Biobased Tricomponent (carboxymethyl chitosan/ cerium dioxide/iron III oxide) nanocomposite flakes for multifarious environmental decontaminations: magnetically separable and antimicrobial photocatalyst

Biobased Tricomponent (carboxymethyl chitosan/ cerium dioxide/iron III oxide) nanocomposite flakes for multifarious environmental decontaminations: magnetically separable and antimicrobial photocatalyst | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Biobased Tricomponent (carboxymethyl chitosan/ cerium dioxide/iron III oxide) nanocomposite flakes for multifarious environmental decontaminations: magnetically separable and antimicrobial photocatalyst Dalia A. Elsherbiny, Noha Omer, Fahad Abdulaziz, Abdulaziz Alanazi This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6038187/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCs) has been widely used in wastewater treatment due to its efficient functional groups. To boost its efficacy, a nanocomposite with two metal oxides, cerium dioxide (CeO 2 ) and iron oxide (Fe 2 O 3 ), was formed using the ball milling technique. Two concentrations (0.15 and 0.3g) of both metal oxides were loaded to CMCs and labeled as 0.15CeO 2 /Fe 2 O 3 /CMCs and 0.3CeO 2 /Fe 2 O 3 /CMCs nanocomposite and their photocatalytic performance was compared with the blank CMCs. Upon grinding, CMCs exhibited flake-like shapes that were significantly coated with CeO 2 and Fe 2 O 3 . The nanocomposites were evaluated for their photocatalytic performance by measuring the degradation of Malachite Green (MG) dye under various conditions. The 0.15CeO 2 /Fe 2 O 3 /CMCs nanocomposite successfully achieved complete dye degradation at a concentration of 15 mg/L after 150 min, while the 0.3CeO 2 /Fe 2 O 3 /CMCs seized the degradation in 120 min. The research found that 400 ppm of catalyst was the ideal catalyst dose and that a pH 6 was optimum for photocatalytic degradation. The antibacterial activity was assessed against Gram-positive and negative bacteria and the 0.3CeO 2 /Fe 2 O 3 /CMCs exhibited notable antibacterial efficacy. The overall results reveal that CeO 2 /Fe 2 O 3 /CMCs nanocomposite flakes are efficient for the photocatalytic breakdown of organic dyes in wastewater emphasizing their potential for addressing environmental issues and combating microbial contamination. Carboxymethyl chitosan nanocomposite wastewater CeO2/Fe2O3 photocatalysis environmental decontamination. Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Introduction Water pollution is a major environmental issue and a major concern for society now, especially because of organic chemicals [ 1 ]. These pollutants result in various health and ecological difficulties, including skin and eye irritation, respiratory illnesses, and potentially cancer-causing impacts that can damage DNA [ 2 ]. Textile industry dyes have become a significant issue among other pollutants due to their high toxicity, permanent presence in the environment, and ability to cause cancer [ 3 ]. The demand for textile products has experienced a significant surge as a result of population growth and globalization, resulting in an escalated utilization of synthetic dyes. As a result, waste production has increased, which is hazardous for freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems [ 4 ]. The textile dyeing sector has broadened into many industries, such as printing, rubber, food, leather, cosmetics, fabrics, plastics, and medications [ 5 , 6 ]. These processes have a high water demand, necessitating substantial quantities of water at various stages of production. As a result of inefficiencies in these processes, the effluents discharged by these businesses generally contain a high concentration of dyes [ 7 ]. The amount of dyes discharged into industrial wastewater worldwide is estimated to be over 280,000 tons, making up 10 to 60% of the dye used in industrial applications [ 8 ]. Of this total, 20% is used in industrial sectors, notably for textile dyeing, fabric finishing, and similar procedures [ 9 ]. The textile sector discharges a lot of wastewater that is polluted with harmful chemicals and heavy metals. This poses considerable environmental issues since it can have long-term and immediate detrimental effects on ecosystems [ 10 , 11 ]. The discharge of toxic dyes into natural ecosystems contributes to various detrimental consequences, which include decreased levels of dissolved oxygen, impeded penetration of sunlight, which impairs aquatic photosynthesis, a tendency to accumulate in organisms, affecting the distribution of minerals in aquatic systems, and deposition in soil layers [ 12 , 13 ]. Dyes refer to soluble organic molecules, namely those that fall under the categories of reactive, direct, and basic acids. Due to their great solubility in water, removing them using conventional methods is challenging [ 14 ]. Malachite Green (MG), also known as N-methylated diaminotriphenylmethane, is an extensively utilized cationic dye in the textiles, paper, and rubber industries [ 15 ]. It is also recognized for its harmful impact on mammalian cells. MG dye is extensively utilized throughout several industries, including cotton, paper, jute, silk, wool, leather, and acrylic items. Furthermore, it is utilized as an antiseptic and fungicidal agent [ 16 ]. Thus, it is crucial to establish effective approaches to decompose and eliminate dyes from wastewater. Multiple methodologies have been investigated for the elimination of dye, encompassing physical, chemical, and biological approaches [ 17 ]. Efficient textile wastewater treatment facilities must be designed to manage substantial quantities of discharged wastewater while maintaining cost-effectiveness effectively. Various methods have been studied to address the issue of dye-contaminated wastewater, including both nondestructive and destructive ones. The methods used in this study are electrocoagulation [ 18 , 19 ], ultrafiltration membranes [ 20 ], emulsion liquid membranes [ 21 ], coagulation/flocculation processes [ 22 ], the electro-Fenton process [ 23 ], adsorption [ 24 ], and photocatalytic degradation [ 25 – 27 ]. Nevertheless, single-step treatments frequently yield unsatisfactory results, thereby making hybrid techniques more advantageous. Combining adsorption and photocatalytic degradation is a highly efficient and environmentally friendly technique for eliminating dye contaminants, with the added benefit of low energy consumption [ 28 ]. Photocatalysis, which uses light to speed up a photoreaction, has garnered considerable interest as a highly effective and eco-friendly approach for breaking down organic contaminants in water [ 29 ]. This technique relies on the utilization of photocatalysts, which enable reactions to occur without being depleted [ 30 ]. Carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCs) has been created by modifying chitosan (Cs) using monochloroacetic acid. This modification adds extra carboxyl, amino, and hydroxyl functional groups [ 31 ]. Compared to conventional Cs, CMCs exhibit improved stability over a broader range of pH levels and increased capacity to attract and interact with water molecules (hydrophilicity). CMCs are anticipated to have a greater specific surface area, a higher abundance of functional groups, and better hydrophilicity. These characteristics are expected to enhance CMCs' capacity to coordinate with metal oxides and effectively flocculate sol particles [ 32 ]. CMCs, a chitosan derivative, demonstrate superior water solubility compared to regular chitosan. It is extensively utilized in diverse fields, such as medication delivery systems, 3D printing, supercapacitors [ 31 ], and wastewater treatment through adsorption [ 33 ]. In addition, CMCs have demonstrated superior capacities to adsorb heavy metals than CS, primarily because of their more significant concentration of chelating groups [ 34 ]. The magnetic characteristics and high surface area of pure Fe2O3 make it an excellent process catalyst, thanks to its efficient recombination rate of electron-hole pairs (e − /h + ) [ 35 ]. Prior research has shown that using Fe2O3 nanoparticles, as opposed to larger Fe2O3 particles, can greatly improve its ability to catalyze reactions by exposure to light [ 36 ]. Cerium dioxide (CeO 2 ) is commonly employed as a photocatalyst because it is inexpensive and chemically stable [ 37 ]. It has a large capacity for storing oxygen and exhibits redox characteristics, which enhance the effectiveness of photocatalysis by promoting charge separation and reducing the rate of electron-hole recombination [ 38 ]. Nevertheless, the individual utilization of these oxides is frequently limited by their inadequate quantum effectiveness and stability issues. Photocatalysts can efficiently function under normal environmental circumstances and achieve full decomposition of organic compounds. An indispensable factor to ensure the effectiveness of a catalyst is its capacity to be isolated and reused to avoid any wastage. Hence, the creation of a photocatalyst, including a magnetic element, is greatly sought after. The incorporation of various materials with semiconductor photocatalysts can confer distinct characteristics. A material that possesses magnetic and photocatalytic properties is highly important for advancing eco-friendly catalytic processes [ 39 ]. The main objective of this study is to formulate and evaluate the Fe 2 O 3 /CeO 2 /CMCs nanocomposite for its dual applications in environmental cleanup. The research specifically intends to assess the efficacy of the nanocomposite in leveraging sunlight to decompose the MG dye molecules and eradicate pathogenic bacteria. This could provide an environmentally friendly approach to water remediation. Materials and methods Materials Chitosan (M. Wt. 100000–300000, CAS: 9012-76-4) was purchased from Across Co. (Germany). Chloroacetic acid was purchased from Sigma-Aldrich Co. (USA). Cerium dioxide was purchased from Riedel-deHaën Co. (Germany). Iron (III) oxide (Fe 2 O 3 ) was purchased from MERCK (Germany). MG dye was purchased from Sigm-Aldrech, UK. Preparation of nanocomposites based on different concentrations of cerium dioxide (CeO 2 ) and iron oxide (Fe 2 O 3 ) loaded carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCs) Firstly, carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCs) was prepared as reported by our group in a previous publication. Briefly, 10 g chitosan (CS) was suspended in NaOH solution (50% w/v, 100 mL) and kept for 1 h at room temperature. Then, the swelled CS was kept at a low temperature (-20°C) for Cs alkalization for 24 h followed by thawing at the ambient conditions then added to 250 mL of isopropanol with mechanical stirring for 2 h. Around 50 g of chloroacetic acid was dissolved in 200 mL water and added dropwise to the alkali-treated chitosan solution and stirring was continued for 24 h at 50°C. The solvent was decanted and the resulting paste was immersed in 500 mL of methanol, filtered, and washed three times with methanol followed by distilled water. Finally, the resultant washed powder was lyophilized in a freeze-dryer. Then, different concentrations of CeO 2 (0.15 and 0.3 g) and Fe 2 O 3 (0.15 and 0.3 g) were added to CMCs (2 g). the blended powders were of CeO 2 / Fe 2 O 3 and CMCs were grinded for 12 h and 40 rpm based on the technique of top-down approach by using the ball milling technique. After that, the grinded powders were calcined at 350°C for 24 h. Via utilizing these concentrations of CeO 2 , Fe 2 O 3, and CMCs, three different samples labeled as 0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite and 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite and compared with the ground CMCs (without the addition of metal oxide) were obtained. Characterization Using the X-rays technique model D8ADVANCE, Bruker, Germany, to examine the crystal structures of CMCs, 0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite and 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite. The molecular structure of the as-prepared nanocomposites using ALPHA FTIR spectrophotometer (Bruker, Germany). The particle shape of the selected sample (0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite) was assessed using a transmission electron microscope (TEM, JEOL, JEM, 1200, Japan). The particle size and distribution of 0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite and 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite were examined using Nano-ZS, Malvern Instruments Ltd., (UK). The typographical surface and elemental analysis of the prepared CMCs, 0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite, and 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite were illustrated using field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM, Quatro S, Thermofisher, USA) and Energy Dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS, AMETK, USA). Photocatalytic degradation of MG Dye The photocatalytic decomposition of Malachite Green (MG) dye molecules under sunlight was evaluated using three different nanocomposites: CMCs, 0.15CeO 2 /Fe 2 O 3 loaded CMCs, and 0.3CeO 2 /Fe 2 O 3 loaded CMCs. After achieving adsorption/desorption equilibrium, standard MG aqueous solutions (0.1 L) were mixed with the powdered nanocomposites. Important factors considered in the study included pH levels (ranging from 3 to 10), irradiation times (5 to 180 min), MG concentrations (15, 30, and 60 mg/L), and different dosages of nanocomposites (100, 200, and 400 ppm). To reach adsorption/desorption equilibrium, the nanocomposites were stirred with dye solutions in the dark for 60 min, or until no further change in MG concentration was observed. Each degradation experiment for MG was conducted in triplicate to ensure reliability. The degradation percentages of MG by the nanocomposites were calculated using the following equation: Photocatalytic degradation % = (A blank – A sample )/ A blank x100 (1) where ( A blank ) is the initial concentration of MG dye (mg/L) and ( A sample ) is the final concentration (mg/L) after adsorption. Influence of Radical Scavengers The impact of reactive oxygen species (ROS) on decomposing the MG dye through photocatalysis was examined utilizing three radical scavengers were utilized: benzoquinone (BQ) at a concentration of 10 mM, ammonium oxalate (AO), and isopropanol (IPA) [ 40 ]. Regeneration and recyclability The durability and reusability of the nanocomposites in the photocatalytic degradation of MG were evaluated by a series of aging studies conducted in both dark and light conditions for five consecutive cycles. Following each round of MG degradation, the catalyst was removed from the solution and underwent a meticulous cleaning procedure utilizing a solution designed to remove dyes. The process entailed performing three rounds of filtration and washing on the catalyst to guarantee the thorough elimination of any remaining coloring. The catalyst, which had been cleaned and dried, was subsequently reused for the subsequent degrading cycle [ 41 ]. Assessment of the Bactericidal Properties of Prepared Nanocomposites The antimicrobial effectiveness of three distinct nanocomposites designed as CMCs, 0.15CeO 2 /Fe 2 O 3 loaded CMCs, and 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs was assessed against four respective bacterial pathogens such as Klebsiella pneumonia, Acinetobacter baumannii, Streptococcus mutans , and Staphylococcus aureus . The bacterial stocks were cultured in Tyipticase Soy broth (TSB) at a temperature of 37°C for 24 h. The bacterial suspensions were adjusted to a 0.5 McFarland standard, which is equivalent to around 1.5x10 7 CFU/mL. The antibacterial characteristics of the nanocomposites were evaluated using the agar well diffusion method. Each bacterial suspension (100 µL) was evenly distributed on Mueller-Hinton agar (MHA) plates. Using a sterile micropipette tip, wells with a diameter of 5 mm were made in the agar. Then, 50 µL of each nanocomposite stock solution (with a concentration of 100 mg/mL) was added to the wells [ 42 ]. The plates were placed in an incubator set at a temperature of 37°C for a duration of 24 h. Following the incubation period, the areas where growth was inhibited (known as zones of inhibition or ZOI) surrounding each well were measured and recorded. The test was repeated in 3-times, and values were presented as mean ± SD. Results and Discussion The phase structure is examined using the X-ray spectrum analysis of the carboxymethyl chitosan and the cerium dioxide–iron oxide loaded carboxymethyl chitosan nanocomposite to identify the structural data and the suggested construction as viewed in Fig. 1 . The structure phase of pure carboxymethyl chitosan appears as a crystalline phase without any impurities peak, the peaks were observed at the positions of 2θ = 31.69°, 45.45°, 56.38°, 66.11°, and 75.12° mentioned to the phase of carboxymethyl chitosan [ 43 , 44 ]. On the other hand, we observed that the crystalline degree increments with an increase in the concentration of cerium dioxide-iron oxide nanocomposites in the matrix of the pure carboxymethyl chitosan. The sharp crystalline peaks appear at the position of 2θ = 28.48°, 31.63°, 33.06°, 34.68°, 45.32°, 47.37°, 49.25°, 53.63°, 56.26°, 58.93°, 66.03°, 75.15°, and 76.48° referring to cerium dioxide-iron oxide nanocomposites phase, these results confirmed with the energy dispersive x-ray analysis (EDX) data. This may indicate an interaction between the nanocomposite, and these indications prove that cerium dioxide-iron oxide nanoparticles a high crystalline phase with the carboxymethyl chitosan [ 45 , 46 ]. The crystallite sizes (D) were computed using Debye – Scherrer formula [ 47 ]. D = Kλ/ βcosθ = 0.9λ/ βcosθ ……………... (1) where the constant parameters are as follows: (k) is constant equal (0.9), (Ө) is Bragg angle, (β) full width at half maximum (FWHM), and (λ) wavelength of X-ray. The values of the pure CMCs,0.15CeO 2 /Fe 2 O 3 /CMCs nanocomposite, and 0.3CeO 2 /Fe 2 O 3 /CMCs nanocomposite were calculated to be, 71.8 nm, 82.6 nm, and 82 nm, respectively. In addition, it was observed that the size of crystallite carboxymethyl chitosan and cerium dioxide–iron oxide loaded carboxymethyl chitosan nanocomposite increased with the increment of the concentration of CeO 2 /Fe 2 O 3 NPs as illustrated in Fig. 2 . On the other side, the dislocation decreases as per this equation. δ = 1/ D 2 ……………... (2) As seen in Fig. 3 , the molecular structure of the carboxymethyl chitosan and the cerium dioxide–iron oxide loaded carboxymethyl chitosan nanocomposite were ascertained by analyzing the FTIR spectrum. The chemical bond of pure carboxymethyl chitosan has a large broad peak at 3112.29cm − 1 , which is associated with symmetrical stretching vibrations of (O-H and N-H amines). The short bond C–H stretching vibrations were found at position 2907.8 cm − 1 . The bond of C = O stretching of carboxymethyl at the position 1726.5cm − 1 , the sharp peak at 1592.9cm − 1 ascribed to the N-H 2 bending of primary amines, and there was a peak at 1483.48cm − 1 due to C-N stretching vibrations. One can ascribe the distinctive strong bond at 1483.48cm − 1 to the (C-O stretching vibration). The two peaks observed at 1129.23cm − 1 and 1061.54 cm − 1 correspond to the primary alcohols' C-O stretch, which is –CH 2 –OH [ 48 ]. On the other hand, the spectra of the cerium dioxide–iron oxide loaded CMCs nanocomposite show that the strong peak is 699.81cm − 1 due to Fe-O stretching mode. Another significant absorption band that may be seen at the position 553 cm − 1 to 446 cm − 1 is assigned to iron oxide vibrations mode and the peak bond of stretching Ce-O at 449 cm − 1 [ 49 ] Firstly, the nanoparticle shape of CMCs nanocomposites containing the highest CeO2 (0.3 g) and Fe2O3 (0.3 g) prepared by the ball mill grinding process was evaluated. From Fig. 4 (A, B) , it was found that the TEM of .3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite was imaged at two different magnifications and the particles have a somewhat spherical shape. Also, the particles exhibited more than one phase, as there are particles in the TEM images that have faint colors and others are dark as a result of the presence of more than one compound, which is CMCs, CeO 2, and Fe 2 O 3 . In general, TEM showed that the selected sample (0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite) had acquired a small size, and was spherical. By studying the size of 0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite and 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite using the DLS technique (Fig. 4 C, D), it was well demonstrated that by increasing the concentration of both CeO 2 and Fe 2 O 3 as found in the sample (0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite), the size increases. 0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite sample recorded a size of 126.5 nm (Fig. 4 C), while the 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite sample recorded a size of 174.3 nm (Fig. 4 D). In any case, these average sizes that were obtained for 0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite and 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite demonstrate the possibility of using the ball milling technique for nanocomposite preparation due to their small size. Compared to the size resulting from the TEM image (Fig. 4 A, B), it was observed that the particle size was larger when measured by DLS, and this is due to the difference in the measurement technique and the method of preparing the sample for measurement. In the case of TEM analysis, the sample is suspended in water, placed on a grid, left to dry, and then followed by direct measurement. In the case of using the DLS technique, the sample is maintained to dissolve in water and then left inside the device for a long period during the measurement, and then the material may cause swelling, which increases the size, this is suggested by the results obtained. In any case, the resulting sizes are much smaller than 500 nm, which facilitates their applications for different purposes. In addition to this, the PdI for the 0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite sample was 1 and for the 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite sample was 0.607, which has a better distribution rate and homogeneity than the 0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite sample (heterogeneity particles). Figure 5 (A and B) shows the flakes' morphological structure of blank CMCs which changed when CeO 2 and Fe 2 O 3 were added and the mechanical grinding took place. Figure 5 shows that the samples were examined at two different magnifications. From Fig. 5 (A, B), it appears that CMCs have rod-like shapes, in addition to large aggregations of particles due to the nature of this high molecular weight polymer (CMCs). By examining other samples, which contain different concentrations of CeO 2 and Fe 2 O 3 , they have a different morphological structure (flake-like), as in Fig. 5 (C, D) and (E, F), where there are deposits of oxide particles on the surface of the CMCs. The rod shapes of 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite sample have relatively disappeared as a result of the deposition of the high concentration of both CeO 2 and Fe 2 O 3 onto the outer surface of CMCs. The elemental analysis of CMCs, 0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite, and 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite was assessed using EDX analysis. Figure 6 (A. B and C) and inset tables illustrated the elemental and weight (%) of CMCs, 0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite and 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite, respectively. EDX of CMCs (Fig. 6 A) illustrated the presence of three elements (C, N, and O) which are mainly attributed to the CMCs composition. The formation of nanocomposite based on CMCs blended with different concentrations of CeO 2 and Fe 2 O 3 leads to the appearance of the other two elements (Fe and Ce). The weight (%) of these elements is increased with increasing the concentration of both metal oxides that are added to CMCs as shown in Fig. 6 (C) for the 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite sample. Photocatalytic performance of nanocomposites Influence of pH The photocatalytic degradation effectiveness of MG dye under varying irradiation periods is shown in the figure using CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposites. The influence of pH is shown. The 0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs are shown in Fig. 7 (a), while the 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs are shown in Fig. 7 (b). Degradation effectiveness rises with irradiation time in both panels for all pH values. For both nanocomposites, the maximum degradation effectiveness is found at pH 6, with pH 7 and pH 9 following suit. This suggests that the photocatalytic activity is more favorable under near-neutral and slightly alkaline circumstances. The degradation effectiveness is much lower at acidic pH values (pH 3 and pH 4), indicating decreased photocatalytic activity. According to the findings for the 0.15% loading, the ideal degradation rate is reached at pH 6, and photocatalytic activity improves as pH rises from acidic to neutral. Similar to the 0.15% loading, the 0.30% loading performs best at pH 6 and is marginally more effective at pH 5 and pH 6; this suggests that larger CeO 2 /Fe 2 O 3 concentrations under these circumstances improve photocatalytic efficiency. Overall, the findings imply that the most favorable circumstances for the photocatalytic degradation of MG dye utilizing CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposites occur at almost neutral pH values, especially pH 6. To improve photocatalytic processes in wastewater treatment applications, this pH-dependent behavior is essential. Influence of magnetic catalyst Figure 8 demonstrates the impact of varying amounts of photocatalyst (100, 200, and 400 ppm) on the ability to degrade MG dye by photocatalysis, during varied durations (0-180 min). Figure 8 a corresponds to the 0.15CeO 2 /Fe 2 O 3 loaded CMCs, while Fig. 8 b corresponds to the 0.3CeO 2 /Fe 2 O 3 loaded CMCs. Results illustrated in Fig. 8 a demonstrate that a complete degradation of MG dye was achieved using 400 ppm for 180 of irradiation time. Regarding the 0.3CeO 2 /Fe 2 O 3 loaded CMCs, the results in Fig. 8 b displayed that at 200 and 400 ppm was entirely decomposed the MG dye after 180 and 150 min, respectively, where the ability to break down MG dye improved as the duration of exposure and dosages of catalyst increased. In summary, the findings suggest that the degradation of MG dye by photocatalysis using the 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposites is influenced by the dosage of the photocatalyst. Specifically, larger dosages of the photocatalyst result in increased degradation capabilities. The results indicate that both the 0.15 and 0.30 loadings demonstrate that the 400-ppm dose yields the greatest degrading capacity. Influence of MG dye concentrations Figure 9 reveals the impact of various starting concentrations of MG dye (15, 30, and 60 mg/L) on the efficiency of photocatalytic degradation for the investigated nanocomposites (0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs and 0.3CeO 2 /Fe 2 O 3 loaded CMCs). The study found that the total degradation percentage dropped as the starting MG concentration rose. The 0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite achieved complete photocatalytic degradation of MG dye after 150 minutes, at a concentration of 15 mg/L. By using the 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite, complete degradation of MG dye was accomplished within 120 min when the starting dye concentration was 15 mg/L. For initial dye concentrations of 30 and 