates the material's capacity to adsorb a range of contaminants, including organic micropollutants and heavy metals [ 10 ]. These innovative materials address the inherent limitations of virgin biochar, such as its low specific surface area and limited adsorption capacity, by offering superior physicochemical qualities, such as increased porosity, stability, and surface-active sites [ 11 ]. These enhanced physicochemical properties make successful pollutant removal techniques like pore filling, electrostatic attraction, and surface complexation possible when working with complex wastewater matrices. Furthermore, the porosity and functional groups of biochar can be changed by adding nanoparticles to its surface. This results in the formation of additional active sites, which significantly boost the material's ability to absorb heavy metals and organic pollutants [ 12 ]. This enhancement is mostly due to the nanomaterial's large specific surface area and pore volume, which are crucial for maximizing adsorptive capacity [ 13 ]. Additionally, the feedstock's composition is important because biomass with a high lignin content typically produces nanobiochar with strong aggregation tendencies, whereas material rich in hemicellulose has a lower carbon content and a higher oxygen content, which directly affects the material's adsorption behavior. Mechanical processing techniques like ball milling, which raise the specific surface area and reduce particle size, further improve these characteristics by opening up additional potential sorption sites for contaminants [ 14 ],[ 15 ]. The development of customized nanobiochar composites, which add metal oxides or other useful nanoparticles to the carbon matrix, has therefore attracted a lot of attention as a way to improve these remediation capacities [ 16 ]. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1 Raw Material Preparation Teak wood biomass waste that was gathered from neighbouring sawmills was cleaned with distilled water to get rid of surface impurities and clinging dust before being oven-dried for 24 hours at 105°C. A 100-mesh screen was used to sift the finely ground dried biomass, resulting in a consistent particle size that was appropriate for thermal treatment. The raw biomass powder underwent a chemical pretreatment with strong hydrochloric acid (HCl) to eliminate metal ions, inorganic minerals, and ash-forming components before being loaded into the muffle furnace. In order to oxidize the surface and improve chemical reactivity by adding oxygen-containing functional groups, concentrated nitric acid (HNO₃) was then applied to the acid-washed biomass. Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO₃) was used to neutralize excess acid residues, and the item was then repeatedly rinsed with distilled water until the pH was neutral. Following chemical treatment, the biomass was oven-dried and sealed in airtight containers, making it ready for direct loading into the muffle furnace for regulated pyrolysis [ 17 ],[ 18 ]. 2.2 Biochar Production The biomass of teak wood that had been chemically processed and oven-dried was placed into a stainless-steel tube (SS-310 grade) and sealed to reduce oxygen exposure. The pyrolysis was carried out in a muffle/tubular furnace at temperatures between 800 and 900°C for five hours in an inert (restricted oxygen) environment to guarantee full carbonization. Carefully regulating the final temperature and heating rate encouraged the formation of a stable porous carbon structure. To avoid surface oxidation and moisture absorption, the biochar was collected and stored in airtight containers after the heat treatment was finished and the furnace was allowed to naturally cool to ambient temperature [ 19 ],[ 20 ]. 2.3 Nanobiochar Synthesis To convert bulk biochar to nanoscale particles, a planetary ball mill (Pulverisette 7) was used. Milling was done in dry conditions for three hours at a rotational speed of 350 rpm. As grinding media, zirconia balls of one millimeter in diameter were employed. The zirconia milling jar was filled with 14 balls totaling 37 g in mass and 3.7 g of biochar, ensuring a 10:1 ball-to-powder weight ratio. The milling operation was stopped for 10 minutes every 30 minutes of running time in order to regulate temperature rise during operation. Particle size reduction was significantly aided by the combined action of shear and collision forces during planetary motion. Upon milling, the resulting powdered nanobiochar was meticulously gathered and stored in airtight containers for subsequent examination [ 21 ],[ 22 ]. 2.4 Characterization Techniques The physicochemical characteristics of the produced nanobiochar were described using an extensive range of analytical methods. Surface morphology, microstructural features, and elemental composition and distribution were clarified by combining energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy with scanning electron microscopy [ 23 ]. X-ray diffraction analysis was used to determine the crystalline structure and phase components using Cu Kα radiation across an appropriate 2θ range. Surface functional groups and chemical bonds were identified using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, which operates in the 4000–400 cm⁻¹ wavenumber range. Adsorption performance was measured by evaluating nitrogen adsorption–desorption isotherms recorded at 77 K using the Barrett–Joyner–Halenda model for pore volume and size distribution and the Brunauer–Emmett–Teller method for specific surface area. Fixed carbon, ash, moisture, volatile matter, and elemental concentrations were measured by proximate and ultimate analysis [ 24 ]. Particle size distribution and polydispersity index were calculated using dynamic light scattering, confirming the homogeneity and nanoscale dimensions. Lastly, Zetasizer Nano ZS zeta potential measurements assessed aqueous dispersion behavior, isoelectric point, surface charge, and colloidal stability [ 25 ]. 2.5 Environmental Application Studies The considerable application potential of nanobiochar for the remediation of water contaminated with Pb(II), Hg(II), Cd(II), and As(V) is highlighted by the adsorption performance seen in this work. Because this pH range is frequently seen in industrial and mining effluents, the adsorbent's capacity to achieve maximal removal under mildly acidic circumstances (pH 5–6) is especially beneficial, as it reduces the need for substantial chemical pH adjustment. The dose-dependent rise in metal removal shows how adaptable the system is in terms of operation, enabling adsorption efficiency to be adjusted in accordance with pollution levels. The nanobiochar maintained a notable removal efficiency, showing high metal–surface affinity, despite the fact that increasing starting metal concentrations caused partial saturation of active sites. Furthermore, the improved adsorption at higher temperatures points to advantageous mass transfer and diffusion in the porous carbon matrix, bolstering its suitability for use in actual wastewater treatment situations. All of these findings support the use of nanobiochar as an economical and environmentally friendly adsorbent for real-world heavy metal removal [ 26 ]. The great adsorption capability of nanobiochar toward hazardous heavy metals in aqueous systems is demonstrated by the removal efficiencies (Pb²⁺ 89%, Cd²⁺ 85%, Hg²⁺ 82%, and As⁵⁺ 78%) obtained through AAS analysis. According to these findings, nanobiochar can be used successfully in contaminated groundwater purification, industrial effluent remediation, and wastewater treatment facilities. Through ion exchange, surface complexation, and electrostatic attraction, the material's high surface area, many oxygen-containing functional groups, and porous structure improve metal binding. For extensive environmental remediation applications, nanobiochar offers a promising substitute for traditional adsorbents due to its affordability, environmental friendliness, and sustainable biomass production [ 27 ]. Through the methodical optimization of critical parameters such as adsorbent dosage, solution pH, contact time, and initial pollutant concentration, the effectiveness of heavy metal ion removal from aqueous solutions was evaluated through batch adsorption tests. The equilibrium duration and rate-limiting stages were determined by kinetic studies, and the effect of surface charge on adsorption performance was investigated by applying diluted hydrochloric acid or sodium hydroxide to change pH [ 28 ]. The maximum adsorption capabilities and the adsorption pathways between the target pollutants and the surface of nanobiochar were elucidated by isotherm investigations, which were accomplished by altering the initial concentrations of the pollutants [ 29 ],[ 30 ]. To assess the spontaneity and features of the adsorption process, thermodynamic parameters such as enthalpy, entropy, and Gibbs free energy were obtained from temperature-dependent experiments [ 31 ],[ 32 ]. The salt