Grassroots Climate Resilience and Sustainable Agriculture: Evidence from Ranbir Singh Pura region, Jammu & Kashmir

Grassroots Climate Resilience and Sustainable Agriculture: Evidence from Ranbir Singh Pura region, Jammu & Kashmir | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Grassroots Climate Resilience and Sustainable Agriculture: Evidence from Ranbir Singh Pura region, Jammu & Kashmir Ganta Durga Rao, Binny Sharma This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6926556/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study explores the impacts of climate variability on agriculture and livelihoods in R.S. Pura, Jammu—a Basmati rice-growing region increasingly affected by heatwaves, erratic rainfall, and groundwater depletion. Using a qualitative case study approach, it draws on interviews with 60 farmers, focus group discussions, and field observations to examine farmers’ perceptions, adaptation strategies, and the role of institutional support in promoting sustainable agriculture. Findings reveal that while farmers are well aware of changing climatic conditions, their adaptation strategies—such as crop diversification, changes in sowing patterns, and organic farming—remain largely self-driven and unevenly practiced. The study finds that crop diversification toward less water-intensive crops is essential for climate resilience in R.S. Pura, but traditional practices and limited support hinder adoption. Farmers often resist adopting new crops due to risk aversion, limited awareness, lack of extension services, and the absence of assured markets. These barriers are particularly acute for small and marginal farmers, whose limited access to credit, irrigation, and institutional support makes them highly vulnerable to climate-induced risks. The study documents emerging examples of organic farming in border villages, where some farming households have shifted away from chemical-intensive practices in favor of low-input, sustainable alternatives. These transitions, though promising, face challenges such as financial constraints, certification bottlenecks, and inadequate infrastructural support. The study finds that despite the presence of assured irrigation sources such as the Ranbir Canal fed by the River Tawi, farmers in the Ranbir Singh Pura region are unable to depend on them for sustained agricultural activity due to poor maintenance and ineffective policy implementation. This has led to an increasing dependence on groundwater, which not only raises the cost of cultivation—particularly burdening small and marginal farmers—but also contributes to the rapid depletion of groundwater reserves, thereby exacerbating climate vulnerability in the region. The study concludes that effective climate adaptation in R.S. Pura requires context-specific strategies that integrate grassroots efforts with institutional support, including better extension services, rural infrastructure, climate literacy, and youth training in climate-smart agriculture. A localized, collaborative approach is key to protecting livelihoods amid growing climate risks. Climate Resilience Climate Change Adaptation Sustainable Agriculture Climate-Smart Agriculture Introduction Climate change poses a serious threat to sustainable agriculture, exacerbating hardships for those reliant on it (Mendelsohn & Dinar, 2009 ; Wreford et al., 2010 ; Rao et al., 2019 ). It adversely affects land use patterns, crop yields, farm incomes, irrigation efficiency, solar radiation, and the prevalence of pests and diseases (Mahato, 2014 ). Additionally, it intensifies long-standing challenges in agriculture, including land degradation, market volatility, rising input costs, and reduced responsiveness to inputs (Gupta & Pathak, 2016 ; Kumar & Viswanathan, 2019 ; Kumari et al., 2020 ). Globally and particularly in India, where agriculture remains the main source of livelihood for a majority of the population, these changes are alarming (Pound et al., 2018 ). Although agriculture contributes only about 15% to India’s GDP, it supports nearly 60% of the population (Bhanumurthy & Kumar, 2018 ). Mahato ( 2014 ) notes that shifts in monsoon patterns, increased incidence of extreme weather events, and pest outbreaks significantly reduce food grain productivity. Baraj et al. (2024) estimate a 3–7% decline in food grain yields with a 1°C rise in temperature. Empirical studies from institutions such as the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (TNAU), and the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) indicate that climatic variability could reduce wheat yields by 8–24% by 2050 and significantly lower productivity of rice, mustard, and potato crops (Gupta & Pathak, 2016 ; Baraj et al., 2024). Even slight deviations in rainfall and temperature impact horticulture, fisheries, and dairy productivity (Rao et al., 2019 ). This scenario poses major threats to food security and poverty alleviation, undermining progress toward Sustainable Development Goal 2—Zero Hunger. In India, over 80% of farmers are marginal or small-scale cultivators with less than two hectares of land, limiting their adaptive capacity (Gupta & Pathak, 2016 ). Climate-induced crop failures, pest attacks, and livestock diseases often force these vulnerable households into food insecurity, asset liquidation, and long-term indebtedness (UNDP, 2007; Baraj et al., 2024). To counter these threats, the Government of India launched the National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) as part of the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC). It aims to enhance productivity and profitability while ensuring sustainability through localized farming, organic practices, and efficient use of soil and water resources (Gupta & Pathak, 2016 ; Rao et al., 2019 ). Complementary initiatives include the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY), National Food Security Mission (NFSM), and National Innovations in Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) under ICAR, among others (ICAR, 2011). Adaptation practices are increasingly visible at the grassroots. In Maharashtra, farmers have shifted to drought-tolerant millets (The Hindu Business Line, 2023). In Uttarakhand, traditional Barahnaja mixed cropping is being revived for food security and ecological sustainability (Gururani et al. 2021 ). The Farm Precise app by the Watershed Organization Trust provides localized crop advisories, enhancing decision-making (WOTR, n.d). The NICRA initiative under ICAR has trained over 647,000 stakeholders and reached nearly 693,000 farmers with resilience-focused practices (FAIFA, 2025 ). In Rajasthan’s Jodhpur district, the NGO Gravis facilitated community check dam construction to combat drought (PreventionWeb, 2023). The Apatani tribe of Arunachal Pradesh practices integrated paddy–fish cultivation, preserving soil fertility and water efficiency (Sharma & Taba, 2023 ). Despite these successes, literature also reveals that top-down approaches often fail to consider local realities, resulting in suboptimal outcomes (Lone & Guroo, 2017 ). The Indian Himalayan Climate Adaptation Programme (IHCAP, 2019 ) ranked Jammu and Kashmir as the third most vulnerable Himalayan region, underscoring the need for localized, participatory approaches. In sum, while national and international frameworks provide a broad adaptation blueprint, there is a growing recognition that grassroots-level innovations—blending traditional knowledge with modern technologies—are vital for agricultural resilience, particularly in vulnerable regions like Jammu and Kashmir. Review of Literature Adaptation practices to climate change in agriculture have been widely studied across different regions and contexts. Globally and nationally, scholars such as Mendelsohn and Dinar ( 2009 ) have identified that the impact and adaptation to climate change vary significantly based on regional characteristics like temperature and precipitation. They emphasized that rain-fed farms are particularly vulnerable and recommended local-specific adaptation strategies. Wreford et al. ( 2010 ) highlighted the need for integration between individual farmer efforts and government-sponsored adaptation policies. Similarly, Singh et al. (2014) noted how socio-economic indicators and weather variability influence climate vulnerability, while Gupta and Pathak ( 2016 ) stressed the importance of climate-smart technologies and reorientation of agriculture through advanced research and policy support. Ericksen et al. ( 2009 ) and Lobell et al. ( 2011 ) argue that climate change accelerates ecological degradation, compelling the adoption of climate-resilient agricultural systems. This aligns with the concept of Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA), which seeks to integrate productivity, adaptation, and mitigation (Lipper et al., 2010 ; IPCC, 2014 ). CSA methods include ICT-based weather advisories, stress-resilient crops, rainwater harvesting, precision fertilization, and zero tillage (Aggarwal et al., 2013). FAO ( 2011 ) linked energy efficiency with agricultural adaptation and argued for better integration between the two sectors to reduce emissions. Uvaneswaran et al. (2014), Singh G ( 2010 ) and Divi et al. ( 2025 ) critically examined weather-based crop insurance schemes in India such as Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY), noting operational challenges such as low awareness, delayed claim settlements, and high costs. Tiwari et al. (2015) and the FAO ( 2019 ) stressed the hydrological consequences of climate change, which have led to crop failures, lower irrigation potential, and rural livelihood disruptions. Government schemes such as Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY), Atal Bhujal Yojana (AbhY), and National Rainfed Area Authority (NRAA) were noted as efforts toward mainstreaming climate adaptation in agriculture. Aryal et al. ( 2020 ) emphasized the need for investment and policy support for local institutions, while Kumar and Nain ( 2012 ) underlined institutional weaknesses and ICT knowledge gaps among farmers. Jain et al. ( 2019 ) and Rao et al. ( 2019 ) further contributed by listing agronomic and policy-level innovations as essential adaptation tools. Recent academic research underscores the acute vulnerability of the agricultural sector in Jammu & Kashmir to climate change and the evolving grassroots responses that attempt to build resilience. Mahdi et al. ( 2021 ), based on data from nine agro-climatic zones in Kashmir, observed a clear warming trend (~ 0.04°C/year) and declining rainfall (~ 4.5 mm/year) over four decades, yet found that only 30–35% of farmers had adopted adaptation strategies—mostly constrained by lack of institutional support, despite high demand for early warnings, timely inputs, and financial aid. Echoing these concerns, Lone et al. ( 2022 ) reported that farmers in the Kashmir Himalayas were increasingly adjusting to changing rainfall patterns, temperature variability, and pest outbreaks through strategies like crop calendar shifts and resistant varieties, but stressed the urgency for stronger policy frameworks. Koushal ( 2020 ) documented similar awareness in Reasi district of Jammu, where over 90% of farmers noted rising temperatures and reduced precipitation, prompting adaptations such as crop diversification and improved storage practices. However, financial and knowledge constraints impeded widespread resilience. In high-altitude Anantnag, Hameed et al. ( 2023 ) developed a Climate Vulnerability Index, showing that elevated regions faced greater risks due to lower adaptive capacity, emphasizing the need for altitude-specific interventions. Using Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSP2-4.5 and SSP5-8.5), Bhat et al. ( 2024 ) projected increasing climate risks and associated livelihood stress, especially in districts like Bandipora and Kupwara. At the crop level, Sheikh and Baba (2023) highlighted that erratic weather, hailstorms, and reduced snowfall disrupted apple phenology and yields, necessitating the introduction of climate-resilient cultivars and improved irrigation. In Samba district, Sharma et al. ( 2024 ) evaluated NICRA-based climate-resilient technologies and found that adoption correlated with training, access to credit, and institutional outreach—leading to improved incomes and adaptive capacities. Diversified farming approaches were studied by Mubarak et al. ( 2024 ), who showed that improved Integrated Farming Systems (IFS) significantly enhanced farm income and ecological resilience across altitudinal zones. Panotra et al. ( 2016 ), studying Rajouri district, advocated for practices like rain-fed farming, organic agriculture, value addition, and e-connectivity, while emphasizing linkages with agribusiness and research institutions to scale adaptation. Wani and Bhatt ( 2017 ) assessed the horticultural sector, revealing severe damage to apples, saffron, and walnuts due to erratic precipitation, temperature extremes, and fungal outbreaks. Ahmad et al. ( 2019 ) added that glacier retreat and declining snow cover were key drivers of vulnerability in Kashmir and Ladakh, threatening both water security and cropping cycles. Ridwan et al. ( 2023 ) emphasized the role of traditional ecological knowledge in Rajouri’s biodiversity conservation and warned that adaptation strategies must safeguard local livelihoods rather than disrupt them. Finally, climate projection studies by Parvaze et al. ( 2017 ) indicated no significant temperature rise until 2050, but forecast increased precipitation—necessitating shifts in cropping calendars and water-use planning. Together, these findings demonstrate that while awareness and local innovation exist, widespread resilience depends on context-specific planning, institutional support, knowledge exchange, and empowerment at the grassroots—particularly