Professionals’ assessment of fathers’ involvement in the rehabilitation of children with disabilities in early years of development in the United Arab Emirates

Professionals’ assessment of fathers’ involvement in the rehabilitation of children with disabilities in early years of development in the United Arab Emirates | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Professionals’ assessment of fathers’ involvement in the rehabilitation of children with disabilities in early years of development in the United Arab Emirates Ahmed Hamdan, Laurent Ndijuye, Maxwell Opoku, Mona Aljanahi, Lise Westaway, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6861498/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Purpose: Contemporary discussions in the field of disability rehabilitation has revolved around family-centered practice which espouse strong partnership between professionals and family to developing children with disabilities. Literature on fathers’ involvement is very limited; with professionals’ perspectives rarely explored. This study adds to the growing literature by exploring rehabilitation professionals’ assessment of fathers’ involvement in United Arab Emirates. Materials and Methods: The revised Family Involvement Questionnaire for Early Childhood was used for data collection. About 320 professionals working with children with disabilities were recruited. The data were subjected to confirmatory factor analysis to validate the instrument, means, multivariate analysis of variance and multiple regression. Result: Computation of confirmatory factor analysis and configural invariance estimate supporting the validity of the instrument across different demographics. However, means scores showed that professionals were uncertain (parenting (M=3.90, SD=.62); decision-making, M= 3.63, SD = .73); communication (M = 3.77, SD = .78); collaboration (M = 2.43, SD = .78); home-support (M = 3.54, SD = .77) and volunteering (M = 3.58, SD = .90) about fathers’ involvement in the rehabilitation of children with disabilities. Conclusion: The study concludes with development of training programmes for paternal training and involvement in the rehabilitation of children with disabilities. Figures Figure 1 Highlights - Family centered rehabilitation practices promote a healthy working relationship between professionals and family. - Discussions on partnerships to advance disability rehabilitation has mostly emphasized the role of mothers. - There is limited research on professionals’ perspectives of fathers’ involvement in rehabilitation of children with disabilities. - The tenets of Epstein’s model of involvement was supported by the study findings. - Rehabilitation professionals were uncertain about fathers’ involvement in the rehabilitation of children with disabilities. Introduction Rehabilitation refers to services provided to individuals such as those with disabilities to either lessen the burden of disability or facilitate their participation in societies [ 1 , 2 ]. In rehabilitation, there is an acknowledgement that the individual has limitations which restrict their participation in the society [ 1 , 3 ]. Thus, the intervention services are expected to equip them with the necessary skills to live independently. According to WHO [ 4 ], in disability rehabilitation, conscious effort ought to be made to ensure that individuals with disabilities participate in education, health services, social intervention, livelihood and activities aimed towards empowering them to assert for their rights. However, rehabilitation services are expected to be provided in the community where individuals with disabilities such as children are living with their families [ 3 ]. Thus, strong partnership between family and service providers are needed to ensure that children with disabilities are receiving appropriate services which are tailored to suit their unique needs and experiences [ 2 , 3 ]. According Almasri [ 2 ], family centered practice is pivotal in disability rehabilitation service provision. However, in the literature, discussions on disability rehabilitation has been limited to mothers’ interaction with rehabilitation professionals [ 5 – 7 ]. While mothers are struggling to acquire services for their children with disabilities [ 8 – 10 ], there is limited attention paid to the role of fathers in the rehabilitation process. This has led to renewed research interest in developing insight into the extent of fathers’ involvement in the rehabilitation of children with disabilities. Parental involvement is a multifaceted concept that encompasses a broad range of parenting behaviors and continuous, positive partnerships between families and professionals [ 11 – 14 ]. For decades, empirical evidences have linked parental involvements with children’s academic achievements [ 11 , 13 ], socio-emotional development [ 14 – 16 ], and even future financial gains [ 17 ] and personality stability [ 11 ]. Further, recent empirical findings indicate that parental involvement, and input—specifically from both biological parents, is the most significant factor in gaining a comprehensive understanding of the needs of children with disabilities [ 12 , 18 ]. Studies have consistently documented a positive correlation between parental involvement and children’s developmental outcomes [ 13 , 16 , 18 ]. There is a consensus among early years developmental professionals that globally children with disabilities continue to face heightened vulnerability, widespread discrimination, and restricted access to essential services within societies [ 11 , 12 , 19 ]. These challenges underscore the critical importance of parental involvement in the care and support of their children, as well as in advocating for and facilitating their inclusion in key societal services [ 12 ]. Parental involvement for children with developmental disabilities encompasses both behavioral and affective dimensions, each playing a vital role in supporting their development [ 20 ]. The behavioral component refers to the concrete actions and initiatives parents undertake to promote their child's growth and participation in daily life [ 19 ]. This is particularly crucial for children with disabilities, whose functional limitations often hinder their ability to engage fully in society [ 21 ]. In this case, parents act as key agents of societal inclusion, reinforcing their central role in the lives of their children with disabilities [ 19 , 21 ]. The affective dimension, meanwhile, involves the emotional connection and quality of interaction between parents and their children [ 12 ]. Positive affective engagement—where children with disabilities are embraced as equal and valued members of the family—can counterbalance societal stereotypes and negative attitudes, which remain globally pervasive [ 12 , 16 , 21 ]. A number of complex factors have been reported to impact on fathers’ involvement in the raising of their children [ 11 , 12 , 16 , 20 ]. For example, a growing evidence highlights the influence of culture on parental involvement in developmental disabilities [ 16 , 20 ], particularly within non-Western Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic (WEIRD) contexts [ 22 ]. Cultural norms and values can shape children's communication styles, their interactions with adults and peers [ 16 ], their daily routines, and their access to early intervention and early childhood special education programs [ 20 ]. In many societies, some of the most significant barriers to the inclusion of children with disabilities are rooted in stigma [ 15 ], prejudice, misinformation, and a lack of adequate training among practitioners [ 23 , 24 ]. These sociocultural barriers often result in isolation and discrimination against children with disabilities [ 12 , 19 ]. Furthermore, cultural beliefs about health and disabilities, coupled with social pressure from extended family members, may discourage parents from pursuing timely diagnoses for their children [ 11 , 19 ]. In some cases, children with disabilities may begin formal education later than their peers due to parental fears of stigma and low expectations regarding their educational potential [ 19 ]. Understanding how cultural factors influence child development and family involvement is critical for practitioners aiming to deliver culturally responsive services [ 12 , 14 , 20 ]. As Bronfenbrenner [ 25 ] emphasizes, children are embedded within their families, and families are, in turn, embedded within broader cultural systems at both micro and macro levels. From this ecological perspective, the relationship between parental involvement and outcomes for children with developmental disabilities is dynamic, interactive, and bi-directional. While systematic reviews have demonstrated the positive impact of parent-implemented interventions on children’s development and learning [ 11 , 26 ], research that specifically addresses parental involvement through the lens of early years’ developmental professionals remains limited. Hence, the current study is meaningful and important. What are professionals’ perceptions of fathers’ involvement in in early years the development of children with disabilities in UAE? Which background characteristics of professionals will provide additional insight into fathers’ involvement in early years the development of children with disabilities in UAE? Conceptual framework Epstein’s [ 27 , 28 ] comprehensive framework on partnership is used extensively in the context of schooling to evaluate and strengthen their engagement with parents [ 29 ], In this research, we draw on Epstein’s [ 27 , 28 ] framework on partnership, not in terms of the conventional relationship between schools and parents, but in relation to service providers and parents more broadly. The framework provides the methodological tools for analysing and explaining the development of a well-balanced partnership between service providers and parents of children with disabilities. To this end, we explain the model by focusing on service providers rather than schools. Epstein’s model [ 27 , 28 ] is based on six tenets: parenting, decision-making, collaborations, communication, home-support and volunteering (see Table 1 ). Table 1 The six tenets of the Epstein [ 27 ] partnership model Tenets Brief description 1 Parenting: Assisting parents in creating a home environment to support their children. 2 Communication Create open channels of communication from the service provide-to-home and home-to-service provider. 3 Volunteering Request parent support. 4 Home support Provide information to parents about how to assist and support their children at home. 5 Decision-making Include parents in decisions about their child in relation to the services offered. 6 Collaboration with the community Coordinating resources and services within the community for parents and their children. Given the research focus on service providers perceptions of fathers, the use of Epstein’s model will focus specifically on the service provider – father partnership. Epstein’s[ 27 ] framework will assist in providing insights into the service providers’ perceptions of the role fathers play in parenting their children with disabilities, the decisions they make about their children’s rehabilitations, and choices relating to service provision, how they support their children in the home environment, the extent to which they collaborate and communicate with service providers, and their willingness to engage with activities that contribute to events organized by service providers for children with disabilities. Professionals perception of fathers’ involvement Acar and colleagues[ 11 ] argue that parental support in the home has shown improved developmental and academic outcomes and social skills of children with disabilities. Much of the research on parental involvement focuses on the role of mothers [ 14 , 30 ], and in particular, mothers’ levels of stress (see [ 31 ]). Braunstein, Peniston, Perelman and Cassino[ 32 ] maintain that key factors contributing to mothers’ stress levels relate to the nature of support services, parenting styles and community attitudes. In their review of the literature on fathers’ perceptions about parenting children with developmental disabilities, Boyd, et al.[ 31 ] note that the focus also tends to be on fathers’ stress levels in parenting a child with a disability, rather than how they perceive their role or what models might be useful in assisting fathers in improving their parenting style. Bromstrom and Broberg[ 33 ] maintain that fathers want to participate in caring for their child, however, this is often limited to time spent on tasks with the child and family (see [ 31 ]). What is signified as a ‘task’ is seemingly not evident in the broader literature, but is defined by Mohamed, Opoku and Almarzooqi[ 5 ] broadly as nurturing, care, support and development, of which they argue there is little known. By contrast, Flouri and Buchanan[ 34 ] argue that the benefits of the father and child relationship have been well documented with father involvement having an influence on reducing stress, behavioural problems [ 35 ], developmental outcomes [ 35 , 36 ], peer relationships[ 37 ] and general family well-being [ 38 , 39 ]. Baunstein, Penniston, Perelman and Cassano[ 32 ] note that despite fathers having a significant positive impact on their children with disabilities, they are notably absent from the professional services offered to families, and hence the rehabilitation of their children. Mothers continue to be the primary participant and more involved in the care and support offered by service providers compared to fathers [ 14 ]. The convergence of parental and service provider support is important in understanding the needs of children with disabilities[ 40 ] as it has the potential to improve the quality of life for both children with disabilities and their parents. Jansen, Van Putten, Post and Vlaskamp [ 41 ], in their research on children with cerebral palsy, argue that parent and service provider collaboration is extremely valuable, and efforts should be made to foster this relationship. However, Nijhuis et al.[ 42 ] highlight that there are often conflicting ideas between parents of children with disabilities and the service providers with regards to the needs of the children, and what is of importance. While there has been a growing interest in the role of fathers supporting their children’s developmental needs and father’s perceptions of the service providers [ 12 , 31 , 43 ], there seems to be a paucity of research that examines the perceptions of service providers on the role of fathers in supporting their children’s developmental needs [ 39 ]. In our review of the literature, there appears to be one article that specifically examines service providers’ perceptions of father’s engagement with the various services offered. McBride, et al.[ 39 ] targeted 3073 service providers to ascertain their perceptions of fathers’ engagement with service providers, and the potential barriers to this engagement, 511 answered at least one of the survey questions. Their research shows that service providers’ perceptions of the a barrier to fathers engagement with the services offered relates to: (1) lack of engagement related to their lack of presence as a result of work commitments, disengagement, divorce and not having custody of their children; (2) societal gendered roles, the division of labour in the family, the father’s beliefs about their role and parental efficacy; (3) the often gendered nature of the service providers, with female providers finding it difficult to work with fathers and fathers finding it difficult to work with female service providers; (4) the tendency of fathers to deny their child’s disability and perceived value of the services offered; (5) cultural and socio-economic factors; and (6) father availability and inflexible hours of service providers. Given this, the service providers maintained that they were less likely to target fathers for collaborative initiatives to support their children with disabilities. Interestingly, McBride, et al.[ 39 ] noted that the service providers did not see their perceptions of fathers as being a barrier to father involvement. It is important to note that the participants in this study were all service providers from the same geographic area, that is, the Midwest in the United States of America. Communication and collaboration between service providers and parents are central to the competence parents require in order to support their children with disabilities in the home. Law et al.[ 44 ] aimed to understand the parent-child interventions used to support children with language delays, specifically in relation to the training offered for parents by service providers. Four thousand and twenty-four service provider practitioners from 59 countries participated in the research. The research found that there were multiple and very different approaches and traditions related to interventions across 59 countries (none of the Gulf countries participated in the research). Law et al’s.[ 44 ] research highlights the contextual nature of researching parental-service provider engagement across countries. Jindal et al.[ 45 ] and Law et al.[ 44 ] claim that the culturally embedded beliefs of the parents and service providers are critical in the rehabilitation process and raised concern that service providers may have different interactional patterns and behaviours with parents from different socio-economic and cultural backgrounds. This is particularly important in the context of the United Arab Emirates where the vast majority of the population are Expatriates. This raises question of the cultural awareness of Expatriate service providers. In a context, such as the United Arab Emirates, where this research took place, the fathers’ role in supporting their children with disabilities is complex as it is steeped in conceptions of culture and tradition [ 46 ]. Fathers in the UAE reportedly rarely contribute to the development of children with disabilities[ 46 , 47 ] and the onus to support their children and engage with service providers rests on the hands of mothers. Opoku et al.