Energy Efficiency and Cost Dynamics of Battery-Electric and Diesel Forklifts: A Field-Based Comparative Analysis

Energy Efficiency and Cost Dynamics of Battery-Electric and Diesel Forklifts: A Field-Based Comparative Analysis | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Energy Efficiency and Cost Dynamics of Battery-Electric and Diesel Forklifts: A Field-Based Comparative Analysis Mustafa Demir, Abdullah Demir This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9213519/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Improving energy efficiency and reducing carbon emissions in industrial logistics require a transition toward electrified material handling systems. This study provides a field-based comparative assessment of energy consumption, economic performance, and environmental impacts of a 3.5-ton Lithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePO4) battery-electric forklift (BEF) and a Euro V diesel forklift (DF) under standardized VDI 2198 test conditions. Real-time measurements over 30 operational cycles were integrated with a data-driven Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) model and stochastic risk analysis. Results indicate that the BEF achieves a 9.65-fold reduction in energy cost per cycle compared to the diesel alternative. Under intensive usage (6048 hours/year), the BEF yields annual savings of approximately €43,625, enabling payback within one year. From an environmental perspective, the BEF reduces operational carbon emissions by 81% under current grid conditions. Monte Carlo simulation further demonstrates strong economic robustness, with a 99.98% probability of lower total cost under energy price uncertainties. These findings highlight the significant role of industrial electrification in improving energy efficiency and provide practical insights for fleet transition strategies in logistics systems. Battery electric forklift Euro V diesel VDI 2198 Total cost of ownership Emission analysis Full Text Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-9213519","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":624166931,"identity":"be58b1b1-27d9-45d0-bfd2-bafb8439a05b","order_by":0,"name":"Mustafa Demir","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAyklEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFCCBBCyIV1LmgSyEGMDQS0MDIdJ0KLbnnx0w8M95+sMrh0+/OHnDgZ5frED7I8r8GgxO/Ms7UbCs9sSBrfT0iR7zzAYzpydwNh4Bp+WGzlmNxIOgLTkmDHwtjEkGNwGasHnMrMb+d+AWs6BtBh//Euclhw2oJYDIC0G0sTZcuYZyGHJkjOBfpGWbZMA+iWxcSZeLceTn938ccCOn+928uGPb9ts5Pmlkw98xKcFHYDih1BMjoJRMApGwSggCACIBVTjpamMhwAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Marmara University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mustafa","middleName":"","lastName":"Demir","suffix":""},{"id":624166932,"identity":"acb6b04c-91b7-4396-b125-c63ecc82ec68","order_by":1,"name":"Abdullah Demir","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Marmara University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Abdullah","middleName":"","lastName":"Demir","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-03-24 14:53:56","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9213519/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9213519/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":107522253,"identity":"9e92224f-79bf-46d5-93df-1e29658f3269","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-22 09:13:24","extension":"pdf","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":967329,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"EnergyEfficiencyandCostDynamicsofBatteryElectricandDieselForkliftsDiscoverenergy.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9213519/v1_covered_93cf3679-bded-4da4-a850-0a3168edc0b5.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Energy Efficiency and Cost Dynamics of Battery-Electric and Diesel Forklifts: A Field-Based Comparative Analysis","fulltext":[],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":false,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":true,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":true,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Battery electric forklift, Euro V diesel, VDI 2198, Total cost of ownership, Emission analysis","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9213519/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9213519/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eImproving energy efficiency and reducing carbon emissions in industrial logistics require a transition toward electrified material handling systems. 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