60 mg/L, the degradation took 150 and 180 min, respectively. The observed trend may be attributed to the higher concentration of active sites on the photocatalyst surface compared to the number of dye molecules at lower dye concentrations, resulting in more effective degradation. With an increase in dye concentration, the active sites become saturated, resulting in a deceleration of the breakdown process. In addition, increased dye concentrations lead to a greater number of dye molecules absorbing the photons that might otherwise be used to activate the photocatalyst, thereby diminishing the overall effectiveness of the photocatalysis process. The data suggest that larger starting concentrations of MG dye hinder the overall degradation efficiency, but enhance the specific adsorption capacity of the nanocomposites. The 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite displays a more rapid and efficient degradation process compared to other nanocomposite. This indicates its potential for enhanced photocatalytic applications in wastewater treatment, particularly for treating dyes with different concentrations. Regeneration of magnetic nanocomposites The reusability of two distinct loadings, 0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs and 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposites were compared in the photocatalytic degradation of MG dye throughout five consecutive cycles (Fig. 10 a-c). Both nanocomposites showed excellent degrading efficiency in the first cycle; the 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs loading achieved 100% and the 0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs loading achieved 92%. In the subsequent cycle, the degrading effectiveness of the 0.3CeO 2 /Fe 2 O 3 loading remained at 100%, but the 0.15CeO 2 /Fe 2 O 3 loading had a little decline to 87%. Degradation efficiency started to decrease by the third cycle, with the 0.15CeO 2 /Fe 2 O 3 loading at 83% and the 0.3CeO 2 /Fe 2 O 3 at 97%. During the fourth cycle, the degrading effectiveness of the 0.3CeO 2 /Fe 2 O 3 loading remained at 92%, whereas the 0.15CeO 2 /Fe 2 O 3 loading had a further decline to 80%. Degradation efficiency at the fifth cycle was 90.2% for the 0.3CeO 2 /Fe 2 O 3 and 78% for the 0.15CeO 2 /Fe 2 O 3 . Based on these findings, it can be concluded that the CeO 2 /Fe 2 O 3− loaded CMCs nanocomposites exhibit considerable photocatalytic activity for many cycles. The reusability of the 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite is marginally higher than that of the 0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite. Over time, there may be a steady drop in degrading efficiency, which might be attributed to partial deactivation or the loss of active sites resulting from repetitive usage. Both nanocomposites, however, show a high degree of reusability, which makes them attractive options for real-world wastewater treatment applications. Assessment of different scavengers Figure 11 shows the % degradation effectiveness of the MG dye under several scavengers: isopropanol (IPA), ammonium oxalate (AO), benzoquinone (BQ), and no scavenger. These circumstances were used to clarify the function of various reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the process of photocatalytic degradation. When no ROS quenchers are present, the CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposites exhibit the most photocatalytic activity, as shown by the greatest degradation effectiveness of MG dye (98%). The degradation effectiveness dramatically decreases to 35% in the presence of IPA, a recognized scavenger of hydroxyl radicals (•OH), indicating that hydroxyl radicals are the main ROS responsible for the photocatalytic degradation of MG dye. The degradation effectiveness is lowered to 72% with AO, which scavenges photogenerated holes (h+), suggesting that holes also contribute significantly to the degradation process, although to a lesser amount than hydroxyl radicals. Superoxide anions (O 2 •− ) are scavengers, and their presence decreases the degradation effectiveness to 46% in the presence of BQ. This suggests that superoxide anions play a part in the degradation process, although not as crucially as hydroxyl radicals and photogenerated holes. The research concludes that, when using CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposites for the photocatalytic degradation of Malachite Green dye, hydroxyl radicals are the most important reactive species. These are followed by photogenerated holes and superoxide anions. The importance of these ROS in the dye degradation process is highlighted by the significant decrease in degradation efficacy that occurs when these scavengers are present. This information can be used to optimize the photocatalytic process by focusing on the production and use of particular ROS to increase degradation efficiency. Proposed catalytic degradation mechanism Using CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite photocatalytically breaking down MG incorporates several important stages that work together to efficiently decompose the dye molecules. The easiest way to summarize the whole mechanism is as outlined below: Sunlight Absorption Upon exposure to sunlight, the CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite absorbs photons. This energy excites the electrons in the valence band (VB) of CeO₂, promoting them to the conduction band (CB) and creating electron-hole pairs (e⁻/h⁺). Fe 2 O 3 /CeO₂/CMCs + hv (sunlight)→ CeO₂ (e − CB + h + VB ) ROS formation: The photo-generated electrons (e⁻) and holes (h⁺) play crucial roles in the formation of ROS. Reduction Reaction The excited electrons reduce oxygen molecules (O2) adsorbed on the surface to superoxide anions (O 2 −• ). e⁻ (CB) + O₂→O 2 −• Oxidation Reaction The holes oxidize water (H2O) or hydroxide ions (OH-) to produce hydroxyl radicals (•OH). h VB + + H 2 O → OH • + 2OH − h VB + + OH − → OH • MG decomposing ROS radicals including hydroxyl radicals (•OH), superoxide anions (O 2 •− ), and other species attack the MG dye molecules. The ROS oxidize the MG dye, breaking down its complex molecular structure into simpler, less harmful compounds. The mechanism involves breaking the chromophoric structure of the dye, resulting in smaller, less harmful molecules. ROS (OH • /O 2 •− ) + CeO₂/CMCs + dye→Intermediates→CO 2 + H 2 O + MG derivatives Mineralization of organic dye The degraded products are further oxidized to carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), water (H 2 O), and other inorganic ions (e.g., NO 3 − , SO 4 2− ). This process ensures the complete mineralization of the dye, resulting in the removal of color and toxicity from the water. Table 1 presents a comparison of the photocatalytic degradation effectiveness of Fe 2 O 3 , CeO₂, and CMCs for the photodegradation of MG dye. Table 1 Comparative assessment of photodegradation dye from earlier published articles Type of catalysts Organic dye Light source % Degradation Efficiency Time (min) Ref. 0.15CeO 2 /Fe 2 O 3 loaded CMCs MG Sunlight 100% 180 Current study 0.3CeO 2 /Fe 2 O 3 loaded CMCs MG Sunlight 100% 150 Current study Fe 2 O 3 /g-C 3 N 4 composite methyl orange (MO) visible light 92% 60 [ 50 ] Chitosan/Ce–ZnO MG visible light 100% 90 [ 51 ] Hybrid CeO 2 /Fe 2 O 3 composite nanospindles Eosin Yellow visible light 98% 25 [ 52 ] Fe(III)-Cross linked alginate carboxymethyl cellulose MG UV 98% 30 [ 16 ] Antibacterial activity of nanocomposites The mean inhibition zone sizes of three distinct nanocomposites against a range of pathogenic bacteria, including K. pneumoniae A. baumannii, Str. mutans , and S. aureus , and, are shown in Fig. 12 . To assess the antibacterial activity of the nanocomposites, the inhibition zones were evaluated. The absence of inhibitory zones (0 mm) against any of the studied microorganisms was seen in the pure CMCs nanocomposite, suggesting that CMCs do not have antibacterial capabilities on their own. The CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposites, on the other hand, demonstrated strong antibacterial activity. In the CMCs nanocomposite loaded with 0.15CeO 2 /Fe 2 O 3 , the inhibition zones measured K. pneumoniae were 23 ± 0.32 mm, A. baumannii were 21 ± 0.47 mm, Str. mutans were 19.7 ± 0.38 mm, and S. aureus were 17.3 ± 0.63 mm. These findings imply that the CMCs nanocomposite's antibacterial activity is greatly increased by the addition of CeO 2 /Fe 2 O 3 . The production of ROS by CeO 2 /Fe 2 O 3 is probably what has the antibacterial effect since these compounds can harm bacterial cell walls and interfere with cellular processes. Even bigger inhibitory zones were seen in the 0.3CeO 2 /Fe 2 O 3 loaded CMCs nanocomposite, measuring 30.2 ± 0.14 mm for K. pneumoniae , 27 ± 0.62 mm for A. baumannii , 25.6 ± 0.82 mm for Str. mutans , and 21.5 ± 0.45 mm for S. aureus . The bigger inhibition zones indicate that the increasing concentration of CeO 2 /Fe 2 O 3 further improves the antibacterial activity. This points to a dose-dependent interaction in which higher CeO 2 /Fe 2 O 3 concentrations increase ROS generation and, in turn, improve antibacterial activity. The findings show that adding CeO 2 /Fe 2 O 3 to CMCs not only gives the nanocomposite notable antibacterial capabilities, but also shows that increasing the concentration of CeO 2 /Fe 2 O 3 improves these qualities even more. CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs are thus a good option for uses needing strong antibacterial activity, such as antimicrobial coatings, water purification systems, and medical equipment. Mechanism of action of antibacterial effect CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposites have antibacterial activity, which may be explained by many important processes. The production of ROS, which includes hydrogen peroxide, superoxide anions, and hydroxyl radicals—is the primary factor [ 14 ]. These very reactive ROS cause oxidative stress in bacterial cells, which damages DNA, lipids, and proteins. Bacterial cell membranes are damaged by lipid peroxidation, which leads to internal cell leakage and final cell death. Additionally, vital biological processes are hampered by oxidative damage to proteins and nucleic acids. The bacterial cell membrane becomes more permeable and susceptible to structural damage when ROS interacts with it, which exacerbates cell lysis [ 53 ]. Additionally, under some circumstances, the nanocomposites may release metal ions (such as Ce 3+ and Fe 3+ ), which may be hazardous to bacteria by interfering with enzymes and proteins and impairing essential metabolic processes. Disruption of cell membrane structures may also occur when the nanoparticles and bacteria come into direct contact. Moreover, ROS can denature bacterial proteins and suppress enzyme function, interfering with vital metabolic pathways for life. Replication and transcription activities are hampered by genotoxic effects such as DNA strand breakage and base changes brought on by ROS. The CeO 2 could attack proteins after adsorbing on the outer membrane of the bacterial cell. The released Ce ions could alter the electron flow and respiration of bacteria [64] and react with the thiol groups (–SH) or be absorbed onto transporters and/or porins to hamper nutrient transportation [ 54 ]. In addition, the irregular shapes and rough edges of CeO 2 per se contribute to the physical damage of bacterial membranes, especially for Gram-positive bacteria [ 55 ]. Oxidative stress is also an important factor for CeO 2 during the antibacterial. Although CeO 2 can be excited to produce ROS by ultraviolet (UV) irradiation, there was very little research on bacterial activity using CeO 2 alone. Usually, CeO 2 is combined with other photocatalysts, such as TiO 2 . In the presence of CeO 2 , the band gap can be changed in the host lattices of photocatalysts, which improves the photocatalytic activity of TiO 2 [ 56 ]. Regarding Fe 2 O 3 , the ROS production is one of the main mechanisms. Reduced activity of antioxidant system enzymes such glutathione reductase, catalase, and superoxide dismutase (SOD) may lead to an increase in ROS concentration The sulfhydryl (–SH), amino (–NH), and carboxyl (–COOH) groups of proteins, including enzymes, may bind to metal ions from IONPs and cause partial inhibition or deactivation of those proteins [ 57 ]. In our study, CeO 2 and Fe 2 O 3 work together to improve antibacterial effectiveness by increasing photocatalytic activity and producing ROS more effectively. The strong antibacterial qualities of the CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposites are a result of these complex processes working together, which makes them ideal for antimicrobial applications in protective coatings, medical equipment, and water treatment. Conclusion In the present investigation, CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposites were effectively produced utilizing a ball milling procedure, with two concentrations of CeO 2 and Fe 2 O 3 (0.15 g and 0.3 g). Structural studies using XRD and FTIR verified the successful creation and use of the nanocomposites, hence improving their functional characteristics. The photocatalytic degradation experiments showed that the nanocomposite consisting of 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs accomplished full decomposition of malachite green (MG) dye. The highest level of photocatalytic activity was obtained when the pH was 6, and the amount of catalyst used was 400 ppm. In addition, both nanocomposites demonstrated substantial antibacterial efficacy, with the 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs exhibiting larger inhibition zones against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. The results emphasize the capability of 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposites to treat wastewater efficiently and exhibit antibacterial properties. This could offer a well-intentioned alternative approach to environmental remediation. Declarations Author Contribution D. E, N. O., F. A., and A. A. contributed to Conceptualization, Methodology, Data curation, Formal analysis, writing original draft, validation, Investigation, Writing - review & editing, Visualization. Acknowledgments This study is supported by funding from Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University's project number (PSAU/2025/R/1446). References He K, Chen G, Zeng G, Chen A, Huang Z, Shi J, Huang T, Peng M, Hu L (2018) Three-dimensional graphene supported catalysts for organic dyes degradation. 