[ 48 ] in their research conducted in the UAE, suggest that parents often have a critical view of service providers who, they maintain, do not share vital information on their children. However, this is not a one-way perception, service providers are also critical of the lack of parental engagement, communication, support and cooperation. Feedback from parents is necessary for service providers to understand the child’s progress at home. It is generally the mothers of children with disabilities who communicate and collaborate with the service providers [ 47 ]. While the national government of the United Arab Emirates is required to create avenues for children with disabilities to access the required and necessary services, the decision to access such services, and which services to access, is the responsibility of the parents. Little is known about the role that fathers play in making decisions about the services they deem necessary to access. Contextualization When it comes to the phenomenon of fathers’ involvement with their children, extant literature indicates a paucity at two levels: first, in the number of fathers involved with their children generally [ 49 ] and second, in research on father’s involvement with their children in the region of the Gulf Cooperative Council (GCC) countries [ 46 , 47 ]. As regards fatherhood in the UAE, the pendulum swings between the traditional role of “financial provider and moral authority” to more modern roles seen as complementary to and balanced with those of motherhood [ 50 ]. Fatherhood is complex to define in UAE society, as it is interwoven with “cultural, religious, and socioeconomic factors” that shape its parameters [ 51 ]. Ridge et al. [ 52 ] indicated that due to two changes in the economy in the UAE, a new term has been established, namely, the “weekend father,” (p. 335) who works in a different geographical region or Emirate during the week and travels back to his family on weekends. Ridge et al. [ 52 ] indicate that very little research has been carried out on fathers’ involvement in the UAE and other Arab regions. A few sporadic studies have been conducted in the GCC region with regard to parents’ involvement in general rather than fathers’ roles. On parents’ involvement in their children’s education, Al-Hassan [ 53 ] states that education reforms in the UAE education strive to “achieve greater family involvement in the education process” (p. 84). However, concerns have been raised about parental involvement in the UAE more generally. According to Al-Hassan, there is an improvement in parental involvement in the GCC countries but continued variation in the “attitudes of parents and families towards parents’ involvement in their children’s education and actual practices.” (p. 90). Moreover, in their study of parental involvement in the UAE, Hefnawi and Jeynes [ 47 ] indicate that research in the field consistently recommends that “Emirati parents be provided with training on how to engage positively with their children’s learning.” Additionally, in analyzing the results of 2016 Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) test, in which the United Arab Emirates was a participating country, Mullis et al. [ 54 ] attributed lows scores to the dearth of a robust home literacy environment in test takers lives [ 54 ]. On fathers’ roles specifically, Ridge et al. [ 55 ] (as cited in [ 56 ] states that although fathers in the UAE were believed to have the competency to actively engage in their children’s education, they were less involved than other Arab fathers. The interviewees in Ridge et al’s. [ 52 ] study also reported “that their fathers were not actively involved in their children’s school life” (p. 252). A number of studies in the field of education specifically sought to investigate fathers’ engagement with their children. One such study, conducted by Opoku et al. [ 48 ], found that fathers had positive attitudes toward their care and involvement with their children who experienced autism spectrum disorder. Mohamed et al. [ 12 ] even found that fathers rated themselves higher in their care for children with disabilities than the mothers of those children who rated the involvement of their spouses. Overall, this section highlights a glaring gap in the literature addressing fatherhood in the UAE and the myriad roles it encompasses. Method The current study forms part of a large project which explored fathers’ involvement in the raising of children with disabilities [5, 12, 48]. The current study focused on professionals’ perception of fathers’ participation in the rehabilitation of their children. Study participants The participants for this study were professionals working or supporting children with disabilities in schools, rehabilitation centres or hospitals. In the UAE, children with disabilities receive services in schools and hospitals. Schools encompasses both special schools (popularly known in the UAE as rehabilitation centres) and regular schools. The special schools provide early intervention support, independent living skills, behaviour support and vocational programmes. The regular schools also provide educational placement for children with disabilities in regular classrooms where they study alongside their peers. Moreover, the hospitals have disability units or rehabilitation centres where children received specialized services such as physical therapy, speech therapy, occupational therapy and remedial teaching support. Children who are diagnosed with disabilities receive support from at least one of these centres. In this study, professionals providing support to children diagnosed with disabilities from 3–8 years were considered for participation. The study aimed to contribute to UAE’s current effort towards development systems for early childhood development of the country. The following inclusion criteria guided the study: a) qualified professional supporting children with disabilities between 3–8 years in schools or hospitals; b) employed full-time; c) working in any facility in the UAE; and d) capacity to consent to participate in this study. Table 2 summarizes the professionals who took part in this study. Three-hundred and twenty participants took part in this study. Instrument A two-part instrument was used for data collection. The first part collected demographic information such as gender, age, qualification and working experience and place of work (see Table 2). The second part was the revised Family Involvement Questionnaire for Early Childhood (FIQ-EC). The initial instrument was made up of 42 items. The instrument was developed by Fantuzzo et al. [57] based on the Epstein model. However, Manz et al. [58] renamed it as Family Involvement Questionnaire for Elementary (FIQ-E) and validated it among elementary students to ascertain its psychometric properties. Some items were added and align closely with the tenets of the Epstein model. The FIQ-E was made up of 46 items and a three-factor structure emerged. However, 43 items were supported in this study and internal consistencies of the sub-scale were as follows: Home-school communication (.91), home-based involvement (.88) and school-based involvement (.84). Although Manz et al. [58] argue the three factors structure was appropriate as it captures the essence of the Epstein model which focuses mainly on home school partnership, an instrument covering the six tenets would enable us to develop in-depth understanding of fathers’ involvement in the lives of their children with disabilities in early years of development. In this study, the items on the FIQ-E and FIQ-EC were studied and aligned with each of the tenets of the Epstein model. Additional items were added while some items on the original instrument were deleted. Following Fantuzzo et al. [57] and Manz et al’s. [58] processes, parents and professionals were involved in the development of the instrument. They drew on parents raising children in early years and professionals working in early childhood settings. The team met with the parents and professionals to discuss the items. Consensus was reached on 34 items distributed as follows: parenting (n = 6), decision-making (n = 7), communication (n = 4), collaboration (n = 4), home-support (n = 6) and volunteering (n = 7). The instrument was anchored on a five-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Procedure The study and its protocols were approved by X University (details removed for peer review). Permission was also sought from the Ministry of Education (formerly ESE) for data collection in schools in the UAE. Following this, identifiable inclusive schools, special schools and hospitals with disability rehabilitation units were approached for data collection for professionals. Formal emails containing the information statement, were sent to leaders inviting them to participate in this study. The information statement explained the objective of the study, the inclusion criteria, data protection, and relevance of the study to early childhood development in the UAE. Once approval was given by the institutions, the survey which was built in QuestionPro which is an online survey platform was sent to the institution; encouraging them to share with their professionals. The data were collected in English and the estimated time for the completion of the survey was 20 minutes. The prospective participants were assured that neither their institution of identifiable information will be used in the reporting of the study. Moreover, they were told that the data collected from this study will not be made available to any party outside the research team. They were informed that they could withdraw from the study at any time without any consequences. Signing informed consent was mandatory before prospective participants could access the survey. Data analysis The completed data were transferred to excel for data cleaning. A total of 381 entries were recorded. However, there were 61 incomplete entries and thus, their removal from the data. Subsequently, the data were transferred to SPSS version 29 for data analysis. The SPSS data file was done imported to AMOS for further analysis. Since the items on the instrument were aligned and additions made, the data were subjected to confirmatory factor analysis to validate the structure of the revised FIQ-EC. The following criteria was used to assess the validity of the data collected: chi-square of below 5, CFI and TLI of at least .90, RMSEA and SRMR between .03 and .08 as well as regression weight of .50 [59, 60]. The research questions were then answered. For research question 1, mean scores were calculated to understand professionals’ rating of fathers’ involvement in the rehabilitation of their children. A composite mean of at least 4 was interpreted as high involvement of fathers. In relation to research question 2, a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and hierarchical regression [61] was computed to explore the demographic variables which would provide additional insight into the extent of fathers’ involvement. The MANOVA was calculated to compare difference between professionals on the combined (parenting, decision-making, collaboration, communication, home-support and volunteering) and individual sub-scales. Since they are interrelated, MANOVA was appropriate. The homogeneity of variance was observed as well as Bonferroni’s adjusted alpha value of .01 was used to determine whether there is difference between participants on the sub-scales. Following the MANOVA, multiple regression was calculated to explore the influence of demographic variables on overall fathers’ involvement. The demographic variables included in the model were those on which participants differed. The following assumptions were observed to make sure that they were not violated: normality, linearity, homogeneity and homoscedasticity [61]. Results Structural validity of the instrument The revised 34 item FIQ-EC was subjected to CFA to explore its dimensionality in an Arab context. The initial computation yielded a poorly fit indices: chi-square = 4.07 (CMIN = 1951.91, df = 480), CFI = .85, TLI = .83, RMSEA = .10 and SRMR = .06. Inspection of the regression weight showed that one item loaded below the .50 threshold and thus, its removal for re-specification which did improve the fit indices: chi-square = 4.17 (CMIN = 1872.66, df = 449), CFI = .85, TLI = .83, RMSEA = .10 and SRMR = .06. Also, all the items loaded above the .50 threshold. Following, erroneous covariances between the items were observed to identify those which were having negative impact on the model. The modification threshold was set at 10 and those inter-item correlations above this threshold were inspected. Iterate deletions were undertaken before the model was re-specified yielding the following scores: chi-square = 3.07 (CMIN = 871.39, df = 284), CFI = .92, TLI = .90, RMSEA = .08 and SRMR = .04. Configural invariance estimate was assessed to determine if the instrument yield appropriate goodness of fit indices across different groups. Gender was used for the invariance estimate. For males, the goodness of fit indices was as follows: chi-square = 2.50 (CMIN = 2129.98, df = 854), CFI = .91, TLI = .89, RMSEA = .05 and SRMR = .04. Similar observation was made for females: chi-square = 2.50 (CMIN = 2129.98, df = 854), CFI = .91, TLI = .89, RMSEA = .05 and SRMR = .04 (see Appendices I and II). Overall, 26-items were supported which were distributed as follows (see Fig. 1): parenting (n = 6), decision-making (n = 5), communication (n = 3), collaboration (n = 4), home-support (n = 5) and volunteering (n = 3). Following this, Cronbach Alpha was calculated to ascertain the reliability of the revised FIQ-EC. The overall FIQ-EC yielded a score of .97 with the subscales as follows: parenting (.85), decision-making (.90), communication (.83), collaboration (.89), home-support (.92) and volunteering (.90). Level of fathers’ involvement as rated by professionals The mean scores were calculated to explore how professionals rated fathers’ involvement in the raising of children with disability in early years of development (See Appendix III). The overall involvement is 3.95 (.67). The sub-scales were as follows: parenting (M = 3.90, SD = .62), decision-making M = 3.63, SD = .73), communication (M = 3.77, SD = .78), collaboration (M = 2.43, SD = .78), home-support (M = 3.54, SD = .77) and volunteering (M = 3.58, SD = .90). Difference between participants From Fig. 1, large correlations were found between the sub-scales. In view of this, MANOVA could be calculated to explore both the combined and individual difference between participants on each of the sub-scales (see Table 3). First, difference was found between gender on the combined dependent variables, F (6, 313) = 4.67, Wilks’ Lambda = .92, p =. 001, partial eta squared = .08. Individually, difference was found between participants on parenting (F [1, 318] = 10.11, p = .001, partial eta squared = .03), decision-making (F [1, 318) = 22.36, p = .001, partial, home-support (F [1, 318] = 14.79, p = .001, partial eta squared = .04) and volunteering (F (1, 318) = 10.73, p = .001, partial eta squared = .03). The mean scores showed that male professionals rated fathers higher than female professionals (parenting, male [M = 4.05, SD = .61], female [M = 3.82, SD = .62]; decision-making, male [M = 3.89, SD = .72], female [M = 3.49, SD = .70]; home-support male [M = 3.77, SD = .77], female [M = 3.43, SD = .75]; volunteering, male [M = 3.81, SD = .88], female [M = 3.47, SD = .88]). Second, a difference was found between participants on nationality, F (6, 313) = 2.46, Wilks’ Lambda = .96, p = .03, partial eta squared = .05. Individually, difference was found between participants on decision-making only, F (1, 318) = 7.45, p = .01, with a small effect size, partial eta squared = .02. The mean scores showed that Expatriate professionals (M = 3.73, SD = .73) rated fathers’ involvement in decision-making highly compared to UAE citizens (M = 3.51, SD = .71). Table 3 Multivariate analysis of variance showing difference between participants Wilks’ Lambda MAN. F. ANOVA F. Paren. Comm. Collab. Decis. Home Volunt. Gender Partial eta squared .92 4.67** .08 10.11** .03 5.14 .02 5.34 .02 22.36** .07 14.79** .04 10.73** .03 Nationality Partial eta squared .96 2.46* .05 1.37 .004 1.89 .01 .53 .002 7.45** .02 2.75 .01 .51 .002 Age Partial eta squared .92 1.51 .03 1.81 .02 3.40 .03 2.84 .03 .87 .01 2.33 .02 3.51 .03 Working experience Partial eta squared .93 1.97* .04 2.25 .01 .99 .01 .07 .001 1.95 .01 2.39 .02 .11 .001 Type of work Partial eta squared .95 2.73** .05 5.88 .02 4.25 .01 2.97 .01 .99 .003 6.15** .02 6.43** .02 Qualification Partial eta squared .96 2.42* .04 1.11 .003 1.58 .01 2.58 .01 .53 .002 .11 .001 .63 .002 Place of work Partial eta squared .91 .83 .02 .38 .01 .36 .01 .99 .02 .66 .01 .84 .02 .98 .02 Note: ** p ≤ .01; *p ≤ .05 Third, difference was found between participants on type of work on the combined dependent variables, F (6, 313) = 2.73, Wilks’ Lambda = .95, p = .01, partial eta squared = .05. Individually, difference was found between participants on home-support (F [1, 318] = 6.15, p = .01, with a very small effect size, partial eta squared = .02) and volunteering only (F [1, 318] = 6.43, p = .01, partial eta squared = .02). The mean scores showed that fathers’ involvement in home support and volunteering were high in school (home support, M = 3.82, SD = .69; volunteering, M = 3.91, SD = .86) compared to children in rehabilitation centers/hospitals (home support, M = 3.50, SD = .77; volunteering, M = 3.53, SD = .89). Predictors of fathers’ involvement Multiple regression was computed to explore the influence of demographics on fathers’ involvement (See Table 4). Three demographic variables included in the model were three as differences were found between participants on them. The demographic variables made 6% contribution in the variance in fathers’ involvement, R 2 = .06; F (3, 316) = 6.52, p = .001. Individually, only gender (beta = − .22, p = .001) and type of work (beta = .12, p = .03) made a significant contribution to the variance in fathers’ involvement. Table 4 Demographic variables regressed on involvement Uns. B. S.E. Stand. Beta t p Confidence Interval Lower Upper Gender − .30 .09 − .22 -3.35 .001** − .48 − .12 Nationality − .04 .09 − .03 − .45 .65 − .21 .13 Type of work .22 .11 .12 2.14 .03* .02 .43 Note: p ≤ .01; p ≤ .05 Discussion Guided by Epstein’s model of family involvement, the study reported here aimed to assess the involvement of fathers in the rehabilitation of their children from the perspectives of professionals who are providing services to families. One of the best practices in contemporary disability rehabilitation is family centered care where a strong partnership is supposed to exist between the home and professionals [ 2 , 3 , 24 ]. The goal is to incorporate family circumstance or tailoring services to meet the needs of families raising children with disability. This study was conducted against the backdrop of contradictions in the literature - some studies reporting fathers’ involvement whereas others showing their