The Abuja-Kaduna Expressway, a Transportation Corridor Under Insecurity

The Abuja-Kaduna Expressway, a Transportation Corridor Under Insecurity | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article The Abuja-Kaduna Expressway, a Transportation Corridor Under Insecurity Nneamaka OBODO, Emmanuella Onota This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6978266/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 30 Sep, 2025 Read the published version in Journal of Transportation Security → Version 1 posted 7 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The rise of new forms of criminality such as kidnapping, herdsmen-farmers crisis and banditry on the Nigeria’s highways has become a significant problem warranting scholarly investigation in contemporary academic discourse. The Abuja-Kaduna Expressway was known to be a secure route but has become a hotspot for criminal activities, exposing travelers to harassment, intimidation, and violence. Despite military and paramilitary interventions, these security challenges persist, raising concerns about the effectiveness of government responses. This study examines the impact of insecurity on Nigeria’s transport system with emphasis on the Abuja-Kaduna Expressway. Adopting a qualitative research methodology, data was retrieved through interviews and supplemented with secondary sources such as journal articles, online reports, newspapers, library and published theses. A case study research design was employed, with the utilisation of thematic analysis to interpret data and develop themes from participants' responses in order to achieve the study’s objectives. Grounded in Social Disorganisation theory, the study highlights the deterioration of road infrastructure and rising cases of kidnap and murder, affecting individuals from military, professional, socioeconomic and political backgrounds. The resulting climate of fear, trauma, and vulnerability among travelers and residents underscores the urgent need for intervention. The study recommends enhanced security presence in high-risk areas through proactive crime prevention measures. Additionally, road reconstruction and infrastructure improvements should be prioritised, particularly in regions where highway robbery and kidnapping are prevalent. Banditry Insecurity Kidnapping Road Transportation Security Introduction A number of countries are experiencing periods of instability such as the conflicts in Afghanistan, Congo, Mali, Burkina Faso, Israel and Hamas, Russia and Ukraine, the Sudanese conflict, and most recently, the Niger Republic. Moreover, Boko Haram attacks, Niger Delta militancy, Indigenous People of Biafra (IPOB) sit-at-home orders, the conflict between farmers and herders, and armed banditry are all occurring in Nigeria, causing relative instability in some parts of the nation. Insecurity also affect Nigerian roadways, where passengers are robbed and abducted for ransom. Road infrastructure is essential to the entire transportation chain because it links other modes of transportation and permeates many aspects of modern economic activity (Adesanya, 2008). Road transportation offers access to rural areas, where the majority of the economically active population resides, and accounts for approximately 90% of the nation's passenger and freight services (Fagbemi, 2006). Nigerian highways are considered high-risk areas by security-based studies and some major newspaper commentaries (Nwosu, 2020 ; Ugwuoke et al, 2020 ; Ekpu, 2019 ; Ugwuoke, Ngwu and Iziga, 2016 ; Ugwuoke; 2015 ). This has raised serious concerns about the government's ability to protect its citizens and foreigners who live and travel on the country's highways. The government has been compelled to mobilize its Army and Air Force capabilities for highway military combat operations as a result of the war against criminal elements on Nigerian highways. The ongoing insecurity on highways has overburdened and thwarted official security attempts to protect the lives of motorists and communities along the routes (Akinola, 2022 ). Highway travel in Nigeria is like walking on a minefield. This is because criminal elements frequently employ small guns and light weapons, General Purpose Machine Guns (GPMG), and explosives on Nigerian roadways to traumatize drivers (Olumide, 2023 ). Even the army, let alone the police, is challenged by highway criminals. Bandits' bullets on the nation's roadways have frequently demolished the military's rank and many of its top leadership. It is impossible to foresee the fate that awaits soft target civilian passengers in such conditions. Nigerian highways are covered in blood, and recent travel on them has led to heartbreaking stories of homicides, sexual assaults, injuries, kidnappings, robberies, loss of personal belongings, and ensuing post-traumatic stress disorder (Adesina, 2024 ). The trauma of travelling on Nigerian highways was captured in previous research in the following narrative: The terrible condition and extreme insecurity of Nigerian highways have made them death traps for passengers. It is similar to traveling through the valley of the shadow of death when you are on the country's highways. If you are able to make it from one place to another, you are fortunate. As stated by Umahi in Ugwuoke et al. ( 2020 ), everything might happen to you on the roadway at any time. Most states in the northwest region of Nigeria have access to the federal capital territory through the 211-kilometer Abuja-Kaduna route (Ariya, Omale & Ezeala 2016). Drivers find it unappealing to drive on the highway due of the frequent robberies and kidnappings. Additionally, travelers are at risk since armed bandits randomly kidnap their victims by blocking a highway with heavily armed weaponry and quickly kidnapping a significant number of people (Channels Television, 2017). An additional method of operation involves attacking a community and removing the intended victim from their residence. The Kaduna-Abuja highway has several flashpoints, such as Gonin-gora, Rijana, Jere, and Maraban-Rido. Residents of these communities, commuters, and regular road users travel in terror. This is concerning because, although the Abuja-Kaduna expressway was once safe, motorists now drive carefully due to a number of security risks. On the subject of highway insecurity in Nigeria, there is a community of journalistic reports and limited number of studies. For example, Eleweke ( 2021 ) investigated how poor roads make Nigerian highways more vulnerable to attacks. Ekpu ( 2019 ) examined how political unrest fuels criminal activity on Nigerian highways and the study regarding how low security personnel motivation contributes to insecurity on Nigerian highways was conducted by Ajasa ( 2021 ). These investigations are significant. However, empirical research on highway insecurity in Nigeria, with a focus on the Abuja-Kaduna expressway, has not yet been accomplished. Hence, by analysing how insecurity affects the Abuja-Kaduna expressway and how much security has been implemented to stop the threat, the study aims to solve this research problem. To achieve the overarching objective of the study, the following research questions have been established; i. What factors contribute to insecurity on the Abuja-Kaduna expressway? ii. How do commuters perceive the security situation along the Abuja-Kaduna expressway? iii. What are the impacts of insecurity on Abuja-Kaduna expressway? iv. How effective are the security measures implemented to address the challenges faced by commuters on the Abuja-Kaduna expressway? Methodology The utilization of a qualitative research approach in this study allowed for a thorough investigation of the experiences that people had while traveling on the expressway in threatening security situations. The main technique for gathering data was semi-structured interviews, which gave the researchers the freedom to probe and modify questions based on participants' perspectives. Thirteen commuters who regularly used the Abuja-Kaduna express road between 2021 and 2024 were purposefully selected to participate in the study. These included both civilian commuters and, notably, one army officer who provided insight from a security operative’s perspective. Participants were selected based on their willingness and availability to share their experiences, and ethical clearance was obtained prior to data collection. The data obtained from the interviews were analysed using thematic analysis, a method suitable for identifying, analyzing and reporting patterns within qualitative data (Braun & Clarke, 2006 ). Conceptual Review Transportation System Doi ( 2015 ) asserts that transportation is an essential process and activity that links people, goods, and services across various land infrastructure functions and other economic sectors. Numerous factors need to be taken into account when analyzing transportation systems, such as human behavior, the system's geography, road network security, network configuration, external influences on the system (such as politics and economics), and the available modes of transportation (Schiller, Bruun, & Kenworthy, 2010 ). The efficiency of transportation infrastructure is weakened in many developing nations, including Nigeria, by issues like underinvestment, inadequate maintenance, corruption, and insecurity (Ogunsanya, 2002 ; Adeniji, 2000 ). In addition to limiting mobility, these limitations exacerbate economic stagnation and regional inequality. Additionally, there are close interactions between the transportation sector and other development sectors. For instance, dangerous highways increase human vulnerability and insecurity, while inadequate road networks might impede access to healthcare and education (Yusuf & Danjibo, 2020 ). Therefore, a strategic and inclusive vision for transportation must be a part of any all-encompassing approach to national development. Insecurity and the Nigerian Transportation System Insecurity is a state of fear or anxiety brought on by a perceived or actual lack of protection (Beland, 2005 ). Road accidents and armed bandits were the most frequent conventional hazards on Nigerian roadways before the emergence of the Boko Haram insurgency in Northern Nigeria. One of the main risks to road travel in the area was the intermittent emergence of a number of violent ethno-religious conflicts in Northern Nigeria. In Nigeria, the carnage from traffic accidents is a major factor in the causal index of road transportation risks (Iweze 2011 ; Pérouse de Montclos, 2016). According to Nigeria Watch ( 2016 ) and Pérouse de Montclos ( 2014 ), vehicle accidents caused more deaths than political wars, ethno-religious conflicts, organized crime, and similar incidents. An estimated 15,000 persons died in traffic accidents between 2006 and 2014 (Ukoji, 2016 ). Estimates of fatal traffic accident severity ranged from 6.00 to 8.99% in the Northeast states of Yobe, Borno, Adamawa, and Gombe, with Yobe State having the highest severity index at 11.4% (Ukoji, 2016 ). Nigeria had the second-highest rate of traffic accidents worldwide between 2006 and 2014, according to reports (Ukoji 2016 ). However, the trend reversed in the final quarter of 2014 as a result of the escalating Boko Haram insurgency waves in the Northeast. Thus, Boko Haram overtook all other causes as the primary reason behind violent deaths in Nigeria (Pérouse de Montclos, 2016). Violence from Boko Haram had moved from the Northeast to neighboring Niger, Chad, and Northern Cameroon by the last quarter of 2014, when they carried out a number of significant attacks. For travelers who used the main highways and roads that connected the neighboring countries, this made cross-border travel between these nations and Nigeria risky. The instability in Kaduna revolves around three different but interlinked threats. The first is the conflict between farmers and herders, which leads to increasing tensions over community use and access to natural resources like land and water. The second concern is the criminal activity of armed gangs, which includes highway robberies, cattle rustling, arms trade, and kidnapping for ransom. Violent extremism poses the third threat. When the extremist Islamist organization Ansaru began carrying out horrific acts of ambush and other attacks on tourists and security personnel in 2020, this threat reemerged (Olajumoke, 2021 ). There are both immediate and distant variables that contribute to this state of insecurity. According to Oyinloye ( 2020 ), these include: climate change, hate speech and stereotyping, lack of voice and political representation, poor management and policy of natural resources (land and water), bush burning, population growth, crop damage, ethno-religious factors, loss of traditional relationships and cohesion. It is concerning that the number of attacks on highways that target drivers and other road users and abduct passengers is on the rise. Given that 197 persons were abducted on highways in May 2022 alone, for example, travelers are urged to stay off of well-known routes and do so only in extreme cases (Nigeria Security Intelligence, 2022). Empirical Review Sam and Abane ( 2017 ) evaluated the security and passenger safety measures taken by Ghanaian public transportation operators using the triangulation research design and routine activities theory. The study's conclusions demonstrated that insufficient security measures in public parks and on highways make passengers more susceptible to deliberate criminal and antisocial behaviors like robbery, assault, and baggage theft while using public transportation. Oyinloye et al. ( 2022 ) evaluated how highway robbery and kidnapping in Nigeria were impacted by deteriorating road infrastructure. While content analysis of publically accessible historical records was used, the study applied an exploratory research methodology. The internet, the library, journal publications, and other relevant documented items were used to generate secondary data. The study relied solely on secondary data. Searches of publicly accessible materials yielded the literature. The study found that one of the causes of highway robberies and kidnappings on federal and interstate highways is road infrastructure deterioration. James et al. ( 2015 ) examined the relationship between interstate roads and crime at the county level in Georgia. The study investigated if this link is affected by the distinctions between urban and rural locations. The study claims that the quantity of interstate roads significantly increases crime. The model proposed by Onatere-Ubrurhe ( 2015 ), on the other hand, was based on an analysis of the trends in Highway Armed Robberies in Nigeria between 2009 and 2014. The study found that HARIs are increasing in Nigeria. Wright and Ribbens ( 2016 ) looked into how crime has an impact on the road