addition method was used to determine the point of zero charge in 0.01 M NaCl throughout a pH range of 3–11. Zeta potential measurements were performed using a Zetasizer Nano Series throughout a pH range of 2–12. The results showed improved dispersion stability at -83.38 mV and described surface charge and colloidal stability. Brunauer–Emmett–Teller and Barrett–Joyner–Halenda models were used to assess nitrogen adsorption–desorption isotherms at 77 K in order to calculate specific surface area, pore diameter, and pore volume. Notably, the BET model measured the monolayer gas adsorption volume on external and pore surfaces, while BJH obtained the pore size distribution from the desorption isotherm [ 33 ],[ 34 ]. Significant sorption capacities for Pb and methylene blue were demonstrated by batch adsorption tests, with removal efficiencies above 95% under ideal circumstances. The material's increased specific surface area, pore volume, and negative surface charge provide it with these exceptional qualities, which allow for the efficient collection of cationic contaminants. Below the PZC, the positively charged surface promotes the uptake of anionic pollutants by electrostatic interactions, while under neutral to mildly acidic conditions, the negative zeta potential increases electrostatic attractions to positively charged species [ 35 ]- [ 37 ]. 3. Results and Discussion 3.1 Surface Area and Porosity Analysis (BET) When teak wood-derived nano-biochar is produced at 800–900°C, its nitrogen adsorption–desorption isotherm shows a Type IV isotherm with a noticeable hysteresis loop at higher relative pressures (P/P₀ > 0.4), suggesting the presence of a well-developed micro–mesoporous structure. Due to substantial devolatilization and carbon matrix rearrangement during high-temperature pyrolysis, micropore filling is responsible for the slow nitrogen uptake seen at low relative pressures (P/P₀ < 0.1). Because the BET plot is linear in the relative pressure range of 0.05–0.30, surface area can be calculated using the Brunauer–Emmett–Teller model. However, adsorption rises dramatically at increasing pressures, indicating capillary condensation inside mesopores. The combination of mesopores, which promote improved mass transfer, and micropores, which contribute to high specific surface area, emphasizes its appropriateness for adsorption-based environmental remediation applications. This combination is in line with the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry's classifications for porous carbon materials and is typical of nano-structured biochar made at high temperatures [ 38 ]. 3.2 Morphological Characterization (SEM) Scanning electron microscopy images provide comprehensive information about the microstructural characteristics and surface appearance of the produced nanobiochar. High-energy milling caused significant structural disturbance, as evidenced by these pictures, which show extremely asymmetrical, angular, and shattered particles with sharp edges and uneven configurations. A porous architecture with roughness, unevenness, and variability is fostered by the surfaces' profusion of fissures, microcracks, and interparticle gaps. These carbon-based nanomaterials have strong nanoparticle aggregation due to high surface energy and strong van der Waals forces. Most particles are nanometer-sized, supporting the formation of nanostructured biochar and efficient size reduction. Fractured edges indicate increased surface reactivity at higher magnifications, although stratified and flaky textures indicate partial preservation of the original lignocellulosic carbon matrix. The porous network and interstitial spaces increase the available surface area, which promotes mass transfer and adsorbate diffusion. By providing an abundance of active sites for heavy metal sequestration via ion exchange, surface complexation, electrostatic attraction, and pore filling, these morphological characteristics are especially advantageous for adsorption processes. Its significant promise for environmental cleanup is highlighted by the noticeable surface heterogeneity and coarse topography, which further enhance adsorbent–metal ion interactions. 3.3 Elemental Composition Analysis (EDX) The SEM result shows a porous structure with rough textures and interparticle gaps that is beneficial for surface-dependent applications. The surface morphology is uneven, flake-like, and diverse. The elemental makeup of the material is confirmed by the corresponding EDS spectra, which exhibit notable peaks for carbon (C), oxygen (O), and iron (Fe). Quantitative EDS examination (Table 1 ) confirms the material's carbon-rich character, indicating that carbon is the major element with 89.64 weight percent and 94.45 at.%, while oxygen (5.68 weight percent) supports functional groups that contain oxygen on the surface. Furthermore, there is a little but discernible amount of iron (4.68 weight percent), which indicates that iron species have been well integrated or maintained within the matrix. The elemental mapping images also show that C, O, and Fe are uniformly distributed across the surface and that there is no discernible phase separation or aggregation. The combined SEM–EDS results validate the successful synthesis of a chemically consistent and structurally homogenous material, hence bolstering the material's feasibility for advanced environmental and adsorption-related applications. Table 1 The synthetic material's elemental composition as determined by EDS analysis. Element Atomic No. Series Unn. C (wt.%) Norm. C (wt.%) Atomic C (at.%) Error (± 1σ) wt.% C 6 K-series 89.64 89.64 94.45 10.94 O 8 K-series 5.68 5.68 4.49 1.73 Fe 26 K-series 4.68 4.68 1.06 0.20 Total — — 100.00 100.00 100.00 — 3.4 Crystallographic Structure Analysis (XRD) The X-ray diffraction investigation highlights the heterogeneous physicochemical properties of the produced (teak) wood-derived Nanobiochar, revealing a mostly amorphous carbon matrix interspersed with different crystalline mineral phases. In the XRD pattern, differential peaks appear at approximately 21.79°, 22.99°, 26.58°, 29.33°, 33.09°, 35.54°, 39.37°, 43.11°, and 48.43° 2θ angles. Furthermore, the presence of disordered aromatic carbon structures resulting from lignocellulosic pyrolysis is confirmed by a diffuse peak that emerges between 20° and 30°, which denotes inadequate structural ordering and poor graphitization. The peak at roughly 26.58° aligns with the turbostratic carbon plane (002) and displays partial stacking of graphene-like layers. The strongest and clearest reflection at 29.33° is caused by crystalline calcite, while the peaks from 33° to 48° are caused by inorganic ash components such as calcium-based minerals, silica, and trace metal oxides. The peaks are notably sharp, highlighting the increased crystallinity of mineral remnants compared to the predominantly amorphous carbon structure. Enhancing mechanical strength, increasing alkalinity and surface reactivity, and supporting a range of adsorption mechanisms, including ion exchange, surface complexation, electrostatic interactions, and bonding, are all benefits of this hybrid morphology, which is composed of an amorphous carbon framework with crystalline minerals scattered throughout. In conclusion, XRD measurements confirm that the wood-derived biochar has a crystalline mineral domain-enhanced carbon structure that is largely organized, making it a strong and versatile material for environmental cleanup and pollution removal. 3.5 Functional Group Analysis (FTIR) Using Fourier Transform Infrared spectra across the 4000–500 cm⁻¹ range, it is confirmed that the produced biochar or nanobiochar has several surface functional groups. The broad absorption band located between 3893 and 3561 cm⁻¹, which is indicative of hydrophilic surface properties, is caused by O-H stretching vibrations from hydroxyl groups in phenols, alcohols, and adsorbed water. To support the creation of condensed aromatic frameworks caused by pyrolysis, a small peak at around 3110 cm⁻¹ shows aromatic C–H stretching. Absorptions at 2355 and 2315 cm⁻¹ show asymmetric stretching vibrations of CO₂, which are commonly observed in carbon-rich materials as a result of carbonate impurities or atmospheric CO₂ adsorption. A prominent band exhibiting carbonyl C = O stretching can be seen at 1690 cm⁻¹, with peaks at 1866 and 1832 cm⁻¹. The 1647 cm⁻¹ feature exhibits aromatic C = C stretching vibrations, indicating graphitic domain growth, whereas the bands at 1513 and 1459 cm⁻¹ correspond to aromatic skeletal vibrations and –CH₂ deformation, respectively. Through surface complexation, π–π interactions, hydrogen bonding, and electrostatic forces, these oxygen-bearing functional groups and aromatic carbon structures work together to improve the material's adsorptive performance, validating its suitability for adsorption and environmental remediation processes. 