limited involvement. To begin with, the study findings provided support for the revised FIQ-EC instrument in an Arab context. The instrument has guided studies on professional assessment of family involvement in the development of children in other contexts [ 57 , 58 ]. However, the instrument was subjected to robust validity and reliability checks such as using CFA, configural invariance estimates as well as internal consistencies. It could be concluded that appropriate instrument with multiple tenets were used for this study. policymakers could rely on the findings reported here as part of effort towards advancing disability rehabilitation in the UAE. The Epstein’s model was supported in the UAE context. According to Epstein, parental involvement in the development of children is encompasses multiplicity of indicators. This involves activities at home and liaising with professionals to support the development of their children. The professionals who took part in this study supported Epstein conception of involvement as a product of parenting, decision-making, communication, collaboration, volunteering, home-support and volunteering. The computation of correlation showed a large relationship between the tenets of involvement. This finding adds to growing body of knowledge which has supported the Epstein model as a suitable framework to understanding parental involvement in the development of children [ 62 , 63 ]. Although correlation between the tenets do not equate causation, interdependencies between the tenets suggest that each of them could be vital to promoting the development of children. For instance, without best fathering at home to complement support of mothers, it would be difficult for children with disabilities to access basic needs such as food. More so, without fathers’ committing to making appropriate decisions, it would be difficult for the children to access rehabilitation facilities where appropriate intervention and support services would be provided to them. Going forward, the tenets of Epstein model could be considered in future training programmes aimed towards promoting family centered rehabilitation training practices in the UAE or similar contexts. The findings showed that participants who took part in this study were uncertain about fathers’ involvement in the raising of their children. On each of the tenets, the mean score showed neutrality of professionals when it comes to fathers’ involvement in the raising of children with disabilities. The findings fell short of Epstein model for determining parental involvement in the development of their children. This finding somehow agrees with [ 39 ] study which reported professional recounting the limited involvement of fathers in the raising of children with disabilities. More so, the finding is inconsistent with account of fathers and mothers who reported the high involvement of the former in the raising of children with disabilities [ 12 , 48 ]. It is useful to mention here that UAE is blend of modernity and culture where social norms shape day-to-day living experiences [ 50 – 52 ]. While fathers are expected to the breadwinners, mothers are expected to largely contribute to child-upbringing [ 52 ]. Based on this, fathers may presume that providing food and shelter is their way of being involved in the raising of children with disabilities. Professionals may be in a fix – cultural understanding of involvement and best parental involvement practices. There is, thus a need for national engagement between policymakers and parents to discuss involvement and agree on ideal father involvement in the rehabilitation of children with disabilities in the UAE. One demographic variable which enhanced our understanding of fathers’ involvement was gender. Both MANOVA and multiple regression showed a relationship between gender and paternal involvement in rehabilitation of children with disabilities. In particular, the MANOVA showed that male professionals rated fathers’ involvement higher on parenting, decision-making, home-support and volunteering compared to female professionals. Additionally, the regression analysis showed that the more likely professionals are females, they are 22% likely to rate fathers’ involvement as low. This finding is partially consistent with previous studies which showed that fathers self-reported higher involvement in parenting children with disabilities compared to mothers [ 12 , 43 ]. The trend identified in this study could be linked to the fact that male professionals play similar roles in their personal parenting experiences. Consequently, male professionals could be biased in their evaluation of fathers’ involvement in the rehabilitation processes. In the literature, the account of mothers showed their struggles and overburdening with caregiving responsibilities towards their children with disabilities and other typically developing siblings [ 8 – 10 , 31 ]. However, it is possible that both males and female professionals have different expectations about parenting involvement. The findings reported here is inexhaustive, Future studies could use qualitative method to delve deeper into male and female professionals’ understanding and expectations about fathers’ involvements in the raising of children with disabilities in the UAE. Moreover, the place of work of professionals provided additional insight into fathers’ involvement. Professionals working in schools rated fathers’ involvement in home support and volunteering higher than those working in rehabilitation centers/hospitals. On general involvement, the regression showed that for every unit of increase in the number of professionals working in hospitals, involvement of fathers will increase by 3%. It is useful to acknowledge that over 80% professionals working in hospital/rehabilitation centres participated in this study compared to 13% from schools. This numerical disparity could affect the trend reported here. Nevertheless, in the literature, severity of child’s disability impact on parenting experiences and to some extent, fathers’ involvement in the rehabilitation of their children. In the UAE, while children with mild/moderate disability could be enrolled in regular schools, those with severe disabilities usually access intervention services in hospitals or rehabilitation centres. In the literature, it has been reported consistently that children with severe disabilities described as those who are dependent on others are the most stigmatized group among the disability population [ 15 , 24 ]. It appears fathers of children with severe disabilities who are mainly receiving intervention in hospitals or rehabilitation centres are reluctant to contribute to their children’s development. It is possible that fathers are visible to professionals in the event their children are living with mild/moderate disabilities only. Study limitation The study reported here has some limitations which ought to be considered in the interpretation of the findings of the study. First, the study participants were recruited via the senior management of various who shared the survey with their professional staff who shared the survey to their workers. There is possibility for management in such institutions to share the instrument to those who may provide favourable responses to the survey. To minimize this limitation, an in-depth information statement was provided to prospective participants to enable understand the importance of their contribution to this study. Moreover, the study relied on self-reported experiences which is prone to response bias. Future study could use qualitative method to engage professionals on their experiences and ways through which fathers’ involvement in the rehabilitation processes could be expedited. Additionally, the study participants were not disaggregated according to their profession such as teachers, physiotherapists, social workers and psychologist. It is unknown as to whether different professionals would have different perceptions towards fathers’ involvement in the raising of children with disabilities. Future study could examine fathers’ involvement from the perspectives of a professional group across the country. Implication of findings for disability rehabilitation The study findings could be considered by policymakers and rehabilitation professionals. For instance, the Epstein’s model emerged as a useful framework to study fathers’ involvement from the perspectives of professionals. Policymakers could use the tenets as a guide when developing a training programme for both professionals and fathers on family involvement in the rehabilitation processes. Training materials could demonstrate how fathers could support their children based on each of the tenets of the Epstein model. Moreover, policymakers could engage fathers to gather their perspectives on involvement in a cultural context to compare it to best parenting involvement practices. This has the potential to generate useful information about fathers understanding, needs and the development of a suitable programme to promote their participation. The policy briefs emerging from such consultations could be shared with rehabilitation centres across the country to develop their awareness of involvement practices which are conterminous with the local culture and practices. Also, policymakers and management of rehabilitation institutions could train their staff on involvement and expectation from parents raising children with disabilities. The professionals will understand their role as well as what to expect from fathers raising children with disabilities. Conclusion The study reported here was guided by the Epstein’s involvement model to develop insight into fathers’ involvement in the rehabilitation of children with disabilities from the perspectives of professionals. Family centred care model mandates that professionals and parents work together to develop children with disabilities. Most importantly, the findings provided support for tenets of Epstein’s model with interrelationship found between them. However, according to the study findings, professionals were neutral on the extent of fathers’ involvement in the lives of their children with disabilities. However, demographic variables such as gender and place of work of professional added insight into the study findings. Indeed, the study has extended the literature on the perspectives of professionals involved in disability rehabilitation. The findings have shown that more needs to be done by policymakers to promote the participation of fathers in the rehabilitation processes in countries such as the UAE. Declarations Disclosure of interest: There are no interests to declare, References Chu, J., Leino, A.: Advancement in the maturing science of cultural adaptations of evidence-based interventions. J Consult Clin Psychol. 85, 45–57 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000145 Almasri, N.A., Smythe, T., Hadders-Algra, M., Olusanya, B.O.: Prioritising rehabilitation in early childhood for inclusive education: a call to action. Disabil Rehabil. 45, 3155–3159 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1080/09638288.2022.2118870 Olusanya, J.O., Ubogu, O.I., Njokanma, F.O., Olusanya, B.O.: Transforming global health through equity-driven funding. Nat Med. 27, 1136–1138 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-021-01422-6 World Health Organisation: Rehabilitation in health systems: guide for action. World Health Organisation. (2019) Opoku, M.P., Ashour, S., Shah, H., Alameri, S., Aldarmaki, A., Gamil, A., Alameri, R., Algheilani, F.: Lived experiences of Arabic working mothers raising children with disabilities: navigating rehabilitation and support services. . Disabil Soc. pp.1-21. (2024) Pearson, E., Opoku, M.P.: Experiences of service and diagnosis among immigrant families of young children with suspected or diagnosed developmental disabilities. Ethn Health. 29, 1036–1053 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1080/13557858.2024.2402537 Pearson, E., Opoku, M.P.: ‘From my world to yours…’: exploring the availability of social networks among parents from culturally diverse backgrounds caring for children with developmental disabilities in Australia. Psychol Health Med. 29, 386–397 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2023.2229242 Abdat, R., Opoku, M.P., Safi, M., Al Harballeh, S., Garces-Bacsal, R.M.: Virtual Training on Stress Management for the Mothers of Children with Disabilities in the United Arab Emirates. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 20, 1450 (2023). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20021450 Dirks, E., Szarkowski, A.: Family-Centered Early Intervention (FCEI) Involving Fathers and Mothers of Children Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing: Parental Involvement and Self-Efficacy. J Clin Med. 11, 492 (2022). https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11030492 Lamba, N., Van Tonder, A., Shrivastava, A., Raghavan, A.: Exploring challenges and support structures of mothers with children with Autism Spectrum Disorder in the United Arab Emirates. Res Dev Disabil. 120, 104138 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2021.104138 Acar, S., Chen, C.-I., Xie, H.: Parental involvement in developmental disabilities across three cultures: A systematic review. Res Dev Disabil. 110, 103861 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2021.103861 Mohamed, A., Peprah Opoku, M., Almarzooqi, S., J-F, Shah, H.: Nationwide study of fathers’ involvement in the rehabilitation of children with disabilities in the United Arab Emirates. Heliyon. 10, e30980 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e30980 Gabriel Ndijuye, L., Moneva, Ma.L., Dadi, N.: A longitudinal study on the predictors of early grades learning attainments in low-and-middle-income countries: Evidence from Tanzania. Child Youth Serv Rev. 166, 107923 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2024.107923 Zaidman-Zait, A., Most, T., Tarrasch, R., Haddad, E.: Mothers’ and fathers’ involvement in intervention programs for deaf and hard of hearing children. Disabil Rehabil. 40, 1301–1309 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1080/09638288.2017.1297491 Lalvani, P.: Disability, Stigma and Otherness: Perspectives of Parents and Teachers. Intl J Disabil Dev Educ. 62, 379–393 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1080/1034912X.2015.1029877 Saracostti, M., Lara, L., Martella, D., Miranda, H., Miranda-Zapata, E.D., Reininger, T.: Influence of Family Involvement and Children’s Socioemotional Development on the Learning Outcomes of Chilean Students. Front Psychol. 10, (2019). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00335 Gertler, P., Heckman, J., Pinto, R., Zanolini, A., Vermeersch, C., Walker, S., Chang, S., Grantham-McGregor, S.: Labor Market Returns to Early Childhood Stimulation: a 20-year Followup to an Experimental Intervention in Jamaica. , Cambridge, MA (2013) Bogossian, A., King, G., Lach, L.M., Currie, M., Nicholas, D., McNeill, T., Saini, M.: (Unpacking) father involvement in the context of childhood neurodisability research: a scoping review. Disabil Rehabil. 41, 110–124 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1080/09638288.2017.1370497 Zheng, Y., Maude, S.P., Brotherson, M.J., Summers, J.A., Palmer, S.B., Erwin, E.J.: Foundations for Self-Determination Perceived and Promoted by Families of Young Children with Disabilities in China. . http://www.jstor.org/stable/24827505 (2015) Mitter, N., Ali, A., Scior, K.: Stigma experienced by families of individuals with intellectual disabilities and autism: A systematic review. Res Dev Disabil. 89, 10–21 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2019.03.001 Brobst, J.B., Clopton, J.R., Hendrick, S.S.: Parenting Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders. Focus Autism Other Dev Disabl. 24, 38–49 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1177/1088357608323699 Henrich, J., Heine, S.J., Norenzayan, A.: The weirdest people in the world? Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 33, 61–83 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X0999152X Pelleboer‐Gunnink, H.A., Van Oorsouw, W.M.W.J., Van Weeghel, J., Embregts, P.J.C.M.: Mainstream health professionals’ stigmatising attitudes towards people with intellectual disabilities: a systematic review. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research. 61, 411–434 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1111/jir.12353 Imray, P., Hinchcliffe, V.: Curricula for teaching children and young people with severe or profound and multiple learning difficulties: Practical strategies for educational professionals. . Routledge. (2014) Bronfenbrenner, U.: Ecological systems theory. . American Psychological Association. (2000) Butler, A.M., Titus, C.: Systematic Review of Engagement in Culturally Adapted Parent Training for Disruptive Behavior. J Early Interv. 37, 300–318 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1177/1053815115620210 Epstein, J.L.: Searching for Equity in Education: Finding School, Family, and Community Partnerships. . In: Leaders in the Sociology of Education. Brill, Leiden, The Netherlands (2016) Epstein, J.L.: School/family/community partnerships: Caring for the children we hare. . Phi Delta Kappan, (1995) Goodall, J.: A framework for family engagement : Going beyond the Epstein Framework. Cylchgrawn Addysg Cymru / Wales Journal of Education. 24, (2022). https://doi.org/10.16922/wje.24.2.5 Davys, D., Mitchell, D., Martin, R.: Fathers of people with intellectual disability: A review of the literature. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities. 21, 175–196 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1177/1744629516650129 Boyd, M.J., Iacono, T., McDonald, R.: The Perceptions of Fathers About Parenting a Child With Developmental Disability: A Scoping Review. J Policy Pract Intellect Disabil. 16, 312–324 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1111/jppi.12287 Braunstein, V.L., Peniston, N., Perelman, A., Cassano, M.C.: The inclusion of fathers in investigations of autistic spectrum disorders. Res Autism Spectr Disord. 7, 858–865 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2013.03.005 Boström, P.K., Broberg, M.: Openness and avoidance – a longitudinal study of fathers of children with intellectual disability. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research. 58, 810–821 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1111/jir.12093 Flouri, E., Buchanan, A.: Early father’s and mother’s involvement and child’s later educational outcomes. British Journal of Educational Psychology. 