environment and how it relates to road safety in South Africa. The study discovered that illegal activities on the road can significantly impact the safety of the road network and the larger road environment, and they extend beyond merely breaking traffic laws. Andrews et al. ( 2018 ) examined how poor roads affected the Gushegu District of Ghana's Northern Region's transportation system and the costs of upkeep and services. The results showed that poor roads affected the transportation sector by increasing maintenance costs and causing frequent vehicle failures. A study by Okonkwo, Ndubuisi, and Anagbogu ( 2015 ) examined how insecurity affected Nigerian companies. Based on the secondary data collected, it was determined that insecurity deters both domestic and foreign investment and impedes corporate operations. According to Okonkwo et al. ( 2015 ), some of the main reasons of insecurity in Nigeria include religious strife, unemployment, and corruption. As such, they suggested that appropriate policies be developed and put into place to address these problems. Business operations, according to Okonkwo et al. ( 2015 ), are a necessary component of human life and are intended to generate revenue through the supply of goods and services. However, a lack of safety, dread, and anxiety brought on by insecurity hinders company operations. Additionally, Okonkwo et al. ( 2015 ) contended that the government has fallen short of its fundamental responsibility to ensure the safety and well-being of its people. Armed robbery, kidnapping, hired assassinations, and the actions of certain religious groups that are against Western education, like Boko Haram, are a few of the security issues that have been noted. The report also pointed out that in places like Rivers State, armed robberies and kidnappings have been rather common. SMEs cannot therefore prosper in areas where people fear attacks or where property and life protection are not guaranteed. Insecurity is one of the main problems with air travel in Nigeria compared to Egypt, according to Faajir and Zidan's (2016) comparative study of the problems and difficulties in transportation in Egypt and Nigeria. They pointed out that armed robbers and militants regularly target travelers on the highways leading to some Nigerian airports, including those in Owerri and Port Harcourt, making them extremely dangerous. They added that there are armed robbery instances on the Isolo Expressway, which leads to Lagos International Airport, possibly Nigeria's top airport, posing a major risk to air travelers entering and leaving the nation. Faajir and Zidan ( 2016 ) ascribed the high frequency of robberies seen on Nigerian roads leading to airports to significant security breaches along those roads. Muhammad (2016) emphasized the dangers presented by Nigerian Police Force officers as a primary cause of insecurity on Nigerian highways in his intervention on monitoring the trends of insecurity on Nigerian roads. He pointed to the force's propensity for extrajudicial executions, particularly the shooting of drivers and motorcyclists who refused to accept bribes. Mohammed (2016) said that the police also pose a threat to highway security by actively participating in armed robberies, in addition to shooting innocent bystanders who refuse to comply with their bribery requests. According to him, legitimate police officers have been known to loot drivers on interstate highways by parking their official patrol cars in neighboring bush pathways. In order to address the issue of insecurity on the roads and in other areas of society, Muhammad (2016) argued that the government should address public corruption, particularly among the security services. Ezenwa and Ezedinachi (2019) claimed that because of the increasing insecurity brought on by armed bandits, robbers, and kidnappers along Nigeria's major highways, which would normally be a very pleasant experience due to their picturesque scenery, traveling through these highways has become one of the most abhorrent experiences. In order to prevent and curb highway robberies and banditry, they pointed out that these crimes are common in Nigeria's six geopolitical zones and that there are not enough security personnel in those areas (Ezenwa and Ezedinachi, 2019). The tendency of security officers to arrive at the scene of highway crimes, such as robberies, after the perpetrators have finished their crime, sometimes raising suspicions of complicity between the criminals and the security agents, was also criticized by these authors. They noted that the issue of banditry and insecurity it occasions along Nigeria’s highways has become so worrisome that the government and the security agencies must address it urgently as it threatens to reduce the country into a lawless nation. They pointed out that the problem of banditry and insecurity along Nigeria's highways has gotten sufficiently severe that the government and security services need to take immediate action to stop these insecurities from turning the country into a lawless State. Gaps in the Literature Although there is a large body of material already available on insecurity and criminal activity in Nigeria's public transportation system, there are still some important gaps, especially when it comes to crimes involving highways. A large portion of the empirical research, including that of Sam and Abane ( 2017 ), concentrated on broad safety issues in public transit, mostly in Ghana, with consequences for the vulnerability of passengers. The Abuja-Kaduna Expressway, which has become known for frequent occurrences of armed robbery, kidnapping, and banditry, is one of Nigeria's most hazardous corridors; yet, this lacks the context-specific investigation that is required, even if it offers fundamental knowledge. This disparity suggests that further research is required to understand how sociopolitical and economic factors influence insecurity along particular high-risk transportation corridors in Nigeria. The excessive dependence of several of the examined studies on secondary data is another notable gap. For example, the majority of the resources used by Oyinloye et al. ( 2022 ) and Okonkwo et al. ( 2015 ) were from archives and publicly accessible records. Notwithstanding their value, these methods fall short in capturing the views, coping mechanisms, and lived experiences of individuals who are most affected by roadway insecurity. There is a lack of first-hand information from commuters, business drivers, and locals, which makes it difficult to comprehend the human aspect of road insecurity in Nigeria. The voices of those most impacted by crime and violence are therefore underrepresented in academic debate. In light of this, the current study aims to close these gaps by examining how the disintegration of institutional and communal institutions contributes to insecurity on the Abuja-Kaduna Expressway using the Social Disorganization Theory. This study provides a thorough and contextual understanding of the dynamics underlying highway crimes by fusing theoretical ideas with the viewpoints of the targeted sample population. Theoretical Framework Although a number of theories have been used to describe the dynamics and unique characteristics of Nigeria's insecurity stalemate, Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay's social disorganization theory offers an appropriate analytical framework for this study. Clifford Shaw and his assistant Henry McKay developed the notion of social disorganization in 1929, and it was published in 1942. The foundation of social disorganization theory is the explanation of how institutional collapse results in differences in criminal offending and delinquency throughout time and space (for a more comprehensive summary, see Akers, 2008 and Jensen, 2003 ). Historically, the formation of structured and cooperative ties between groups within the local community has been attributed to these institutions (family, school, church, friendship, etc.). The connection or "sense of belonging" that a person may have with their community is then associated with this organization, which reduces the possibility that they may engage in criminal or delinquent activities that could harm that group. As a result, different degrees of reciprocal attachment that an individual may have in connection to that community are caused by different levels of cooperational organization linked to these institutions. As a result, crime and delinquency are observed at higher rates and social deterrence is reduced. Shaw and McKay's (1942) Social Disorganization Theory can be used to analyze the ongoing insecurity on the Abuja-Kaduna highway. According to this theory which has its roots in the Chicago School of sociology, crime is more common in areas where conventional social institutions like the family, education, religious organizations, and community relationships have declined. When these institutions are in operation, they offer the means by which social standards are upheld and communal harmony is preserved (Bursik & Grasmick, 1993; Sampson & Groves, 1989). Similar to Shaw and McKay's (1942) "delinquency areas," the Abuja-Kaduna expressway passes through an area characterized by poverty, institutional neglect, deteriorating infrastructure, and a low level of law enforcement presence. Informal social controls disintegrate when community ties erode, and criminal groups take advantage of the power vacuum. Along this road, there are frequent attacks, kidnappings, and robberies that point to a wider collapse in social order rather than only security enforcement shortcomings. This is consistent with the claim made by Sampson and Wilson ( 1995 ) that racial/ethnic heterogeneity and concentrated disadvantage are two examples of structural social disorder that fuel violent crime in marginalized communities. The theory also emphasizes how structural inequality and environmental factors are linked to regional variations in crime, which are not random. Communities along the expressway have grown more disconnected from institutional support in the Abuja-Kaduna area, which has made the environment more favorable for criminal activities. This corroborates the findings of Kubrin and Weitzer (2003), who contended that violent cultures are often fostered in socially chaotic communities as a means of coping with ongoing insecurity and state failure. However, there are some drawbacks to the Social Disorganization Theory. The theory has been criticized by academics like Cohen ( 1955 ) and Merton (1957) for undervaluing personal agency and the significance of subcultures. In Nigeria, where youth unemployment, poverty, and inequality are pervasive, Merton's strain theory, for example, posits that people may resort to deviant behavior when they are unable to accomplish socially acceptable goals through legal methods. Similarly, Cohen ( 1955 ) contends that collective identification and resistance, rather than simple social breakdown, may provide a more compelling explanation for some types of criminality, especially those associated with youth subcultures or insurgent groupings. The application of Social Disorganization Theory to this study makes it evident that the Abuja-Kaduna highway is a social space where institutional fragmentation, economic hardship, and systemic neglect come together in addition to being a physical transportation route. All of these factors work together to make it harder for local communities to keep the peace or fight off criminal groups. Criminal Attacks on Road Transportation and Mobility: Some Factual Trends Some cases of insurgent attacks on travellers and bridges in the Northeast region between 2021 and 2024 including the Kaduna railway attacks in 2022 are presented in the table below. Table 1 A chronicle of violent criminal attacks on Nigerian highways involving kidnapping for ransom S/N Date of attacks Location Victims Source 1. January 17, 2021 Kaduna State. The whereabouts of seven police officers out of 15 that were ambushed by bandits along the Birni Gwari-Funtua road on Friday is still uncertain. Daily Trust 2. February 6, 2021 Birnin Gwari Road, Kaduna State. Security agencies have reported that bandits opened fire on commuters and six persons died on the spot. LEADERSHIP Weekend 3. July 27, 2021 Sokoto State. Over 60 passengers travelling to Kano from Sokoto-by-Sokoto State Transport Authority buses were reportedly abducted by bandits along the Sokoto-Gusau highway on Sunday (July 25, 2021). Vanguard 4. January 5, 2021 Kaduna State. On Sunday 3rd January 2021, bandits laid siege on innocent travelers at Zankoro, along dreaded Birnin-Gwari-Kadun highway, killing nine people (including three infants) that are on their way for ceremony at Doka, Birnin-Gwari LGA. Daily Tracker 5. January 8, 2021 Birnin Gwari Kaduna highway. Armed bandits on January 7, 2021 opened fire on a moving vehicle along Birnin Gwari Kaduna highway, killing the driver and one other person. Daily Trust 6. May 17, 2022 Abuja-Kaduna Highway. Around 4:30 PM, terrorists attacked the Abuja-Kaduna highway, abducting at least 30 passengers and leaving several others injured, including women and children. Sahara Reporters 7. March 1, 2023 Abuja-Kaduna highway. An incident was reported where 23 individuals were abducted along the Abuja-Kaduna highway. CKN News 8. March 28, 2022 Abuja–Kaduna train Katari, Kaduna State. At least eight passengers were confirmed dead and forty-one individuals sustained injuries and were hospitalised following the attack. Vanguard News 9. January 7, 2024 Katari Local Government Area, Kaduna State. At approximately 9:30 PM, bandits blocked the Abuja-Kaduna highway near Katari village, abducting over 30 travelers. Sahara Reporters 10. February 28, 2024 Gonin-Gora in Chikun Local Government, Kaduna State. Residents of Gonin-Gora in Chikun Local Government Area protested by barricading the Abuja-Kaduna expressway. The demonstration was in response to a bandit attack the previous night, during which an unspecified number of residents were abducted. ​ Punch Newspaper 11. April 29, 2024 Jere town, Kaduna State. Suspected bandits attacked travelers along the highway, killing a driver identified as Danladi Jobe and abducting two others. Daily Post Nigeria Sources: Ugwuoke et al (2023) and Researchers Investigation (2025) With a focus on the Abuja-Kaduna expressway, the table's data describes violent criminal activity on Nigerian roadways from 2021 to 2024. Examining these episodes exposes a trend of growing insecurity that is both operationally complex and geographically pervasive, revealing larger systemic flaws in Nigeria's internal security framework. Attacks occurring repeatedly over a number of years, particularly in Kaduna State, indicate not just sporadic criminal activity but also the institutionalization of violence along important