3.6 Surface Charge Analysis (Zeta Potential) and Particle Size The mobility distribution graph and EOS plot display the findings of the zeta potential investigation, which was utilized to evaluate the synthesized material's surface charge characteristics and colloidal stability. The material's negative zeta potential value of -11.28 mV, which indicates the presence of negatively charged functional groups on the particle surface, is compatible with oxygen-containing moieties discovered in compositional analysis. The rather narrow mobility distribution around this value suggests a rather homogeneous distribution of surface charges. The particles' negative electrophoretic mobility (− 8.799 × 10⁻⁵ cm²/V·s) further supports their anionic nature in an aqueous medium. Although the size of the zeta potential indicates poor colloidal stability, it is sufficient to prevent rapid aggregation under the measurement conditions. This zeta potential was calculated using the Smoluchowski model, which is appropriate for aquatic systems, and the conductivity value (0.0823 mS/cm) reflects the ionic strength of the dispersion medium. Overall, the zeta potential results highlight the synthesized material's negatively charged surface and adequate dispersion stability. This is advantageous for uses that call for interfacial interactions and adsorption in aquatic environments. The synthesised material's particle size characteristics were examined using dynamic light scattering (DLS). In addition to cumulant analysis, the results are displayed in terms of intensity, volume, and number distributions. The several peaks in the intensity distribution imply a polydisperse system with main particle populations in the nanometer range, along with some larger aggregates. Cumulant analysis demonstrates a broad size range and moderate aggregation in the aqueous medium, with an average hydrodynamic diameter of 1610.8 nm and a polydispersity index (PDI) of 0.802. The volume and number distribution plots also demonstrate that while smaller particles predominate in terms of particle count, larger particles significantly contribute to the total scattering intensity due to their higher scattering efficiency. The diffusion coefficient of 3.054 × 10⁻¹ cm² s⁻¹ supports the observed particle mobility behavior in water. These results suggest that the synthetic material is composed of particles with a degree of agglomeration, ranging from nanoscale to submicron, which is characteristic of materials based on carbon and in line with the surface charge properties observed in zeta potential analysis. 3.7 Adsorption Performance and Mechanism The interaction of surface chemistry and porosity structure controls the heavy metal ion adsorption mechanism onto nanobiochar. The carboxyl, hydroxyl, and carbonyl moieties that are abundant on the surface of nanobiochar are oxygen-containing functional groups that act as active binding sites for divalent metal ions like Pb²⁺, Cd²⁺, and Hg²⁺. When the pH is right, these functional groups deprotonate to create negatively charged sites that attract metal cations electrostatically. At the same time, metal ions replace exchangeable cations (H⁺, Na⁺, Ca²⁺, and Mg²⁺) that were initially connected to the surface of the biochar through ion-exchange processes. Strong surface complexation creates coordination interactions between metal ions and oxygen donor atoms, which further stabilize adsorption. Additionally, the nanobiochar's aromatic carbon framework promotes π-related interactions, and its interconnected micro- and mesoporous network improves pore filling and metal ion physical immobilization. The great adsorption efficiency and strong heavy-metal removal ability of nanobiochar found in this work are explained by the synergistic involvement of both mechanisms [ 39 ]. 4. Environmental Significance Teak wood biomass is valued for its use in nanobiochar, which lowers environmental pollution, promotes sustainable waste management, and offers an affordable substitute for commercial adsorbents. Furthermore, nanobiochar's stable carbon structure promotes long-term carbon sequestration, which is consistent with methods for mitigating climate change. 5. Conclusion The current study shows that the biomass from teak wood may be effectively converted into nanobiochar with improved physicochemical properties that can be used for environmental remediation. A well-developed micro-mesoporous structure, a large number of oxygen-containing functional groups, and a relatively high specific surface area all helped the produced nanobiochar effectively adsorb certain heavy metal ions in aqueous environments. The adsorption behavior was significantly impacted by important operational factors such as solution pH, adsorbent dosage, contact time, and starting metal ion concentration. The material's practical importance was highlighted by the favorable adsorption performance that was seen at mildly acidic conditions, which are frequently found in industrial effluents. The measured removal efficiencies suggest that nanobiochar made from teak wood is a viable, low-cost, and eco-friendly adsorbent. The current investigation was limited to controlled lab settings with artificial aqueous solutions, despite these encouraging results. Additional research incorporating real wastewater matrices, long-term stability assessment, regeneration and reusability studies, and continuous-flow system evaluation is required before implementation on a large scale or at the field level. This work validates the potential of teak wood biomass as a sustainable precursor for the development of functional nanobiochar, supporting efforts to reduce pollution and value waste. Declarations Funding: The authors confirm that this research was conducted without any specific grant, fellowship, or financial assistance from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors, and no funding was received for manuscript preparation or publication. Author Contribution The study was planned and designed by D.S.T. The research data was created and the experiments were carried out by D.S.T. and S.N.C. The data was processed and evaluated by D.S.T. The figures and tables were prepared by D.S.T. The primary manuscript text was written by D.S.T. The work was overseen by S.N.C., who also made significant revisions to the manuscript. The final text was reviewed and approved by all authors. Acknowledgement This research was completed with the generous support and expert supervision of Dr. Santosh Narayan Chadar, to whom the author extends sincere appreciation. Furthermore, the author acknowledges the essential infrastructure and assistance provided by Government Auto Girls P.G. College, Sagar, which were instrumental in the successful execution of this study. Data Availability Data availability The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. References Nosratabad, N. A., Yan, Q., Cai, Z. & Wan, C. 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Pollut Res. 30 (43), 96977–96990. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-28824-y (2023). Abdu, M., Babaee, S., Abebe, W., Msagati, T. A. M. & Fito, J. Development of giant reed biochar for dye adsorption. Sci. Rep. 14 (1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-67997-5 (2024). Mendonça, F. G., Cunha, I. T., Soares, R. R., Tristão, J. C. & Lago, R. M. Tuning surface properties of biochar by thermal treatment. Bioresour Technol. 246 , 28–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2017.07.099 (2017). El-Gamal, E. H., Rashad, M., Saleh, M. E., Zaki, S. & Eltarahony, M. Potential bioremediation of lead and phenol by biochar hybridized with bacterial consortium. Sci. Rep. 13 (1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-49036-x (2023). Hossain, N. et al. Synthesis of rice husk biochar via hydrothermal carbonization. Sci. Rep. 10 (1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-75936-3 (2020). Al-Swadi, H. A. et al. Impacts of kaolinite enrichment on biochar characterization and stability. Sci. Rep. 14 (1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-51786-1 (2024). Amaku, J. F. & Taziwa, R. Preparation of Allium cepa extract-coated biochar for Cr(VI) adsorption. Sci. Rep. 13 (1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-48299-8 (2023). Mahmoud, S. E. M. E., Ursueguía, D., Mahmoud, M. E., Abdel-Fattah, T. M. & Díaz, E. Functional surface homogenization of nanobiochar. Biomass Convers. Biorefin . 14 (16), 19107–19120. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-023-04098-9 (2023). Hussein, S. M. M. & Ahmed, M. J. Batch and fixed-bed adsorption of phosphate and nitrate. Int. J. Renew. Energy Dev. 15 (1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.61435/ijred.2026.61629 (2026). Xu, X., Hu, X., Ding, Z. & Gao, B. Sorption of methylene blue, cadmium, and lead onto biochars. Pol. J. Environ. Stud. 29 (6), 4409–4418. https://doi.org/10.15244/pjoes/118806 (2020). Thakur, D. S. & Chadar, S. N. Coconut shell-based nanobiochar for dye adsorption. Res. Dev. Mater. Sci. 14 (2), 2707–2718. https://doi.org/10.31031/RDMS.2025.22.001034 (2025). Thakur, D. S. & Chadar, S. N. Maize straw-derived biochar-nanobiochar for wastewater treatment. Am. J. Nanosci. 