in vulnerable regions like R.S. Pura. Rationale and objective of the Study The Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir, reconstituted in 2019 following the bifurcation of the erstwhile state, lies in the northwestern Himalayan arc of India between 32.28°–37.06° N latitude and 72.53°–80.32° E longitude. With altitudes ranging from 220 to over 6000 meters above mean sea level, the region features varied topography and a diverse climate—ranging from subtropical conditions in Jammu to temperate zones in the Kashmir Valley. Jammu and Kashmir includes major mountain ranges such as the Siwaliks, Pir Panjal, and the Greater Himalayas. Administratively, it comprises 20 districts and covers approximately 46,000 km. The UT is geologically complex, containing rock formations from the Archean to recent alluvium, and is highly susceptible to natural disasters such as earthquakes, landslides, and floods. Snowmelt from the Himalayan glaciers feeds vital rivers like the Jhelum and Chenab, supporting agriculture and hydropower in the region. Home to a population of over 12 million (as per the 2011 Census), Jammu and Kashmir is culturally diverse and economically reliant on agriculture, horticulture, tourism, handicrafts, and hydropower. Ecologically significant, the region is part of the Himalayan global biodiversity hotspot and supports rich flora and fauna across its varying altitudinal and climatic zones (Romshoo et al. 2020 ; Dad et al. 2021 ; Dar and Gupta, 2024 ). As Jammu and Kashmir is part of the Himalayan ecosystem, it is highly vulnerable to the adverse impact of climate change. Although the region has fertile soil and irrigation sources, over 58% of the land remains rain-fed, making it vulnerable to erratic climate events. The average landholding size here is just 0.66 hectares, significantly below the national average (Raina, 2019 ). Climatic shocks have led to crop yield reductions, pest invasions, and a shift from paddy to orchard farming, threatening food security (Wani & Bhatt, 2017 ; Ahmed et al., 2019). Despite having a favourable climate, Jammu and Kashmir experiences low agriculture productivity levels which results in huge disparities in production and consumption (Kumar & Nain, 2012 ). Government of Jammu and Kashmir prepared a State Action Plan for addressing climate change. Especially, the Sustainable Agriculture Mission of the Action Plan aims to undermine the impact of climate change both through adaptation and mitigation measures and thereby enhance the sustainability of the agriculture (Department of Ecology, Environment & Remote Sensing, 2014). R.S. Pura, a tehsil in Jammu District renowned for its Basmati rice, is increasingly affected by unseasonal rainfall, heatwaves, groundwater depletion, and pest outbreaks (Abrol et al. 2015 ; Raina, 2019 ; Verma & Sudan, 2021 ). Despite the presence of Ranbir Canal and tube wells, inefficient irrigation practices, weak extension services, and a lack of access to timely climate information undermine farmers’ resilience. Kumar & Nain ( 2012 ) found that the cultivators of paddy and wheat during kharif and rabi seasons in R.S. Pura region of Jammu District are facing severe constraints such as low yields, non-availability of fertilizers, lack of credit facilities and institutional linkages, lack of knowledge about improved varieties, lack of market intelligence, high transportation costs and less selling price. The authors also found that lack of ICT knowledge on the part of farmers and the absence of institutional knowledge dissemination and capacity building among farmers are the major reasons for the constraints. Especially majority of the conservative farmers are still using their own seeds for sowing which may not be climate resilient and hence result in low yields. The authors suggest that government should take interventions to encourage farmers for seed replacement. Further challenges include minimal youth engagement, gender disparities in decision-making, and poor outreach of government schemes. Against this backdrop, the present study aims to explore how climate change impacts agriculture and livelihoods in R.S. Pura and to evaluate both community-driven and state-supported adaptation practices. The ultimate goal is to inform context-specific, grassroots-level policy frameworks to build long-term agricultural resilience. Methodology of the Study The study follows a qualitative case study approach, focusing on the R.S. Pura region of Jammu District, Jammu and Kashmir. This design allows for an in-depth exploration of farmers' experiences, perceptions, and practices related to climate change and agricultural adaptation. R.S. Pura is one of the four tehsils of the Jammu District, which consists of 194 villages. R.S. Pura is divided into three blocks: Miran Sahib, R.S, Pura and Suchetgarh. The research was conducted in the selected villages of R.S. Pura, Suchetgarh, and Miran Sahib blocks of Jammu district, including villages such as Talhar, Badayal Brahmana, Chak Prema, Chak Mula, Kalyana, Khour, Tanda, Kullian, Qaderpur, and Sai Khurd. These areas were selected based on their high dependence on agriculture and visible impacts of climate change. A purposive sampling method was used to identify the respondents representing different villages and socio-economic backgrounds. Respondents included small, marginal, and medium to large-scale farmers, ensuring diversity of perspectives. Primary data were collected from a total of 60 respondents, with the sample size determined based on the principle of data saturation. Data were collected through in-depth interviews with farmers, focused group discussions (FGDs) in the villages mentioned above and field observations regarding irrigation practices, crop conditions, and physical environment. All interviews and discussions were audio-recorded with consent. Detailed field notes were maintained. The study was conducted in the year 2024 in three phases for a period of three months from July to September. Data were transcribed verbatim and translated into English for analysis. A thematic content analysis approach was adopted to identify recurring patterns and themes from the narratives. Data coding was done manually and through NVivo software to enhance rigor and manageability. Results and Discussion The responses of the respondents have been categorised into four themes i.e. demographic characteristics and perception of agricultural engagement; perception of climate change and its impacts on local agriculture and livelihood; climate change adaptation practices at the community level; and government-support in climate change adaptation practices. Several sub-themes have been identified within the main themes and discussed as follows. Demographic characteristics and perception of agricultural engagement The demographic profile of the respondents in the R.S. Pura region reveals key patterns shaping local agricultural practices and perceptions. Most of the farmers interviewed were aged 40 and above, suggesting that farming in this region is largely carried out by the older generation. Youth participation in agriculture appears to be significantly limited. In various interviews, younger community members expressed reluctance toward farming, citing high risk, low income, and uncertainty in agricultural returns as major deterrents. Gender dynamics in the farming community present another critical insight. All the primary respondents were male, highlighting a complete absence of women in formal agricultural decision-making roles. However, it was consistently reported that women contribute significantly through household labor and dairy-related activities, indicating their involvement in the informal or unrecognized segments of the agricultural system. In terms of educational attainment, most respondents had only completed primary or secondary school. A few were illiterate, and none had attained higher education. This limited formal education has implications for access to modern farming techniques, understanding of climate-related information, and engagement with government schemes and digital platforms. These findings point to a generational and gendered divide in agricultural roles, along with an education gap that may further constrain adaptive capacity in the face of climate change. Farmers’ narratives collectively illustrate a landscape where traditional knowledge dominates and formal literacy and youth engagement remain minimal. The analysis of the household structure and income sources among the farming families in the R.S. Pura region reveals a predominance of nuclear families, with most households comprising five or fewer members. This compact family structure may influence labor availability for agriculture, especially as fewer members are available to participate in farming activities. Agriculture continues to be the main source of income for the majority of these families. Despite this economic dependency, there is a noticeable lack of enthusiasm among the younger generation toward pursuing agriculture as a sustainable livelihood. Respondents under the age of 30 expressed that farming is often viewed as a last resort—a fallback in the absence of better alternatives. Their reluctance stems from the perceived risks and unpredictability of farming, which offer low and uncertain returns despite intensive labor and investment. One poignant expression of this disillusionment came from a young farmer in Talhar village, Suchetgarh block, who shared: " We are ready to do even small jobs in an urban area for earning, but we will not continue in agricultural activities as it is very difficult to work in agriculture like our parents. Our parents put hundred percent of their efforts and finances and get low and uncertain income in return. This situation made us not to think of continuing in agricultural activities." This statement illustrates a growing aspirational shift among rural youth, where even minimal urban employment is preferred over the struggles and economic vulnerabilities associated with traditional agriculture. These insights point to a broader trend of agrarian disengagement, driven by structural limitations and diminishing hope in farming as a viable employment avenue. Perception of climate change and its impacts on local agriculture and livelihood Farmers across the study region expressed consistent awareness of changes in climatic patterns over the past three decades. The majority of farmers were found to be dependent on traditional knowledge and personal experience to interpret weather patterns. From the responses of majority of farmers, it was evident that 60% relied entirely on personal observation, rather than modern meteorological tools, to guide agricultural decisions. As a farmer from Sai Khurd village, Suchetgarh block stated: I only relied on my experience for weather-related prediction. I am not familiar with the modern applications or softwares of the weather forecasting and entirely depend on traditional knowledge e.g., appearance and disappearance of insects and reptiles, behaviour of birds and animals etc. While 40% of farmers reported accessing weather-related information through technical sources like the Internet, radio, or newspapers, they lacked the skills or awareness to apply such information effectively to protect their crops. This reveals a gap in both digital literacy and practical training on how to translate weather forecasts into farm-level adaptation strategies. A farmer from Chak Mula, Suchetgarh block, expressed doubt over the reliability and utility of modern tools: “Information from climate-related applications sometimes goes wrong.” There is a widespread perception among respondents that climate change has significantly altered local weather conditions, including a rise in mean temperature, erratic rainfall, increased humidity, groundwater depletion and a surge in extreme climate events and pest attacks. One specific problem faced by the farmers of R.S Pura region is the irrigation crisis due to groundwater depletion. Despite the presence of natural water sources like the Tawi river and its canals, government-imposed restrictions and lack of canal maintenance have prevented farmers from utilizing these sustainable sources of irrigation and forced them to heavily rely on groundwater sources. Respondents from Qaderpur, R.S. Pura block, shared their concern over blocked irrigation canals: “We are paying revenue for the irrigating canals every month, but the canals have been blocked for a long period due to silt and we find no other irrigation source other than the groundwater and rainfall.” Farmers from Khour village, Miran Sahib block, added that the Ranbir canal, a key source of irrigation in the past, has become ineffective: “The ‘Ranbir canal’ is getting choked with solid waste and authorities never take initiatives to clean it.” Similar sentiments were echoed by farmers from Chak Prema village, who reported neglect of local irrigation infrastructure. Majority of farmers rely heavily on tube wells as their primary source of irrigation which in turn led to a marked decline in groundwater levels, attributing it primarily to excessive extraction for irrigation purposes. The respondents revealed that groundwater levels have been receding consistently, with varying depths recorded across different blocks — 15 to 40 ft in R.S. Pura, 20 to 60 ft in Miran Sahib, and 20 to 70 ft in Suchetgarh. This alarming rate of depletion has created serious concerns among farmers. Farmers acknowledge that this unsustainable usage of groundwater is becoming increasingly expensive and inefficient, especially for those whose farmlands are fragmented or located at distant locations. One respondent from Badayal Brahmana village, R.S. Pura block, expressed concerns about the growing inefficiency and cost associated with tube well irrigation. He