routes. The Abuja-Kaduna highway, a vital route connecting the political capital of Nigeria with the North-Western area, is frequently the scene of violent ambushes, kidnappings, and killings, according to the data. Even though police and military resources have been publicly deployed, incidents on May 17, 2022, March 1, 2023, January 7, 2024, and April 29, 2024, show a chronic failure of deterrent mechanisms. According to experts like Akinola (2019), Nigeria's security actions are frequently reactive rather than preventive, which allows violence to recur cyclically. These events support his criticism. This geographical spread of insecurity indicates that state power is eroding in large rural and peri urban areas, where criminal syndicates, bandits, and insurgents acting on behalf of non-state actors have essentially taken over as the de facto law enforcement. The targeted murders of government officials (such as the former education secretary in Nasarawa) and the ambush of police officers on January 17, 2021, suggest not only a threat to people but also a direct attack on state symbols. Such trends, according to Eze and Ibeanu (2020), are indicative of a profound crisis of legitimacy in which the state is unable to monopolize the lawful use of force, creating room for alternative power structures. Interpretation of Interview Transcripts Within the allotted time for data collection, travelers along the Kaduna-Abuja expressway participated in audio interviews by voice call at their convenience on a predetermined day and time. The interview's specifics are listed below: Respondents Code Date of Interview Time Duration R1 April 2, 2025 15 minutes, 16 seconds R2 April 4, 2025 7 minutes, 12 seconds R3 April 6, 2025 10 minutes, 1 seconds R4 April 6, 2025 9 minutes, 46 seconds R5 April 6, 2025 15 minutes, 58 seconds R6 April 7, 2025 8 minutes, 1 second R7 April 10, 2025 8 minutes, 20 seconds R8 April 13, 2025 5 minutes, 30 seconds R9 April 13, 2025 6 minutes, 15 seconds R10 April 14, 2025 4 minutes, 25 seconds R11 April 15, 2025 8 minutes, 10 seconds R12 April 15, 2025 6 minutes, 50 seconds R13 April 15, 2025 8 minutes, 40 seconds Source: Researchers Investigation (2025) Analysis on Insecurity along the Abuja-Kaduna Express Road This analysis presents a thematic breakdown of qualitative data collected through interviews and observations to understand the multidimensional drivers and impacts of insecurity along the Abuja-Kaduna expressway in Nigeria. Key themes explored include poor infrastructure, socioeconomic inequalities, psychological trauma, economic disruption and the limitations of current security efforts. Structural and Environmental Contributors to Insecurity The poor state of the Abuja-Kaduna expressway and its direct connection to security flaws are among the most recurring themes in respondent accounts. Respondents frequently cited potholes, poor road lighting, and deteriorating infrastructure as major factors that facilitate attacks by criminal forces. Drivers are forced to slow down due to the road's deterioration, which frequently leaves them vulnerable to ambushes. The existence of natural cover, such as dense forests and bushlands, was also cited as a contributing factor because it hinders security surveillance and visibility while offering robbers safe havens. A few of the other respondents also expressed a similar opinion. For example, respondents 1, 2, 3, and 6 (who were classified as commuters, experts, and transporters) all agreed that the main causes of insecurity are bad road conditions, insufficient security guards, ineffective surveillance, and a lack of communication systems. Bandits take advantage of the terrain's remoteness, according to Respondent 5, a local resident, while Respondent 4, a security analyst, pointed to inadequate intelligence cooperation and a lack of community involvement as factors that facilitate attacks. These environmental and infrastructure flaws hinder law enforcement authorities' ability to respond quickly while also fostering criminal activity. For example, it is less complicated for robbers and kidnappers to target vulnerable visitors when vehicles move slowly in locations that aren't well maintained. A lawless corridor that gives criminal elements more confidence is also created by the lack of surveillance equipment, such as CCTV cameras, aerial surveillance systems, and sufficient street illumination. This subject is in line with academic research that highlights the connection between national security concerns and deteriorating infrastructure, especially in developing nations' transit systems (Igbokwe & Obielozie, 2020; Oyewole, 2021). Socioeconomic and Political Drivers of Insecurity Respondents identified underlying socioeconomic and political problems as the primary causes of insecurity along the Abuja-Kaduna expressway, in addition to physical infrastructure. These include social inequality, economic disenfranchisement, youth unemployment and pervasive poverty. The desperation of marginalized people, especially in the neighborhoods near the expressway, was cited by several participants including respondent 7, a government official as the reason for the increase in crime. This illustrates how social isolation and financial hardship push some people to engage in illegal activities like kidnapping for ransom and banditry. Ethnic and religious tensions, which have long been a problem in Nigeria's sociopolitical landscape, were also mentioned as contributing factors to violence and impeding community collaboration with law enforcement. A climate of impunity is further exacerbated by political instability, a lack of government accountability, and ineffective policing. The organized criminal syndicates that operate with little opposition and take advantage of the void left by ineffective governance were detailed by the respondents. This subject is consistent with the "structural violence" theory (Galtung, 1969), which holds that economic and institutional frameworks contribute to conflict and criminal activity by indirectly affecting communities. Psychological and Social Impacts on Commuters The research also shows that insecurity has a major impact on commuters' social, psychological, and emotional well-being. When traveling along the freeway, participants reported experiencing persistent worry, terror, and psychological trauma. The families of commuters, many of whom endure significant stress and anxiety when traveling, are also affected by this worry. The emotional toll that families bear is highlighted by one respondent, who explicitly mentioned his mother's increased fear whenever he traveled. It was also observed that communal engagement and social life were eroding. Traditional ceremonies, family get-togethers, marriages, and cultural festivals, all of which are usually essential to Nigerian communal life are avoided by many people out of fear of being abducted or attacked. Social cohesiveness has decreased as a result of this tendency, and familial bonds between families spread out over Abuja and Kaduna have weakened. The multifaceted nature of insecurity, which goes beyond physical harm to encompass emotional and relational disruptions, is emphasized by theories in psychosocial studies and the literature on human security (Acharya, 2007). Economic Consequences of Insecurity Along the Abuja-Kaduna expressway, insecurity has a multifaceted and multiscalar economic impact that impacts community economies, individual livelihoods, and national development. Micro economically, respondents blamed safety worries for lost revenue, a smaller clientele, and a decision to forego business prospects. The number of people ready to utilize the expressway, for instance, has significantly decreased, according to drivers, with many choosing to travel by plane or train despite the higher expenses. Agriculture has been hampered by insecurity on a macroeconomic level, especially in areas like Katari and Rijana that have been noted as hubs for banditry. Local farmers have fled their land out of fear, causing depopulation and disinvestment in these formerly agricultural areas. The state of the road and its instability have impacted the country's economic performance, according to respondent 7. As a result, the agricultural value chain is disrupted, which raises food costs and decreases supplies in cities. Additionally, the reduction in investment in tourism and hospitality, as evidenced by the closure of popular tourist destinations like Kajuru Castle, shows the profound effects on Nigeria's economy. The respondents' discussion of the economic aspects of insecurity supports research in the fields of security and development that emphasizes the relationship between national economic resilience, mobility, and trade (Akinyemi, 2022; Edewor, 2019). Evaluation of Security Measures and Recommendations for Improvement Although respondents agreed that there has been a noticeable rise in military patrols, security checks, and presence since 2021, there is still broad agreement that these initiatives are inadequate, ill-coordinated, and lack strategic depth. Some responders drew attention to particular deficiencies, including a lack of proactive intelligence collection, poorly maintained patrol cars and insufficient staff. Criminals continue to take advantage of the substantial security holes left by the restricted reach of security personnel, particularly in isolated or wooded areas of the roads. Participants suggested a wide range of interventions, such as better infrastructure, especially road repairs and streetlight installation, increased deployment of well-equipped security personnel, the use of aerial surveillance technologies like drones, the establishment of Mobile Police Force (MPF) Quick Response Bases, regional cooperation and engagement with local communities for intelligence-sharing. To address the underlying causes, respondent 7, a government official, promoted socioeconomic initiatives including job development and educational access. Discussion of Findings A multidimensional view of the security measures implemented along the Abuja-Kaduna expressway is presented by the study's findings. The belief that these steps are insufficient to guarantee commuters' long-term safety persists even if respondents acknowledge the existence of initiatives to reduce insecurity. This is in accordance with the empirical literature, especially the work of Okolie (2021), who contended that although security officers are frequently deployed temporarily on Nigerian highways in reaction to attacks, the actions are rarely maintained or carefully planned for long-term effects. The greater visibility of security guards along the motorway is a common issue across all respondents. This entails additional patrols, checkpoints, and in certain areas, armored tanks. Nonetheless, there is much debate regarding these interventions’ efficacy. Respondent Three, a member of the armed forces, offers a particularly critical assessment, pointing out that although security measures like side checkpoints and snap roadblocks are in place, they are "grossly inadequate" because there are not enough personnel to cover such a wide and vulnerable route. This echoes Ezenwa and Ezedinachi's (2019) concerns about the insufficient number of security personnel in highway hotspots and the occasionally questionably slow reactions of law enforcement to criminal situations. It is clear from the respondent's reference to hacked communication networks, inadequate logistics, and a dearth of useful intelligence that institutional disarray has rendered formal control mechanisms helpless. According to Shaw and McKay ( 1942 ), this institutional failure makes it harder for societies to respond to deviance and enforce social norms, which makes crime more entrenched. The accounts of commuters who have experienced direct assault make this institutional failure clear. One participant related how armed robbers and kidnappers stopped them, while another related how a colleague was abducted and only freed upon payment of a ransom. These narratives support the impunity with which criminal networks function as well as the insufficiency of state protection. According to a frequent commuter who has seen multiple robberies and kidnappings, the frequency of such crimes suggests that the system is overburdened and unable to provide deterrent. As the driver put it, "I have lost count of the number of times I have been stopped by armed robbers on the Abuja-Kaduna expressway." The commercial driver concurs, stating that although he feels better now than he did in previous years because of the increased security and more established military bases, some areas, like Katari and Rijana, are still known for being hotspots. Although there is a noticeable security presence, he emphasizes that it is still insufficient to deter criminal activity, particularly in remote or wooded areas. He highlights the disparity between operational efficacy and visual presence with his narration of passengers being abducted and a colleague being shot along Jere Road. Technology and intelligence collection are also identified as critical areas that require improvement. The development of Forward Operating Bases (FOBs) and Quick Response Group (QRG) barracks to facilitate real-time intervention, as well as the use of drones and surveillance technologies, are all strongly supported by Respondent Three. The military respondent stated that the incorporation of technology would enable faster reactions, enhance monitoring capabilities, and discourage criminal actors, all of which are critical to the current system. This sentiment was repeated by majority of the respondents. Road safety experts, the military, the police, and local communities should work together more frequently, according to Respondent Five. Furthermore, he argues that having smooth roads and adequate lighting would improve highway safety by reducing the possibility that criminals would prey on stalled or slow-moving vehicles. In a similar vein, Respondent One attributes security effectiveness to both visibility and timing, claiming that she only feels secure while traveling early in the morning, when there is a lower chance of attacks. This reinforces the requirement for intelligence-led operations and supports the notion that any security strategy should take into account spatial-temporal vulnerabilities at the times and locations where assaults are most likely to occur. Another recurrent issue was the emotional and psychological effects of insecurity, as many respondents candidly shared their feelings of worry and anxiety about taking the route. According to one anxious passenger, "I am usually anxious when I travel. Stories of people being abducted and robbed have been told to me, demonstrating how ongoing insecurity impacts both mental and physical health. This