10 (1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajn.20261001.11 (2026). Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8878291","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":598621300,"identity":"af0c88ae-fc47-49dc-be01-64e945be579f","order_by":0,"name":"Deshraj Singh Thakur","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Maharaja Chhatrasal Bundelkhand University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Deshraj","middleName":"Singh","lastName":"Thakur","suffix":""},{"id":598621304,"identity":"cc41f216-95f7-4b1a-9904-bcd4a701f9a3","order_by":1,"name":"Dr.Santosh Narayan Chadar","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"","institution":"Maharaja Chhatrasal Bundelkhand University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"Dr.","firstName":"Santosh","middleName":"Narayan","lastName":"Chadar","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-02-14 08:23:15","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8878291/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8878291/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":104401121,"identity":"70f8de0d-6300-4749-bc30-d60fa4b37164","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-11 12:11:55","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":193661,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDiagrammatic representation of the heavy metal removal employing the nanobiochar batch adsorption technique.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8878291/v1/0bb0a495180af7758b5c6a5f.png"},{"id":103856396,"identity":"e5ffba4e-1074-4753-967c-dd38fab3bb85","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-03 18:22:58","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":27171,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eNanobiochar's ability to effectively remove heavy metals.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8878291/v1/a5807b321a3c6eabc05cce5d.png"},{"id":104401115,"identity":"c00923eb-8df7-4b72-bce5-b8d102b66abd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-11 12:11:55","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":76015,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffect of (a) solution pH, (b) adsorbent dose, (c) initial metal ion concentration, and (d) temperature on the adsorption efficiency of Pb(II), Hg(II), Cd(II), and As(V) onto nanobiochar.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8878291/v1/9d826edcb87ccad169fd39a7.png"},{"id":104401433,"identity":"ac19200a-cfb1-4ab8-b49b-55418f00bf6e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-11 12:12:41","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":47018,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eN₂ adsorption–desorption isotherm of teak wood–derived nano-biochar synthesized at 800-900 °C\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8878291/v1/4ac6922247e1e183b5fd1035.png"},{"id":104401118,"identity":"6b7e4e95-bb99-4670-8dec-25d9303358b1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-11 12:11:55","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":579945,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSynthesized nanobiochar micrographs taken using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) at various magnifications.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8878291/v1/e80c0c682e5b3c63e06a527b.png"},{"id":103856394,"identity":"66d9fba6-9d60-4bb6-ae69-319449f63955","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-03 18:22:58","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":480801,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe spatial distribution of the elements C, O, and Fe is displayed in EDS elemental mapping images.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8878291/v1/cc9aaabeeb2526acb4c107f4.png"},{"id":104401061,"identity":"85462400-3f42-4262-b534-7020071fca50","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-11 12:11:45","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":42045,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEDS spectrum that shows the synthetic material's elemental composition.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8878291/v1/90741957df8dbd3415f9b44a.png"},{"id":103856400,"identity":"80f0ae95-4d90-4a57-82be-d83118334594","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-03 18:22:58","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":100642,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eX-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern of Nanobiochar made from teak wood displaying crystalline mineral phases and amorphous carbon properties.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8878291/v1/fae90dadaa0602602160363b.png"},{"id":103856402,"identity":"7b67ca7c-ae28-4d01-ac87-432acedb0def","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-03 18:22:58","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":88812,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFTIR measurement of the produced biochar/nanobiochar sample\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8878291/v1/8ed0c60771c03e36483a13c7.png"},{"id":104401225,"identity":"cc8ff959-ed0b-403a-bfde-9396daf577b8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-11 12:12:09","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":180011,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe measurement data, zeta potential distribution, and electrophoretic mobility map of the generated material.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8878291/v1/667376e7883e2058632126f6.png"},{"id":104400831,"identity":"ca3398db-cf23-46a0-8fd2-9921a7a19488","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-11 12:11:13","extension":"png","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":258537,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eParticle size distribution analysis of the synthesized material.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"11.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8878291/v1/52c63217ac4dce715725c74a.png"},{"id":103856404,"identity":"ee0048d6-1c52-4d93-bad8-ff3178bddb4d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-03 18:22:58","extension":"png","order_by":12,"title":"Figure 12","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":448522,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAdsorption pathways of divalent heavy metal ions on functionalized nanobiochar surfaces.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"12.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8878291/v1/0d901eddea5b89ece56a4b2d.png"},{"id":104408085,"identity":"5f2f2dd4-6eaf-4696-82a0-792897f5af07","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-11 12:41:30","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":3330979,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8878291/v1/14197a59-1b53-48df-b93f-1647e949eb90.pdf"},{"id":103856406,"identity":"e0471590-f094-4f88-9979-a70ab4700a99","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-03 18:22:59","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":6795186,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"SupplementaryRawDataESM.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8878291/v1/622c30a003ce4879fde0ea39.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Valorization of Teak Wood Biomass into Nanobiochar for Environmental Remediation","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eEnvironmental contamination, particularly aqueous pollution from heavy metals and organic contaminants, is a major global concern due to its negative impacts on ecosystems and human health. Conventional remediation methods, including chemical precipitation, ion exchange, and membrane filtration, have three key disadvantages: high operating costs, secondary waste production, and reduced efficacy at low contamination concentrations. Thus, it is essential to create sustainable and reasonably priced materials for environmental restoration. There has been a lot of interest in biochar, a carbon-rich compound made by pyrolyzing organic waste, as a possible solution for pollution cleanup [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. However, inherent limitations that restrict raw biochar's effectiveness in a range of environmental conditions, such as its limited adsorption capacity and relatively limited pH adaptation range, usually restrict its use [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. To improve biochar efficacy in environmental remediation, several functionalization and modification techniques have been developed to alter their physicochemical and molecular properties. Physical, chemical, and biological treatments are among the changes that aim to enhance certain surface areas, active sites, pore volumes, and functional groups to enhance the sorption and fixation of pollutants [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e],[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. Many active sites, including base sites, redox sites, and Br\u0026oslash;nsted and Lewis acid sites, can be introduced by chemical treatments with acids, alkalis, or metal oxides, for instance. These sites are crucial for binding a range of pollutants [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e],[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. Furthermore, strategically incorporating magnetic elements, ligands, or surfactants during the functionalization process improves the material's affinity for specific contaminants and facilitates separation and recovery processes, increasing the adsorbent's overall reusability and viability from an economic standpoint [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBiochar, a promising adsorbent for cleanup applications, is produced by thermochemically converting biomass under oxygen-limited conditions. Because of its many surface functional groups, chemical stability, and porous structure, it is ideal for adsorbing pollutants and soil amendments. However, the adsorption and surface reactivity of conventional micrometer-scale biochar are limited. To overcome these constraints, recent research has focused on enhancing the reactive and adsorptive properties of biochar using nanoparticles to remove organic contaminants and heavy metals [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. With its nanoscale dimension, nanobiochar overcomes these limitations by providing a much higher specific surface area, better contaminant interactions, and increased functional group accessibility.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNanobiochar, which has nanoscale dimensions and greatly boosts specific surface area, enhances contaminant interactions and improves functional group accessibility, overcoming these limitations. The selection of biomass precursors has a significant impact on the properties and capabilities of nanobiochar. The variations in lignocellulosic composition, porosity, and inorganic content among feedstocks impact the final nanomaterial's surface area, pore volume, and functional group density [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. A plentiful but mostly underutilized lignocellulosic byproduct of sawmilling, forestry, and furniture production is teak wood biomass.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA plentiful but mostly underutilized lignocellulosic byproduct of sawmilling, forestry, and furniture production is teak wood biomass. Its conversion to nanobiochar enables sustainable waste valorization and yields a high-performing remediation material. This paper investigates the synthesis, characteristics, and efficacy of nanobiochar made from teak wood for environmental remediation. To prove its promise as a better alternative to conventional adsorbents like carbon nanotubes and activated carbon, this work specifically evaluates the material's capacity to adsorb a range of contaminants, including organic micropollutants and heavy metals [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. These innovative materials address the inherent limitations of virgin biochar, such as its low specific surface area and limited adsorption capacity, by offering superior physicochemical qualities, such as increased porosity, stability, and surface-active sites [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. These enhanced physicochemical properties make successful pollutant removal techniques like pore filling, electrostatic attraction, and surface complexation possible when working with complex wastewater matrices. Furthermore, the porosity and functional groups of biochar can be changed by adding nanoparticles to its surface. This results in the formation of additional active sites, which significantly boost the material's ability to absorb heavy metals and organic pollutants [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. This enhancement is mostly due to the nanomaterial's large specific surface area and pore volume, which are crucial for maximizing adsorptive capacity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. Additionally, the feedstock's composition is important because biomass with a high lignin content typically produces nanobiochar with strong aggregation tendencies, whereas material rich in hemicellulose has a lower carbon content and a higher oxygen content, which directly affects the material's adsorption behavior. Mechanical processing techniques like ball milling, which raise the specific surface area and reduce particle size, further improve these characteristics by opening up additional potential sorption sites for contaminants [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e],[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. The development of customized nanobiochar composites, which add metal oxides or other useful nanoparticles to the carbon matrix, has therefore attracted a lot of attention as a way to improve these remediation capacities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Raw Material Preparation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTeak wood biomass waste that was gathered from neighbouring sawmills was cleaned with distilled water to get rid of surface impurities and clinging dust before being oven-dried for 24 hours at 105\u0026deg;C. A 100-mesh screen was used to sift the finely ground dried biomass, resulting in a consistent particle size that was appropriate for thermal treatment. The raw biomass powder underwent a chemical pretreatment with strong hydrochloric acid (HCl) to eliminate metal ions, inorganic minerals, and ash-forming components before being loaded into the muffle furnace. In order to oxidize the surface and improve chemical reactivity by adding oxygen-containing functional groups, concentrated nitric acid (HNO₃) was then applied to the acid-washed biomass. Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO₃) was used to neutralize excess acid residues, and the item was then repeatedly rinsed with distilled water until the pH was neutral. Following chemical treatment, the biomass was oven-dried and sealed in airtight containers, making it ready for direct loading into the muffle furnace for regulated pyrolysis [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e],[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Biochar Production\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe biomass of teak wood that had been chemically processed and oven-dried was placed into a stainless-steel tube (SS-310 grade) and sealed to reduce oxygen exposure. The pyrolysis was carried out in a muffle/tubular furnace at temperatures between 800 and 900\u0026deg;C for five hours in an inert (restricted oxygen) environment to guarantee full carbonization. Carefully regulating the final temperature and heating rate encouraged the formation of a stable porous carbon structure. To avoid surface oxidation and moisture absorption, the biochar was collected and stored in airtight containers after the heat treatment was finished and the furnace was allowed to naturally cool to ambient temperature [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e],[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Nanobiochar Synthesis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo convert bulk biochar to nanoscale particles, a planetary ball mill (Pulverisette 7) was used. Milling was done in dry conditions for three hours at a rotational speed of 350 rpm.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs grinding media, zirconia balls of one millimeter in diameter were employed. The zirconia milling jar was filled with 14 balls totaling 37 g in mass and 3.7 g of biochar, ensuring a 10:1 ball-to-powder weight ratio. The milling operation was stopped for 10 minutes every 30 minutes of running time in order to regulate temperature rise during operation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticle size reduction was significantly aided by the combined action of shear and collision forces during planetary motion. Upon milling, the resulting powdered nanobiochar was meticulously gathered and stored in airtight containers for subsequent examination [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e],[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4 Characterization Techniques\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe physicochemical characteristics of the produced nanobiochar were described using an extensive range of analytical methods. Surface morphology, microstructural features, and elemental composition and distribution were clarified by combining energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy with scanning electron microscopy [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. X-ray diffraction analysis was used to determine the crystalline structure and phase components using Cu Kα radiation across an