stated: “It is getting expensive, inefficient, and unsustainable to use tube well to irrigate every farm as our farmlands are located at different places.” One respondent from Kalyana village in Block R.S. Pura noted how the decline in groundwater has impaired agricultural productivity despite the area's fertile soil: “The land is very fertile but due to the decrease in groundwater level, we are unable to irrigate our land optimally which subsequently affected the crop yield and our subsistence.” The overall picture is one of rising vulnerability due to unsustainable groundwater use, declining public infrastructure, and restricted access to natural water resources—all of which severely impact agricultural productivity and sustainability in the region. All respondents across R.S. Pura, Suchetgarh, and Miran Sahib blocks unanimously reported experiencing extreme climatic events such as hailstorms, excessive heat, and unseasonal rains, which directly damage their crops, increase uncertainty and cause insecurity. A paddy farmer from Tanda village, R.S. Pura block, shared a devastating experience: “We were expecting a better yield last time, but sudden hailstorm damaged our entire crop which was about to be harvested. The loss was 100 percent.” Similarly, a farmer from Kullian village, Miran Sahib block, described the impact of rising temperatures: “Our entire wheat crop was adversely impacted due to the high temperature. Grains could not grow fully due to heat. As a result, we experienced huge losses in the crop production of our entire area.” These narratives underline how sudden climatic shocks in terms of due to untimely rain, hailstorms, and pest attacks at the final stage of crop production—particularly during harvest time—damage the yield, compounding the economic vulnerability of small and marginal farmers. A prominent concern that emerged was the shortening of the harvesting period by 15 to 30 days, particularly in the Rabi season, due to early drying and heatwaves. This forces them to harvest crops prematurely, leading to shriveled grains, moisture loss, and dry yield, ultimately reducing productivity. One farmer summarized the struggle: “We had to harvest our wheat early, and the grains didn’t grow properly. The yield looked full, but it was all shriveled and dry. It is a total loss.” There was a widespread consensus among a vast majority of farmers that pest infestations and crop diseases have increased significantly over the past decade. Interestingly, some divergence in experience was observed among those adopting organic farming. Farmers from Talhar village, Suchetgarh block, practicing organic methods, reported fewer pest infestations and lower incidence of crop disease, as compared to others. This suggests a possible correlation between farming practices and crop vulnerability, which could be explored further. A vast majority of respondents expressed concern over the decline in farm income over the past 10 years, attributing it to climate change, unpredictable weather, input cost inflation, and frequent crop failures. Farmers shared that input costs (seeds, fertilizers, pesticides) have increased sharply but returns have remained stagnant or even declined in some years due to losses caused by extreme weather events or pest attacks. A farmer from Gharana village in Suchetgarh block poignantly said: “Now there is no profitability in agriculture. Every year, we are at risk—sometimes due to rains, sometimes due to heat. How can we sustain ourselves if income is uncertain?” Some small and marginal farmers reported that they had to borrow money to meet farming costs due to unpredictable returns. Others pointed to increased dependence on non-farm income sources, particularly among the youth. Climate change adaptation practices at the community level The responses from farmers across the R.S Pura region revealed a spectrum of adaptation practices shaped by environmental challenges, institutional limitations, and traditional wisdom. These practices ranged from infrastructural needs and external support mechanisms to self-driven behavioral and agricultural innovations. Although fragmented and inconsistent, these community-level strategies reflect evolving understandings of climate resilience. Soil and water conservation practices : Though not widespread, a few progressive farmers implemented organic and conservation techniques such as mulching and composting. One such farmer from R.S. Pura said: “ We try to protect soil moisture by leaving crop residue. We learned this from an NGO workshop .” However, the overall adoption remained low, signaling the need for sustained capacity-building efforts. Also, majority of farmers are not aware of water conservation techniques like drip irrigation, rainwater harvesting, irrigation scheduling, and the use of drought-resistant crops. Majority of farmers are of the opinion that farmers' capacity to cope with climate stress was assured irrigation availability as it significantly mitigates the risks associated with erratic rainfall and rising temperatures. A farmer from Pargwal village noted: “ Where there is good irrigation facility, we can survive the heat and delay in rainfall. But most of us still depend on rainfall .” Farmers with tube wells or canal access reported less damage during dry spells compared to those practicing purely rain-fed agriculture. This disparity highlights the urgent need for investment in irrigation infrastructure as a core adaptation strategy. Traditional knowledge and crop diversification : Some older farmers were observed reviving traditional knowledge systems as a practical coping mechanism. For example, intercropping and growing low-risk crops were increasingly adopted to mitigate financial risk. As shared by a farmer from Suchetgarh village: “ We have started mixing millets with wheat or growing mustard on the side. It doesn’t give high return but reduces total loss .” This approach reflects a pragmatic adaptation built on ecological familiarity and resource constraints rather than formal training. Change in cropping patterns and timings : Many respondents shared that they had adapted their agricultural calendars in response to changing seasonal patterns. Altering sowing and harvesting times has become an intuitive response to climate shifts. A farmer from Talhar village explained: “ We now sow wheat earlier than before. The winter comes late, and summer hits early. Delaying sowing even by a week can reduce yield .” This adaptation is largely experiential and context-specific, indicating that localized extension services could amplify such strategies with scientific backing. Timely weather information : The availability and accuracy of weather forecasts were another major concern. Farmers expressed that access to early warnings could enable timely decision-making. A respondent from Makwal village shared: “ If we get a proper forecast 5–7 days in advance, we can save our crops from hail or heavy rain. Right now, we rely on guesswork .” Despite the availability of government SMS alerts, many farmers distrusted their accuracy or did not know how to use them effectively, indicating a gap in digital literacy and outreach. Livelihood diversification : Given the uncertainties in farming, families were increasingly diversifying livelihoods. Younger members in particular sought employment in non-farm sectors to buffer household income. As a respondent from Flora village shared: “ My son is working in Jammu city. We can't rely only on agriculture now .” This shift points to a reconfiguration of rural economies, where agriculture is no longer the sole or even the primary source of income for many households. Crop insurance and government support : While farmers were aware of crop insurance schemes, they were often disillusioned by the procedural delays and inadequate compensation. A farmer from Gharana village remarked: “ Even when we apply for compensation, it takes too long. And the amount we receive is not even 10% of our actual loss .” The sentiment points to a breakdown in institutional trust, where policy intentions fail to translate into meaningful ground-level support. Respondents recommended streamlining the claim process and ensuring timely disbursal to enhance credibility and uptake. Government-support in climate change adaptation practices The analysis of farmer responses reveals both the potential and the limitations of government-support in climate adaptation practices in the study area. While there is an awareness of existing schemes and some appreciation for institutional support, there remains a significant gap between policy design and grassroots execution. Respondents shared a mixed experience with government departments, panchayats, and cooperatives, and articulated specific expectations that could bridge the current disconnect. Role of government departments and extension services : The Agriculture Department, which is expected to be at the forefront of climate adaptation efforts, received mixed feedback from farmers. While input subsidies and seed distribution were acknowledged, the lack of proactive field engagement was a consistent concern. A respondent from Chakroi village highlighted: “They come only during festivals or when some survey is going on. Real help is missing when crops are damaged .” This reflects a pattern of reactive rather than preventive engagement, undermining the department's role in enabling timely adaptation. Role of panchayats and cooperatives : Panchayats were generally seen as accessible local bodies but with limited power to act decisively. They served more as listening platforms than as effective intervention agents. As one farmer from Kotli Mian Fateh village noted: “ Our sarpanch tried to raise our issue in the block meeting, but nothing happened. Still, they at least listen.” Where cooperatives existed, they offered practical benefits like collective procurement of agricultural inputs. However, their coverage and influence were minimal, indicating a need for scaling such decentralized models. Lack of climate-specific institutional outreach : A major gap in institutional efforts was the absence of climate-focused agricultural guidance. Most farmers reported that they had never received formal training or advice on climate-resilient farming methods. This exposed a critical disconnect between top-down climate adaptation policies and bottom-up realities. Climate information and advisories remain a missing link in extension services. Demand for timely and tailored support : Farmers strongly emphasized the need for real-time, situation-specific government support, particularly during climatic disruptions. Paperwork delays and poor responsiveness eroded their faith in public schemes. A respondent from Badyal Brahmana village articulated this sentiment: “ We want real-time help, not paperwork. What’s the use of schemes if they don’t reach us when needed ?” This call for urgency and relevance underscores the need to redesign institutional delivery mechanisms to be farmer-centric and climate-responsive. Infrastructure and market support : Infrastructure development emerged as a high-priority demand. Inadequate irrigation and lack of storage were directly linked to vulnerability and post-harvest losses. A farmer from Sai Khurd village explained: “ Rain destroys our crops; if we had proper irrigation and storage, at least we could reduce losses .” Furthermore, the absence of assured markets and fair pricing added economic insecurity to the climate risk already faced by farmers. Capacity building and youth engagement : A recurring concern was the disengagement of rural youth from agriculture, attributed largely to its perceived risks and low returns. Respondents recommended targeted skill-building and education in climate-smart agriculture to retain youth in the sector. A farmer from Gharana village observed: “ If youth get proper training and support, they may stay in farming. Right now, they see only struggle and loss .” This highlights a critical gap and an opportunity: transforming youth into climate-literate stakeholders through institutional investment in training, innovation hubs, and incentives. While government institutions are recognized as potential enablers of climate resilience, their current role is fragmented and inconsistent. Addressing the mismatch between policy intent and delivery on the ground—through timely support, infrastructure, capacity-building, and local engagement—can make institutional support a pillar of adaptive capacity for climate-vulnerable farming communities. Conclusion The findings from the study reveal that climate change is not a remote environmental concern but an immediate threat, directly impacting agriculture, livelihoods, and the socio-economic fabric of rural communities of R.S. Pura region of Jammu and Kashmir. Farmers in this region are experiencing the brunt of rising temperatures, erratic rainfall, groundwater depletion, and increased pest attacks—leading to reduced yields, crop failures, and declining income. These challenges are compounded by institutional gaps, low digital literacy, limited access to climate-resilient inputs, and weak engagement of youth in agriculture. Despite these adversities, the study identifies a range of grassroots adaptation practices, from traditional cropping techniques and organic farming to livelihood diversification and altered sowing patterns. The Suchetgarh Organic Basmati Rice Cluster in R.S. Pura, initiated in 2012 by the Department of Agriculture, Jammu Division, offers a compelling example of grassroots climate resilience and sustainable agriculture. The region’s fertile soil, irrigation from the Ranbir Canal, and favorable climatic conditions naturally support Basmati cultivation. However, long-term use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides had led to soil degradation, groundwater