anxiety was validated by another night passenger who said they now completely avoid the road at night. According to theories of perceived insecurity, such disclosures provide credence to the idea that the threat of violence can be just as upsetting as the actual act of violence. In addition, a worried citizen pointed out the wider ramifications, saying that the route's insecurity is "affecting the economy and people's livelihoods," linking individual safety to structural effects. Additionally, throughout the interviews, the need of road infrastructure is underlined. Potholes, detours, and dim lighting are examples of poor road conditions that are perceived as both inconveniences and criminal facilitators. According to reports, bandits use these vulnerabilities to set up ambushes. This supports the empirical results of Yusuf and Danjibo ( 2020 ), who noted that Nigeria's inadequate transportation system makes insecurity worse by fostering an environment that encourages criminal activity. In a similar vein, Oyinloye et al. ( 2022 ) establish a direct correlation between the increase in highway crimes such as robbery and kidnapping and the degradation of road infrastructure. "Narrow and potholed roads are natural ambush points, making travelers easy targets," the driver emphasized. According to social disorganization theory, when infrastructure deteriorates, a sign of institutional neglect, it signals state abandonment and eliminates escape routes, which in turn produces physical and psychological conditions that encourage criminal activity. The driver and Respondent Four were among the other respondents who also mentioned that poverty and economic disenfranchisement in nearby neighborhoods are additional factors that lead to insecurity. Due to insecurity, the driver noticed that many residents in high-risk areas like Rijana had given up farming. This not only upsets local economies but also makes idle people more susceptible to recruitment by criminal networks. By suggesting that fundamental socioeconomic disadvantages including poverty, racial or ethnic marginalization, and lack of mobility reduce collective efficacy, Sampson and Wilson ( 1995 ) expanded Shaw and McKay's theory to contemporary settings. According to Okonkwo et al. ( 2015 ), insecurity not only causes business disruptions but also blocks off legal opportunities for economic interaction, which drives disenfranchised people into criminal activity. The opportunity structure theory was also employed by Onota et al. ( 2024 ) to conclude that the ongoing attacks on businesses, particularly in the Northeast, are an indication of a lack of viable economic opportunities. According to the theory, people may turn to criminal activity to survive or earn money when traditional economic routes are threatened or obstructed. This leads to a vicious cycle where businesses shut down because of insecurity, which lowers economic opportunities and deepens poverty. Crime and violence rise as a result of these limited opportunities, perpetuating the unsteady cycle (Onota et al, 2024 ). These distinct narratives are supported by a larger context provided by the empirical findings of Faajir and Zidan ( 2016 ). They emphasized how widespread insecurity related to transportation is, even in the vicinity of important national infrastructure like airports. Their findings offer comparable evidence that insecurity extends across high-traffic corridors and metropolitan transportation links rather than only rural roads or abandoned highways. This proves that the Abuja-Kaduna expressway is not an isolated incident but rather an illustration of a nationwide trend in which critical infrastructure routes are at risk due to haphazard and disorganized responses to crime. Conclusion and Recommendations Based on the Social Disorganization Theory, the study demonstrates that the general insecurity is mostly caused by the disintegration of formal and informal social institutions that have historically kept a society in order, including family systems, community networks, local government, and law enforcement. The passengers' narrations demonstrate how the breakdown of these institutions, socioeconomic hardship, and the erratic presence of the government have all contributed to the growth of criminal activities. Currently, the highway reflects what Shaw and McKay called “delinquency areas”, areas characterized by socioeconomic marginalization, institutional neglect, and a weakened sense of community. Such environments normalize and even justify illegal behavior, particularly when social mobility, education, and stable employment are lacking. A classic example of social disarray is seen in the deterioration of community relationships, the cessation of legal commercial activity, and the mistrust between locals and security authorities. Regardless of temporary military deployments or police checkpoints, instability will continue unless intentional action is taken to buck this pattern. For policy changes in the Nigerian transportation sector, the following evidence-based suggestions are required. It is crucial that communities and law enforcement regain mutual trust and collaboration. The creation of skilled, locally based community policing units, made up of citizens, vigilantes, and official police, can enhance early warning systems and intelligence collection. By increasing local engagement and confidence, community-based policing has, for instance, significantly reduced localized terror activity in Maiduguri, Borno State. ‘’No amount of world military muscle or technologically prowess could erect an effective shield against the actions of desperate men’’ (Camilleri, 2002 ). Therefore, it is imperative that villages along the highway undergo socioeconomic revitalization. Targeted rural development programs that involve job creation, vocational training, and infrastructure reconstruction (such as roads, schools, and water supplies) should be started by the government and non-governmental organizations. The allure of joining armed organizations has decreased in Katsina State as a result of youth empowerment initiatives like agricultural cooperatives, which provide at-risk youth with viable alternatives to criminal activity. The military personnel respondent's insights, which showed a lack of manpower and monitoring, can be used to extract another important proposal. A consistent security presence might be achieved by setting up Forward Operating Bases (FOBs) in key locations that are permanently manned by drones, CCTV, and GPS-enabled patrols. Aerial monitoring has shown promise and could be used as a model for the Abuja-Kaduna expressway. In order to boost local economies and create jobs, the government should also encourage private sector investment in the construction of infrastructure along the expressway, such as rest areas, transportation hubs, and local markets. These investments, made in collaboration with local leaders, can lessen dependency on illegal economies and promote a sense of ownership. This practical approach is offered by the Dangote Group’s Road construction and employment creation programs in Kogi and Ogun States. Ultimately, continuous civic engagement initiatives had to be started in order to promote community cohesion, bring back conventional dispute resolution procedures, and inform people of their rights and obligations. In conflict-prone regions of Plateau and Benue States, NGOs such as Search for Common Ground have carried out such programs with quantifiable success in restoring intercommunal trust. Declarations Funding: The authors declare that no funding was received from any organization or agency in support of this research. Author Contribution E.O. prepared the main manuscript text, N.O. and E.O. transcribed the interviews conducted, N.O reviewed and edited the manuscript. References Adelaja, B. (2021). Robbery victims narrate experience in 38-passenger bus in Lagos. Vanguard, January 8, pg.7. Adeniji, K. (2000). Transport challenges in Nigeria in the next two decades. NISER Occasional Paper. Adesina, T. (2024). 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Moreover, Boko Haram attacks, Niger Delta militancy, Indigenous People of Biafra (IPOB) sit-at-home orders, the conflict between farmers and herders, and armed banditry are all occurring in Nigeria, causing relative instability in some parts of the nation. Insecurity also affect Nigerian roadways, where passengers are robbed and abducted for ransom. Road infrastructure is essential to the entire transportation chain because it links other modes of transportation and permeates many aspects of modern economic activity (Adesanya, 2008). Road transportation offers access to rural areas, where the majority of the economically active population resides, and accounts for approximately 90% of the nation's passenger and freight services (Fagbemi, 2006).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNigerian highways are considered high-risk areas by security-based studies and some major newspaper commentaries (Nwosu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Ugwuoke et al, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Ekpu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Ugwuoke, Ngwu and Iziga, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Ugwuoke; \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). This has raised serious concerns about the government's ability to protect its citizens and foreigners who live and travel on the country's highways. The government has been compelled to mobilize its Army and Air Force capabilities for highway military combat operations as a result of the war against criminal elements on Nigerian highways. The ongoing insecurity on highways has overburdened and thwarted official security attempts to protect the lives of motorists and communities along the routes (Akinola, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Highway travel in Nigeria is like walking on a minefield. This is because criminal elements frequently employ small guns and light weapons, General Purpose Machine Guns (GPMG), and explosives on Nigerian roadways to traumatize drivers (Olumide, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Even the army, let alone the police, is challenged by highway criminals. Bandits' bullets on the nation's roadways have frequently demolished the military's rank and many of its top leadership. It is impossible to foresee the fate that awaits soft target civilian passengers in such conditions. Nigerian highways are covered in blood, and recent travel on them has led to heartbreaking stories of homicides, sexual assaults, injuries, kidnappings, robberies, loss of personal belongings, and ensuing post-traumatic stress disorder (Adesina, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The trauma of travelling on Nigerian highways was captured in previous research in the following narrative:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe terrible condition and extreme insecurity of Nigerian highways have made them death traps for passengers. It is similar to traveling through the valley of the shadow of death when you are on the country's highways. If you are able to make it from one place to another, you are fortunate. As stated by Umahi in Ugwuoke et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), everything might happen to you on the roadway at any time.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost states in the northwest region of Nigeria have access to the federal capital territory through the 211-kilometer Abuja-Kaduna route (Ariya, Omale \u0026amp; Ezeala 2016). Drivers find it unappealing to drive on the highway due of the frequent robberies and kidnappings. Additionally, travelers are at risk since armed bandits randomly kidnap their victims by blocking a highway with heavily armed weaponry and quickly kidnapping a significant number of people (Channels Television, 2017). An additional method of operation involves attacking a community and removing the intended victim from their residence. The Kaduna-Abuja highway has several flashpoints, such as Gonin-gora, Rijana, Jere, and Maraban-Rido. Residents of these communities, commuters, and regular road users travel in terror. This is concerning because, although the Abuja-Kaduna expressway was once safe, motorists now drive carefully due to a number of security risks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOn the subject of highway insecurity in Nigeria, there is a community of journalistic reports and limited number of studies. For example, Eleweke (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) investigated how poor roads make Nigerian highways more vulnerable to attacks. Ekpu (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) examined how political unrest fuels criminal activity on Nigerian highways and the study regarding how low security personnel motivation contributes to insecurity on Nigerian highways was conducted by Ajasa (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). These investigations are significant. However, empirical research on highway insecurity in Nigeria, with a focus on the Abuja-Kaduna expressway, has not yet been accomplished. Hence, by analysing how insecurity affects the Abuja-Kaduna expressway and how much security has been implemented to stop the threat, the study aims to solve this research problem. To achieve the overarching objective of the study, the following research questions have been established;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ei.\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;What factors contribute to insecurity on the Abuja-Kaduna expressway?\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eii.\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;How do commuters perceive the security situation along the Abuja-Kaduna expressway?\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eiii.\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;What are the impacts of insecurity on Abuja-Kaduna expressway?\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eiv. \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;How effective are the security measures implemented to address the challenges faced \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; by commuters on the Abuja-Kaduna expressway?