appropriate 2θ range. Surface functional groups and chemical bonds were identified using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, which operates in the 4000\u0026ndash;400 cm⁻\u0026sup1; wavenumber range. Adsorption performance was measured by evaluating nitrogen adsorption\u0026ndash;desorption isotherms recorded at 77 K using the Barrett\u0026ndash;Joyner\u0026ndash;Halenda model for pore volume and size distribution and the Brunauer\u0026ndash;Emmett\u0026ndash;Teller method for specific surface area. Fixed carbon, ash, moisture, volatile matter, and elemental concentrations were measured by proximate and ultimate analysis [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. Particle size distribution and polydispersity index were calculated using dynamic light scattering, confirming the homogeneity and nanoscale dimensions. Lastly, Zetasizer Nano ZS zeta potential measurements assessed aqueous dispersion behavior, isoelectric point, surface charge, and colloidal stability [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5 Environmental Application Studies\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe considerable application potential of nanobiochar for the remediation of water contaminated with Pb(II), Hg(II), Cd(II), and As(V) is highlighted by the adsorption performance seen in this work. Because this pH range is frequently seen in industrial and mining effluents, the adsorbent's capacity to achieve maximal removal under mildly acidic circumstances (pH 5\u0026ndash;6) is especially beneficial, as it reduces the need for substantial chemical pH adjustment. The dose-dependent rise in metal removal shows how adaptable the system is in terms of operation, enabling adsorption efficiency to be adjusted in accordance with pollution levels. The nanobiochar maintained a notable removal efficiency, showing high metal\u0026ndash;surface affinity, despite the fact that increasing starting metal concentrations caused partial saturation of active sites. Furthermore, the improved adsorption at higher temperatures points to advantageous mass transfer and diffusion in the porous carbon matrix, bolstering its suitability for use in actual wastewater treatment situations. All of these findings support the use of nanobiochar as an economical and environmentally friendly adsorbent for real-world heavy metal removal [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe great adsorption capability of nanobiochar toward hazardous heavy metals in aqueous systems is demonstrated by the removal efficiencies (Pb\u0026sup2;⁺ 89%, Cd\u0026sup2;⁺ 85%, Hg\u0026sup2;⁺ 82%, and As⁵⁺ 78%) obtained through AAS analysis. According to these findings, nanobiochar can be used successfully in contaminated groundwater purification, industrial effluent remediation, and wastewater treatment facilities. Through ion exchange, surface complexation, and electrostatic attraction, the material's high surface area, many oxygen-containing functional groups, and porous structure improve metal binding. For extensive environmental remediation applications, nanobiochar offers a promising substitute for traditional adsorbents due to its affordability, environmental friendliness, and sustainable biomass production [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThrough the methodical optimization of critical parameters such as adsorbent dosage, solution pH, contact time, and initial pollutant concentration, the effectiveness of heavy metal ion removal from aqueous solutions was evaluated through batch adsorption tests. The equilibrium duration and rate-limiting stages were determined by kinetic studies, and the effect of surface charge on adsorption performance was investigated by applying diluted hydrochloric acid or sodium hydroxide to change pH [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]. The maximum adsorption capabilities and the adsorption pathways between the target pollutants and the surface of nanobiochar were elucidated by isotherm investigations, which were accomplished by altering the initial concentrations of the pollutants [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e],[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. To assess the spontaneity and features of the adsorption process, thermodynamic parameters such as enthalpy, entropy, and Gibbs free energy were obtained from temperature-dependent experiments [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e],[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. The salt addition method was used to determine the point of zero charge in 0.01 M NaCl throughout a pH range of 3\u0026ndash;11. Zeta potential measurements were performed using a Zetasizer Nano Series throughout a pH range of 2\u0026ndash;12. The results showed improved dispersion stability at -83.38 mV and described surface charge and colloidal stability. Brunauer\u0026ndash;Emmett\u0026ndash;Teller and Barrett\u0026ndash;Joyner\u0026ndash;Halenda models were used to assess nitrogen adsorption\u0026ndash;desorption isotherms at 77 K in order to calculate specific surface area, pore diameter, and pore volume. Notably, the BET model measured the monolayer gas adsorption volume on external and pore surfaces, while BJH obtained the pore size distribution from the desorption isotherm [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e],[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSignificant sorption capacities for Pb and methylene blue were demonstrated by batch adsorption tests, with removal efficiencies above 95% under ideal circumstances. The material's increased specific surface area, pore volume, and negative surface charge provide it with these exceptional qualities, which allow for the efficient collection of cationic contaminants. Below the PZC, the positively charged surface promotes the uptake of anionic pollutants by electrostatic interactions, while under neutral to mildly acidic conditions, the negative zeta potential increases electrostatic attractions to positively charged species [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]- [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Surface Area and Porosity Analysis (BET)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen teak wood-derived nano-biochar is produced at 800\u0026ndash;900\u0026deg;C, its nitrogen adsorption\u0026ndash;desorption isotherm shows a Type IV isotherm with a noticeable hysteresis loop at higher relative pressures (P/P₀ \u0026gt; 0.4), suggesting the presence of a well-developed micro\u0026ndash;mesoporous structure. Due to substantial devolatilization and carbon matrix rearrangement during high-temperature pyrolysis, micropore filling is responsible for the slow nitrogen uptake seen at low relative pressures (P/P₀ \u0026lt; 0.1). Because the BET plot is linear in the relative pressure range of 0.05\u0026ndash;0.30, surface area can be calculated using the Brunauer\u0026ndash;Emmett\u0026ndash;Teller model. However, adsorption rises dramatically at increasing pressures, indicating capillary condensation inside mesopores. The combination of mesopores, which promote improved mass transfer, and micropores, which contribute to high specific surface area, emphasizes its appropriateness for adsorption-based environmental remediation applications. This combination is in line with the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry's classifications for porous carbon materials and is typical of nano-structured biochar made at high temperatures [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Morphological Characterization (SEM)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eScanning electron microscopy images provide comprehensive information about the microstructural characteristics and surface appearance of the produced nanobiochar. High-energy milling caused significant structural disturbance, as evidenced by these pictures, which show extremely asymmetrical, angular, and shattered particles with sharp edges and uneven configurations. A porous architecture with roughness, unevenness, and variability is fostered by the surfaces' profusion of fissures, microcracks, and interparticle gaps. These carbon-based nanomaterials have strong nanoparticle aggregation due to high surface energy and strong van der Waals forces. Most particles are nanometer-sized, supporting the formation of nanostructured biochar and efficient size reduction.