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Anal Chem 87:4641–4648. https://doi.org/10.1021/ac503835a Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files GA.png Graphical Abstract Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6038187","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":416952406,"identity":"5bbf9db6-de60-469c-bb56-ddeb7084d7bf","order_by":0,"name":"Dalia A. Elsherbiny","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABBklEQVRIie3QMUvDQBTA8TtOzuWSrC0Z+hVeKFgOjf0qlkC34up0FAK36azgh8gYtxce6JIPUHDq7pBJyKRHIwrCqd2E3n96eeTHXcJYKPQfQ8aRrxkD4R66j+XoF8I+Cb/dj7hZqL+QGAU2fX12OTuOHtO8NhNA0TwrZiY+MkZ5QVG71A9lvExXLWUVyuJUMcrWHgKogLglAFIn6coir9ANarithyRd09u3gWhr5hUmr46Y+Q+nMIwsDoRbsXCnSEfEwkfGJIEiW4Au1VRft1TckZzqe6DCR+Kncrvt7TnMkjbb9LXJb9xm83Jlch9h4ms8Gu0+ebcB3/vfdOf9S6FQKHTQvQOCEVipeidjLQAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Dalia","middleName":"A.","lastName":"Elsherbiny","suffix":""},{"id":416952407,"identity":"0fa9f8d5-8551-4f20-856b-ac22da674c80","order_by":1,"name":"Noha Omer","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Tabuk","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Noha","middleName":"","lastName":"Omer","suffix":""},{"id":416952408,"identity":"83c2eb29-d219-478a-90da-f9ef69cb3ba8","order_by":2,"name":"Fahad Abdulaziz","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Ha'il","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Fahad","middleName":"","lastName":"Abdulaziz","suffix":""},{"id":416952409,"identity":"9256f247-7d45-4fd7-a9a9-73c3a286aff5","order_by":3,"name":"Abdulaziz Alanazi","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Abdulaziz","middleName":"","lastName":"Alanazi","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-02-15 19:23:12","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6038187/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6038187/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":76660470,"identity":"8545ccd6-58d7-4914-a962-e792f1748b34","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-19 11:55:22","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":90926,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eX-ray spectra of CMCs, 0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite and 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6038187/v1/dd3d1d39c49838ca44e5a2ec.png"},{"id":76658959,"identity":"75acd64c-eecf-46d2-8e53-b5d725686a4e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-19 11:39:22","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":23889,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ecrystal size and dislocation of CMCs and CMCs, 0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite and 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6038187/v1/27d2de694818b3d68002d700.png"},{"id":76659394,"identity":"1ecf7327-0bcd-4dca-a215-e1f41ccedac6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-19 11:47:22","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":26116,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eATR-FTIR spectrum of CMCs and CMCs, 0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite and 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6038187/v1/5ba7dfa5f87dfd9a58785ec1.png"},{"id":76659396,"identity":"0eaa6323-6eeb-412e-818f-f86bbe19e579","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-19 11:47:22","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":203343,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e(A, B) TEM of 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite, (C, D) average particle size and PdI of 0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite and 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite, respectively\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6038187/v1/24d1a367d565d3d19ae9f245.png"},{"id":76658964,"identity":"c9ce059b-d908-45c7-b815-be68d575a97e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-19 11:39:22","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":506411,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSEM of (A, B) CMCs, (C, D) 0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite and (E, F) 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6038187/v1/fb2e37c7fcfcd15b7851cbc9.png"},{"id":76660471,"identity":"f4ac77d0-0c4b-409a-a849-bd645e20d3e0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-19 11:55:22","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":196495,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEDX of (A) CMCs, (B) 0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite, and (C) 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6038187/v1/2508992faf7f672223c4b651.png"},{"id":76660473,"identity":"95fba0f2-7c32-412e-991c-073ba6c812e6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-19 11:55:23","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":170340,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eInfluence of different pH on photodegradation capacity using a) 0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs and b) 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs during various irradiation times (0-180 min).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6038187/v1/ffb3e4cef7185ff822984dbb.png"},{"id":76662918,"identity":"ad7d1de8-50a5-47b9-ba18-0bc0bcc37e95","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-19 12:11:23","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":189929,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eInfluence of different dosages of magnetic catalysts on photodegradation capacity using a) 0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs and b) 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs during various irradiation times (0-180 min).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6038187/v1/48725a6a609a25a7e0ae51b2.png"},{"id":76659416,"identity":"48c0db42-2e86-4214-b432-a08cde6eaafc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-19 11:47:23","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":203364,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eInfluence of different concentrations (15, 30, and 60 mg/L) of MG dye on photodegradation capacity using a) 0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs and b) 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs during various irradiation times (0-180 min).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6038187/v1/5fd4d75a8482339bc4997ef8.png"},{"id":76658967,"identity":"3adf89c3-89f7-4b5d-9494-18af0e3b12dc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-19 11:39:23","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":202993,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ea) Recyclability experiments of the photodegradation of MG dye and comparison of 5 adsorption-desorption cycles using b)\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e0.15CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3 \u003c/sub\u003eloaded CMCs, and c) 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposites\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6038187/v1/e98e7dea7c562ad13d2737fb.png"},{"id":76659402,"identity":"d19d9966-e813-4457-bb48-f03835262d43","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-19 11:47:23","extension":"png","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":35684,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eImpact of different scavengers on the MG dye degradation process dye\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"11.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6038187/v1/cb7261dd065e3917fb9a7a93.png"},{"id":76659400,"identity":"e88a0fc8-8e6a-4c73-a6d8-d0bd64c9fc6d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-19 11:47:22","extension":"png","order_by":12,"title":"Figure 12","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":249758,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAntibacterial activities and measured ZOI of different nanocomposites including CMCs, 0.15CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e-loaded CMCs, and 0.3CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e-loaded CMCs nanocomposites against certain four bacteria\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"12.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6038187/v1/92cfa491dc09061c71e29486.png"},{"id":76880618,"identity":"0ff9183f-b3af-43a4-9187-5f4b671ea60f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-21 17:01:41","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":3245831,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6038187/v1/34ceca8a-3b38-4bba-a4a3-822c6cfa5f6b.pdf"},{"id":76658956,"identity":"0a51b4c8-3123-4b47-9600-cc9c9b8f1d30","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-19 11:39:22","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":164735,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGraphical Abstract\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"GA.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6038187/v1/37724171888884899b1a8a1b.png"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Biobased Tricomponent (carboxymethyl chitosan/ cerium dioxide/iron III oxide) nanocomposite flakes for multifarious environmental decontaminations: magnetically separable and antimicrobial photocatalyst","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eWater pollution is a major environmental issue and a major concern for society now, especially because of organic chemicals [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. These pollutants result in various health and ecological difficulties, including skin and eye irritation, respiratory illnesses, and potentially cancer-causing impacts that can damage DNA [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. Textile industry dyes have become a significant issue among other pollutants due to their high toxicity, permanent presence in the environment, and ability to cause cancer [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. The demand for textile products has experienced a significant surge as a result of population growth and globalization, resulting in an escalated utilization of synthetic dyes. As a result, waste production has increased, which is hazardous for freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe textile dyeing sector has broadened into many industries, such as printing, rubber, food, leather, cosmetics, fabrics, plastics, and medications [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. These processes have a high water demand, necessitating substantial quantities of water at various stages of production. As a result of inefficiencies in these processes, the effluents discharged by these businesses generally contain a high concentration of dyes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. The amount of dyes discharged into industrial wastewater worldwide is estimated to be over 280,000 tons, making up 10 to 60% of the dye used in industrial applications [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Of this total, 20% is used in industrial sectors, notably for textile dyeing, fabric finishing, and similar procedures [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. The textile sector discharges a lot of wastewater that is polluted with harmful chemicals and heavy metals. This poses considerable environmental issues since it can have long-term and immediate detrimental effects on ecosystems [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. The discharge of toxic dyes into natural ecosystems contributes to various detrimental consequences, which include decreased levels of dissolved oxygen, impeded penetration of sunlight, which impairs aquatic photosynthesis, a tendency to accumulate in organisms, affecting the distribution of minerals in aquatic systems, and deposition in soil layers [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. Dyes refer to soluble organic molecules, namely those that fall under the categories of reactive, direct, and basic acids. Due to their great solubility in water, removing them using conventional methods is challenging [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. Malachite Green (MG), also known as N-methylated diaminotriphenylmethane, is an extensively utilized cationic dye in the textiles, paper, and rubber industries [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. It is also recognized for its harmful impact on mammalian cells. MG dye is extensively utilized throughout several industries, including cotton, paper, jute, silk, wool, leather, and acrylic items. Furthermore, it is utilized as an antiseptic and fungicidal agent [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThus, it is crucial to establish effective approaches to decompose and eliminate dyes from wastewater. Multiple methodologies have been investigated for the elimination of dye, encompassing physical, chemical, and biological approaches [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. Efficient textile wastewater treatment facilities must be designed to manage substantial quantities of discharged wastewater while maintaining cost-effectiveness effectively. Various methods have been studied to address the issue of dye-contaminated wastewater, including both nondestructive and destructive ones. The methods used in this study are