contamination, and export rejections due to chemical residues. These environmental and economic concerns prompted a shift toward organic practices. The organic cluster now includes around 700 farmer families across three border villages, with certification facilitated through the Participatory Guarantee System (PGS). While this transition reflects community-level innovation and institutional support, key challenges persist, including limited irrigation infrastructure and financial constraints faced by marginal farmers. Despite these issues, the cluster has enhanced farmers’ income potential—organic Basmati fetches up to 25% higher prices—and supports ecological benefits, such as improved soil health and biodiversity conservation, especially near the Gharana wetland. This model demonstrates how localized, low-input, and participatory approaches can enhance both environmental sustainability and economic resilience, offering valuable lessons for scaling climate-resilient agriculture in other vulnerable regions (Singh & Kumar, 2018 ). However, such responses remain fragmented and often insufficient without robust institutional backing. Government initiatives—while numerous on paper—struggle with implementation bottlenecks, inadequate extension services, poor infrastructure, and procedural delays that erode farmers’ trust. The study finds that despite the presence of assured irrigation sources such as the Ranbir Canal fed by the River Tawi, farmers in the Ranbir Singh Pura region are unable to depend on them for sustained agricultural activity due to poor maintenance and ineffective policy implementation. This has led to an increasing dependence on groundwater, which not only raises the cost of cultivation—particularly burdening small and marginal farmers—but also contributes to the rapid depletion of groundwater reserves, thereby exacerbating climate vulnerability in the region. The study finds that small and marginal farmers are highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change on agriculture, and their ability to cope with or adapt to these changes is significantly constrained. The findings of Kachroo et al. ( 2015 ) and Verma and Sudan ( 2021 ) reinforce this argument, highlighting how climate change adversely affects low-resource farmers, including those in the R.S. Pura region, by reducing crop yields, increasing livestock mortality, and exacerbating food insecurity. Although some farmers adopt climate-smart practices, they often face structural challenges such as inadequate irrigation and limited access to credit. Verma and Sudan emphasize the importance of integrating adaptation into development planning, arguing that targeted institutional support—such as training, certification, and market facilitation—can play a vital role in strengthening grassroots resilience among marginalized farming communities. The study highlights the urgent need for government intervention to promote crop diversification as a strategic response to escalating water stress in the Ranbir Singh Pura region. This was also supported by Kumar et al. ( 2023 ) in their study on energy consumption pattern in the paddy cultivation in the R.S. Pura region. They argued that the use of irrigation, electricity and fertilizers is quite high and inefficient for producing rice which can cause adverse effect on ecosystem. Moving away from traditional water-intensive crops such as paddy and wheat toward more sustainable, less water-demanding alternatives like millets (e.g., finger millet, pearl millet), pulses (e.g., moong, urad, lentils), oilseeds (e.g., mustard, sesame), and vegetables (e.g., okra, brinjal, and gourds) can significantly reduce pressure on water resources while enhancing climate resilience. However, this transition is constrained by the deeply rooted conservative farming practices in the region. Farmers often resist adopting new crops due to risk aversion, limited awareness, lack of extension services, and absence of assured markets. To address this challenge, policy interventions must include awareness campaigns, training programs, input subsidies, and market linkages to encourage experimentation with climate-smart agriculture and ensure long-term sustainability in the face of climate change. Empowering women is essential for building climate-resilient and sustainable agriculture in the R.S. Pura region. Despite their substantial contribution to agricultural labor, women often lack access to resources, decision-making authority, and appropriate technologies. A study in Raipur and Badyal Brahmana villages of R.S. Pura (Abrol et al., 2015 ) highlights women’s critical yet underrecognized role in agriculture. While 89% of women engage in most farm activities, only 14% participate in decision-making, and few own or control land. Burdened with both farm and domestic duties, 75% report health issues and 74% cite social disruption. Despite their central role, 64% find farm work strenuous and seek women-friendly tools. These findings underscore the urgent need for gender-sensitive strategies—such as securing land rights, offering skill development programs, promoting accessible technologies, and ensuring inclusive extension services—to enhance the adaptive capacity of women farmers. Bridging these gender gaps not only advances equity but also strengthens the overall resilience and sustainability of farming systems in the face of escalating climate risks. The study underscores the urgent need for a more integrated, bottom-up, and context-specific approach to climate adaptation in agriculture. This includes improving access to timely weather advisories, strengthening irrigation and storage infrastructure, promoting climate-smart training and inputs, and fostering youth engagement through targeted incentives and skill-building programs as suggested by Kumar and Nain ( 2012 ). Above all, building adaptive capacity must move beyond token measures to ensure meaningful participation of local communities in planning and policy implementation. Declarations Funding The authors did not receive support from any organization for the submitted work. Conflicts of interest The authors declare they have no financial interests. All authors certify that they have no affiliations with or involvement in any organization or entity with any financial interest or non-financial interest in the subject matter or materials discussed in this manuscript. Clinical trial number Clinical trial number - not applicable.’ Consent to Participate Declaration All participants were informed about the purpose of the study and voluntarily agreed to participate. Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. Consent to Publish Declaration Additional informed consent was obtained from all participants for whom identifying information is included in this article. Data Availability Statement Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analysed during the current study. Ethics Declaration This study did not require formal approval from an institutional ethics committee, as it did not involve any sensitive personal data, invasive procedures, or vulnerable populations. The participants were adult farmers voluntarily participating in the study, and no questions of a sensitive or personal nature were asked. All procedures were conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of social science research and the principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki, 1964. Prior to data collection, informed consent was obtained from all participants, and their anonymity and confidentiality were strictly maintained throughout the study. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6926556","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":494873587,"identity":"b3fcbc7a-ff75-49ae-a6d8-cb7a696b5313","order_by":0,"name":"Ganta Durga Rao","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABB0lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDCCAyg8Axsgwdh4AJtKbFoYGxgK0sA0KVo+HMZiNRrgu5H7+MXPPXZy8u5njz/4YXDebm37YaAtNTbRuLRI3kg3s+x5lmxseCYvsbHH4HbytjOJQC3H0nIbcGgxuJHGZsBzgDlxY0OOYQMPUIvZAaAWxobDeLUY/jlQn7ix/41h4x+Dc8lm5x8S1ML8mOfA4cT5EjmGzTwGB+zMbhCwRfLMMzZmmQPHjQ0k3hjOljFITjC7AbQlAY9f+I6nMX98c6BaTr4/x+Djmz929mbn0x8++FBjg1MLELBJgF14AMJLBKtMwK0cBJg/gEh5qKH2+BWPglEwCkbBSAQAhmFrGGM0D18AAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Central University of Kerala","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ganta","middleName":"Durga","lastName":"Rao","suffix":""},{"id":494873588,"identity":"b80d74ce-b38d-4676-9400-afce82dbcfa1","order_by":1,"name":"Binny Sharma","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Vikaram University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Binny","middleName":"","lastName":"Sharma","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-06-19 01:53:09","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6926556/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6926556/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":88228230,"identity":"e68e852f-a589-4ad8-a1bf-e1144902388a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-04 09:07:11","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":788256,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6926556/v1/ad22a630-bd7b-4fe9-aaa2-c86842080448.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Grassroots Climate Resilience and Sustainable Agriculture: Evidence from Ranbir Singh Pura region, Jammu \u0026 Kashmir","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eClimate change poses a serious threat to sustainable agriculture, exacerbating hardships for those reliant on it (Mendelsohn \u0026amp; Dinar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Wreford et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Rao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). It adversely affects land use patterns, crop yields, farm incomes, irrigation efficiency, solar radiation, and the prevalence of pests and diseases (Mahato, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, it intensifies long-standing challenges in agriculture, including land degradation, market volatility, rising input costs, and reduced responsiveness to inputs (Gupta \u0026amp; Pathak, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Kumar \u0026amp; Viswanathan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Kumari et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGlobally and particularly in India, where agriculture remains the main source of livelihood for a majority of the population, these changes are alarming (Pound et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Although agriculture contributes only about 15% to India’s GDP, it supports nearly 60% of the population (Bhanumurthy \u0026amp; Kumar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Mahato (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) notes that shifts in monsoon patterns, increased incidence of extreme weather events, and pest outbreaks significantly reduce food grain productivity. Baraj et al. (2024) estimate a 3–7% decline in food grain yields with a 1°C rise in temperature. Empirical studies from institutions such as the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (TNAU), and the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) indicate that climatic variability could reduce wheat yields by 8–24% by 2050 and significantly lower productivity of rice, mustard, and potato crops (Gupta \u0026amp; Pathak, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Baraj et al., 2024). Even slight deviations in rainfall and temperature impact horticulture, fisheries, and dairy productivity (Rao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). This scenario poses major threats to food security and poverty alleviation, undermining progress toward Sustainable Development Goal 2—Zero Hunger.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn India, over 80% of farmers are marginal or small-scale cultivators with less than two hectares of land, limiting their adaptive capacity (Gupta \u0026amp; Pathak, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Climate-induced crop failures, pest attacks, and livestock diseases often force these vulnerable households into food insecurity, asset liquidation, and long-term indebtedness (UNDP, 2007; Baraj et al., 2024).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo counter these threats, the Government of India launched the National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) as part of the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC). It aims to enhance productivity and profitability while ensuring sustainability through localized farming, organic practices, and efficient use of soil and water resources (Gupta \u0026amp; Pathak, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Rao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Complementary initiatives include the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY), National Food Security Mission (NFSM), and National Innovations in Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) under ICAR, among others (ICAR, 2011).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdaptation practices are increasingly visible at the grassroots. In Maharashtra, farmers have shifted to drought-tolerant millets (The Hindu Business Line, 2023). In Uttarakhand, traditional Barahnaja mixed cropping is being revived for food security and ecological sustainability (Gururani et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The Farm Precise app by the Watershed Organization Trust provides localized crop advisories, enhancing decision-making (WOTR, n.d).