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFractured edges indicate increased surface reactivity at higher magnifications, although stratified and flaky textures indicate partial preservation of the original lignocellulosic carbon matrix. The porous network and interstitial spaces increase the available surface area, which promotes mass transfer and adsorbate diffusion. By providing an abundance of active sites for heavy metal sequestration via ion exchange, surface complexation, electrostatic attraction, and pore filling, these morphological characteristics are especially advantageous for adsorption processes. Its significant promise for environmental cleanup is highlighted by the noticeable surface heterogeneity and coarse topography, which further enhance adsorbent\u0026ndash;metal ion interactions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3 Elemental Composition Analysis (EDX)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe SEM result shows a porous structure with rough textures and interparticle gaps that is beneficial for surface-dependent applications. The surface morphology is uneven, flake-like, and diverse. The elemental makeup of the material is confirmed by the corresponding EDS spectra, which exhibit notable peaks for carbon (C), oxygen (O), and iron (Fe). Quantitative EDS examination (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) confirms the material's carbon-rich character, indicating that carbon is the major element with 89.64 weight percent and 94.45 at.%, while oxygen (5.68 weight percent) supports functional groups that contain oxygen on the surface. Furthermore, there is a little but discernible amount of iron (4.68 weight percent), which indicates that iron species have been well integrated or maintained within the matrix. The elemental mapping images also show that C, O, and Fe are uniformly distributed across the surface and that there is no discernible phase separation or aggregation. The combined SEM\u0026ndash;EDS results validate the successful synthesis of a chemically consistent and structurally homogenous material, hence bolstering the material's feasibility for advanced environmental and adsorption-related applications.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe synthetic material's elemental composition as determined by EDS analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAtomic No.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeries\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnn. C (wt.%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNorm. C (wt.%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAtomic C (at.%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eError (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1σ) wt.%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eK-series\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e89.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e89.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e94.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eK-series\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFe\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eK-series\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e100.00\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e100.00\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e100.00\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4 Crystallographic Structure Analysis (XRD)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe X-ray diffraction investigation highlights the heterogeneous physicochemical properties of the produced (teak) wood-derived Nanobiochar, revealing a mostly amorphous carbon matrix interspersed with different crystalline mineral phases. In the XRD pattern, differential peaks appear at approximately 21.79\u0026deg;, 22.99\u0026deg;, 26.58\u0026deg;, 29.33\u0026deg;, 33.09\u0026deg;, 35.54\u0026deg;, 39.37\u0026deg;, 43.11\u0026deg;, and 48.43\u0026deg; 2θ angles. Furthermore, the presence of disordered aromatic carbon structures resulting from lignocellulosic pyrolysis is confirmed by a diffuse peak that emerges between 20\u0026deg; and 30\u0026deg;, which denotes inadequate structural ordering and poor graphitization. The peak at roughly 26.58\u0026deg; aligns with the turbostratic carbon plane (002) and displays partial stacking of graphene-like layers. The strongest and clearest reflection at 29.33\u0026deg; is caused by crystalline calcite, while the peaks from 33\u0026deg; to 48\u0026deg; are caused by inorganic ash components such as calcium-based minerals, silica, and trace metal oxides. The peaks are notably sharp, highlighting the increased crystallinity of mineral remnants compared to the predominantly amorphous carbon structure. Enhancing mechanical strength, increasing alkalinity and surface reactivity, and supporting a range of adsorption mechanisms, including ion exchange, surface complexation, electrostatic interactions, and bonding, are all benefits of this hybrid morphology, which is composed of an amorphous carbon framework with crystalline minerals scattered throughout. In conclusion, XRD measurements confirm that the wood-derived biochar has a crystalline mineral domain-enhanced carbon structure that is largely organized, making it a strong and versatile material for environmental cleanup and pollution removal.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.5 Functional Group Analysis (FTIR)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsing Fourier Transform Infrared spectra across the 4000\u0026ndash;500 cm⁻\u0026sup1; range, it is confirmed that the produced biochar or nanobiochar has several surface functional groups. The broad absorption band located between 3893 and 3561 cm⁻\u0026sup1;, which is indicative of hydrophilic surface properties, is caused by O-H stretching vibrations from hydroxyl groups in phenols, alcohols, and adsorbed water. To support the creation of condensed aromatic frameworks caused by pyrolysis, a small peak at around 3110 cm⁻\u0026sup1; shows aromatic C\u0026ndash;H stretching.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbsorptions at 2355 and 2315 cm⁻\u0026sup1; show asymmetric stretching vibrations of CO₂, which are commonly observed in carbon-rich materials as a result of carbonate impurities or atmospheric CO₂ adsorption. A prominent band exhibiting carbonyl C\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;O stretching can be seen at 1690 cm⁻\u0026sup1;, with peaks at 1866 and 1832 cm⁻\u0026sup1;. The 1647 cm⁻\u0026sup1; feature exhibits aromatic C\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;C stretching vibrations, indicating graphitic domain growth, whereas the bands at 1513 and 1459 cm⁻\u0026sup1; correspond to aromatic skeletal vibrations and \u0026ndash;CH₂ deformation, respectively. Through surface complexation, π\u0026ndash;π interactions, hydrogen bonding, and electrostatic forces, these oxygen-bearing functional groups and aromatic carbon structures work together to improve the material's adsorptive performance, validating its suitability for adsorption and environmental remediation processes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.6 Surface Charge Analysis (Zeta Potential) and Particle Size\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mobility distribution graph and EOS plot display the findings of the zeta potential investigation, which was utilized to evaluate the synthesized material's surface charge characteristics and colloidal stability. The material's negative zeta potential value of -11.28 mV, which indicates the presence of negatively charged functional groups on the particle surface, is compatible with oxygen-containing moieties discovered in compositional analysis. The rather narrow mobility distribution around this value suggests a rather homogeneous distribution of surface charges. The particles' negative electrophoretic mobility (\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;8.799 \u0026times; 10⁻⁵ cm\u0026sup2;/V\u0026middot;s) further supports their anionic nature in an aqueous medium. Although the size of the zeta potential indicates poor colloidal stability, it is sufficient to prevent rapid aggregation under the measurement conditions. This zeta potential was calculated using the Smoluchowski model, which is appropriate for aquatic systems, and the conductivity value (0.0823 mS/cm) reflects the ionic strength of the dispersion medium. Overall, the zeta potential results highlight the synthesized material's negatively charged surface and adequate dispersion stability. This is advantageous for uses that call for interfacial interactions and adsorption in aquatic environments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe synthesised material's particle size characteristics were examined using dynamic light scattering (DLS). In addition to cumulant analysis, the results are displayed in terms of intensity, volume, and number distributions. The several peaks in the intensity distribution imply a polydisperse system with main particle populations in the nanometer range, along with some larger aggregates. Cumulant analysis demonstrates a broad size range and moderate aggregation in the aqueous medium, with an average hydrodynamic diameter of 1610.8 nm and a polydispersity index (PDI) of 0.802. The volume and number distribution plots also demonstrate that while smaller particles predominate in terms of particle count, larger particles significantly contribute to the total scattering intensity due to their higher scattering efficiency. The