electrocoagulation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e], ultrafiltration membranes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e], emulsion liquid membranes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e], coagulation/flocculation processes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e], the electro-Fenton process [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e], adsorption [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e], and photocatalytic degradation [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR26\" citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. Nevertheless, single-step treatments frequently yield unsatisfactory results, thereby making hybrid techniques more advantageous. Combining adsorption and photocatalytic degradation is a highly efficient and environmentally friendly technique for eliminating dye contaminants, with the added benefit of low energy consumption [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]. Photocatalysis, which uses light to speed up a photoreaction, has garnered considerable interest as a highly effective and eco-friendly approach for breaking down organic contaminants in water [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]. This technique relies on the utilization of photocatalysts, which enable reactions to occur without being depleted [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCarboxymethyl chitosan (CMCs) has been created by modifying chitosan (Cs) using monochloroacetic acid. This modification adds extra carboxyl, amino, and hydroxyl functional groups [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. Compared to conventional Cs, CMCs exhibit improved stability over a broader range of pH levels and increased capacity to attract and interact with water molecules (hydrophilicity). CMCs are anticipated to have a greater specific surface area, a higher abundance of functional groups, and better hydrophilicity. These characteristics are expected to enhance CMCs' capacity to coordinate with metal oxides and effectively flocculate sol particles [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. CMCs, a chitosan derivative, demonstrate superior water solubility compared to regular chitosan. It is extensively utilized in diverse fields, such as medication delivery systems, 3D printing, supercapacitors [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e], and wastewater treatment through adsorption [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. In addition, CMCs have demonstrated superior capacities to adsorb heavy metals than CS, primarily because of their more significant concentration of chelating groups [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe magnetic characteristics and high surface area of pure Fe2O3 make it an excellent process catalyst, thanks to its efficient recombination rate of electron-hole pairs (e\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e/h\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. Prior research has shown that using Fe2O3 nanoparticles, as opposed to larger Fe2O3 particles, can greatly improve its ability to catalyze reactions by exposure to light [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. Cerium dioxide (CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e) is commonly employed as a photocatalyst because it is inexpensive and chemically stable [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. It has a large capacity for storing oxygen and exhibits redox characteristics, which enhance the effectiveness of photocatalysis by promoting charge separation and reducing the rate of electron-hole recombination [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]. Nevertheless, the individual utilization of these oxides is frequently limited by their inadequate quantum effectiveness and stability issues. Photocatalysts can efficiently function under normal environmental circumstances and achieve full decomposition of organic compounds. An indispensable factor to ensure the effectiveness of a catalyst is its capacity to be isolated and reused to avoid any wastage. Hence, the creation of a photocatalyst, including a magnetic element, is greatly sought after. The incorporation of various materials with semiconductor photocatalysts can confer distinct characteristics. A material that possesses magnetic and photocatalytic properties is highly important for advancing eco-friendly catalytic processes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe main objective of this study is to formulate and evaluate the Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e/CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/CMCs nanocomposite for its dual applications in environmental cleanup. The research specifically intends to assess the efficacy of the nanocomposite in leveraging sunlight to decompose the MG dye molecules and eradicate pathogenic bacteria. This could provide an environmentally friendly approach to water remediation.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMaterials\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eChitosan (M. Wt. 100000\u0026ndash;300000, CAS: 9012-76-4) was purchased from Across Co. (Germany). Chloroacetic acid was purchased from Sigma-Aldrich Co. (USA). Cerium dioxide was purchased from Riedel-deHa\u0026euml;n Co. (Germany). Iron (III) oxide (Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e) was purchased from MERCK (Germany). MG dye was purchased from Sigm-Aldrech, UK.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003ePreparation of nanocomposites based on different concentrations of cerium dioxide (CeO\u003c/b\u003e \u003csub\u003e \u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/sub\u003e \u003cb\u003e) and iron oxide (Fe\u003c/b\u003e \u003csub\u003e \u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/sub\u003e \u003cb\u003eO\u003c/b\u003e \u003csub\u003e \u003cb\u003e3\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/sub\u003e \u003cb\u003e) loaded carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCs)\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirstly, carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCs) was prepared as reported by our group in a previous publication. Briefly, 10 g chitosan (CS) was suspended in NaOH solution (50% w/v, 100 mL) and kept for 1 h at room temperature. Then, the swelled CS was kept at a low temperature (-20\u0026deg;C) for Cs alkalization for 24 h followed by thawing at the ambient conditions then added to 250 mL of isopropanol with mechanical stirring for 2 h. Around 50 g of chloroacetic acid was dissolved in 200 mL water and added dropwise to the alkali-treated chitosan solution and stirring was continued for 24 h at 50\u0026deg;C. The solvent was decanted and the resulting paste was immersed in 500 mL of methanol, filtered, and washed three times with methanol followed by distilled water. Finally, the resultant washed powder was lyophilized in a freeze-dryer.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThen, different concentrations of CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e (0.15 and 0.3 g) and Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e (0.15 and 0.3 g) were added to CMCs (2 g). the blended powders were of CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/ Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e and CMCs were grinded for 12 h and 40 rpm based on the technique of top-down approach by using the ball milling technique. After that, the grinded powders were calcined at 350\u0026deg;C for 24 h. Via utilizing these concentrations of CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3,\u003c/sub\u003e and CMCs, three different samples labeled as 0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite and 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite and compared with the ground CMCs (without the addition of metal oxide) were obtained.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eCharacterization\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUsing the X-rays technique model D8ADVANCE, Bruker, Germany, to examine the crystal structures of CMCs, 0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite and 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite. The molecular structure of the as-prepared nanocomposites using ALPHA FTIR spectrophotometer (Bruker, Germany). The particle shape of the selected sample (0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite) was assessed using a transmission electron microscope (TEM, JEOL, JEM, 1200, Japan). The particle size and distribution of 0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite and 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite were examined using Nano-ZS, Malvern Instruments Ltd., (UK).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe typographical surface and elemental analysis of the prepared CMCs, 0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite, and 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite were illustrated using field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM, Quatro S, Thermofisher, USA) and Energy Dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS, AMETK, USA).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePhotocatalytic degradation of MG Dye\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe photocatalytic decomposition of Malachite Green (MG) dye molecules under sunlight was evaluated using three different nanocomposites: CMCs, 0.15CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e loaded CMCs, and 0.3CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e loaded CMCs. After achieving adsorption/desorption equilibrium, standard MG aqueous solutions (0.1 L) were mixed with the powdered nanocomposites. Important factors considered in the study included pH levels (ranging from 3 to 10), irradiation times (5 to 180 min), MG concentrations (15, 30, and 60 mg/L), and different dosages of nanocomposites (100, 200, and 400 ppm). To reach adsorption/desorption equilibrium, the nanocomposites were stirred with dye solutions in the dark for 60 min, or until no further change in MG concentration was observed. Each degradation experiment for MG was conducted in triplicate to ensure reliability. The degradation percentages of MG by the nanocomposites were calculated using the following equation:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003ePhotocatalytic degradation % = (A\u003c/b\u003e \u003csub\u003e \u003cb\u003eblank\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/sub\u003e \u003cb\u003e\u0026ndash; A\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003esample\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003e)/ A\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003eblank\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e \u003cb\u003ex100\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003e(1)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003ewhere\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003eA\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eblank\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e) is the initial concentration of MG dye (mg/L) and (\u003cem\u003eA\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003esample\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e) is the final concentration (mg/L) after adsorption.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eInfluence of Radical Scavengers\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe impact of reactive oxygen species (ROS) on decomposing the MG dye through photocatalysis was examined utilizing three radical scavengers were utilized: benzoquinone (BQ) at a concentration of 10 mM, ammonium oxalate (AO), and isopropanol (IPA) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eRegeneration and recyclability\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe durability and reusability of the nanocomposites in the photocatalytic degradation of MG were evaluated by a series of aging studies conducted in both dark and light conditions for five consecutive cycles. Following each round of MG degradation, the catalyst was removed from the solution and underwent a meticulous cleaning procedure utilizing a solution designed to remove dyes. The process entailed performing three rounds of filtration and washing on the catalyst to guarantee the thorough elimination of any remaining coloring. The catalyst, which had been cleaned and dried, was subsequently reused for the subsequent degrading cycle [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAssessment of the Bactericidal Properties of Prepared Nanocomposites\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe antimicrobial effectiveness of three distinct nanocomposites designed as CMCs, 0.15CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e loaded CMCs, and 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs was assessed against four respective bacterial pathogens such as \u003cem\u003eKlebsiella pneumonia, Acinetobacter baumannii, Streptococcus mutans\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus aureus\u003c/em\u003e. The bacterial stocks were cultured in Tyipticase Soy broth (TSB) at a temperature of 37\u0026deg;C for 24 h. The bacterial suspensions were adjusted to a 0.5 McFarland standard, which is equivalent to around 1.5x10\u003csup\u003e7\u003c/sup\u003e CFU/mL. The antibacterial characteristics of the nanocomposites were evaluated using the agar well diffusion method. Each bacterial suspension (100 \u0026micro;L) was evenly distributed on Mueller-Hinton agar (MHA) plates. Using a sterile micropipette tip, wells with a diameter of 5 mm were made in the agar. Then, 50 \u0026micro;L of each nanocomposite stock solution (with a concentration of 100 mg/mL) was added to the wells [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]. The plates were placed in an incubator set at a temperature