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe NICRA initiative under ICAR has trained over 647,000 stakeholders and reached nearly 693,000 farmers with resilience-focused practices (FAIFA, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). In Rajasthan’s Jodhpur district, the NGO Gravis facilitated community check dam construction to combat drought (PreventionWeb, 2023). The Apatani tribe of Arunachal Pradesh practices integrated paddy–fish cultivation, preserving soil fertility and water efficiency (Sharma \u0026amp; Taba, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite these successes, literature also reveals that top-down approaches often fail to consider local realities, resulting in suboptimal outcomes (Lone \u0026amp; Guroo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). The Indian Himalayan Climate Adaptation Programme (IHCAP, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) ranked Jammu and Kashmir as the third most vulnerable Himalayan region, underscoring the need for localized, participatory approaches.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn sum, while national and international frameworks provide a broad adaptation blueprint, there is a growing recognition that grassroots-level innovations—blending traditional knowledge with modern technologies—are vital for agricultural resilience, particularly in vulnerable regions like Jammu and Kashmir.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eReview of Literature\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdaptation practices to climate change in agriculture have been widely studied across different regions and contexts. Globally and nationally, scholars such as Mendelsohn and Dinar (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) have identified that the impact and adaptation to climate change vary significantly based on regional characteristics like temperature and precipitation. They emphasized that rain-fed farms are particularly vulnerable and recommended local-specific adaptation strategies. Wreford et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) highlighted the need for integration between individual farmer efforts and government-sponsored adaptation policies. Similarly, Singh et al. (2014) noted how socio-economic indicators and weather variability influence climate vulnerability, while Gupta and Pathak (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) stressed the importance of climate-smart technologies and reorientation of agriculture through advanced research and policy support.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEricksen et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) and Lobell et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) argue that climate change accelerates ecological degradation, compelling the adoption of climate-resilient agricultural systems. This aligns with the concept of Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA), which seeks to integrate productivity, adaptation, and mitigation (Lipper et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; IPCC, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). CSA methods include ICT-based weather advisories, stress-resilient crops, rainwater harvesting, precision fertilization, and zero tillage (Aggarwal et al., 2013). FAO (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) linked energy efficiency with agricultural adaptation and argued for better integration between the two sectors to reduce emissions. Uvaneswaran et al. (2014), Singh G (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) and Divi et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e) critically examined weather-based crop insurance schemes in India such as Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY), noting operational challenges such as low awareness, delayed claim settlements, and high costs.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTiwari et al. (2015) and the FAO (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) stressed the hydrological consequences of climate change, which have led to crop failures, lower irrigation potential, and rural livelihood disruptions. Government schemes such as Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY), Atal Bhujal Yojana (AbhY), and National Rainfed Area Authority (NRAA) were noted as efforts toward mainstreaming climate adaptation in agriculture. Aryal et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) emphasized the need for investment and policy support for local institutions, while Kumar and Nain (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) underlined institutional weaknesses and ICT knowledge gaps among farmers. Jain et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) and Rao et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) further contributed by listing agronomic and policy-level innovations as essential adaptation tools.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRecent academic research underscores the acute vulnerability of the agricultural sector in Jammu \u0026amp; Kashmir to climate change and the evolving grassroots responses that attempt to build resilience. Mahdi et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), based on data from nine agro-climatic zones in Kashmir, observed a clear warming trend (~ 0.04°C/year) and declining rainfall (~ 4.5 mm/year) over four decades, yet found that only 30–35% of farmers had adopted adaptation strategies—mostly constrained by lack of institutional support, despite high demand for early warnings, timely inputs, and financial aid. Echoing these concerns, Lone et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) reported that farmers in the Kashmir Himalayas were increasingly adjusting to changing rainfall patterns, temperature variability, and pest outbreaks through strategies like crop calendar shifts and resistant varieties, but stressed the urgency for stronger policy frameworks.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eKoushal (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) documented similar awareness in Reasi district of Jammu, where over 90% of farmers noted rising temperatures and reduced precipitation, prompting adaptations such as crop diversification and improved storage practices. However, financial and knowledge constraints impeded widespread resilience. In high-altitude Anantnag, Hameed et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) developed a Climate Vulnerability Index, showing that elevated regions faced greater risks due to lower adaptive capacity, emphasizing the need for altitude-specific interventions. Using Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSP2-4.5 and SSP5-8.5), Bhat et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) projected increasing climate risks and associated livelihood stress, especially in districts like Bandipora and Kupwara.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAt the crop level, Sheikh and Baba (2023) highlighted that erratic weather, hailstorms, and reduced snowfall disrupted apple phenology and yields, necessitating the introduction of climate-resilient cultivars and improved irrigation. In Samba district, Sharma et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) evaluated NICRA-based climate-resilient technologies and found that adoption correlated with training, access to credit, and institutional outreach—leading to improved incomes and adaptive capacities. Diversified farming approaches were studied by Mubarak et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), who showed that improved Integrated Farming Systems (IFS) significantly enhanced farm income and ecological resilience across altitudinal zones.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePanotra et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), studying Rajouri district, advocated for practices like rain-fed farming, organic agriculture, value addition, and e-connectivity, while emphasizing linkages with agribusiness and research institutions to scale adaptation. Wani and Bhatt (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) assessed the horticultural sector, revealing severe damage to apples, saffron, and walnuts due to erratic precipitation, temperature extremes, and fungal outbreaks. Ahmad et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) added that glacier retreat and declining snow cover were key drivers of vulnerability in Kashmir and Ladakh, threatening both water security and cropping cycles. Ridwan et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) emphasized the role of traditional ecological knowledge in Rajouri’s biodiversity conservation and warned that adaptation strategies must safeguard local livelihoods rather than disrupt them.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFinally, climate projection studies by Parvaze et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) indicated no significant temperature rise until 2050, but forecast increased precipitation—necessitating shifts in cropping calendars and water-use planning. Together, these findings demonstrate that while awareness and local innovation exist, widespread resilience depends on context-specific planning, institutional support, knowledge exchange, and empowerment at the grassroots—particularly in vulnerable regions like R.S. Pura.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRationale and objective of the Study\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir, reconstituted in 2019 following the bifurcation of the erstwhile state, lies in the northwestern Himalayan arc of India between 32.28°–37.06° N latitude and 72.53°–80.32° E longitude. With altitudes ranging from 220 to over 6000 meters above mean sea level, the region features varied topography and a diverse climate—ranging from subtropical conditions in Jammu to temperate zones in the Kashmir Valley. Jammu and Kashmir includes major mountain ranges such as the Siwaliks, Pir Panjal, and the Greater Himalayas. Administratively, it comprises 20 districts and covers approximately 46,000 km. The UT is geologically complex, containing rock formations from the Archean to recent alluvium, and is highly susceptible to natural disasters such as earthquakes, landslides, and floods. Snowmelt from the Himalayan glaciers feeds vital rivers like the Jhelum and Chenab, supporting agriculture and hydropower in the region. Home to a population of over 12\u0026nbsp;million (as per the 2011 Census), Jammu and Kashmir is culturally diverse and economically reliant on agriculture, horticulture, tourism, handicrafts, and hydropower. Ecologically significant, the region is part of the Himalayan global biodiversity hotspot and supports rich flora and fauna across its varying altitudinal and climatic zones (Romshoo et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Dad et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Dar and Gupta, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs Jammu and Kashmir is part of the Himalayan ecosystem, it is highly vulnerable to the adverse impact of climate change. Although the region has fertile soil and irrigation sources, over 58% of the land remains rain-fed, making it vulnerable to erratic climate events. The average landholding size here is just 0.66 hectares, significantly below the national average (Raina, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Climatic shocks have led to crop yield reductions, pest invasions, and a shift from paddy to orchard farming, threatening food security (Wani \u0026amp; Bhatt, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Ahmed et al., 2019). Despite having a favourable climate, Jammu and Kashmir experiences low agriculture productivity levels which results in huge disparities in production and consumption (Kumar \u0026amp; Nain, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Government of Jammu and Kashmir prepared a State Action Plan for addressing climate change. Especially, the Sustainable Agriculture Mission of the Action Plan aims to undermine the impact of climate change both through adaptation and mitigation measures and thereby enhance the sustainability of the agriculture (Department of Ecology, Environment \u0026amp; Remote Sensing, 2014).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eR.S. Pura, a tehsil in Jammu District renowned for its Basmati rice, is increasingly affected by unseasonal rainfall, heatwaves, groundwater depletion, and pest outbreaks (Abrol et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Raina, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Verma \u0026amp; Sudan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Despite the presence of Ranbir Canal and tube wells, inefficient irrigation practices, weak extension services, and a lack of access to timely climate information undermine farmers’ resilience.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eKumar \u0026amp; Nain (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) found that the cultivators of paddy and wheat during kharif and rabi seasons in R.S. Pura region of Jammu District are facing severe constraints such as low yields, non-availability of fertilizers, lack of credit facilities and institutional linkages, lack of knowledge about improved varieties, lack of market intelligence, high transportation costs and less selling price. The authors also found that lack of ICT knowledge on the part of farmers and the absence of institutional knowledge dissemination and capacity building among farmers are the major reasons for the constraints. Especially majority of the conservative farmers are still using their own seeds for sowing which may not be climate resilient and hence result in low yields. The authors suggest that government should take interventions to encourage farmers for seed replacement. Further challenges include minimal youth engagement, gender disparities in decision-making, and poor outreach of government schemes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAgainst this backdrop, the present study aims to explore how climate change impacts agriculture and livelihoods in R.S. Pura and to evaluate both community-driven and state-supported adaptation practices. The ultimate goal is to inform context-specific, grassroots-level policy frameworks to build long-term agricultural resilience.