74, 141–153 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1348/000709904773839806 Pancsofar, N., Vernon-Feagans, L.: Fathers’ early contributions to children’s language development in families from low-income rural communities. Early Child Res Q. 25, 450–463 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2010.02.001 Yogman, M.W., Eppel, A.M.: The Role of Fathers in Child and Family Health. In: Engaged Fatherhood for Men, Families and Gender Equality Healthcare, Social Policy, and Work Perspectives. pp. 15–30 (2022) Updegraff, K.A., McHale, S.M., Crouter, A.C., Kupanoff, K.: Parents’ Involvement in Adolescents’ Peer Relationships: A Comparison of Mothers’ and Fathers’ Roles. Journal of Marriage and Family. 63, 655–668 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2001.00655.x MacDonald, E.E., Hastings, R.P.: Mindful Parenting and Care Involvement of Fathers of Children with Intellectual Disabilities. J Child Fam Stud. 19, 236–240 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-008-9243-9 McBride, B.A., Curtiss, S.J., Uchima, K., Laxman, D.J., Santos, R.M., Weglarz-Ward, J., Dyer, Wm.J., Jeans, L.M., Kern, J.: Father Involvement in Early Intervention: Exploring the Gap Between Service Providers’ Perceptions and Practices. J Early Interv. 39, 71–87 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1177/1053815116686118 Vlaskamp, C.: Ein eigen perspective, Een progamma voor mensen met ernstige meervoudige beperkingen [An own perspective. A programme for people with profound multiple disabilities]. . , Van Gorcum. (1999) Jansen, S.L.G., van der Putten, A.A.J., Post, W.J., Vlaskamp, C.: Do they agree? How parents and professionals perceive the support provided to persons with profound intellectual and multiple disabilities. J Intellect Dev Disabil. 43, 441–452 (2018). https://doi.org/10.3109/13668250.2017.1287885 Nijhuis, B.J.G., Reinders-Messelink, H.A., de Blécourt, A.C.E., Hitters, W.M.G.C., Groothoff, J.W., Nakken, H., Postema, K.: Family-centred care in family-specific teams. Clin Rehabil. 21, 660–671 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1177/0269215507077304 Mohamed, A., Opoku, M.P., Ndijuye, L.G., Almarzooqi, S., Gyimah, E.M.: Promoting family- centred early interventions: evaluating predictors of early paternal involvement for children with disabilities in the United Arab Emirates. Int J Adolesc Youth. 30, (2025). https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2025.2494833 Law, J., Levickis, P., Rodríguez-Ortiz, I.R., Matić, A., Lyons, R., Messarra, C., Kouba Hreich, E., Stankova, M.: Working with the parents and families of children with developmental language disorders: An international perspective. J Commun Disord. 82, 105922 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomdis.2019.105922 Jindal, P., MacDermid, J.C., Rosenbaum, P., DiRezze, B., Narayan, A.: Perspectives on rehabilitation of children with cerebral palsy: exploring a cross-cultural view of parents from India and Canada using the international classification of functioning, disability and health. Disabil Rehabil. 40, 2745–2755 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1080/09638288.2017.1356383 Dingus, D., Eckert, M., Ridge, N., Jeon, S.: The Influence of Father Involvement on Their Children’s Self-Esteem in the Arab World. J Comp Fam Stud. 53, 104–130 (2022). https://doi.org/10.3138/jcfs-2021-0081 Hefnawi, A., Jeynes, W.: Parental Involvement in the UAE and in Other Moderate Arab States. In: Relational Aspects of Parental Involvement to Support Educational Outcomes. pp. 139–158. Routledge, New York (2022) Opoku, M., Mohamed, A., Almarzooqi, S., Cheikhmous, A.: The Extent and Predictors of Fathers’ Involvement in the Raising of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder in the UAE. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 22, 300 (2025). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22020300 Ridge, N., Dingus, D., Han, S.: Parental Involvement and the Impact of Fathers on the Education and Career Aspirations of Emirati Youth. . (2020) Alteneiji, E.: Value changes in gender roles: Perspectives from three generations of Emirati women. Cogent Soc Sci. 9, (2023). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2023.2184899 Dickson, M., Midraj, J., McMinn, M., Sukkar, H., Alharthi, M., Read, B.: Fathers’ Experiences of Juggling Work and Family Life in Abu Dhabi Workplaces. Soc Sci. 13, 592 (2024). https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci13110592 Ridge, N.., Jeon, S., Shami, S., Chung, B.J.: The role and impact of Arab fathers. hawwa, 16(1-3), 333-361. (2018) Al-Hassan, S.: Parental involvement in education in the Gulf region. . In: Lansford, J.E., Badahdah, A.M., and Brik, A.B. (eds.) Families and social change in the Gulf region. pp. 80–95. Routledge. (2021) Mullis, I. V., Martin, M.O., Foy, P., Hooper, M.: What Makes a Good Reader: International Findings from PIRLS 2016. . (2017) Ridge, N., Jeon, S., El Asad, S.: The nature and impact of Arab father involvement in the United Arab Emirates. . (2017) Gallagher, K., Dillon, A.M., Saqr, S., Habak, C., Alramamneh, Y.: “Come back home early and read for us!” Enabling father-child shared reading in policy and practice. Front Educ (Lausanne). 10, (2025). https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2025.1529382 Fantuzzo, J., Tighe, E., Childs, S.: Family Involvement Questionnaire: A multivariate assessment of family participation in early childhood education. J Educ Psychol. 92, 367–376 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.92.2.367 Manz, P.H., Fantuzzo, J.W., Power, T.J.: Multidimensional assessment of family involvement among urban elementary students. . J Sch Psychol. 42, 461–475 (2004) Byrne, B.M.: Structural equation modelling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming. Routledge (2016) Schumacker, R.E., Lomax, R.G.: A beginner’s guide to structural equation modeling . Routledge, New York (2016) Pallant J.: SPSS survival manual: A step by step guide to data analysis using IBM SPSS. . Open University Press. (2020) Yotyodying, S., Wild, E.: Effective family–school communication for students with learning disabilities: Associations with parental involvement at home and in school. Learn Cult Soc Interact. 22, 100317 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lcsi.2019.100317 Wong, M.E., Ng, Z.J., Poon, K.: Supporting inclusive education: Negotiating home- school partnership in Singapore. . International Journal of Special Education, . 30, 119–130 (2015) Table 2 Table 2 is available in the Supplementary Files section. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files Appendix.docx Table2.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6861498","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":473490733,"identity":"798c906d-7fa0-47eb-89a8-534fb3346ebf","order_by":0,"name":"Ahmed Hamdan","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"United Arab Emirates University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ahmed","middleName":"","lastName":"Hamdan","suffix":""},{"id":473490734,"identity":"5f5ce8aa-5bf7-4654-900c-a2614c81b863","order_by":1,"name":"Laurent Ndijuye","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAuElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACPiCW+ECSFjYglpxBshZpHtK08K89eNu2zU7O4ADzww8MNTZEaJF4l2yd25ZsbHCAzViC4VgaMVrOmEnntjEnbjjAYAbkHiZSi2Vbff2GA+zfGBj+/SfGLz1m0oxthxMMDvCYMTC2HSDGFh5jy55zxw1nHuYplkjsSyashZ//jOGNH2XV8nzH2zd++PDNjrAWBokEKIMZiBNwq0O25gBRykbBKBgFo2AkAwDSCTD/6vuhAgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"United Arab Emirates University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Laurent","middleName":"","lastName":"Ndijuye","suffix":""},{"id":473490735,"identity":"c56710f7-4156-477a-85ba-5f7c74c42667","order_by":2,"name":"Maxwell Opoku","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"United Arab Emirates University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Maxwell","middleName":"","lastName":"Opoku","suffix":""},{"id":473490736,"identity":"3c3f48d6-31cf-4591-a4c9-48f8aa1f5fa0","order_by":3,"name":"Mona Aljanahi","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"United Arab Emirates University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mona","middleName":"","lastName":"Aljanahi","suffix":""},{"id":473490737,"identity":"64dfb128-ad8a-4477-8820-f8c995a487dc","order_by":4,"name":"Lise Westaway","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"United Arab Emirates University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Lise","middleName":"","lastName":"Westaway","suffix":""},{"id":473490738,"identity":"b90d492e-e7c1-447f-8633-3ccd6ce3855c","order_by":5,"name":"Ebenezer Gyimah","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Auckland University of Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ebenezer","middleName":"","lastName":"Gyimah","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-06-10 09:38:19","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6861498/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6861498/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":85389090,"identity":"c35c13ed-93bd-4b8f-a913-cbb2872fb4da","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-25 10:18:36","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1044751,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eConfirmatory factor analysis for Family Involvement Questionnaire for Early Childhood\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNote: parent.=parenting; deci=decision-making; collab.=collaboration; com.=communication, home.=home-support and volunt.=volunteering\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6861498/v1/bf1cc9071e67fe9560ce746b.png"},{"id":85391774,"identity":"887f9bfa-b0ab-482d-b78d-725faf0a244a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-25 10:34:36","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1859040,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6861498/v1/970664f0-1bb9-4798-aa46-870f48b77d1f.pdf"},{"id":85389084,"identity":"6936597c-abcc-4dc5-88c8-0d2f567d3800","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-25 10:18:36","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":632205,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Appendix.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6861498/v1/e6a3a9c2eb05d5f9f8326a35.docx"},{"id":85389083,"identity":"7013b325-5612-433f-a3c5-70b679e28d8b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-25 10:18:36","extension":"docx","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":15608,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Table2.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6861498/v1/60e439931c7dd82127bb88fa.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Professionals’ assessment of fathers’ involvement in the rehabilitation of children with disabilities in early years of development in the United Arab Emirates","fulltext":[{"header":"Highlights","content":"\u003cp\u003e- Family centered rehabilitation practices promote a healthy working relationship between professionals and family.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Discussions on partnerships to advance disability rehabilitation has mostly emphasized the role of mothers.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e- There is limited research on professionals\u0026rsquo; perspectives of fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement in rehabilitation of children with disabilities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e- The tenets of Epstein\u0026rsquo;s model of involvement was supported by the study findings.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Rehabilitation professionals were uncertain about fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement in the rehabilitation of children with disabilities.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eRehabilitation refers to services provided to individuals such as those with disabilities to either lessen the burden of disability or facilitate their participation in societies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. In rehabilitation, there is an acknowledgement that the individual has limitations which restrict their participation in the society [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. Thus, the intervention services are expected to equip them with the necessary skills to live independently. According to WHO [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e], in disability rehabilitation, conscious effort ought to be made to ensure that individuals with disabilities participate in education, health services, social intervention, livelihood and activities aimed towards empowering them to assert for their rights. However, rehabilitation services are expected to be provided in the community where individuals with disabilities such as children are living with their families [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. Thus, strong partnership between family and service providers are needed to ensure that children with disabilities are receiving appropriate services which are tailored to suit their unique needs and experiences [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. According Almasri [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e], family centered practice is pivotal in disability rehabilitation service provision. However, in the literature, discussions on disability rehabilitation has been limited to mothers\u0026rsquo; interaction with rehabilitation professionals [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR6\" citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. While mothers are struggling to acquire services for their children with disabilities [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR9\" citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e], there is limited attention paid to the role of fathers in the rehabilitation process. This has led to renewed research interest in developing insight into the extent of fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement in the rehabilitation of children with disabilities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParental involvement is a multifaceted concept that encompasses a broad range of parenting behaviors and continuous, positive partnerships between families and professionals [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR12 CR13\" citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. For decades, empirical evidences have linked parental involvements with children\u0026rsquo;s academic achievements [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e], socio-emotional development [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR15\" citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e], and even future financial gains [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e] and personality stability [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. Further, recent empirical findings indicate that parental involvement, and input\u0026mdash;specifically from both biological parents, is the most significant factor in gaining a comprehensive understanding of the needs of children with disabilities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. Studies have consistently documented a positive correlation between parental involvement and children\u0026rsquo;s developmental outcomes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere is a consensus among early years developmental professionals that globally children with disabilities continue to face heightened vulnerability, widespread discrimination, and restricted access to essential services within societies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. These challenges underscore the critical importance of parental involvement in the care and support of their children, as well as in advocating for and facilitating their inclusion in key societal services [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. Parental involvement for children with developmental disabilities encompasses both behavioral and affective dimensions, each playing a vital role in supporting their development [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe behavioral component refers to the concrete actions and initiatives parents undertake to promote their child's growth and participation in daily life [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. This is particularly crucial for children with disabilities, whose functional limitations often hinder their ability to engage fully in society [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. In this case, parents act as key agents of societal inclusion, reinforcing their central role in the lives of their children with disabilities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. The affective dimension, meanwhile, involves the emotional connection and quality of interaction between parents and their children [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. Positive affective engagement\u0026mdash;where children with disabilities are embraced as equal and valued members of the family\u0026mdash;can counterbalance societal stereotypes and negative attitudes, which remain globally pervasive [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA number of complex factors have been reported to impact on fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement in the raising of their children [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. For example, a growing evidence highlights the influence of culture on parental involvement in developmental disabilities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e], particularly within non-Western Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic (WEIRD) contexts [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. Cultural norms and values can shape children's communication styles, their interactions with adults and peers [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e], their daily routines, and their access to early intervention and early childhood special education programs [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. In many societies, some of the most significant barriers to the inclusion of children with disabilities are rooted in stigma [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e], prejudice, misinformation, and a lack of adequate training among practitioners [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. These sociocultural barriers often result in isolation and discrimination against children with disabilities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. Furthermore, cultural beliefs about health and disabilities, coupled with social pressure from extended family members, may discourage parents from pursuing timely diagnoses for their children [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. In some cases, children with disabilities may begin formal education later than their peers due to parental fears of stigma and low expectations regarding their educational potential [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnderstanding how cultural factors influence child development and family involvement is critical for practitioners aiming to deliver culturally responsive services [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. As Bronfenbrenner [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e] emphasizes, children are embedded within their families, and families are, in turn, embedded within broader cultural systems at both micro and macro levels. From this ecological perspective, the relationship between parental involvement and outcomes for children with developmental disabilities is dynamic, interactive, and bi-directional. While systematic reviews have demonstrated the positive impact of parent-implemented interventions on children\u0026rsquo;s development and learning [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e], research that specifically addresses parental involvement through the lens of early years\u0026rsquo; developmental professionals remains limited. Hence, the current study is meaningful and important.