\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methodology","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe utilization of a qualitative research approach in this study allowed for a thorough investigation of the experiences that people had while traveling on the expressway in threatening security situations. The main technique for gathering data was semi-structured interviews, which gave the researchers the freedom to probe and modify questions based on participants' perspectives. Thirteen commuters who regularly used the Abuja-Kaduna express road between 2021 and 2024 were purposefully selected to participate in the study. These included both civilian commuters and, notably, one army officer who provided insight from a security operative\u0026rsquo;s perspective. Participants were selected based on their willingness and availability to share their experiences, and ethical clearance was obtained prior to data collection. The data obtained from the interviews were analysed using thematic analysis, a method suitable for identifying, analyzing and reporting patterns within qualitative data (Braun \u0026amp; Clarke, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"Conceptual Review","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eTransportation System\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDoi (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) asserts that transportation is an essential process and activity that links people, goods, and services across various land infrastructure functions and other economic sectors. Numerous factors need to be taken into account when analyzing transportation systems, such as human behavior, the system's geography, road network security, network configuration, external influences on the system (such as politics and economics), and the available modes of transportation (Schiller, Bruun, \u0026amp; Kenworthy, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). The efficiency of transportation infrastructure is weakened in many developing nations, including Nigeria, by issues like underinvestment, inadequate maintenance, corruption, and insecurity (Ogunsanya, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Adeniji, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). In addition to limiting mobility, these limitations exacerbate economic stagnation and regional inequality. Additionally, there are close interactions between the transportation sector and other development sectors. For instance, dangerous highways increase human vulnerability and insecurity, while inadequate road networks might impede access to healthcare and education (Yusuf \u0026amp; Danjibo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, a strategic and inclusive vision for transportation must be a part of any all-encompassing approach to national development.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eInsecurity and the Nigerian Transportation System\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInsecurity is a state of fear or anxiety brought on by a perceived or actual lack of protection (Beland, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). Road accidents and armed bandits were the most frequent conventional hazards on Nigerian roadways before the emergence of the Boko Haram insurgency in Northern Nigeria. One of the main risks to road travel in the area was the intermittent emergence of a number of violent ethno-religious conflicts in Northern Nigeria. In Nigeria, the carnage from traffic accidents is a major factor in the causal index of road transportation risks (Iweze \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; P\u0026eacute;rouse de Montclos, 2016). According to Nigeria Watch (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) and P\u0026eacute;rouse de Montclos (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), vehicle accidents caused more deaths than political wars, ethno-religious conflicts, organized crime, and similar incidents. An estimated 15,000 persons died in traffic accidents between 2006 and 2014 (Ukoji, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Estimates of fatal traffic accident severity ranged from 6.00 to 8.99% in the Northeast states of Yobe, Borno, Adamawa, and Gombe, with Yobe State having the highest severity index at 11.4% (Ukoji, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Nigeria had the second-highest rate of traffic accidents worldwide between 2006 and 2014, according to reports (Ukoji \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). However, the trend reversed in the final quarter of 2014 as a result of the escalating Boko Haram insurgency waves in the Northeast. Thus, Boko Haram overtook all other causes as the primary reason behind violent deaths in Nigeria (P\u0026eacute;rouse de Montclos, 2016). Violence from Boko Haram had moved from the Northeast to neighboring Niger, Chad, and Northern Cameroon by the last quarter of 2014, when they carried out a number of significant attacks. For travelers who used the main highways and roads that connected the neighboring countries, this made cross-border travel between these nations and Nigeria risky.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe instability in Kaduna revolves around three different but interlinked threats. The first is the conflict between farmers and herders, which leads to increasing tensions over community use and access to natural resources like land and water. The second concern is the criminal activity of armed gangs, which includes highway robberies, cattle rustling, arms trade, and kidnapping for ransom. Violent extremism poses the third threat. When the extremist Islamist organization Ansaru began carrying out horrific acts of ambush and other attacks on tourists and security personnel in 2020, this threat reemerged (Olajumoke, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). There are both immediate and distant variables that contribute to this state of insecurity. According to Oyinloye (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), these include: climate change, hate speech and stereotyping, lack of voice and political representation, poor management and policy of natural resources (land and water), bush burning, population growth, crop damage, ethno-religious factors, loss of traditional relationships and cohesion. It is concerning that the number of attacks on highways that target drivers and other road users and abduct passengers is on the rise. Given that 197 persons were abducted on highways in May 2022 alone, for example, travelers are urged to stay off of well-known routes and do so only in extreme cases (Nigeria Security Intelligence, 2022).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eEmpirical Review\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSam and Abane (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) evaluated the security and passenger safety measures taken by Ghanaian public transportation operators using the triangulation research design and routine activities theory. The study's conclusions demonstrated that insufficient security measures in public parks and on highways make passengers more susceptible to deliberate criminal and antisocial behaviors like robbery, assault, and baggage theft while using public transportation. Oyinloye et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) evaluated how highway robbery and kidnapping in Nigeria were impacted by deteriorating road infrastructure. While content analysis of publically accessible historical records was used, the study applied an exploratory research methodology. The internet, the library, journal publications, and other relevant documented items were used to generate secondary data. The study relied solely on secondary data. Searches of publicly accessible materials yielded the literature. The study found that one of the causes of highway robberies and kidnappings on federal and interstate highways is road infrastructure deterioration.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eJames et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) examined the relationship between interstate roads and crime at the county level in Georgia. The study investigated if this link is affected by the distinctions between urban and rural locations. The study claims that the quantity of interstate roads significantly increases crime. The model proposed by Onatere-Ubrurhe (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), on the other hand, was based on an analysis of the trends in Highway Armed Robberies in Nigeria between 2009 and 2014. The study found that HARIs are increasing in Nigeria. Wright and Ribbens (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) looked into how crime has an impact on the road environment and how it relates to road safety in South Africa. The study discovered that illegal activities on the road can significantly impact the safety of the road network and the larger road environment, and they extend beyond merely breaking traffic laws. Andrews et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) examined how poor roads affected the Gushegu District of Ghana's Northern Region's transportation system and the costs of upkeep and services. The results showed that poor roads affected the transportation sector by increasing maintenance costs and causing frequent vehicle failures.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA study by Okonkwo, Ndubuisi, and Anagbogu (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) examined how insecurity affected Nigerian companies. Based on the secondary data collected, it was determined that insecurity deters both domestic and foreign investment and impedes corporate operations. According to Okonkwo et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), some of the main reasons of insecurity in Nigeria include religious strife, unemployment, and corruption. As such, they suggested that appropriate policies be developed and put into place to address these problems. Business operations, according to Okonkwo et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), are a necessary component of human life and are intended to generate revenue through the supply of goods and services. However, a lack of safety, dread, and anxiety brought on by insecurity hinders company operations. Additionally, Okonkwo et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) contended that the government has fallen short of its fundamental responsibility to ensure the safety and well-being of its people. Armed robbery, kidnapping, hired assassinations, and the actions of certain religious groups that are against Western education, like Boko Haram, are a few of the security issues that have been noted. The report also pointed out that in places like Rivers State, armed robberies and kidnappings have been rather common. SMEs cannot therefore prosper in areas where people fear attacks or where property and life protection are not guaranteed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInsecurity is one of the main problems with air travel in Nigeria compared to Egypt, according to Faajir and Zidan's (2016) comparative study of the problems and difficulties in transportation in Egypt and Nigeria. They pointed out that armed robbers and militants regularly target travelers on the highways leading to some Nigerian airports, including those in Owerri and Port Harcourt, making them extremely dangerous. They added that there are armed robbery instances on the Isolo Expressway, which leads to Lagos International Airport, possibly Nigeria's top airport, posing a major risk to air travelers entering and leaving the nation. Faajir and Zidan (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) ascribed the high frequency of robberies seen on Nigerian roads leading to airports to significant security breaches along those roads.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMuhammad (2016) emphasized the dangers presented by Nigerian Police Force officers as a primary cause of insecurity on Nigerian highways in his intervention on monitoring the trends of insecurity on Nigerian roads. He pointed to the force's propensity for extrajudicial executions, particularly the shooting of drivers and motorcyclists who refused to accept bribes. Mohammed (2016) said that the police also pose a threat to highway security by actively participating in armed robberies, in addition to shooting innocent bystanders who refuse to comply with their bribery requests. According to him, legitimate police officers have been known to loot drivers on interstate highways by parking their official patrol cars in neighboring bush pathways. In order to address the issue of insecurity on the roads and in other areas of society, Muhammad (2016) argued that the government should address public corruption, particularly among the security services.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEzenwa and Ezedinachi (2019) claimed that because of the increasing insecurity brought on by armed bandits, robbers, and kidnappers along Nigeria's major highways, which would normally be a very pleasant experience due to their picturesque scenery, traveling through these highways has become one of the most abhorrent experiences. In order to prevent and curb highway robberies and banditry, they pointed out that these crimes are common in Nigeria's six geopolitical zones and that there are not enough security personnel in those areas (Ezenwa and Ezedinachi, 2019). The tendency of security officers to arrive at the scene of highway crimes, such as robberies, after the perpetrators have finished their crime, sometimes raising suspicions of complicity between the criminals and the security agents, was also criticized by these authors. They noted that the issue of banditry and insecurity it occasions along Nigeria\u0026rsquo;s highways has become so worrisome that the government and the security agencies must address it urgently as it threatens to reduce the country into a lawless nation. They pointed out that the problem of banditry and insecurity along Nigeria's highways has gotten sufficiently severe that the government and security services need to take immediate action to stop these insecurities from turning the country into a lawless State.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eGaps in the Literature\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlthough there is a large body of material already available on insecurity and criminal activity in Nigeria's public transportation system, there are still some important gaps, especially when it comes to crimes involving highways. A large portion of the empirical research, including that of Sam and Abane (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), concentrated on broad safety issues in public transit, mostly in Ghana, with consequences for the vulnerability of passengers. The Abuja-Kaduna Expressway, which has become known for frequent occurrences of armed robbery, kidnapping, and banditry, is one of Nigeria's most hazardous corridors; yet, this lacks the context-specific investigation that is required, even if it offers fundamental knowledge. This disparity suggests that further research is required to understand how sociopolitical and economic factors influence insecurity along particular high-risk transportation corridors in Nigeria.