of 37\u0026deg;C for a duration of 24 h. Following the incubation period, the areas where growth was inhibited (known as zones of inhibition or ZOI) surrounding each well were measured and recorded. The test was repeated in 3-times, and values were presented as mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe phase structure is examined using the X-ray spectrum analysis of the carboxymethyl chitosan and the cerium dioxide\u0026ndash;iron oxide loaded carboxymethyl chitosan nanocomposite to identify the structural data and the suggested construction as viewed in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. The structure phase of pure carboxymethyl chitosan appears as a crystalline phase without any impurities peak, the peaks were observed at the positions of 2θ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;31.69\u0026deg;, 45.45\u0026deg;, 56.38\u0026deg;, 66.11\u0026deg;, and 75.12\u0026deg; mentioned to the phase of carboxymethyl chitosan [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e]. On the other hand, we observed that the crystalline degree increments with an increase in the concentration of cerium dioxide-iron oxide nanocomposites in the matrix of the pure carboxymethyl chitosan. The sharp crystalline peaks appear at the position of 2θ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;28.48\u0026deg;, 31.63\u0026deg;, 33.06\u0026deg;, 34.68\u0026deg;, 45.32\u0026deg;, 47.37\u0026deg;, 49.25\u0026deg;, 53.63\u0026deg;, 56.26\u0026deg;, 58.93\u0026deg;, 66.03\u0026deg;, 75.15\u0026deg;, and 76.48\u0026deg; referring to cerium dioxide-iron oxide nanocomposites phase, these results confirmed with the energy dispersive x-ray analysis (EDX) data. This may indicate an interaction between the nanocomposite, and these indications prove that cerium dioxide-iron oxide nanoparticles a high crystalline phase with the carboxymethyl chitosan [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe crystallite sizes (D) were computed using Debye \u0026ndash; Scherrer formula [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eD = Kλ/ βcosθ = 0.9λ/ βcosθ ……………... (1)\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ewhere the constant parameters are as follows: (k) is constant equal (0.9), (Ө) is Bragg angle, (β) full width at half maximum (FWHM), and (λ) wavelength of X-ray. The values of the pure CMCs,0.15CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e/CMCs nanocomposite, and 0.3CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e/CMCs nanocomposite were calculated to be, 71.8 nm, 82.6 nm, and 82 nm, respectively. In addition, it was observed that the size of crystallite carboxymethyl chitosan and cerium dioxide\u0026ndash;iron oxide loaded carboxymethyl chitosan nanocomposite increased with the increment of the concentration of CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003eNPs as illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. On the other side, the dislocation decreases as per this equation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eδ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1/ D\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e \u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;... (2)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs seen in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, the molecular structure of the carboxymethyl chitosan and the cerium dioxide\u0026ndash;iron oxide loaded carboxymethyl chitosan nanocomposite were ascertained by analyzing the FTIR spectrum. The chemical bond of pure carboxymethyl chitosan has a large broad peak at 3112.29cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, which is associated with symmetrical stretching vibrations of (O-H and N-H amines). The short bond C\u0026ndash;H stretching vibrations were found at position 2907.8 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e. The bond of C\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;O stretching of carboxymethyl at the position 1726.5cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, the sharp peak at 1592.9cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e ascribed to the N-H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e bending of primary amines, and there was a peak at 1483.48cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e due to C-N stretching vibrations. One can ascribe the distinctive strong bond at 1483.48cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e to the (C-O stretching vibration). The two peaks observed at 1129.23cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e and 1061.54 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e correspond to the primary alcohols' C-O stretch, which is \u0026ndash;CH\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026ndash;OH [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e]. On the other hand, the spectra of the cerium dioxide\u0026ndash;iron oxide loaded CMCs nanocomposite show that the strong peak is 699.81cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e due to Fe-O stretching mode. Another significant absorption band that may be seen at the position 553 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e to 446 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e is assigned to iron oxide vibrations mode and the peak bond of stretching Ce-O at 449 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirstly, the nanoparticle shape of CMCs nanocomposites containing the highest CeO2 (0.3 g) and Fe2O3 (0.3 g) prepared by the ball mill grinding process was evaluated. From Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e \u003cb\u003e(A, B)\u003c/b\u003e, it was found that the TEM of .3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite was imaged at two different magnifications and the particles have a somewhat spherical shape. Also, the particles exhibited more than one phase, as there are particles in the TEM images that have faint colors and others are dark as a result of the presence of more than one compound, which is CMCs, CeO\u003csub\u003e2,\u003c/sub\u003e and Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e. In general, TEM showed that the selected sample (0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite) had acquired a small size, and was spherical.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBy studying the size of 0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite and 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite using the DLS technique (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eC, D), it was well demonstrated that by increasing the concentration of both CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e and Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e as found in the sample (0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite), the size increases. 0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite sample recorded a size of 126.5 nm (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eC), while the 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite sample recorded a size of 174.3 nm (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eD). In any case, these average sizes that were obtained for 0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite and 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite demonstrate the possibility of using the ball milling technique for nanocomposite preparation due to their small size. Compared to the size resulting from the TEM image (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eA, B), it was observed that the particle size was larger when measured by DLS, and this is due to the difference in the measurement technique and the method of preparing the sample for measurement. In the case of TEM analysis, the sample is suspended in water, placed on a grid, left to dry, and then followed by direct measurement. In the case of using the DLS technique, the sample is maintained to dissolve in water and then left inside the device for a long period during the measurement, and then the material may cause swelling, which increases the size, this is suggested by the results obtained. In any case, the resulting sizes are much smaller than 500 nm, which facilitates their applications for different purposes. In addition to this, the PdI for the 0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite sample was 1 and for the 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite sample was 0.607, which has a better distribution rate and homogeneity than the 0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite sample (heterogeneity particles).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e \u003cb\u003e(A and B)\u003c/b\u003e shows the flakes' morphological structure of blank CMCs which changed when CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e and Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e were added and the mechanical grinding took place. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e shows that the samples were examined at two different magnifications. From Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e (A, B), it appears that CMCs have rod-like shapes, in addition to large aggregations of particles due to the nature of this high molecular weight polymer (CMCs). By examining other samples, which contain different concentrations of CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e and Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, they have a different morphological structure (flake-like), as in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e (C, D) and (E, F), where there are deposits of oxide particles on the surface of the CMCs. The rod shapes of 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite sample have relatively disappeared as a result of the deposition of the high concentration of both CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e and Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e onto the outer surface of CMCs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe elemental analysis of CMCs, 0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite, and 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite was assessed using EDX analysis. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e (A. B and C) and inset tables illustrated the elemental and weight (%) of CMCs, 0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite and 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite, respectively. EDX of CMCs (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eA) illustrated the presence of three elements (C, N, and O) which are mainly attributed to the CMCs composition. The formation of nanocomposite based on CMCs blended with different concentrations of CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e and Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e leads to the appearance of the other two elements (Fe and Ce). The weight (%) of these elements is increased with increasing the concentration of both metal oxides that are added to CMCs as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e (C) for the 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite sample.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePhotocatalytic performance of nanocomposites\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eInfluence of pH\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe photocatalytic degradation effectiveness of MG dye under varying irradiation periods is shown in the figure using CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposites. The influence of pH is shown. The 0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs are shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e (a), while the 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs are shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e (b). Degradation effectiveness rises with irradiation time in both panels for all pH values. For both nanocomposites, the maximum degradation effectiveness is found at pH 6, with pH 7 and pH 9 following suit. This suggests that the photocatalytic activity is more favorable under near-neutral and slightly alkaline circumstances. The degradation effectiveness is much lower at acidic pH values (pH 3 and pH 4), indicating decreased photocatalytic activity. According to the findings for the 0.15% loading, the ideal degradation rate is reached at pH 6, and photocatalytic activity improves as pH rises from acidic to neutral. Similar to the 0.15% loading, the 0.30% loading performs best at pH 6 and is marginally more effective at pH 5 and pH 6; this suggests that larger CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e concentrations under these circumstances improve photocatalytic efficiency. Overall, the findings imply that the most favorable circumstances for the photocatalytic degradation of MG dye utilizing CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposites occur at almost neutral pH values, especially pH 6. To improve photocatalytic processes in wastewater treatment applications, this pH-dependent behavior is essential.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eInfluence of magnetic catalyst\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e demonstrates the impact of varying amounts of photocatalyst (100, 200, and 400 ppm) on the ability to degrade MG dye by photocatalysis, during varied durations (0-180 min). Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003ea corresponds to the 0.15CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e loaded CMCs, while Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003eb corresponds to the 0.3CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e loaded CMCs. Results illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003ea demonstrate that a complete degradation of MG dye was achieved using 400 ppm for 180 of irradiation time. Regarding the 0.3CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e loaded CMCs, the results in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003eb displayed that at 200 and 400 ppm was entirely decomposed the MG dye after 180 and 150 min, respectively, where the ability to break down MG dye improved as the duration of exposure and dosages of catalyst increased. In summary, the findings suggest that the degradation of MG dye by photocatalysis using the 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposites is influenced by the dosage of the photocatalyst. Specifically, larger dosages of the photocatalyst result in increased degradation capabilities. The results indicate that both the 0.15 and 0.30 loadings demonstrate that the 400-ppm dose yields the greatest degrading capacity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eInfluence of MG dye concentrations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e reveals the impact of various starting concentrations of MG dye (15, 30, and 60 mg/L) on the efficiency of photocatalytic degradation for the investigated nanocomposites (0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs and 0.3CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e loaded CMCs). The study found that the total degradation percentage dropped as the starting MG concentration rose. The 0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite achieved complete photocatalytic degradation of MG dye after 150 minutes, at a concentration of 15 mg/L. By using the 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite, complete degradation of MG dye was accomplished within 120 min when the starting dye concentration was 15 mg/L. For initial dye concentrations of 30 and 60 mg/L, the degradation took 150 and 180 min, respectively. The observed trend may be attributed to the higher concentration of active sites on the photocatalyst surface compared to the number of dye molecules at lower dye concentrations, resulting in more effective degradation. With an increase in dye concentration, the active sites become saturated, resulting in a deceleration of the breakdown process. In addition, increased dye concentrations lead to a greater number of dye molecules absorbing the photons that might otherwise be used to activate the photocatalyst, thereby diminishing the overall effectiveness of the photocatalysis process. The data suggest that larger starting concentrations of MG dye hinder the overall degradation efficiency, but enhance the specific adsorption capacity of the nanocomposites. The 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite displays a more rapid and efficient degradation process compared to other nanocomposite. This indicates its potential for enhanced photocatalytic applications in wastewater treatment, particularly for treating dyes with different concentrations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eRegeneration of magnetic nanocomposites\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe reusability of two distinct loadings, 0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs and 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposites were compared in the photocatalytic degradation of MG dye throughout five consecutive cycles (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003ea-c). Both nanocomposites showed excellent degrading efficiency in the first cycle; the 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs loading achieved 100% and the 0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs loading achieved 92%. In the subsequent cycle, the degrading effectiveness of the 0.3CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e loading remained at 100%, but the 0.15CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e loading had a little decline to 87%. Degradation efficiency started to decrease by the third cycle, with the 0.15CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e loading at 83% and the 0.3CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e at 97%. During the fourth cycle, the degrading effectiveness of the 0.3CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e loading remained at 92%, whereas the 0.15CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e loading had a further decline to 80%. Degradation efficiency at the fifth cycle was 90.2% for the 0.3CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e and 78% for the 0.15CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e. Based on these findings, it can be concluded that the CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u0026minus;\u003c/sub\u003eloaded CMCs nanocomposites exhibit considerable photocatalytic activity for many cycles. The reusability of the 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite is marginally higher than that of the 0.15CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite. Over time, there may be a steady drop in degrading efficiency, which might be attributed to partial deactivation or the loss of active sites resulting from repetitive usage. Both nanocomposites, however, show a high degree of reusability, which makes them attractive options for real-world wastewater treatment applications.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAssessment of different scavengers\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig11\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e shows the % degradation effectiveness of the MG dye under several scavengers: isopropanol (IPA), ammonium oxalate (AO), benzoquinone (BQ), and no scavenger. These circumstances were used to clarify the function of various reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the process of photocatalytic degradation. When no ROS quenchers are present, the CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposites exhibit the most photocatalytic activity, as shown by the greatest degradation effectiveness of MG dye (98%). The degradation effectiveness dramatically decreases to 35% in the presence of IPA, a recognized scavenger of hydroxyl radicals (\u0026bull;OH), indicating that hydroxyl radicals are the main ROS responsible for the photocatalytic degradation of MG dye. The degradation effectiveness is lowered to 72% with AO, which scavenges photogenerated holes (h+), suggesting that holes also contribute significantly to the degradation process, although to a lesser amount than hydroxyl radicals. Superoxide anions (O\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026bull;\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e) are scavengers, and their presence decreases the degradation effectiveness to 46% in the presence of BQ. This suggests that superoxide anions play a part in the degradation process, although not as crucially as hydroxyl radicals and photogenerated holes. The research concludes that, when using CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposites for the photocatalytic degradation of Malachite Green dye, hydroxyl radicals are the most important reactive species. These are followed by photogenerated holes and superoxide anions. The importance of these ROS in the dye degradation process is highlighted by the significant decrease in degradation efficacy that occurs when these scavengers are present. This information can be used to optimize the photocatalytic process by focusing on the production and use of particular ROS to increase degradation efficiency.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eProposed catalytic degradation mechanism\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsing CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite photocatalytically breaking down MG incorporates several important stages that work together to efficiently decompose the dye molecules. The easiest way to summarize the whole mechanism is as outlined below:\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSunlight Absorption\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eUpon exposure to sunlight, the CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposite absorbs photons. This energy excites the electrons in the valence band (VB) of CeO₂, promoting them to the conduction band (CB) and creating electron-hole pairs (e⁻/h⁺).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eFe\u003c/b\u003e \u003csub\u003e \u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/sub\u003e \u003cb\u003eO\u003c/b\u003e \u003csub\u003e \u003cb\u003e3\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/sub\u003e \u003cb\u003e/CeO₂/CMCs\u0026thinsp;+\u003c/b\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u003cb\u003ehv\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003e(sunlight)\u0026rarr; CeO₂ (e\u003c/b\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003eCB\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e \u003cb\u003e+ h\u003c/b\u003e \u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003e+\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003eVB\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eROS formation:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe photo-generated electrons (e⁻) and holes (h⁺) play crucial roles in the formation of ROS.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eReduction Reaction\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe excited electrons reduce oxygen molecules (O2) adsorbed on the surface to superoxide anions (O\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026bull;\u003c/sup\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ee⁻ (CB)\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;O₂\u0026rarr;O\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026bull;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eOxidation Reaction\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe holes oxidize water (H2O) or hydroxide ions (OH-) to produce hydroxyl radicals (\u0026bull;OH).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Taba\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"1\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eh VB\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e + H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO \u0026rarr; OH\u003csup\u003e\u0026bull;\u003c/sup\u003e + 2OH\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eh VB\u003c/b\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003e+\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e \u003cb\u003e+ OH\u003c/b\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e \u003cb\u003e\u0026rarr; OH\u003c/b\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026bull;\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMG decomposing\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eROS radicals including hydroxyl radicals (\u0026bull;OH), superoxide anions (O\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026bull;\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e), and other species attack the MG dye molecules. The ROS oxidize the MG dye, breaking down its complex molecular structure into simpler, less harmful compounds. The mechanism involves breaking the chromophoric structure of the dye, resulting in smaller, less harmful molecules.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eROS (OH\u003csup\u003e\u0026bull;\u003c/sup\u003e/O\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026bull;\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e)\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CeO₂/CMCs\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;dye\u0026rarr;Intermediates\u0026rarr;CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;MG derivatives\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section4\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMineralization of organic dye\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe degraded products are further oxidized to carbon dioxide (CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e), water (H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO), and other inorganic ions (e.g., NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e, SO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e). This process ensures the complete mineralization of the dye, resulting in the removal of color and toxicity from the water.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e presents a comparison of the photocatalytic degradation effectiveness of Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, CeO₂, and CMCs for the photodegradation of MG dye.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComparative assessment of photodegradation dye from earlier published articles\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eType of catalysts\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrganic dye\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLight source\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% Degradation Efficiency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTime (min)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRef.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e loaded CMCs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMG\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSunlight\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e180\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCurrent study\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.3CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e loaded CMCs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMG\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSunlight\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e150\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCurrent study\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e/g-C\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003eN\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e composite\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003emethyl orange (MO)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003evisible light\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e92%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChitosan/Ce\u0026ndash;ZnO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMG\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003evisible light\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHybrid CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e composite nanospindles\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEosin Yellow\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003evisible light\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e98%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFe(III)-Cross\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003elinked alginate\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ecarboxymethyl\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ecellulose\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMG\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e98%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAntibacterial activity of nanocomposites\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mean inhibition zone sizes of three distinct nanocomposites against a range of pathogenic bacteria, including \u003cem\u003eK. pneumoniae A. baumannii, Str. mutans\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e, and, are shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig12\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e. To assess the antibacterial activity of the nanocomposites, the inhibition zones were evaluated. The absence of inhibitory zones (0 mm) against any of the studied microorganisms was seen in the pure CMCs nanocomposite, suggesting that CMCs do not have antibacterial capabilities on their own. The CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposites, on the other hand, demonstrated strong antibacterial activity. In the CMCs nanocomposite loaded with 0.15CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, the inhibition zones measured \u003cem\u003eK. pneumoniae\u003c/em\u003e were 23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.32 mm, \u003cem\u003eA. baumannii\u003c/em\u003e were 21\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.47 mm, \u003cem\u003eStr. mutans\u003c/em\u003e were 19.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.38 mm, and \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e were 17.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.63 mm. These findings imply that the CMCs nanocomposite's antibacterial activity is greatly increased by the addition of CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e. The production of ROS by CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e is probably what has the antibacterial effect since these compounds can harm bacterial cell walls and interfere with cellular processes. Even bigger inhibitory zones were seen in the 0.3CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003eloaded CMCs nanocomposite, measuring 30.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.14 mm for \u003cem\u003eK. pneumoniae\u003c/em\u003e, 27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.62 mm for \u003cem\u003eA. baumannii\u003c/em\u003e, 25.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.82 mm for \u003cem\u003eStr. mutans\u003c/em\u003e, and 21.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.45 mm for \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e. The bigger inhibition zones indicate that the increasing concentration of CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e further improves the antibacterial activity. This points to a dose-dependent interaction in which higher CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e concentrations increase ROS generation and, in turn, improve antibacterial activity. The findings show that adding CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e to CMCs not only gives the nanocomposite notable antibacterial capabilities, but also shows that increasing the concentration of CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e improves these qualities even more. CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs are thus a good option for uses needing strong antibacterial activity, such as antimicrobial coatings, water purification systems, and medical equipment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec26\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMechanism of action of antibacterial effect\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposites have antibacterial activity, which may be explained by many important processes. The production of ROS, which includes hydrogen peroxide, superoxide anions, and hydroxyl radicals\u0026mdash;is the primary factor [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. These very reactive ROS cause oxidative stress in bacterial cells, which damages DNA, lipids, and proteins. Bacterial cell membranes are damaged by lipid peroxidation, which leads to internal cell leakage and final cell death. Additionally, vital biological processes are hampered by oxidative damage to proteins and nucleic acids. The bacterial cell membrane becomes more permeable and susceptible to structural damage when ROS interacts with it, which exacerbates cell lysis [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, under some circumstances, the nanocomposites may release metal ions (such as Ce\u003csup\u003e3+\u003c/sup\u003e and Fe\u003csup\u003e3+\u003c/sup\u003e), which may be hazardous to bacteria by interfering with enzymes and proteins and impairing essential metabolic processes. Disruption of cell membrane structures may also occur when the nanoparticles and bacteria come into direct contact. Moreover, ROS can denature bacterial proteins and suppress enzyme function, interfering with vital metabolic pathways for life. Replication and transcription activities are hampered by genotoxic effects such as DNA strand breakage and base changes brought on by ROS. The CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e could attack proteins after adsorbing on the outer membrane of the bacterial cell. The released Ce ions could alter the electron flow and respiration of bacteria [64] and react with the thiol groups (\u0026ndash;SH) or be absorbed onto transporters and/or porins to hamper nutrient transportation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e]. In addition, the irregular shapes and rough edges of CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e per se contribute to the physical damage of bacterial membranes, especially for Gram-positive bacteria [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e]. Oxidative stress is also an important factor for CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e during the antibacterial. Although CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e can be excited to produce ROS by ultraviolet (UV) irradiation, there was very little research on bacterial activity using CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e alone. Usually, CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e is combined with other photocatalysts, such as TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e. In the presence of CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, the band gap can be changed in the host lattices of photocatalysts, which improves the photocatalytic activity of TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegarding Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, the ROS production is one of the main mechanisms. Reduced activity of antioxidant system enzymes such glutathione reductase, catalase, and superoxide dismutase (SOD) may lead to an increase in ROS concentration The sulfhydryl (\u0026ndash;SH), amino (\u0026ndash;NH), and carboxyl (\u0026ndash;COOH) groups of proteins, including enzymes, may bind to metal ions from IONPs and cause partial inhibition or deactivation of those proteins [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e]. In our study, CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e and Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e work together to improve antibacterial effectiveness by increasing photocatalytic activity and producing ROS more effectively. The strong antibacterial qualities of the CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposites are a result of these complex processes working together, which makes them ideal for antimicrobial applications in protective coatings, medical equipment, and water treatment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn the present investigation, CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposites were effectively produced utilizing a ball milling procedure, with two concentrations of CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e and Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e (0.15 g and 0.3 g). Structural studies using XRD and FTIR verified the successful creation and use of the nanocomposites, hence improving their functional characteristics. The photocatalytic degradation experiments showed that the nanocomposite consisting of 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs accomplished full decomposition of malachite green (MG) dye. The highest level of photocatalytic activity was obtained when the pH was 6, and the amount of catalyst used was 400 ppm. In addition, both nanocomposites demonstrated substantial antibacterial efficacy, with the 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs exhibiting larger inhibition zones against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. The results emphasize the capability of 0.3CeO2/Fe2O3/CMCs nanocomposites to treat wastewater efficiently and exhibit antibacterial properties. This could offer a well-intentioned alternative approach to environmental remediation.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eD. E, N. O., F. A., and A. A. contributed to Conceptualization, Methodology, Data curation, Formal analysis, writing original draft, validation, Investigation, Writing - review \u0026amp; editing, Visualization.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study is supported by funding from Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University's project number (PSAU/2025/R/1446).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHe K, Chen G, Zeng G, Chen A, Huang Z, Shi J, Huang T, Peng M, Hu L (2018) Three-dimensional graphene supported catalysts for organic dyes degradation. 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Anal Chem 87:4641\u0026ndash;4648. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1021/ac503835a\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1021/ac503835a\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Carboxymethyl chitosan nanocomposite, wastewater, CeO2/Fe2O3, photocatalysis, environmental decontamination.","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6038187/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6038187/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eCarboxymethyl chitosan (CMCs) has been widely used in wastewater treatment due to its efficient functional groups. To boost its efficacy, a nanocomposite with two metal oxides, cerium dioxide (CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e) and iron oxide (Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e), was formed using the\u0026nbsp;ball milling technique. Two concentrations (0.15 and 0.3g) of both metal oxides were loaded to CMCs and labeled as 0.15CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e/CMCs and 0.3CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e/CMCs nanocomposite and their photocatalytic performance was compared with the blank CMCs. Upon grinding, CMCs exhibited flake-like shapes that were significantly coated with CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e and Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e. The nanocomposites were evaluated for their photocatalytic performance by measuring the degradation of Malachite Green (MG) dye under various conditions. The 0.15CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e/CMCs nanocomposite successfully achieved complete dye degradation at a concentration of 15 mg/L after 150 min, while the 0.3CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e/CMCs seized the degradation in 120 min. The research found that 400 ppm of catalyst was the ideal catalyst dose and that a pH 6 was optimum for photocatalytic degradation.\u0026nbsp;The antibacterial activity was assessed against Gram-positive and negative\u0026nbsp;bacteria and the 0.3CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e/CMCs exhibited notable antibacterial efficacy.\u0026nbsp;The overall results reveal that CeO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e/CMCs nanocomposite flakes are efficient for the photocatalytic breakdown of organic dyes in wastewater emphasizing their potential for addressing environmental issues and combating microbial contamination.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Biobased Tricomponent (carboxymethyl chitosan/ cerium dioxide/iron III oxide) nanocomposite flakes for multifarious environmental decontaminations: magnetically separable and antimicrobial photocatalyst","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-02-19 11:39:17","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6038187/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"74ec2bdc-ed0d-4c8b-860c-eaf6c8d10064","owner":[],"postedDate":"February 19th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-02-21T16:53:29+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-02-19 11:39:17","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6038187","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6038187","identity":"rs-6038187","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}