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methodology of the Study","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study follows a qualitative case study approach, focusing on the R.S. Pura region of Jammu District, Jammu and Kashmir. This design allows for an in-depth exploration of farmers' experiences, perceptions, and practices related to climate change and agricultural adaptation. R.S. Pura is one of the four tehsils of the Jammu District, which consists of 194 villages. R.S. Pura is divided into three blocks: Miran Sahib, R.S, Pura and Suchetgarh. The research was conducted in the selected villages of R.S. Pura, Suchetgarh, and Miran Sahib blocks of Jammu district, including villages such as Talhar, Badayal Brahmana, Chak Prema, Chak Mula, Kalyana, Khour, Tanda, Kullian, Qaderpur, and Sai Khurd. These areas were selected based on their high dependence on agriculture and visible impacts of climate change. A purposive sampling method was used to identify the respondents representing different villages and socio-economic backgrounds. Respondents included small, marginal, and medium to large-scale farmers, ensuring diversity of perspectives. Primary data were collected from a total of 60 respondents, with the sample size determined based on the principle of data saturation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eData were collected through in-depth interviews with farmers, focused group discussions (FGDs) in the villages mentioned above and field observations regarding irrigation practices, crop conditions, and physical environment. All interviews and discussions were audio-recorded with consent. Detailed field notes were maintained. The study was conducted in the year 2024 in three phases for a period of three months from July to September. Data were transcribed verbatim and translated into English for analysis. A thematic content analysis approach was adopted to identify recurring patterns and themes from the narratives. Data coding was done manually and through NVivo software to enhance rigor and manageability.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe responses of the respondents have been categorised into four themes i.e. demographic characteristics and perception of agricultural engagement; perception of climate change and its impacts on local agriculture and livelihood; climate change adaptation practices at the community level; and government-support in climate change adaptation practices. Several sub-themes have been identified within the main themes and discussed as follows.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDemographic characteristics and perception of agricultural engagement\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe demographic profile of the respondents in the R.S. Pura region reveals key patterns shaping local agricultural practices and perceptions. Most of the farmers interviewed were aged 40 and above, suggesting that farming in this region is largely carried out by the older generation. Youth participation in agriculture appears to be significantly limited. In various interviews, younger community members expressed reluctance toward farming, citing high risk, low income, and uncertainty in agricultural returns as major deterrents.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGender dynamics in the farming community present another critical insight. All the primary respondents were male, highlighting a complete absence of women in formal agricultural decision-making roles. However, it was consistently reported that women contribute significantly through household labor and dairy-related activities, indicating their involvement in the informal or unrecognized segments of the agricultural system.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn terms of educational attainment, most respondents had only completed primary or secondary school. A few were illiterate, and none had attained higher education. This limited formal education has implications for access to modern farming techniques, understanding of climate-related information, and engagement with government schemes and digital platforms.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese findings point to a generational and gendered divide in agricultural roles, along with an education gap that may further constrain adaptive capacity in the face of climate change. Farmers\u0026rsquo; narratives collectively illustrate a landscape where traditional knowledge dominates and formal literacy and youth engagement remain minimal.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe analysis of the household structure and income sources among the farming families in the R.S. Pura region reveals a predominance of nuclear families, with most households comprising five or fewer members. This compact family structure may influence labor availability for agriculture, especially as fewer members are available to participate in farming activities. Agriculture continues to be the main source of income for the majority of these families. Despite this economic dependency, there is a noticeable lack of enthusiasm among the younger generation toward pursuing agriculture as a sustainable livelihood. Respondents under the age of 30 expressed that farming is often viewed as a last resort\u0026mdash;a fallback in the absence of better alternatives. Their reluctance stems from the perceived risks and unpredictability of farming, which offer low and uncertain returns despite intensive labor and investment. One poignant expression of this disillusionment came from a young farmer in Talhar village, Suchetgarh block, who shared:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\" We are ready to do even small jobs in an urban area for earning, but we will not continue in agricultural activities as it is very difficult to work in agriculture like our parents. Our parents put hundred percent of their efforts and finances and get low and uncertain income in return. This situation made us not to think of continuing in agricultural activities.\"\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis statement illustrates a growing aspirational shift among rural youth, where even minimal urban employment is preferred over the struggles and economic vulnerabilities associated with traditional agriculture. These insights point to a broader trend of agrarian disengagement, driven by structural limitations and diminishing hope in farming as a viable employment avenue.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePerception of climate change and its impacts on local agriculture and livelihood\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFarmers across the study region expressed consistent awareness of changes in climatic patterns over the past three decades. The majority of farmers were found to be dependent on traditional knowledge and personal experience to interpret weather patterns. From the responses of majority of farmers, it was evident that 60% relied entirely on personal observation, rather than modern meteorological tools, to guide agricultural decisions. As a farmer from Sai Khurd village, Suchetgarh block stated:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eI only relied on my experience for weather-related prediction. I am not familiar with the modern applications or softwares of the weather forecasting and entirely depend on traditional knowledge e.g., appearance and disappearance of insects and reptiles, behaviour of birds and animals etc.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhile 40% of farmers reported accessing weather-related information through technical sources like the Internet, radio, or newspapers, they lacked the skills or awareness to apply such information effectively to protect their crops. This reveals a gap in both digital literacy and practical training on how to translate weather forecasts into farm-level adaptation strategies. A farmer from Chak Mula, Suchetgarh block, expressed doubt over the reliability and utility of modern tools: \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Information from climate-related applications sometimes goes wrong.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThere is a widespread perception among respondents that climate change has significantly altered local weather conditions, including a rise in mean temperature, erratic rainfall, increased humidity, groundwater depletion and a surge in extreme climate events and pest attacks. One specific problem faced by the farmers of R.S Pura region is the irrigation crisis due to groundwater depletion. Despite the presence of natural water sources like the Tawi river and its canals, government-imposed restrictions and lack of canal maintenance have prevented farmers from utilizing these sustainable sources of irrigation and forced them to heavily rely on groundwater sources. Respondents from Qaderpur, R.S. Pura block, shared their concern over blocked irrigation canals: \u0026ldquo;We are paying revenue for the irrigating canals every month, but the canals have been blocked for a long period due to silt and we find no other irrigation source other than the groundwater and rainfall.\u0026rdquo; Farmers from Khour village, Miran Sahib block, added that the Ranbir canal, a key source of irrigation in the past, has become ineffective: \u0026ldquo;The \u0026lsquo;Ranbir canal\u0026rsquo; is getting choked with solid waste and authorities never take initiatives to clean it.\u0026rdquo; Similar sentiments were echoed by farmers from Chak Prema village, who reported neglect of local irrigation infrastructure.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMajority of farmers rely heavily on tube wells as their primary source of irrigation which in turn led to a marked decline in groundwater levels, attributing it primarily to excessive extraction for irrigation purposes. The respondents revealed that groundwater levels have been receding consistently, with varying depths recorded across different blocks \u0026mdash; 15 to 40 ft in R.S. Pura, 20 to 60 ft in Miran Sahib, and 20 to 70 ft in Suchetgarh. This alarming rate of depletion has created serious concerns among farmers. Farmers acknowledge that this unsustainable usage of groundwater is becoming increasingly expensive and inefficient, especially for those whose farmlands are fragmented or located at distant locations. One respondent from Badayal Brahmana village, R.S. Pura block, expressed concerns about the growing inefficiency and cost associated with tube well irrigation. He stated: \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;It is getting expensive, inefficient, and unsustainable to use tube well to irrigate every farm as our farmlands are located at different places.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e One respondent from Kalyana village in Block R.S. Pura noted how the decline in groundwater has impaired agricultural productivity despite the area's fertile soil: \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;The land is very fertile but due to the decrease in groundwater level, we are unable to irrigate our land optimally which subsequently affected the crop yield and our subsistence.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e The overall picture is one of rising vulnerability due to unsustainable groundwater use, declining public infrastructure, and restricted access to natural water resources\u0026mdash;all of which severely impact agricultural productivity and sustainability in the region.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll respondents across R.S. Pura, Suchetgarh, and Miran Sahib blocks unanimously reported experiencing extreme climatic events such as hailstorms, excessive heat, and unseasonal rains, which directly damage their crops, increase uncertainty and cause insecurity. A paddy farmer from Tanda village, R.S. Pura block, shared a devastating experience: \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;We were expecting a better yield last time, but sudden hailstorm damaged our entire crop which was about to be harvested. The loss was 100 percent.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e Similarly, a farmer from Kullian village, Miran Sahib block, described the impact of rising temperatures: \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Our entire wheat crop was adversely impacted due to the high temperature. Grains could not grow fully due to heat. As a result, we experienced huge losses in the crop production of our entire area.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e These narratives underline how sudden climatic shocks in terms of due to untimely rain, hailstorms, and pest attacks at the final stage of crop production\u0026mdash;particularly during harvest time\u0026mdash;damage the yield, compounding the economic vulnerability of small and marginal farmers. A prominent concern that emerged was the shortening of the harvesting period by 15 to 30 days, particularly in the Rabi season, due to early drying and heatwaves. This forces them to harvest crops prematurely, leading to shriveled grains, moisture loss, and dry yield, ultimately reducing productivity. One farmer summarized the struggle: \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;We had to harvest our wheat early, and the grains didn\u0026rsquo;t grow properly. The yield looked full, but it was all shriveled and dry. It is a total loss.