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe excessive dependence of several of the examined studies on secondary data is another notable gap. For example, the majority of the resources used by Oyinloye et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) and Okonkwo et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) were from archives and publicly accessible records. Notwithstanding their value, these methods fall short in capturing the views, coping mechanisms, and lived experiences of individuals who are most affected by roadway insecurity. There is a lack of first-hand information from commuters, business drivers, and locals, which makes it difficult to comprehend the human aspect of road insecurity in Nigeria. The voices of those most impacted by crime and violence are therefore underrepresented in academic debate. In light of this, the current study aims to close these gaps by examining how the disintegration of institutional and communal institutions contributes to insecurity on the Abuja-Kaduna Expressway using the Social Disorganization Theory. This study provides a thorough and contextual understanding of the dynamics underlying highway crimes by fusing theoretical ideas with the viewpoints of the targeted sample population.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eTheoretical Framework\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough a number of theories have been used to describe the dynamics and unique characteristics of Nigeria's insecurity stalemate, Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay's social disorganization theory offers an appropriate analytical framework for this study. Clifford Shaw and his assistant Henry McKay developed the notion of social disorganization in 1929, and it was published in 1942. The foundation of social disorganization theory is the explanation of how institutional collapse results in differences in criminal offending and delinquency throughout time and space (for a more comprehensive summary, see Akers, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e and Jensen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). Historically, the formation of structured and cooperative ties between groups within the local community has been attributed to these institutions (family, school, church, friendship, etc.). The connection or \"sense of belonging\" that a person may have with their community is then associated with this organization, which reduces the possibility that they may engage in criminal or delinquent activities that could harm that group. As a result, different degrees of reciprocal attachment that an individual may have in connection to that community are caused by different levels of cooperational organization linked to these institutions. As a result, crime and delinquency are observed at higher rates and social deterrence is reduced.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eShaw and McKay's (1942) Social Disorganization Theory can be used to analyze the ongoing insecurity on the Abuja-Kaduna highway. According to this theory which has its roots in the Chicago School of sociology, crime is more common in areas where conventional social institutions like the family, education, religious organizations, and community relationships have declined. When these institutions are in operation, they offer the means by which social standards are upheld and communal harmony is preserved (Bursik \u0026amp; Grasmick, 1993; Sampson \u0026amp; Groves, 1989).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimilar to Shaw and McKay's (1942) \"delinquency areas,\" the Abuja-Kaduna expressway passes through an area characterized by poverty, institutional neglect, deteriorating infrastructure, and a low level of law enforcement presence. Informal social controls disintegrate when community ties erode, and criminal groups take advantage of the power vacuum. Along this road, there are frequent attacks, kidnappings, and robberies that point to a wider collapse in social order rather than only security enforcement shortcomings. This is consistent with the claim made by Sampson and Wilson (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e) that racial/ethnic heterogeneity and concentrated disadvantage are two examples of structural social disorder that fuel violent crime in marginalized communities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe theory also emphasizes how structural inequality and environmental factors are linked to regional variations in crime, which are not random. Communities along the expressway have grown more disconnected from institutional support in the Abuja-Kaduna area, which has made the environment more favorable for criminal activities. This corroborates the findings of Kubrin and Weitzer (2003), who contended that violent cultures are often fostered in socially chaotic communities as a means of coping with ongoing insecurity and state failure.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, there are some drawbacks to the Social Disorganization Theory. The theory has been criticized by academics like Cohen (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1955\u003c/span\u003e) and Merton (1957) for undervaluing personal agency and the significance of subcultures. In Nigeria, where youth unemployment, poverty, and inequality are pervasive, Merton's strain theory, for example, posits that people may resort to deviant behavior when they are unable to accomplish socially acceptable goals through legal methods. Similarly, Cohen (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1955\u003c/span\u003e) contends that collective identification and resistance, rather than simple social breakdown, may provide a more compelling explanation for some types of criminality, especially those associated with youth subcultures or insurgent groupings. The application of Social Disorganization Theory to this study makes it evident that the Abuja-Kaduna highway is a social space where institutional fragmentation, economic hardship, and systemic neglect come together in addition to being a physical transportation route. All of these factors work together to make it harder for local communities to keep the peace or fight off criminal groups.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eCriminal Attacks on Road Transportation and Mobility: Some Factual Trends\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSome cases of insurgent attacks on travellers and bridges in the Northeast region between 2021 and 2024 including the Kaduna railway attacks in 2022 are presented in the table below.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA chronicle of violent criminal attacks on Nigerian highways involving kidnapping for ransom\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS/N\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDate of attacks\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVictims\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSource\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJanuary 17, 2021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKaduna State.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe whereabouts of seven police officers out of 15 that were ambushed by bandits along the Birni Gwari-Funtua road\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eon Friday is still uncertain.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDaily Trust\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFebruary 6, 2021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBirnin Gwari Road, Kaduna State.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecurity agencies have reported that bandits opened fire on commuters and six persons died on the spot.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLEADERSHIP\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWeekend\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJuly 27, 2021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSokoto State.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOver 60 passengers travelling to Kano from Sokoto-by-Sokoto State Transport Authority buses were reportedly abducted by\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ebandits along the Sokoto-Gusau highway on Sunday (July 25, 2021).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVanguard\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJanuary 5,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKaduna State.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOn Sunday 3rd January 2021, bandits laid siege on innocent travelers at Zankoro, along dreaded Birnin-Gwari-Kadun highway,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ekilling nine people (including three infants) that are on their way for ceremony at Doka, Birnin-Gwari LGA.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDaily Tracker\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJanuary 8,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBirnin Gwari Kaduna highway.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArmed bandits on January 7, 2021 opened fire on a\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003emoving vehicle along Birnin Gwari Kaduna highway, killing the driver and one other person.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDaily Trust\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMay 17, 2022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbuja-Kaduna Highway.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAround 4:30 PM, terrorists attacked the Abuja-Kaduna highway, abducting at least 30 passengers and leaving several others injured, including women and children.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSahara Reporters\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarch 1, 2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbuja-Kaduna highway.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAn incident was reported where 23 individuals were abducted along the Abuja-Kaduna highway.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCKN News\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarch 28, 2022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbuja\u0026ndash;Kaduna train Katari, Kaduna State.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt least eight passengers were confirmed dead and forty-one individuals sustained injuries and were hospitalised following the attack.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVanguard News\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJanuary 7, 2024\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKatari Local Government Area, Kaduna State.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt approximately 9:30 PM, bandits blocked the Abuja-Kaduna highway near Katari village, abducting over 30 travelers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSahara Reporters\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFebruary 28, 2024\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGonin-Gora in Chikun Local Government, Kaduna State.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResidents of Gonin-Gora in Chikun Local Government Area protested by barricading the Abuja-Kaduna expressway. The demonstration was in response to a bandit attack the previous night, during which an unspecified number of residents were abducted. ​\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePunch Newspaper\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApril 29, 2024\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJere town, Kaduna State.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSuspected bandits attacked travelers along the highway, killing a driver identified as Danladi Jobe and abducting two others.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDaily Post Nigeria\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSources: Ugwuoke et al (2023) and Researchers Investigation (2025)\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWith a focus on the Abuja-Kaduna expressway, the table's data describes violent criminal activity on Nigerian roadways from 2021 to 2024. Examining these episodes exposes a trend of growing insecurity that is both operationally complex and geographically pervasive, revealing larger systemic flaws in Nigeria's internal security framework. Attacks occurring repeatedly over a number of years, particularly in Kaduna State, indicate not just sporadic criminal activity but also the institutionalization of violence along important routes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Abuja-Kaduna highway, a vital route connecting the political capital of Nigeria with the North-Western area, is frequently the scene of violent ambushes, kidnappings, and killings, according to the data. Even though police and military resources have been publicly deployed, incidents on May 17, 2022, March 1, 2023, January 7, 2024, and April 29, 2024, show a chronic failure of deterrent mechanisms. According to experts like Akinola (2019), Nigeria's security actions are frequently reactive rather than preventive, which allows violence to recur cyclically. These events support his criticism.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis geographical spread of insecurity indicates that state power is eroding in large rural and peri urban areas, where criminal syndicates, bandits, and insurgents acting on behalf of non-state actors have essentially taken over as the de facto law enforcement. The targeted murders of government officials (such as the former education secretary in Nasarawa) and the ambush of police officers on January 17, 2021, suggest not only a threat to people but also a direct attack on state symbols. Such trends, according to Eze and Ibeanu (2020), are indicative of a profound crisis of legitimacy in which the state is unable to monopolize the lawful use of force, creating room for alternative power structures.