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhat are professionals\u0026rsquo; perceptions of fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement in in early years the development of children with disabilities in UAE?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhich background characteristics of professionals will provide additional insight into fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement in early years the development of children with disabilities in UAE?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eConceptual framework\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEpstein\u0026rsquo;s [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e] comprehensive framework on partnership is used extensively in the context of schooling to evaluate and strengthen their engagement with parents [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e], In this research, we draw on Epstein\u0026rsquo;s [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e] framework on partnership, not in terms of the conventional relationship between schools and parents, but in relation to service providers and parents more broadly. The framework provides the methodological tools for analysing and explaining the development of a well-balanced partnership between service providers and parents of children with disabilities. To this end, we explain the model by focusing on service providers rather than schools. Epstein\u0026rsquo;s model [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e] is based on six tenets: parenting, decision-making, collaborations, communication, home-support and volunteering (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe six tenets of the Epstein [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e] partnership model\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTenets\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBrief description\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParenting:\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssisting parents in creating a home environment to support their children.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommunication\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCreate open channels of communication from the service provide-to-home and home-to-service provider.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVolunteering\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRequest parent support.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHome support\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProvide information to parents about how to assist and support their children at home.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDecision-making\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInclude parents in decisions about their child in relation to the services offered.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCollaboration with the community\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoordinating resources and services within the community for parents and their children.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eGiven the research focus on service providers perceptions of fathers, the use of Epstein\u0026rsquo;s model will focus specifically on the service provider \u0026ndash; father partnership. Epstein\u0026rsquo;s[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e] framework will assist in providing insights into the service providers\u0026rsquo; perceptions of the role fathers play in parenting their children with disabilities, the decisions they make about their children\u0026rsquo;s rehabilitations, and choices relating to service provision, how they support their children in the home environment, the extent to which they collaborate and communicate with service providers, and their willingness to engage with activities that contribute to events organized by service providers for children with disabilities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eProfessionals perception of fathers’ involvement\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAcar and colleagues[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e] argue that parental support in the home has shown improved developmental and academic outcomes and social skills of children with disabilities. Much of the research on parental involvement focuses on the role of mothers [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e], and in particular, mothers\u0026rsquo; levels of stress (see [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]). Braunstein, Peniston, Perelman and Cassino[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e] maintain that key factors contributing to mothers\u0026rsquo; stress levels relate to the nature of support services, parenting styles and community attitudes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn their review of the literature on fathers\u0026rsquo; perceptions about parenting children with developmental disabilities, Boyd, et al.[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e] note that the focus also tends to be on fathers\u0026rsquo; stress levels in parenting a child with a disability, rather than how they perceive their role or what models might be useful in assisting fathers in improving their parenting style. Bromstrom and Broberg[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e] maintain that fathers want to participate in caring for their child, however, this is often limited to time spent on tasks with the child and family (see [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]). What is signified as a \u0026lsquo;task\u0026rsquo; is seemingly not evident in the broader literature, but is defined by Mohamed, Opoku and Almarzooqi[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e] broadly as nurturing, care, support and development, of which they argue there is little known. By contrast, Flouri and Buchanan[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e] argue that the benefits of the father and child relationship have been well documented with father involvement having an influence on reducing stress, behavioural problems [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e], developmental outcomes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e], peer relationships[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e] and general family well-being [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBaunstein, Penniston, Perelman and Cassano[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e] note that despite fathers having a significant positive impact on their children with disabilities, they are notably absent from the professional services offered to families, and hence the rehabilitation of their children. Mothers continue to be the primary participant and more involved in the care and support offered by service providers compared to fathers [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. The convergence of parental and service provider support is important in understanding the needs of children with disabilities[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e] as it has the potential to improve the quality of life for both children with disabilities and their parents. Jansen, Van Putten, Post and Vlaskamp [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e], in their research on children with cerebral palsy, argue that parent and service provider collaboration is extremely valuable, and efforts should be made to foster this relationship. However, Nijhuis et al.[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e] highlight that there are often conflicting ideas between parents of children with disabilities and the service providers with regards to the needs of the children, and what is of importance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile there has been a growing interest in the role of fathers supporting their children\u0026rsquo;s developmental needs and father\u0026rsquo;s perceptions of the service providers [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e], there seems to be a paucity of research that examines the perceptions of service providers on the role of fathers in supporting their children\u0026rsquo;s developmental needs [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]. In our review of the literature, there appears to be one article that specifically examines service providers\u0026rsquo; perceptions of father\u0026rsquo;s engagement with the various services offered. McBride, et al.[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e] targeted 3073 service providers to ascertain their perceptions of fathers\u0026rsquo; engagement with service providers, and the potential barriers to this engagement, 511 answered at least one of the survey questions. Their research shows that service providers\u0026rsquo; perceptions of the a barrier to fathers engagement with the services offered relates to: (1) lack of engagement related to their lack of presence as a result of work commitments, disengagement, divorce and not having custody of their children; (2) societal gendered roles, the division of labour in the family, the father\u0026rsquo;s beliefs about their role and parental efficacy; (3) the often gendered nature of the service providers, with female providers finding it difficult to work with fathers and fathers finding it difficult to work with female service providers; (4) the tendency of fathers to deny their child\u0026rsquo;s disability and perceived value of the services offered; (5) cultural and socio-economic factors; and (6) father availability and inflexible hours of service providers. Given this, the service providers maintained that they were less likely to target fathers for collaborative initiatives to support their children with disabilities. Interestingly, McBride, et al.[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e] noted that the service providers did not see their perceptions of fathers as being a barrier to father involvement. It is important to note that the participants in this study were all service providers from the same geographic area, that is, the Midwest in the United States of America.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommunication and collaboration between service providers and parents are central to the competence parents require in order to support their children with disabilities in the home. Law et al.[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e] aimed to understand the parent-child interventions used to support children with language delays, specifically in relation to the training offered for parents by service providers. Four thousand and twenty-four service provider practitioners from 59 countries participated in the research. The research found that there were multiple and very different approaches and traditions related to interventions across 59 countries (none of the Gulf countries participated in the research). Law et al\u0026rsquo;s.[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e] research highlights the contextual nature of researching parental-service provider engagement across countries. Jindal et al.[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e] and Law et al.[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e] claim that the culturally embedded beliefs of the parents and service providers are critical in the rehabilitation process and raised concern that service providers may have different interactional patterns and behaviours with parents from different socio-economic and cultural backgrounds. This is particularly important in the context of the United Arab Emirates where the vast majority of the population are Expatriates. This raises question of the cultural awareness of Expatriate service providers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn a context, such as the United Arab Emirates, where this research took place, the fathers\u0026rsquo; role in supporting their children with disabilities is complex as it is steeped in conceptions of culture and tradition [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e]. Fathers in the UAE reportedly rarely contribute to the development of children with disabilities[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e] and the onus to support their children and engage with service providers rests on the hands of mothers. Opoku et al.[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e] in their research conducted in the UAE, suggest that parents often have a critical view of service providers who, they maintain, do not share vital information on their children. However, this is not a one-way perception, service providers are also critical of the lack of parental engagement, communication, support and cooperation. Feedback from parents is necessary for service providers to understand the child\u0026rsquo;s progress at home. It is generally the mothers of children with disabilities who communicate and collaborate with the service providers [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile the national government of the United Arab Emirates is required to create avenues for children with disabilities to access the required and necessary services, the decision to access such services, and which services to access, is the responsibility of the parents. Little is known about the role that fathers play in making decisions about the services they deem necessary to access.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eContextualization\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhen it comes to the phenomenon of fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement with their children, extant literature indicates a paucity at two levels: first, in the number of fathers involved with their children generally [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e] and second, in research on father\u0026rsquo;s involvement with their children in the region of the Gulf Cooperative Council (GCC) countries [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e]. As regards fatherhood in the UAE, the pendulum swings between the traditional role of \u0026ldquo;financial provider and moral authority\u0026rdquo; to more modern roles seen as complementary to and balanced with those of motherhood [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e]. Fatherhood is complex to define in UAE society, as it is interwoven with \u0026ldquo;cultural, religious, and socioeconomic factors\u0026rdquo; that shape its parameters [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e]. Ridge et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e] indicated that due to two changes in the economy in the UAE, a new term has been established, namely, the \u0026ldquo;weekend father,\u0026rdquo; (p. 335) who works in a different geographical region or Emirate during the week and travels back to his family on weekends.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRidge et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e] indicate that very little research has been carried out on fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement in the UAE and other Arab regions. A few sporadic studies have been conducted in the GCC region with regard to parents\u0026rsquo; involvement in general rather than fathers\u0026rsquo; roles. On parents\u0026rsquo; involvement in their children\u0026rsquo;s education, Al-Hassan [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e] states that education reforms in the UAE education strive to \u0026ldquo;achieve greater family involvement in the education process\u0026rdquo; (p. 84). However, concerns have been raised about parental involvement in the UAE more generally. According to Al-Hassan, there is an improvement in parental involvement in the GCC countries but continued variation in the \u0026ldquo;attitudes of parents and families towards parents\u0026rsquo; involvement in their children\u0026rsquo;s education and actual practices.\u0026rdquo; (p. 90). Moreover, in their study of parental involvement in the UAE, Hefnawi and Jeynes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e] indicate that research in the field consistently recommends that \u0026ldquo;Emirati parents be provided with training on how to engage positively with their children\u0026rsquo;s learning.\u0026rdquo; Additionally, in analyzing the results of 2016 Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) test, in which the United Arab Emirates was a participating country, Mullis et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e] attributed lows scores to the dearth of a robust home literacy environment in test takers lives [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOn fathers\u0026rsquo; roles specifically, Ridge et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e] (as cited in [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e] states that although fathers in the UAE were believed to have the competency to actively engage in their children\u0026rsquo;s education, they were less involved than other Arab fathers. The interviewees in Ridge et al\u0026rsquo;s. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e] study also reported \u0026ldquo;that their fathers were not actively involved in their children\u0026rsquo;s school life\u0026rdquo; (p. 252). A number of studies in the field of education specifically sought to investigate fathers\u0026rsquo; engagement with their children. One such study, conducted by Opoku et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e], found that fathers had positive attitudes toward their care and involvement with their children who experienced autism spectrum disorder. Mohamed et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e] even found that fathers rated themselves higher in their care for children with disabilities than the mothers of those children who rated the involvement of their spouses. Overall, this section highlights a glaring gap in the literature addressing fatherhood in the UAE and the myriad roles it encompasses.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Method","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe current study forms part of a large project which explored fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement in the raising of children with disabilities [5, 12, 48]. The current study focused on professionals\u0026rsquo; perception of fathers\u0026rsquo; participation in the rehabilitation of their children.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eStudy participants\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe participants for this study were professionals working or supporting children with disabilities in schools, rehabilitation centres or hospitals. In the UAE, children with disabilities receive services in schools and hospitals. Schools encompasses both special schools (popularly known in the UAE as rehabilitation centres) and regular schools. The special schools provide early intervention support, independent living skills, behaviour support and vocational programmes. The regular schools also provide educational placement for children with disabilities in regular classrooms where they study alongside their peers. Moreover, the hospitals have disability units or rehabilitation centres where children received specialized services such as physical therapy, speech therapy, occupational therapy and remedial teaching support. Children who are diagnosed with disabilities receive support from at least one of these centres.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn this study, professionals providing support to children diagnosed with disabilities from 3\u0026ndash;8 years were considered for participation. The study aimed to contribute to UAE\u0026rsquo;s current effort towards development systems for early childhood development of the country. The following inclusion criteria guided the study: a) qualified professional supporting children with disabilities between 3\u0026ndash;8 years in schools or hospitals; b) employed full-time; c) working in any facility in the UAE; and d) capacity to consent to participate in this study. Table 2 summarizes the professionals who took part in this study. Three-hundred and twenty participants took part in this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eInstrument\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA two-part instrument was used for data collection. The first part collected demographic information such as gender, age, qualification and working experience and place of work (see Table 2). The second part was the revised Family Involvement Questionnaire for Early Childhood (FIQ-EC). The initial instrument was made up of 42 items. The instrument was developed by Fantuzzo et al. [57] based on the Epstein model. However, Manz et al. [58] renamed it as Family Involvement Questionnaire for Elementary (FIQ-E) and validated it among elementary students to ascertain its psychometric properties. Some items were added and align closely with the tenets of the Epstein model. The FIQ-E was made up of 46 items and a three-factor structure emerged. However, 43 items were supported in this study and internal consistencies of the sub-scale were as follows: Home-school communication (.91), home-based involvement (.88) and school-based involvement (.84).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAlthough Manz et al. [58] argue the three factors structure was appropriate as it captures the essence of the Epstein model which focuses mainly on home school partnership, an instrument covering the six tenets would enable us to develop in-depth understanding of fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement in the lives of their children with disabilities in early years of development. In this study, the items on the FIQ-E and FIQ-EC were studied and aligned with each of the tenets of the Epstein model. Additional items were added while some items on the original instrument were deleted.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFollowing Fantuzzo et al. [57] and Manz et al\u0026rsquo;s. [58] processes, parents and professionals were involved in the development of the instrument. They drew on parents raising children in early years and professionals working in early childhood settings. The team met with the parents and professionals to discuss the items. Consensus was reached on 34 items distributed as follows: parenting (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6), decision-making (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7), communication (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4), collaboration (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4), home-support (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6) and volunteering (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7). The instrument was anchored on a five-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eProcedure\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study and its protocols were approved by X University (details removed for peer review). Permission was also sought from the Ministry of Education (formerly ESE) for data collection in schools in the UAE. Following this, identifiable inclusive schools, special schools and hospitals with disability rehabilitation units were approached for data collection for professionals. Formal emails containing the information statement, were sent to leaders inviting them to participate in this study. The information statement explained the objective of the study, the inclusion criteria, data protection, and relevance of the study to early childhood development in the UAE. Once approval was given by the institutions, the survey which was built in QuestionPro which is an online survey platform was sent to the institution; encouraging them to share with their professionals. The data were collected in English and the estimated time for the completion of the survey was 20 minutes. The prospective participants were assured that neither their institution of identifiable information will be used in the reporting of the study. Moreover, they were told that the data collected from this study will not be made available to any party outside the research team. They were informed that they could withdraw from the study at any time without any consequences. Signing informed consent was mandatory before prospective participants could access the survey.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eData analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe completed data were transferred to excel for data cleaning. A total of 381 entries were recorded. However, there were 61 incomplete entries and thus, their removal from the data. Subsequently, the data were transferred to SPSS version 29 for data analysis. The SPSS data file was done imported to AMOS for further analysis. Since the items on the instrument were aligned and additions made, the data were subjected to confirmatory factor analysis to validate the structure of the revised FIQ-EC. The following criteria was used to assess the validity of the data collected: chi-square of below 5, CFI and TLI of at least .90, RMSEA and SRMR between .03 and .08 as well as regression weight of .50 [59, 60].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe research questions were then answered. For research question 1, mean scores were calculated to understand professionals\u0026rsquo; rating of fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement in the rehabilitation of their children. A composite mean of at least 4 was interpreted as high involvement of fathers.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn relation to research question 2, a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and hierarchical regression [61] was computed to explore the demographic variables which would provide additional insight into the extent of fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement. The MANOVA was calculated to compare difference between professionals on the combined (parenting, decision-making, collaboration, communication, home-support and volunteering) and individual sub-scales. Since they are interrelated, MANOVA was appropriate. The homogeneity of variance was observed as well as Bonferroni\u0026rsquo;s adjusted alpha value of .01 was used to determine whether there is difference between participants on the sub-scales. Following the MANOVA, multiple regression was calculated to explore the influence of demographic variables on overall fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement. The demographic variables included in the model were those on which participants differed. The following assumptions were observed to make sure that they were not violated: normality, linearity, homogeneity and homoscedasticity [61].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eStructural validity of the instrument\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe revised 34 item FIQ-EC was subjected to CFA to explore its dimensionality in an Arab context. The initial computation yielded a poorly fit indices: chi-square = 4.07 (CMIN = 1951.91, df = 480), CFI = .85, TLI = .83, RMSEA = .10 and SRMR = .06. Inspection of the regression weight showed that one item loaded below the .50 threshold and thus, its removal for re-specification which did improve the fit indices: chi-square = 4.17 (CMIN = 1872.66, df = 449), CFI = .85, TLI = .83, RMSEA = .10 and SRMR = .06. Also, all the items loaded above the .50 threshold. Following, erroneous covariances between the items were observed to identify those which were having negative impact on the model. The modification threshold was set at 10 and those inter-item correlations above this threshold were inspected. Iterate deletions were undertaken before the model was re-specified yielding the following scores: chi-square = 3.07 (CMIN = 871.39, df = 284), CFI = .92, TLI = .90, RMSEA = .08 and SRMR = .04.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eConfigural invariance estimate was assessed to determine if the instrument yield appropriate goodness of fit indices across different groups. Gender was used for the invariance estimate. For males, the goodness of fit indices was as follows: chi-square = 2.50 (CMIN = 2129.98, df = 854), CFI = .91, TLI = .89, RMSEA = .05 and SRMR = .04. Similar observation was made for females: chi-square = 2.50 (CMIN = 2129.98, df = 854), CFI = .91, TLI = .89, RMSEA = .05 and SRMR = .04 (see Appendices I and II).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOverall, 26-items were supported which were distributed as follows (see Fig. 1): parenting (n = 6), decision-making (n = 5), communication (n = 3), collaboration (n = 4), home-support (n = 5) and volunteering (n = 3).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFollowing this, Cronbach Alpha was calculated to ascertain the reliability of the revised FIQ-EC. The overall FIQ-EC yielded a score of .97 with the subscales as follows: parenting (.85), decision-making (.90), communication (.83), collaboration (.89), home-support (.92) and volunteering (.90).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eLevel of fathers’ involvement as rated by professionals\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe mean scores were calculated to explore how professionals rated fathers’ involvement in the raising of children with disability in early years of development (See Appendix III). The overall involvement is 3.95 (.67). The sub-scales were as follows: parenting (M = 3.90, SD = .62), decision-making M = 3.63, SD = .73), communication (M = 3.77, SD = .78), collaboration (M = 2.43, SD = .78), home-support (M = 3.54, SD = .77) and volunteering (M = 3.58, SD = .90).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eDifference between participants\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFrom Fig.\u0026nbsp;1, large correlations were found between the sub-scales. In view of this, MANOVA could be calculated to explore both the combined and individual difference between participants on each of the sub-scales (see Table\u0026nbsp;3). First, difference was found between gender on the combined dependent variables, F (6, 313) = 4.67, Wilks’ Lambda = .92, p =. 001, partial eta squared = .08. Individually, difference was found between participants on parenting (F [1, 318] = 10.11, p = .001, partial eta squared = .03), decision-making (F [1, 318) = 22.36, p = .001, partial, home-support (F [1, 318] = 14.79, p = .001, partial eta squared = .04) and volunteering (F (1, 318) = 10.73, p = .001, partial eta squared = .03). The mean scores showed that male professionals rated fathers higher than female professionals (parenting, male [M = 4.05, SD = .61], female [M = 3.82, SD = .62]; decision-making, male [M = 3.89, SD = .72], female [M = 3.49, SD = .70]; home-support male [M = 3.77, SD = .77], female [M = 3.43, SD = .75]; volunteering, male [M = 3.81, SD = .88], female [M = 3.47, SD = .88]).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSecond, a difference was found between participants on nationality, F (6, 313) = 2.46, Wilks’ Lambda = .96, p = .03, partial eta squared = .05. Individually, difference was found between participants on decision-making only, F (1, 318) = 7.45, p = .01, with a small effect size, partial eta squared = .02. The mean scores showed that Expatriate professionals (M = 3.73, SD = .73) rated fathers’ involvement in decision-making highly compared to UAE citizens (M = 3.51, SD = .71).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMultivariate analysis of variance showing difference between participants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWilks’ Lambda\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMAN. F.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eANOVA F.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParen.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eComm.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCollab.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDecis.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHome\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVolunt.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGender\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePartial eta squared\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.67**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.11**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22.36**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.79**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.73**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNationality\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePartial eta squared\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.46*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.004\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.89\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.53\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.002\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.45**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.75\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.51\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.002\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAge\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePartial eta squared\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.51\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.84\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.87\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.51\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWorking experience\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePartial eta squared\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.93\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.97*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eType of work\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePartial eta squared\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.73**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.88\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.97\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.003\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.15**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.43**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eQualification\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePartial eta squared\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.42*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.003\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.58\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.58\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.53\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.002\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.002\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePlace of work\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePartial eta squared\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.83\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.66\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.84\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003ctfoot\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003eNote: ** p ≤ .01; *p ≤ .05\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tfoot\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThird, difference was found between participants on type of work on the combined dependent variables, F (6, 313) = 2.73, Wilks’ Lambda = .95, p = .01, partial eta squared = .05. Individually, difference was found between participants on home-support (F [1, 318] = 6.15, p = .01, with a very small effect size, partial eta squared = .02) and volunteering only (F [1, 318] = 6.43, p = .01, partial eta squared = .02). The mean scores showed that fathers’ involvement in home support and volunteering were high in school (home support, M = 3.82, SD = .69; volunteering, M = 3.91, SD = .86) compared to children in rehabilitation centers/hospitals (home support, M = 3.50, SD = .77; volunteering, M = 3.53, SD = .89).