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThere was a widespread consensus among a vast majority of farmers that pest infestations and crop diseases have increased significantly over the past decade. Interestingly, some divergence in experience was observed among those adopting organic farming. Farmers from Talhar village, Suchetgarh block, practicing organic methods, reported fewer pest infestations and lower incidence of crop disease, as compared to others. This suggests a possible correlation between farming practices and crop vulnerability, which could be explored further.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA vast majority of respondents expressed concern over the decline in farm income over the past 10 years, attributing it to climate change, unpredictable weather, input cost inflation, and frequent crop failures. Farmers shared that input costs (seeds, fertilizers, pesticides) have increased sharply but returns have remained stagnant or even declined in some years due to losses caused by extreme weather events or pest attacks. A farmer from Gharana village in Suchetgarh block poignantly said: \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Now there is no profitability in agriculture. Every year, we are at risk\u0026mdash;sometimes due to rains, sometimes due to heat. How can we sustain ourselves if income is uncertain?\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e Some small and marginal farmers reported that they had to borrow money to meet farming costs due to unpredictable returns. Others pointed to increased dependence on non-farm income sources, particularly among the youth.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eClimate change adaptation practices at the community level\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe responses from farmers across the R.S Pura region revealed a spectrum of adaptation practices shaped by environmental challenges, institutional limitations, and traditional wisdom. These practices ranged from infrastructural needs and external support mechanisms to self-driven behavioral and agricultural innovations. Although fragmented and inconsistent, these community-level strategies reflect evolving understandings of climate resilience.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003col\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSoil and water conservation practices\u003c/b\u003e: Though not widespread, a few progressive farmers implemented organic and conservation techniques such as mulching and composting. One such farmer from R.S. Pura said: \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eWe try to protect soil moisture by leaving crop residue. We learned this from an NGO workshop\u003c/em\u003e.\u0026rdquo; However, the overall adoption remained low, signaling the need for sustained capacity-building efforts. Also, majority of farmers are not aware of water conservation techniques like drip irrigation, rainwater harvesting, irrigation scheduling, and the use of drought-resistant crops. Majority of farmers are of the opinion that farmers' capacity to cope with climate stress was assured irrigation availability as it significantly mitigates the risks associated with erratic rainfall and rising temperatures. A farmer from Pargwal village noted: \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eWhere there is good irrigation facility, we can survive the heat and delay in rainfall. But most of us still depend on rainfall\u003c/em\u003e.\u0026rdquo; Farmers with tube wells or canal access reported less damage during dry spells compared to those practicing purely rain-fed agriculture. This disparity highlights the urgent need for investment in irrigation infrastructure as a core adaptation strategy.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTraditional knowledge and crop diversification\u003c/b\u003e: Some older farmers were observed reviving traditional knowledge systems as a practical coping mechanism. For example, intercropping and growing low-risk crops were increasingly adopted to mitigate financial risk. As shared by a farmer from Suchetgarh village: \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eWe have started mixing millets with wheat or growing mustard on the side. It doesn\u0026rsquo;t give high return but reduces total loss\u003c/em\u003e.\u0026rdquo; This approach reflects a pragmatic adaptation built on ecological familiarity and resource constraints rather than formal training.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eChange in cropping patterns and timings\u003c/b\u003e: Many respondents shared that they had adapted their agricultural calendars in response to changing seasonal patterns. Altering sowing and harvesting times has become an intuitive response to climate shifts. A farmer from Talhar village explained: \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eWe now sow wheat earlier than before. The winter comes late, and summer hits early. Delaying sowing even by a week can reduce yield\u003c/em\u003e.\u0026rdquo; This adaptation is largely experiential and context-specific, indicating that localized extension services could amplify such strategies with scientific backing.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTimely weather information\u003c/b\u003e: The availability and accuracy of weather forecasts were another major concern. Farmers expressed that access to early warnings could enable timely decision-making. A respondent from Makwal village shared: \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eIf we get a proper forecast 5\u0026ndash;7 days in advance, we can save our crops from hail or heavy rain. Right now, we rely on guesswork\u003c/em\u003e.\u0026rdquo; Despite the availability of government SMS alerts, many farmers distrusted their accuracy or did not know how to use them effectively, indicating a gap in digital literacy and outreach.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLivelihood diversification\u003c/b\u003e: Given the uncertainties in farming, families were increasingly diversifying livelihoods. Younger members in particular sought employment in non-farm sectors to buffer household income. As a respondent from Flora village shared: \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eMy son is working in Jammu city. We can't rely only on agriculture now\u003c/em\u003e.\u0026rdquo; This shift points to a reconfiguration of rural economies, where agriculture is no longer the sole or even the primary source of income for many households.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCrop insurance and government support\u003c/b\u003e: While farmers were aware of crop insurance schemes, they were often disillusioned by the procedural delays and inadequate compensation. A farmer from Gharana village remarked: \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eEven when we apply for compensation, it takes too long. And the amount we receive is not even 10% of our actual loss\u003c/em\u003e.\u0026rdquo; The sentiment points to a breakdown in institutional trust, where policy intentions fail to translate into meaningful ground-level support. Respondents recommended streamlining the claim process and ensuring timely disbursal to enhance credibility and uptake.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eGovernment-support in climate change adaptation practices\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe analysis of farmer responses reveals both the potential and the limitations of government-support in climate adaptation practices in the study area. While there is an awareness of existing schemes and some appreciation for institutional support, there remains a significant gap between policy design and grassroots execution. Respondents shared a mixed experience with government departments, panchayats, and cooperatives, and articulated specific expectations that could bridge the current disconnect.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003col\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRole of government departments and extension services\u003c/b\u003e: The Agriculture Department, which is expected to be at the forefront of climate adaptation efforts, received mixed feedback from farmers. While input subsidies and seed distribution were acknowledged, the lack of proactive field engagement was a consistent concern. A respondent from Chakroi village highlighted: \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;They come only during festivals or when some survey is going on. Real help is missing when crops are damaged\u003c/em\u003e.\u0026rdquo; This reflects a pattern of reactive rather than preventive engagement, undermining the department's role in enabling timely adaptation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRole of panchayats and cooperatives\u003c/b\u003e: Panchayats were generally seen as accessible local bodies but with limited power to act decisively. They served more as listening platforms than as effective intervention agents. As one farmer from Kotli Mian Fateh village noted: \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eOur sarpanch tried to raise our issue in the block meeting, but nothing happened. Still, they at least listen.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e Where cooperatives existed, they offered practical benefits like collective procurement of agricultural inputs. However, their coverage and influence were minimal, indicating a need for scaling such decentralized models.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLack of climate-specific institutional outreach\u003c/b\u003e: A major gap in institutional efforts was the absence of climate-focused agricultural guidance. Most farmers reported that they had never received formal training or advice on climate-resilient farming methods. This exposed a critical disconnect between top-down climate adaptation policies and bottom-up realities. Climate information and advisories remain a missing link in extension services.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDemand for timely and tailored support\u003c/b\u003e: Farmers strongly emphasized the need for real-time, situation-specific government support, particularly during climatic disruptions. Paperwork delays and poor responsiveness eroded their faith in public schemes. A respondent from Badyal Brahmana village articulated this sentiment: \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eWe want real-time help, not paperwork. What\u0026rsquo;s the use of schemes if they don\u0026rsquo;t reach us when needed\u003c/em\u003e?\u0026rdquo; This call for urgency and relevance underscores the need to redesign institutional delivery mechanisms to be farmer-centric and climate-responsive.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eInfrastructure and market support\u003c/b\u003e: Infrastructure development emerged as a high-priority demand. Inadequate irrigation and lack of storage were directly linked to vulnerability and post-harvest losses. A farmer from Sai Khurd village explained: \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eRain destroys our crops; if we had proper irrigation and storage, at least we could reduce losses\u003c/em\u003e.\u0026rdquo; Furthermore, the absence of assured markets and fair pricing added economic insecurity to the climate risk already faced by farmers.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCapacity building and youth engagement\u003c/b\u003e: A recurring concern was the disengagement of rural youth from agriculture, attributed largely to its perceived risks and low returns. Respondents recommended targeted skill-building and education in climate-smart agriculture to retain youth in the sector. A farmer from Gharana village observed: \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eIf youth get proper training and support, they may stay in farming. Right now, they see only struggle and loss\u003c/em\u003e.\u0026rdquo; This highlights a critical gap and an opportunity: transforming youth into climate-literate stakeholders through institutional investment in training, innovation hubs, and incentives.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhile government institutions are recognized as potential enablers of climate resilience, their current role is fragmented and inconsistent. Addressing the mismatch between policy intent and delivery on the ground\u0026mdash;through timely support, infrastructure, capacity-building, and local engagement\u0026mdash;can make institutional support a pillar of adaptive capacity for climate-vulnerable farming communities.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe findings from the study reveal that climate change is not a remote environmental concern but an immediate threat, directly impacting agriculture, livelihoods, and the socio-economic fabric of rural communities of R.S. Pura region of Jammu and Kashmir. Farmers in this region are experiencing the brunt of rising temperatures, erratic rainfall, groundwater depletion, and increased pest attacks\u0026mdash;leading to reduced yields, crop failures, and declining income. These challenges are compounded by institutional gaps, low digital literacy, limited access to climate-resilient inputs, and weak engagement of youth in agriculture.