diffusion coefficient of 3.054 \u0026times; 10⁻\u0026sup1; cm\u0026sup2; s⁻\u0026sup1; supports the observed particle mobility behavior in water. These results suggest that the synthetic material is composed of particles with a degree of agglomeration, ranging from nanoscale to submicron, which is characteristic of materials based on carbon and in line with the surface charge properties observed in zeta potential analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.7 Adsorption Performance and Mechanism\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe interaction of surface chemistry and porosity structure controls the heavy metal ion adsorption mechanism onto nanobiochar. The carboxyl, hydroxyl, and carbonyl moieties that are abundant on the surface of nanobiochar are oxygen-containing functional groups that act as active binding sites for divalent metal ions like Pb\u0026sup2;⁺, Cd\u0026sup2;⁺, and Hg\u0026sup2;⁺. When the pH is right, these functional groups deprotonate to create negatively charged sites that attract metal cations electrostatically. At the same time, metal ions replace exchangeable cations (H⁺, Na⁺, Ca\u0026sup2;⁺, and Mg\u0026sup2;⁺) that were initially connected to the surface of the biochar through ion-exchange processes. Strong surface complexation creates coordination interactions between metal ions and oxygen donor atoms, which further stabilize adsorption. Additionally, the nanobiochar's aromatic carbon framework promotes π-related interactions, and its interconnected micro- and mesoporous network improves pore filling and metal ion physical immobilization. The great adsorption efficiency and strong heavy-metal removal ability of nanobiochar found in this work are explained by the synergistic involvement of both mechanisms [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Environmental Significance","content":"\u003cp\u003eTeak wood biomass is valued for its use in nanobiochar, which lowers environmental pollution, promotes sustainable waste management, and offers an affordable substitute for commercial adsorbents. Furthermore, nanobiochar's stable carbon structure promotes long-term carbon sequestration, which is consistent with methods for mitigating climate change.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe current study shows that the biomass from teak wood may be effectively converted into nanobiochar with improved physicochemical properties that can be used for environmental remediation. A well-developed micro-mesoporous structure, a large number of oxygen-containing functional groups, and a relatively high specific surface area all helped the produced nanobiochar effectively adsorb certain heavy metal ions in aqueous environments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe adsorption behavior was significantly impacted by important operational factors such as solution pH, adsorbent dosage, contact time, and starting metal ion concentration. The material's practical importance was highlighted by the favorable adsorption performance that was seen at mildly acidic conditions, which are frequently found in industrial effluents. The measured removal efficiencies suggest that nanobiochar made from teak wood is a viable, low-cost, and eco-friendly adsorbent.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe current investigation was limited to controlled lab settings with artificial aqueous solutions, despite these encouraging results. Additional research incorporating real wastewater matrices, long-term stability assessment, regeneration and reusability studies, and continuous-flow system evaluation is required before implementation on a large scale or at the field level. This work validates the potential of teak wood biomass as a sustainable precursor for the development of functional nanobiochar, supporting efforts to reduce pollution and value waste.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eFunding:\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors confirm that this research was conducted without any specific grant, fellowship, or financial assistance from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors, and no funding was received for manuscript preparation or publication.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study was planned and designed by D.S.T. The research data was created and the experiments were carried out by D.S.T. and S.N.C. The data was processed and evaluated by D.S.T. The figures and tables were prepared by D.S.T. The primary manuscript text was written by D.S.T. The work was overseen by S.N.C., who also made significant revisions to the manuscript. The final text was reviewed and approved by all authors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research was completed with the generous support and expert supervision of Dr. Santosh Narayan Chadar, to whom the author extends sincere appreciation. Furthermore, the author acknowledges the essential infrastructure and assistance provided by Government Auto Girls P.G. 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Nanosci.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e10\u003c/b\u003e (1), 1\u0026ndash;16. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajn.20261001.11\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.11648/j.ajn.20261001.11\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (2026).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Teak wood biomass, Nanobiochar, Waste valorization, Pyrolysis, Adsorption","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8878291/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8878291/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eIndustrialization and urbanization have precipitated a sharp escalation in environmental pollution, necessitating sustainable and economical remediation strategies. Biomass-derived biochar has gained prominence in environmental applications due to its porous architecture, surface functional groups, and carbon-rich matrix. Nanobiochar, in particular, has recently attracted substantial interest for its enhanced surface area, reactivity, and adsorption capacity relative to bulk biochar. This investigation converts teak wood biomass into nanobiochar through controlled pyrolysis followed by mechanical size reduction. The product was comprehensively characterized via proximate and ultimate analyses, BET, FTIR, XRD, SEM-EDX, and zeta potential assessments, unveiling superior physicochemical attributes conducive to remediation. Its adsorption performance was appraised for heavy metals and organic pollutants in aqueous media. Collectively, the teak wood under the experimental conditions under investigation, nanobiochar, shows promising removal effectiveness. It is also a cheap and environmentally friendly sorbent that promotes sustainable biomass valorization and pollution reduction.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Valorization of Teak Wood Biomass into Nanobiochar for Environmental Remediation","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-03-03 18:22:53","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8878291/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-03-31T13:01:27+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-03-22T12:35:21+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-03-19T02:24:06+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-03-18T16:47:58+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-03-09T05:51:29+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"108039123481535161637367221359884690127","date":"2026-03-03T11:06:47+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"198052517691537012238004405193220302099","date":"2026-02-28T18:40:35+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"82987246539913055733170243389707648921","date":"2026-02-26T14:24:52+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"134057836866644772215859556993076826655","date":"2026-02-26T11:21:50+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-02-26T11:03:45+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-02-26T10:14:09+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2026-02-26T09:49:12+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-02-19T11:47:16+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Scientific Reports","date":"2026-02-19T11:41:51+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"32206d36-1497-4fd0-a189-2c68d1d6f3a2","owner":[],"postedDate":"March 3rd, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[{"id":63705784,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental sciences"},{"id":63705785,"name":"Physical sciences/Materials science"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-07T18:08:12+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-03-03 18:22:53","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8878291","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8878291","identity":"rs-8878291","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}