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003ePredictors of fathers’ involvement\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMultiple regression was computed to explore the influence of demographics on fathers’ involvement (See Table\u0026nbsp;4). Three demographic variables included in the model were three as differences were found between participants on them. The demographic variables made 6% contribution in the variance in fathers’ involvement, R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e = .06; F (3, 316) = 6.52, p = .001. Individually, only gender (beta = − .22, p = .001) and type of work (beta = .12, p = .03) made a significant contribution to the variance in fathers’ involvement.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDemographic variables regressed on involvement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUns. B.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eS.E.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStand. Beta\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003et\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eConfidence Interval\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLower\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUpper\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e− .30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e− .22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-3.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.001**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e− .48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e− .12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNationality\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e− .04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e− .03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e− .45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.65\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e− .21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eType of work\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.03*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003ctfoot\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003eNote: p ≤ .01; p ≤ .05\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tfoot\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eGuided by Epstein\u0026rsquo;s model of family involvement, the study reported here aimed to assess the involvement of fathers in the rehabilitation of their children from the perspectives of professionals who are providing services to families. One of the best practices in contemporary disability rehabilitation is family centered care where a strong partnership is supposed to exist between the home and professionals [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. The goal is to incorporate family circumstance or tailoring services to meet the needs of families raising children with disability. This study was conducted against the backdrop of contradictions in the literature - some studies reporting fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement whereas others showing their limited involvement. To begin with, the study findings provided support for the revised FIQ-EC instrument in an Arab context. The instrument has guided studies on professional assessment of family involvement in the development of children in other contexts [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e]. However, the instrument was subjected to robust validity and reliability checks such as using CFA, configural invariance estimates as well as internal consistencies. It could be concluded that appropriate instrument with multiple tenets were used for this study. policymakers could rely on the findings reported here as part of effort towards advancing disability rehabilitation in the UAE.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Epstein\u0026rsquo;s model was supported in the UAE context. According to Epstein, parental involvement in the development of children is encompasses multiplicity of indicators. This involves activities at home and liaising with professionals to support the development of their children. The professionals who took part in this study supported Epstein conception of involvement as a product of parenting, decision-making, communication, collaboration, volunteering, home-support and volunteering. The computation of correlation showed a large relationship between the tenets of involvement. This finding adds to growing body of knowledge which has supported the Epstein model as a suitable framework to understanding parental involvement in the development of children [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e]. Although correlation between the tenets do not equate causation, interdependencies between the tenets suggest that each of them could be vital to promoting the development of children. For instance, without best fathering at home to complement support of mothers, it would be difficult for children with disabilities to access basic needs such as food. More so, without fathers\u0026rsquo; committing to making appropriate decisions, it would be difficult for the children to access rehabilitation facilities where appropriate intervention and support services would be provided to them. Going forward, the tenets of Epstein model could be considered in future training programmes aimed towards promoting family centered rehabilitation training practices in the UAE or similar contexts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings showed that participants who took part in this study were uncertain about fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement in the raising of their children. On each of the tenets, the mean score showed neutrality of professionals when it comes to fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement in the raising of children with disabilities. The findings fell short of Epstein model for determining parental involvement in the development of their children. This finding somehow agrees with [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e] study which reported professional recounting the limited involvement of fathers in the raising of children with disabilities. More so, the finding is inconsistent with account of fathers and mothers who reported the high involvement of the former in the raising of children with disabilities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e]. It is useful to mention here that UAE is blend of modernity and culture where social norms shape day-to-day living experiences [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR51\" citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e]. While fathers are expected to the breadwinners, mothers are expected to largely contribute to child-upbringing [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e]. Based on this, fathers may presume that providing food and shelter is their way of being involved in the raising of children with disabilities. Professionals may be in a fix \u0026ndash; cultural understanding of involvement and best parental involvement practices. There is, thus a need for national engagement between policymakers and parents to discuss involvement and agree on ideal father involvement in the rehabilitation of children with disabilities in the UAE.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne demographic variable which enhanced our understanding of fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement was gender. Both MANOVA and multiple regression showed a relationship between gender and paternal involvement in rehabilitation of children with disabilities. In particular, the MANOVA showed that male professionals rated fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement higher on parenting, decision-making, home-support and volunteering compared to female professionals. Additionally, the regression analysis showed that the more likely professionals are females, they are 22% likely to rate fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement as low. This finding is partially consistent with previous studies which showed that fathers self-reported higher involvement in parenting children with disabilities compared to mothers [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e]. The trend identified in this study could be linked to the fact that male professionals play similar roles in their personal parenting experiences. Consequently, male professionals could be biased in their evaluation of fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement in the rehabilitation processes. In the literature, the account of mothers showed their struggles and overburdening with caregiving responsibilities towards their children with disabilities and other typically developing siblings [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR9\" citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. However, it is possible that both males and female professionals have different expectations about parenting involvement. The findings reported here is inexhaustive, Future studies could use qualitative method to delve deeper into male and female professionals\u0026rsquo; understanding and expectations about fathers\u0026rsquo; involvements in the raising of children with disabilities in the UAE.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, the place of work of professionals provided additional insight into fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement. Professionals working in schools rated fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement in home support and volunteering higher than those working in rehabilitation centers/hospitals. On general involvement, the regression showed that for every unit of increase in the number of professionals working in hospitals, involvement of fathers will increase by 3%. It is useful to acknowledge that over 80% professionals working in hospital/rehabilitation centres participated in this study compared to 13% from schools. This numerical disparity could affect the trend reported here. Nevertheless, in the literature, severity of child\u0026rsquo;s disability impact on parenting experiences and to some extent, fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement in the rehabilitation of their children. In the UAE, while children with mild/moderate disability could be enrolled in regular schools, those with severe disabilities usually access intervention services in hospitals or rehabilitation centres. In the literature, it has been reported consistently that children with severe disabilities described as those who are dependent on others are the most stigmatized group among the disability population [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. It appears fathers of children with severe disabilities who are mainly receiving intervention in hospitals or rehabilitation centres are reluctant to contribute to their children\u0026rsquo;s development. It is possible that fathers are visible to professionals in the event their children are living with mild/moderate disabilities only.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy limitation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study reported here has some limitations which ought to be considered in the interpretation of the findings of the study. First, the study participants were recruited via the senior management of various who shared the survey with their professional staff who shared the survey to their workers. There is possibility for management in such institutions to share the instrument to those who may provide favourable responses to the survey. To minimize this limitation, an in-depth information statement was provided to prospective participants to enable understand the importance of their contribution to this study. Moreover, the study relied on self-reported experiences which is prone to response bias. Future study could use qualitative method to engage professionals on their experiences and ways through which fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement in the rehabilitation processes could be expedited. Additionally, the study participants were not disaggregated according to their profession such as teachers, physiotherapists, social workers and psychologist. It is unknown as to whether different professionals would have different perceptions towards fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement in the raising of children with disabilities. Future study could examine fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement from the perspectives of a professional group across the country.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eImplication of findings for disability rehabilitation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study findings could be considered by policymakers and rehabilitation professionals. For instance, the Epstein\u0026rsquo;s model emerged as a useful framework to study fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement from the perspectives of professionals. Policymakers could use the tenets as a guide when developing a training programme for both professionals and fathers on family involvement in the rehabilitation processes. Training materials could demonstrate how fathers could support their children based on each of the tenets of the Epstein model.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, policymakers could engage fathers to gather their perspectives on involvement in a cultural context to compare it to best parenting involvement practices. This has the potential to generate useful information about fathers understanding, needs and the development of a suitable programme to promote their participation. The policy briefs emerging from such consultations could be shared with rehabilitation centres across the country to develop their awareness of involvement practices which are conterminous with the local culture and practices. Also, policymakers and management of rehabilitation institutions could train their staff on involvement and expectation from parents raising children with disabilities. The professionals will understand their role as well as what to expect from fathers raising children with disabilities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study reported here was guided by the Epstein\u0026rsquo;s involvement model to develop insight into fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement in the rehabilitation of children with disabilities from the perspectives of professionals. Family centred care model mandates that professionals and parents work together to develop children with disabilities. Most importantly, the findings provided support for tenets of Epstein\u0026rsquo;s model with interrelationship found between them. However, according to the study findings, professionals were neutral on the extent of fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement in the lives of their children with disabilities. However, demographic variables such as gender and place of work of professional added insight into the study findings. Indeed, the study has extended the literature on the perspectives of professionals involved in disability rehabilitation. The findings have shown that more needs to be done by policymakers to promote the participation of fathers in the rehabilitation processes in countries such as the UAE.\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDisclosure of interest:\u003c/strong\u003e There are no interests to declare,\u003c/p\u003e\n"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eChu, J., Leino, A.: Advancement in the maturing science of cultural adaptations of evidence-based interventions. J Consult Clin Psychol. 85, 45\u0026ndash;57 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000145\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAlmasri, N.A., Smythe, T., Hadders-Algra, M., Olusanya, B.O.: Prioritising rehabilitation in early childhood for inclusive education: a call to action. Disabil Rehabil. 45, 3155\u0026ndash;3159 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1080/09638288.2022.2118870\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOlusanya, J.O., Ubogu, O.I., Njokanma, F.O., Olusanya, B.O.: Transforming global health through equity-driven funding. Nat Med. 27, 1136\u0026ndash;1138 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-021-01422-6\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWorld Health Organisation: Rehabilitation in health systems: guide for action. World Health Organisation. (2019)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOpoku, M.P., Ashour, S., Shah, H., Alameri, S., Aldarmaki, A., Gamil, A., Alameri, R., Algheilani, F.: Lived experiences of Arabic working mothers raising children with disabilities: navigating rehabilitation and support services. . Disabil Soc. pp.1-21. (2024)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePearson, E., Opoku, M.P.: Experiences of service and diagnosis among immigrant families of young children with suspected or diagnosed developmental disabilities. Ethn Health. 29, 1036\u0026ndash;1053 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1080/13557858.2024.2402537\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePearson, E., Opoku, M.P.: \u0026lsquo;From my world to yours\u0026hellip;\u0026rsquo;: exploring the availability of social networks among parents from culturally diverse backgrounds caring for children with developmental disabilities in Australia. Psychol Health Med. 29, 386\u0026ndash;397 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2023.2229242\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAbdat, R., Opoku, M.P., Safi, M., Al Harballeh, S., Garces-Bacsal, R.M.: Virtual Training on Stress Management for the Mothers of Children with Disabilities in the United Arab Emirates. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 20, 1450 (2023). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20021450\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDirks, E., Szarkowski, A.: Family-Centered Early Intervention (FCEI) Involving Fathers and Mothers of Children Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing: Parental Involvement and Self-Efficacy. J Clin Med. 11, 492 (2022). https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11030492\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLamba, N., Van Tonder, A., Shrivastava, A., Raghavan, A.: Exploring challenges and support structures of mothers with children with Autism Spectrum Disorder in the United Arab Emirates. Res Dev Disabil. 120, 104138 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2021.104138\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAcar, S., Chen, C.-I., Xie, H.: Parental involvement in developmental disabilities across three cultures: A systematic review. Res Dev Disabil. 110, 103861 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2021.103861\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMohamed, A., Peprah Opoku, M., Almarzooqi, S., J-F, Shah, H.: Nationwide study of fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement in the rehabilitation of children with disabilities in the United Arab Emirates. Heliyon. 10, e30980 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e30980\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGabriel Ndijuye, L., Moneva, Ma.L., Dadi, N.: A longitudinal study on the predictors of early grades learning attainments in low-and-middle-income countries: Evidence from Tanzania. Child Youth Serv Rev. 166, 107923 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2024.107923\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZaidman-Zait, A., Most, T., Tarrasch, R., Haddad, E.: Mothers\u0026rsquo; and fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement in intervention programs for deaf and hard of hearing children. Disabil Rehabil. 40, 1301\u0026ndash;1309 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1080/09638288.2017.1297491\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLalvani, P.: Disability, Stigma and Otherness: Perspectives of Parents and Teachers. Intl J Disabil Dev Educ. 62, 379\u0026ndash;393 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1080/1034912X.2015.1029877\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSaracostti, M., Lara, L., Martella, D., Miranda, H., Miranda-Zapata, E.D., Reininger, T.: Influence of Family Involvement and Children\u0026rsquo;s Socioemotional Development on the Learning Outcomes of Chilean Students. Front Psychol. 10, (2019). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00335\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGertler, P., Heckman, J., Pinto, R., Zanolini, A., Vermeersch, C., Walker, S., Chang, S., Grantham-McGregor, S.: Labor Market Returns to Early Childhood Stimulation: a 20-year Followup to an Experimental Intervention in Jamaica. , Cambridge, MA (2013)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBogossian, A., King, G., Lach, L.M., Currie, M., Nicholas, D., McNeill, T., Saini, M.: (Unpacking) father involvement in the context of childhood neurodisability research: a scoping review. Disabil Rehabil. 41, 110\u0026ndash;124 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1080/09638288.2017.1370497\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZheng, Y., Maude, S.P., Brotherson, M.J., Summers, J.A., Palmer, S.B., Erwin, E.J.: Foundations for Self-Determination Perceived and Promoted by Families of Young Children with Disabilities in China. . http://www.jstor.org/stable/24827505 (2015)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMitter, N., Ali, A., Scior, K.: Stigma experienced by families of individuals with intellectual disabilities and autism: A systematic review. Res Dev Disabil. 89, 10\u0026ndash;21 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2019.03.001\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBrobst, J.B., Clopton, J.R., Hendrick, S.S.: Parenting Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders. Focus Autism Other Dev Disabl. 24, 38\u0026ndash;49 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1177/1088357608323699\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHenrich, J., Heine, S.J., Norenzayan, A.: The weirdest people in the world? Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 33, 61\u0026ndash;83 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X0999152X\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePelleboer‐Gunnink, H.A., Van Oorsouw, W.M.W.J., Van Weeghel, J., Embregts, P.J.C.M.: Mainstream health professionals\u0026rsquo; stigmatising attitudes towards people with intellectual disabilities: a systematic review. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research. 61, 411\u0026ndash;434 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1111/jir.12353\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eImray, P., Hinchcliffe, V.: Curricula for teaching children and young people with severe or profound and multiple learning difficulties: Practical strategies for educational professionals. . Routledge. (2014)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBronfenbrenner, U.: Ecological systems theory. . American Psychological Association. (2000)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eButler, A.M., Titus, C.: Systematic Review of Engagement in Culturally Adapted Parent Training for Disruptive Behavior. J Early Interv. 37, 300\u0026ndash;318 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1177/1053815115620210\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEpstein, J.L.: Searching for Equity in Education: Finding School, Family, and Community Partnerships. . In: Leaders in the Sociology of Education. Brill, Leiden, The Netherlands (2016)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEpstein, J.L.: School/family/community partnerships: Caring for the children we hare. . Phi Delta Kappan, (1995)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGoodall, J.: A framework for family engagement : Going beyond the Epstein Framework. Cylchgrawn Addysg Cymru / Wales Journal of Education. 24, (2022). https://doi.org/10.16922/wje.24.2.5\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDavys, D., Mitchell, D., Martin, R.: Fathers of people with intellectual disability: A review of the literature. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities. 21, 175\u0026ndash;196 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1177/1744629516650129\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBoyd, M.J., Iacono, T., McDonald, R.: The Perceptions of Fathers About Parenting a Child With Developmental Disability: A Scoping Review. J Policy Pract Intellect Disabil. 16, 312\u0026ndash;324 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1111/jppi.12287\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBraunstein, V.L., Peniston, N., Perelman, A., Cassano, M.C.: The inclusion of fathers in investigations of autistic spectrum disorders. Res Autism Spectr Disord. 7, 858\u0026ndash;865 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2013.03.005\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBostr\u0026ouml;m, P.K., Broberg, M.: Openness and avoidance \u0026ndash; a longitudinal study of fathers of children with intellectual disability. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research. 58, 810\u0026ndash;821 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1111/jir.12093\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFlouri, E., Buchanan, A.: Early father\u0026rsquo;s and mother\u0026rsquo;s involvement and child\u0026rsquo;s later educational outcomes. British Journal of Educational Psychology. 74, 141\u0026ndash;153 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1348/000709904773839806\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePancsofar, N., Vernon-Feagans, L.: Fathers\u0026rsquo; early contributions to children\u0026rsquo;s language development in families from low-income rural communities. Early Child Res Q. 25, 450\u0026ndash;463 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2010.02.001\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYogman, M.W., Eppel, A.M.: The Role of Fathers in Child and Family Health. In: Engaged Fatherhood for Men, Families and Gender Equality Healthcare, Social Policy, and Work Perspectives. pp. 15\u0026ndash;30 (2022)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eUpdegraff, K.A., McHale, S.M., Crouter, A.C., Kupanoff, K.: Parents\u0026rsquo; Involvement in Adolescents\u0026rsquo; Peer Relationships: A Comparison of Mothers\u0026rsquo; and Fathers\u0026rsquo; Roles. Journal of Marriage and Family. 63, 655\u0026ndash;668 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2001.00655.x\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMacDonald, E.E., Hastings, R.P.: Mindful Parenting and Care Involvement of Fathers of Children with Intellectual Disabilities. J Child Fam Stud. 19, 236\u0026ndash;240 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-008-9243-9\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMcBride, B.A., Curtiss, S.J., Uchima, K., Laxman, D.J., Santos, R.M., Weglarz-Ward, J., Dyer, Wm.J., Jeans, L.M., Kern, J.: Father Involvement in Early Intervention: Exploring the Gap Between Service Providers\u0026rsquo; Perceptions and Practices. J Early Interv. 39, 71\u0026ndash;87 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1177/1053815116686118\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eVlaskamp, C.: Ein eigen perspective, Een progamma voor mensen met ernstige meervoudige beperkingen [An own perspective. A programme for people with profound multiple disabilities]. . , Van Gorcum. (1999)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJansen, S.L.G., van der Putten, A.A.J., Post, W.J., Vlaskamp, C.: Do they agree? How parents and professionals perceive the support provided to persons with profound intellectual and multiple disabilities. J Intellect Dev Disabil. 43, 441\u0026ndash;452 (2018). https://doi.org/10.3109/13668250.2017.1287885\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNijhuis, B.J.G., Reinders-Messelink, H.A., de Bl\u0026eacute;court, A.C.E., Hitters, W.M.G.C., Groothoff, J.W., Nakken, H., Postema, K.: Family-centred care in family-specific teams. Clin Rehabil. 21, 660\u0026ndash;671 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1177/0269215507077304\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMohamed, A., Opoku, M.P., Ndijuye, L.G., Almarzooqi, S., Gyimah, E.M.: Promoting family- centred early interventions: evaluating predictors of early paternal involvement for children with disabilities in the United Arab Emirates. Int J Adolesc Youth. 30, (2025). https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2025.2494833\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLaw, J., Levickis, P., Rodr\u0026iacute;guez-Ortiz, I.R., Matić, A., Lyons, R., Messarra, C., Kouba Hreich, E., Stankova, M.: Working with the parents and families of children with developmental language disorders: An international perspective. J Commun Disord. 82, 105922 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomdis.2019.105922\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJindal, P., MacDermid, J.C., Rosenbaum, P., DiRezze, B., Narayan, A.: Perspectives on rehabilitation of children with cerebral palsy: exploring a cross-cultural view of parents from India and Canada using the international classification of functioning, disability and health. Disabil Rehabil. 40, 2745\u0026ndash;2755 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1080/09638288.2017.1356383\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDingus, D., Eckert, M., Ridge, N., Jeon, S.: The Influence of Father Involvement on Their Children\u0026rsquo;s Self-Esteem in the Arab World. J Comp Fam Stud. 53, 104\u0026ndash;130 (2022). https://doi.org/10.3138/jcfs-2021-0081\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHefnawi, A., Jeynes, W.: Parental Involvement in the UAE and in Other Moderate Arab States. In: Relational Aspects of Parental Involvement to Support Educational Outcomes. pp. 139\u0026ndash;158. Routledge, New York (2022)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOpoku, M., Mohamed, A., Almarzooqi, S., Cheikhmous, A.: The Extent and Predictors of Fathers\u0026rsquo; Involvement in the Raising of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder in the UAE. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 22, 300 (2025). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22020300\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRidge, N., Dingus, D., Han, S.: Parental Involvement and the Impact of Fathers on the Education and Career Aspirations of Emirati Youth. . (2020)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAlteneiji, E.: Value changes in gender roles: Perspectives from three generations of Emirati women. Cogent Soc Sci. 9, (2023). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2023.2184899\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDickson, M., Midraj, J., McMinn, M., Sukkar, H., Alharthi, M., Read, B.: Fathers\u0026rsquo; Experiences of Juggling Work and Family Life in Abu Dhabi Workplaces. Soc Sci. 13, 592 (2024). https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci13110592\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRidge, N.., Jeon, S., Shami, S., Chung, B.J.: The role and impact of Arab fathers. hawwa, 16(1-3), 333-361. (2018)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAl-Hassan, S.: Parental involvement in education in the Gulf region. . In: Lansford, J.E., Badahdah, A.M., and Brik, A.B. (eds.) Families and social change in the Gulf region. pp. 80\u0026ndash;95. Routledge. (2021)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMullis, I. V., Martin, M.O., Foy, P., Hooper, M.: What Makes a Good Reader: International Findings from PIRLS 2016. . (2017)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRidge, N., Jeon, S., El Asad, S.: The nature and impact of Arab father involvement in the United Arab Emirates. . (2017)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGallagher, K., Dillon, A.M., Saqr, S., Habak, C., Alramamneh, Y.: \u0026ldquo;Come back home early and read for us!\u0026rdquo; Enabling father-child shared reading in policy and practice. Front Educ (Lausanne). 10, (2025). https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2025.1529382\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFantuzzo, J., Tighe, E., Childs, S.: Family Involvement Questionnaire: A multivariate assessment of family participation in early childhood education. J Educ Psychol. 92, 367\u0026ndash;376 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.92.2.367\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eManz, P.H., Fantuzzo, J.W., Power, T.J.: Multidimensional assessment of family involvement among urban elementary students. . J Sch Psychol. 42, 461\u0026ndash;475 (2004)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eByrne, B.M.: Structural equation modelling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming. Routledge (2016)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSchumacker, R.E., Lomax, R.G.: A beginner\u0026rsquo;s guide to structural equation modeling . Routledge, New York (2016)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePallant J.: SPSS survival manual: A step by step guide to data analysis using IBM SPSS. . Open University Press. (2020)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYotyodying, S., Wild, E.: Effective family\u0026ndash;school communication for students with learning disabilities: Associations with parental involvement at home and in school. Learn Cult Soc Interact. 22, 100317 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lcsi.2019.100317\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWong, M.E., Ng, Z.J., Poon, K.: Supporting inclusive education: Negotiating home- school partnership in Singapore. . International Journal of Special Education, . 30, 119\u0026ndash;130 (2015)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Table 2","content":"\u003cp\u003eTable 2 is available in the Supplementary Files section.\u003c/p\u003e\n"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6861498/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6861498/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003ePurpose: Contemporary discussions in the field of disability rehabilitation has revolved around family-centered practice which espouse strong partnership between professionals and family to developing children with disabilities. Literature on fathers’ involvement is very limited; with professionals’ perspectives rarely explored. This study adds to the growing literature by exploring rehabilitation professionals’ assessment of fathers’ involvement in United Arab Emirates.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMaterials and Methods: The revised Family Involvement Questionnaire for Early Childhood was used for data collection. About 320 professionals working with children with disabilities were recruited. The data were subjected to confirmatory factor analysis to validate the instrument, means, multivariate analysis of variance and multiple regression.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResult: Computation of confirmatory factor analysis and configural invariance estimate supporting the validity of the instrument across different demographics. However, means scores showed that professionals were uncertain (parenting (M=3.90, SD=.62); decision-making, M= 3.63, SD = .73); communication (M = 3.77, SD = .78); collaboration (M = 2.43, SD = .78); home-support (M = 3.54, SD = .77) and volunteering (M = 3.58, SD = .90) about fathers’ involvement in the rehabilitation of children with disabilities.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConclusion: The study concludes with development of training programmes for paternal training and involvement in the rehabilitation of children with disabilities.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Professionals’ assessment of fathers’ involvement in the rehabilitation of children with disabilities in early years of development in the United Arab Emirates","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-06-25 10:18:31","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6861498/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"ee9ffb34-5fce-43d0-b5e1-c67acb4d1a44","owner":[],"postedDate":"June 25th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-06-25T10:18:31+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-06-25 10:18:31","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6861498","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6861498","identity":"rs-6861498","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}