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eInterpretation of Interview Transcripts\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWithin the allotted time for data collection, travelers along the Kaduna-Abuja expressway participated in audio interviews by voice call at their convenience on a predetermined day and time. The interview's specifics are listed below:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Taba\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRespondents Code\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDate of Interview\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTime Duration\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApril 2, 2025\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15 minutes, 16 seconds\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApril 4, 2025\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7 minutes, 12 seconds\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApril 6, 2025\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10 minutes, 1 seconds\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApril 6, 2025\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9 minutes, 46 seconds\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApril 6, 2025\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15 minutes, 58 seconds\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApril 7, 2025\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8 minutes, 1 second\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApril 10, 2025\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8 minutes, 20 seconds\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApril 13, 2025\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5 minutes, 30 seconds\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApril 13, 2025\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6 minutes, 15 seconds\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApril 14, 2025\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4 minutes, 25 seconds\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApril 15, 2025\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8 minutes, 10 seconds\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApril 15, 2025\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6 minutes, 50 seconds\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApril 15, 2025\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8 minutes, 40 seconds\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSource: Researchers Investigation (2025)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAnalysis on Insecurity along the Abuja-Kaduna Express Road\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis analysis presents a thematic breakdown of qualitative data collected through interviews and observations to understand the multidimensional drivers and impacts of insecurity along the Abuja-Kaduna expressway in Nigeria. Key themes explored include poor infrastructure, socioeconomic inequalities, psychological trauma, economic disruption and the limitations of current security efforts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStructural and Environmental Contributors to Insecurity\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe poor state of the Abuja-Kaduna expressway and its direct connection to security flaws are among the most recurring themes in respondent accounts. Respondents frequently cited potholes, poor road lighting, and deteriorating infrastructure as major factors that facilitate attacks by criminal forces. Drivers are forced to slow down due to the road's deterioration, which frequently leaves them vulnerable to ambushes. The existence of natural cover, such as dense forests and bushlands, was also cited as a contributing factor because it hinders security surveillance and visibility while offering robbers safe havens. A few of the other respondents also expressed a similar opinion. For example, respondents 1, 2, 3, and 6 (who were classified as commuters, experts, and transporters) all agreed that the main causes of insecurity are bad road conditions, insufficient security guards, ineffective surveillance, and a lack of communication systems. Bandits take advantage of the terrain's remoteness, according to Respondent 5, a local resident, while Respondent 4, a security analyst, pointed to inadequate intelligence cooperation and a lack of community involvement as factors that facilitate attacks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese environmental and infrastructure flaws hinder law enforcement authorities' ability to respond quickly while also fostering criminal activity. For example, it is less complicated for robbers and kidnappers to target vulnerable visitors when vehicles move slowly in locations that aren't well maintained. A lawless corridor that gives criminal elements more confidence is also created by the lack of surveillance equipment, such as CCTV cameras, aerial surveillance systems, and sufficient street illumination. This subject is in line with academic research that highlights the connection between national security concerns and deteriorating infrastructure, especially in developing nations' transit systems (Igbokwe \u0026amp; Obielozie, 2020; Oyewole, 2021).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSocioeconomic and Political Drivers of Insecurity\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eRespondents identified underlying socioeconomic and political problems as the primary causes of insecurity along the Abuja-Kaduna expressway, in addition to physical infrastructure. These include social inequality, economic disenfranchisement, youth unemployment and pervasive poverty. The desperation of marginalized people, especially in the neighborhoods near the expressway, was cited by several participants including respondent 7, a government official as the reason for the increase in crime. This illustrates how social isolation and financial hardship push some people to engage in illegal activities like kidnapping for ransom and banditry.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthnic and religious tensions, which have long been a problem in Nigeria's sociopolitical landscape, were also mentioned as contributing factors to violence and impeding community collaboration with law enforcement. A climate of impunity is further exacerbated by political instability, a lack of government accountability, and ineffective policing. The organized criminal syndicates that operate with little opposition and take advantage of the void left by ineffective governance were detailed by the respondents. This subject is consistent with the \"structural violence\" theory (Galtung, 1969), which holds that economic and institutional frameworks contribute to conflict and criminal activity by indirectly affecting communities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePsychological and Social Impacts on Commuters\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe research also shows that insecurity has a major impact on commuters' social, psychological, and emotional well-being. When traveling along the freeway, participants reported experiencing persistent worry, terror, and psychological trauma. The families of commuters, many of whom endure significant stress and anxiety when traveling, are also affected by this worry. The emotional toll that families bear is highlighted by one respondent, who explicitly mentioned his mother's increased fear whenever he traveled.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt was also observed that communal engagement and social life were eroding. Traditional ceremonies, family get-togethers, marriages, and cultural festivals, all of which are usually essential to Nigerian communal life are avoided by many people out of fear of being abducted or attacked. Social cohesiveness has decreased as a result of this tendency, and familial bonds between families spread out over Abuja and Kaduna have weakened. The multifaceted nature of insecurity, which goes beyond physical harm to encompass emotional and relational disruptions, is emphasized by theories in psychosocial studies and the literature on human security (Acharya, 2007).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEconomic Consequences of Insecurity\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlong the Abuja-Kaduna expressway, insecurity has a multifaceted and multiscalar economic impact that impacts community economies, individual livelihoods, and national development. Micro economically, respondents blamed safety worries for lost revenue, a smaller clientele, and a decision to forego business prospects. The number of people ready to utilize the expressway, for instance, has significantly decreased, according to drivers, with many choosing to travel by plane or train despite the higher expenses.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgriculture has been hampered by insecurity on a macroeconomic level, especially in areas like Katari and Rijana that have been noted as hubs for banditry. Local farmers have fled their land out of fear, causing depopulation and disinvestment in these formerly agricultural areas. The state of the road and its instability have impacted the country's economic performance, according to respondent 7. As a result, the agricultural value chain is disrupted, which raises food costs and decreases supplies in cities. Additionally, the reduction in investment in tourism and hospitality, as evidenced by the closure of popular tourist destinations like Kajuru Castle, shows the profound effects on Nigeria's economy. The respondents' discussion of the economic aspects of insecurity supports research in the fields of security and development that emphasizes the relationship between national economic resilience, mobility, and trade (Akinyemi, 2022; Edewor, 2019).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEvaluation of Security Measures and Recommendations for Improvement\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough respondents agreed that there has been a noticeable rise in military patrols, security checks, and presence since 2021, there is still broad agreement that these initiatives are inadequate, ill-coordinated, and lack strategic depth. Some responders drew attention to particular deficiencies, including a lack of proactive intelligence collection, poorly maintained patrol cars and insufficient staff. Criminals continue to take advantage of the substantial security holes left by the restricted reach of security personnel, particularly in isolated or wooded areas of the roads. Participants suggested a wide range of interventions, such as better infrastructure, especially road repairs and streetlight installation, increased deployment of well-equipped security personnel, the use of aerial surveillance technologies like drones, the establishment of Mobile Police Force (MPF) Quick Response Bases, regional cooperation and engagement with local communities for intelligence-sharing. To address the underlying causes, respondent 7, a government official, promoted socioeconomic initiatives including job development and educational access.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e "},{"header":"Discussion of Findings","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA multidimensional view of the security measures implemented along the Abuja-Kaduna expressway is presented by the study's findings. The belief that these steps are insufficient to guarantee commuters' long-term safety persists even if respondents acknowledge the existence of initiatives to reduce insecurity. This is in accordance with the empirical literature, especially the work of Okolie (2021), who contended that although security officers are frequently deployed temporarily on Nigerian highways in reaction to attacks, the actions are rarely maintained or carefully planned for long-term effects.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe greater visibility of security guards along the motorway is a common issue across all respondents. This entails additional patrols, checkpoints, and in certain areas, armored tanks. Nonetheless, there is much debate regarding these interventions\u0026rsquo; efficacy. Respondent Three, a member of the armed forces, offers a particularly critical assessment, pointing out that although security measures like side checkpoints and snap roadblocks are in place, they are \"grossly inadequate\" because there are not enough personnel to cover such a wide and vulnerable route. This echoes Ezenwa and Ezedinachi's (2019) concerns about the insufficient number of security personnel in highway hotspots and the occasionally questionably slow reactions of law enforcement to criminal situations. It is clear from the respondent's reference to hacked communication networks, inadequate logistics, and a dearth of useful intelligence that institutional disarray has rendered formal control mechanisms helpless. According to Shaw and McKay (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1942\u003c/span\u003e), this institutional failure makes it harder for societies to respond to deviance and enforce social norms, which makes crime more entrenched.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe accounts of commuters who have experienced direct assault make this institutional failure clear. One participant related how armed robbers and kidnappers stopped them, while another related how a colleague was abducted and only freed upon payment of a ransom. These narratives support the impunity with which criminal networks function as well as the insufficiency of state protection. According to a frequent commuter who has seen multiple robberies and kidnappings, the frequency of such crimes suggests that the system is overburdened and unable to provide deterrent. As the driver put it, \"I have lost count of the number of times I have been stopped by armed robbers on the Abuja-Kaduna expressway.\"\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe commercial driver concurs, stating that although he feels better now than he did in previous years because of the increased security and more established military bases, some areas, like Katari and Rijana, are still known for being hotspots. Although there is a noticeable security presence, he emphasizes that it is still insufficient to deter criminal activity, particularly in remote or wooded areas. He highlights the disparity between operational efficacy and visual presence with his narration of passengers being abducted and a colleague being shot along Jere Road.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTechnology and intelligence collection are also identified as critical areas that require improvement. The development of Forward Operating Bases (FOBs) and Quick Response Group (QRG) barracks to facilitate real-time intervention, as well as the use of drones and surveillance technologies, are all strongly supported by Respondent Three. The military respondent stated that the incorporation of technology would enable faster reactions, enhance monitoring capabilities, and discourage criminal actors, all of which are critical to the current system. This sentiment was repeated by majority of the respondents. Road safety experts, the military, the police, and local communities should work together more frequently, according to Respondent Five. Furthermore, he argues that having smooth roads and adequate lighting would improve highway safety by reducing the possibility that criminals would prey on stalled or slow-moving vehicles. In a similar vein, Respondent One attributes security effectiveness to both visibility and timing, claiming that she only feels secure while traveling early in the morning, when there is a lower chance of attacks. This reinforces the requirement for intelligence-led operations and supports the notion that any security strategy should take into account spatial-temporal vulnerabilities at the times and locations where assaults are most likely to occur.