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite these adversities, the study identifies a range of grassroots adaptation practices, from traditional cropping techniques and organic farming to livelihood diversification and altered sowing patterns. The Suchetgarh Organic Basmati Rice Cluster in R.S. Pura, initiated in 2012 by the Department of Agriculture, Jammu Division, offers a compelling example of grassroots climate resilience and sustainable agriculture. The region\u0026rsquo;s fertile soil, irrigation from the Ranbir Canal, and favorable climatic conditions naturally support Basmati cultivation. However, long-term use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides had led to soil degradation, groundwater contamination, and export rejections due to chemical residues. These environmental and economic concerns prompted a shift toward organic practices. The organic cluster now includes around 700 farmer families across three border villages, with certification facilitated through the Participatory Guarantee System (PGS). While this transition reflects community-level innovation and institutional support, key challenges persist, including limited irrigation infrastructure and financial constraints faced by marginal farmers. Despite these issues, the cluster has enhanced farmers\u0026rsquo; income potential\u0026mdash;organic Basmati fetches up to 25% higher prices\u0026mdash;and supports ecological benefits, such as improved soil health and biodiversity conservation, especially near the Gharana wetland. This model demonstrates how localized, low-input, and participatory approaches can enhance both environmental sustainability and economic resilience, offering valuable lessons for scaling climate-resilient agriculture in other vulnerable regions (Singh \u0026amp; Kumar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). However, such responses remain fragmented and often insufficient without robust institutional backing. Government initiatives\u0026mdash;while numerous on paper\u0026mdash;struggle with implementation bottlenecks, inadequate extension services, poor infrastructure, and procedural delays that erode farmers\u0026rsquo; trust.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study finds that despite the presence of assured irrigation sources such as the Ranbir Canal fed by the River Tawi, farmers in the Ranbir Singh Pura region are unable to depend on them for sustained agricultural activity due to poor maintenance and ineffective policy implementation. This has led to an increasing dependence on groundwater, which not only raises the cost of cultivation\u0026mdash;particularly burdening small and marginal farmers\u0026mdash;but also contributes to the rapid depletion of groundwater reserves, thereby exacerbating climate vulnerability in the region.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study finds that small and marginal farmers are highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change on agriculture, and their ability to cope with or adapt to these changes is significantly constrained. The findings of Kachroo et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) and Verma and Sudan (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) reinforce this argument, highlighting how climate change adversely affects low-resource farmers, including those in the R.S. Pura region, by reducing crop yields, increasing livestock mortality, and exacerbating food insecurity. Although some farmers adopt climate-smart practices, they often face structural challenges such as inadequate irrigation and limited access to credit. Verma and Sudan emphasize the importance of integrating adaptation into development planning, arguing that targeted institutional support\u0026mdash;such as training, certification, and market facilitation\u0026mdash;can play a vital role in strengthening grassroots resilience among marginalized farming communities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study highlights the urgent need for government intervention to promote crop diversification as a strategic response to escalating water stress in the Ranbir Singh Pura region. This was also supported by Kumar et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) in their study on energy consumption pattern in the paddy cultivation in the R.S. Pura region. They argued that the use of irrigation, electricity and fertilizers is quite high and inefficient for producing rice which can cause adverse effect on ecosystem. Moving away from traditional water-intensive crops such as paddy and wheat toward more sustainable, less water-demanding alternatives like millets (e.g., finger millet, pearl millet), pulses (e.g., moong, urad, lentils), oilseeds (e.g., mustard, sesame), and vegetables (e.g., okra, brinjal, and gourds) can significantly reduce pressure on water resources while enhancing climate resilience. However, this transition is constrained by the deeply rooted conservative farming practices in the region. Farmers often resist adopting new crops due to risk aversion, limited awareness, lack of extension services, and absence of assured markets. To address this challenge, policy interventions must include awareness campaigns, training programs, input subsidies, and market linkages to encourage experimentation with climate-smart agriculture and ensure long-term sustainability in the face of climate change.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEmpowering women is essential for building climate-resilient and sustainable agriculture in the R.S. Pura region. Despite their substantial contribution to agricultural labor, women often lack access to resources, decision-making authority, and appropriate technologies. A study in Raipur and Badyal Brahmana villages of R.S. Pura (Abrol et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) highlights women\u0026rsquo;s critical yet underrecognized role in agriculture. While 89% of women engage in most farm activities, only 14% participate in decision-making, and few own or control land. Burdened with both farm and domestic duties, 75% report health issues and 74% cite social disruption. Despite their central role, 64% find farm work strenuous and seek women-friendly tools. These findings underscore the urgent need for gender-sensitive strategies\u0026mdash;such as securing land rights, offering skill development programs, promoting accessible technologies, and ensuring inclusive extension services\u0026mdash;to enhance the adaptive capacity of women farmers. Bridging these gender gaps not only advances equity but also strengthens the overall resilience and sustainability of farming systems in the face of escalating climate risks.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study underscores the urgent need for a more integrated, bottom-up, and context-specific approach to climate adaptation in agriculture. This includes improving access to timely weather advisories, strengthening irrigation and storage infrastructure, promoting climate-smart training and inputs, and fostering youth engagement through targeted incentives and skill-building programs as suggested by Kumar and Nain (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Above all, building adaptive capacity must move beyond token measures to ensure meaningful participation of local communities in planning and policy implementation.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors did not receive support from any organization for the submitted work.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflicts of interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare they have no financial interests. All authors certify that they have no affiliations with or involvement in any organization or entity with any financial interest or non-financial interest in the subject matter or materials discussed in this manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical trial number\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eClinical trial number\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;-\u003c/strong\u003e not applicable.\u0026rsquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Participate Declaration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll participants were informed about the purpose of the study and voluntarily agreed to participate. Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Publish Declaration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAdditional informed consent was obtained from all participants for whom identifying information is included in this article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability Statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics Declaration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study did not require formal approval from an institutional ethics committee, as it did not involve any sensitive personal data, invasive procedures, or vulnerable populations. The participants were adult farmers voluntarily participating in the study, and no questions of a sensitive or personal nature were asked. All procedures were conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of social science research and the principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki, 1964. Prior to data collection, informed consent was obtained from all participants, and their anonymity and confidentiality were strictly maintained throughout the study.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAbrol, P., Khar, S., Kumar, P., \u0026amp; Gupta, R. (2015). Assessing the role of farm women in agriculture: A case study of Jammu District of J\u0026amp;K State. Agro Economist, 2(2), 7\u0026ndash;12. https://doi.org/10.5958/2394-8159.2015.00012.2\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAggarwal, P. K. (2008). Global climate change and Indian agriculture: Impacts, adaptation and mitigation. 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Cambridge University Press. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg2/\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJain, A. K., Tripathi, U. N., \u0026amp; Katiyar, V. (2019). Climate change impacts on agriculture. International Journal of Research and Analytical Reviews, 6(1), xx\u0026ndash;xx.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKachroo, D., Kachroo, J., Bhat, A., Thakur, N. P., Gupta, A. K., \u0026amp; Khajuria, V. (2015). Income and livelihood issues of farmers: A field study in Jammu region of Jammu and Kashmir State. \u003cem\u003eEconomic Affairs, 60\u003c/em\u003e(2), 263\u0026ndash;268. https://doi.org/10.5958/0976-4666.2015.00046.7\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKoushal, S. (2020). Farmer\u0026rsquo;s perception of climate change and agriculture adaptation strategies in Reasi district of Jammu and Kashmir. International Journal of Pharmacognosy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2(2), 36\u0026ndash;41. https://doi.org/10.33545/27067009.2020.v2.i2a.73\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKumar, K. S. 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OECD Publishing.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-global-society","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Global Society](https://www.springer.com/journal/44282)","snPcode":"44282","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44282/3","title":"Discover Global Society","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Climate Resilience, Climate Change Adaptation, Sustainable Agriculture, Climate-Smart Agriculture","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6926556/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6926556/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study explores the impacts of climate variability on agriculture and livelihoods in R.S. Pura, Jammu\u0026mdash;a Basmati rice-growing region increasingly affected by heatwaves, erratic rainfall, and groundwater depletion. Using a qualitative case study approach, it draws on interviews with 60 farmers, focus group discussions, and field observations to examine farmers\u0026rsquo; perceptions, adaptation strategies, and the role of institutional support in promoting sustainable agriculture.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFindings reveal that while farmers are well aware of changing climatic conditions, their adaptation strategies\u0026mdash;such as crop diversification, changes in sowing patterns, and organic farming\u0026mdash;remain largely self-driven and unevenly practiced. The study finds that crop diversification toward less water-intensive crops is essential for climate resilience in R.S. Pura, but traditional practices and limited support hinder adoption. Farmers often resist adopting new crops due to risk aversion, limited awareness, lack of extension services, and the absence of assured markets. These barriers are particularly acute for small and marginal farmers, whose limited access to credit, irrigation, and institutional support makes them highly vulnerable to climate-induced risks.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study documents emerging examples of organic farming in border villages, where some farming households have shifted away from chemical-intensive practices in favor of low-input, sustainable alternatives. These transitions, though promising, face challenges such as financial constraints, certification bottlenecks, and inadequate infrastructural support.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study finds that despite the presence of assured irrigation sources such as the Ranbir Canal fed by the River Tawi, farmers in the Ranbir Singh Pura region are unable to depend on them for sustained agricultural activity due to poor maintenance and ineffective policy implementation. This has led to an increasing dependence on groundwater, which not only raises the cost of cultivation\u0026mdash;particularly burdening small and marginal farmers\u0026mdash;but also contributes to the rapid depletion of groundwater reserves, thereby exacerbating climate vulnerability in the region.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study concludes that effective climate adaptation in R.S. Pura requires context-specific strategies that integrate grassroots efforts with institutional support, including better extension services, rural infrastructure, climate literacy, and youth training in climate-smart agriculture. 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