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother recurrent issue was the emotional and psychological effects of insecurity, as many respondents candidly shared their feelings of worry and anxiety about taking the route. According to one anxious passenger, \"I am usually anxious when I travel. Stories of people being abducted and robbed have been told to me, demonstrating how ongoing insecurity impacts both mental and physical health. This anxiety was validated by another night passenger who said they now completely avoid the road at night. According to theories of perceived insecurity, such disclosures provide credence to the idea that the threat of violence can be just as upsetting as the actual act of violence. In addition, a worried citizen pointed out the wider ramifications, saying that the route's insecurity is \"affecting the economy and people's livelihoods,\" linking individual safety to structural effects.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, throughout the interviews, the need of road infrastructure is underlined. Potholes, detours, and dim lighting are examples of poor road conditions that are perceived as both inconveniences and criminal facilitators. According to reports, bandits use these vulnerabilities to set up ambushes. This supports the empirical results of Yusuf and Danjibo (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), who noted that Nigeria's inadequate transportation system makes insecurity worse by fostering an environment that encourages criminal activity. In a similar vein, Oyinloye et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) establish a direct correlation between the increase in highway crimes such as robbery and kidnapping and the degradation of road infrastructure. \"Narrow and potholed roads are natural ambush points, making travelers easy targets,\" the driver emphasized. According to social disorganization theory, when infrastructure deteriorates, a sign of institutional neglect, it signals state abandonment and eliminates escape routes, which in turn produces physical and psychological conditions that encourage criminal activity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe driver and Respondent Four were among the other respondents who also mentioned that poverty and economic disenfranchisement in nearby neighborhoods are additional factors that lead to insecurity. Due to insecurity, the driver noticed that many residents in high-risk areas like Rijana had given up farming. This not only upsets local economies but also makes idle people more susceptible to recruitment by criminal networks. By suggesting that fundamental socioeconomic disadvantages including poverty, racial or ethnic marginalization, and lack of mobility reduce collective efficacy, Sampson and Wilson (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e) expanded Shaw and McKay's theory to contemporary settings. According to Okonkwo et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), insecurity not only causes business disruptions but also blocks off legal opportunities for economic interaction, which drives disenfranchised people into criminal activity. The opportunity structure theory was also employed by Onota et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) to conclude that the ongoing attacks on businesses, particularly in the Northeast, are an indication of a lack of viable economic opportunities. According to the theory, people may turn to criminal activity to survive or earn money when traditional economic routes are threatened or obstructed. This leads to a vicious cycle where businesses shut down because of insecurity, which lowers economic opportunities and deepens poverty. Crime and violence rise as a result of these limited opportunities, perpetuating the unsteady cycle (Onota et al, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese distinct narratives are supported by a larger context provided by the empirical findings of Faajir and Zidan (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). They emphasized how widespread insecurity related to transportation is, even in the vicinity of important national infrastructure like airports. Their findings offer comparable evidence that insecurity extends across high-traffic corridors and metropolitan transportation links rather than only rural roads or abandoned highways. This proves that the Abuja-Kaduna expressway is not an isolated incident but rather an illustration of a nationwide trend in which critical infrastructure routes are at risk due to haphazard and disorganized responses to crime.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e "},{"header":"Conclusion and Recommendations","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on the Social Disorganization Theory, the study demonstrates that the general insecurity is mostly caused by the disintegration of formal and informal social institutions that have historically kept a society in order, including family systems, community networks, local government, and law enforcement. The passengers' narrations demonstrate how the breakdown of these institutions, socioeconomic hardship, and the erratic presence of the government have all contributed to the growth of criminal activities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCurrently, the highway reflects what Shaw and McKay called \u0026ldquo;delinquency areas\u0026rdquo;, areas characterized by socioeconomic marginalization, institutional neglect, and a weakened sense of community. Such environments normalize and even justify illegal behavior, particularly when social mobility, education, and stable employment are lacking. A classic example of social disarray is seen in the deterioration of community relationships, the cessation of legal commercial activity, and the mistrust between locals and security authorities. Regardless of temporary military deployments or police checkpoints, instability will continue unless intentional action is taken to buck this pattern.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor policy changes in the Nigerian transportation sector, the following evidence-based suggestions are required. It is crucial that communities and law enforcement regain mutual trust and collaboration. The creation of skilled, locally based community policing units, made up of citizens, vigilantes, and official police, can enhance early warning systems and intelligence collection. By increasing local engagement and confidence, community-based policing has, for instance, significantly reduced localized terror activity in Maiduguri, Borno State.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lsquo;\u0026rsquo;No amount of world military muscle or technologically prowess could erect an effective shield against the actions of desperate men\u0026rsquo;\u0026rsquo; (Camilleri, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, it is imperative that villages along the highway undergo socioeconomic revitalization. Targeted rural development programs that involve job creation, vocational training, and infrastructure reconstruction (such as roads, schools, and water supplies) should be started by the government and non-governmental organizations. The allure of joining armed organizations has decreased in Katsina State as a result of youth empowerment initiatives like agricultural cooperatives, which provide at-risk youth with viable alternatives to criminal activity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe military personnel respondent's insights, which showed a lack of manpower and monitoring, can be used to extract another important proposal. A consistent security presence might be achieved by setting up Forward Operating Bases (FOBs) in key locations that are permanently manned by drones, CCTV, and GPS-enabled patrols. Aerial monitoring has shown promise and could be used as a model for the Abuja-Kaduna expressway.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn order to boost local economies and create jobs, the government should also encourage private sector investment in the construction of infrastructure along the expressway, such as rest areas, transportation hubs, and local markets. These investments, made in collaboration with local leaders, can lessen dependency on illegal economies and promote a sense of ownership. This practical approach is offered by the Dangote Group\u0026rsquo;s Road construction and employment creation programs in Kogi and Ogun States. Ultimately, continuous civic engagement initiatives had to be started in order to promote community cohesion, bring back conventional dispute resolution procedures, and inform people of their rights and obligations. In conflict-prone regions of Plateau and Benue States, NGOs such as Search for Common Ground have carried out such programs with quantifiable success in restoring intercommunal trust.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eFunding:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that no funding was received from any organization or agency in support of this research.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eE.O. prepared the main manuscript text, N.O. and E.O. transcribed the interviews conducted, N.O reviewed and edited the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAdelaja, B. (2021). Robbery victims narrate experience in 38-passenger bus in Lagos. Vanguard, January 8, pg.7. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAdeniji, K. (2000). Transport challenges in Nigeria in the next two decades. NISER Occasional Paper.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAdesina, T. (2024). 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Transportation infrastructure and rising insecurity in Nigeria. \u003cem\u003eAfrican Journal of Development and Policy Studies,\u003c/em\u003e 11(2), 76–89.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"journal-of-transportation-security","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"jtrs","sideBox":"Learn more about [Journal of Transportation Security](http://link.springer.com/journal/12198)","snPcode":"12198","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/12198/3","title":"Journal of Transportation Security","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Banditry, Insecurity, Kidnapping, Road Transportation, Security","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6978266/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6978266/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe rise of new forms of criminality such as kidnapping, herdsmen-farmers crisis and banditry on the Nigeria\u0026rsquo;s highways has become a significant problem warranting scholarly investigation in contemporary academic discourse. The Abuja-Kaduna Expressway was known to be a secure route but has become a hotspot for criminal activities, exposing travelers to harassment, intimidation, and violence. Despite military and paramilitary interventions, these security challenges persist, raising concerns about the effectiveness of government responses. This study examines the impact of insecurity on Nigeria\u0026rsquo;s transport system with emphasis on the Abuja-Kaduna Expressway. Adopting a qualitative research methodology, data was retrieved through interviews and supplemented with secondary sources such as journal articles, online reports, newspapers, library and published theses. A case study research design was employed, with the utilisation of thematic analysis to interpret data and develop themes from participants' responses in order to achieve the study\u0026rsquo;s objectives. Grounded in Social Disorganisation theory, the study highlights the deterioration of road infrastructure and rising cases of kidnap and murder, affecting individuals from military, professional, socioeconomic and political backgrounds. The resulting climate of fear, trauma, and vulnerability among travelers and residents underscores the urgent need for intervention. The study recommends enhanced security presence in high-risk areas through proactive crime prevention measures. Additionally, road reconstruction and infrastructure improvements should be prioritised, particularly in regions where highway robbery and kidnapping are prevalent.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"The Abuja-Kaduna Expressway, a Transportation Corridor Under Insecurity","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-07-04 07:14:50","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6978266/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-07-29T18:02:28+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-07-24T21:52:42+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"196606941435137280282765128732888376630","date":"2025-07-05T09:22:46+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-07-02T15:06:31+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-07-01T16:18:43+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-07-01T07:51:47+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Journal of Transportation Security","date":"2025-06-25T23:50:42+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"journal-of-transportation-security","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"jtrs","sideBox":"Learn more about [Journal of Transportation Security](http://link.springer.com/journal/12198)","snPcode":"12198","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/12198/3","title":"Journal of Transportation Security","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"dfbedccd-d0b3-4788-be94-b04f481dba2a","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 4th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-10-06T16:00:25+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-6978266","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s12198-025-00309-8","journal":{"identity":"journal-of-transportation-security","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Journal of Transportation Security"},"publishedOn":"2025-09-30 15:57:09","publishedOnDateReadable":"September 30th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-07-04 07:14:50","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s12198-025-00309-8","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s12198-025-00309-8","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6978266","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6978266","identity":"rs-6978266","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}