Anxiety, Fear and Stress as Predictors of Overparenting

Anxiety, Fear and Stress as Predictors of Overparenting | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Anxiety, Fear and Stress as Predictors of Overparenting Sarah Stroud, Bonnie Nicholson, Chrissy Ammons, Jack Howard This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7538300/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Overparenting, often referred to as helicopter parenting, is characterized by developmentally inappropriate and overly involved parenting. Although it generally stems from a well-intended desire to help their child, overparenting often hinders the development of adaptive coping behaviors, effective interpersonal skills, and sense of well-being, specifically among young adult children resulting in poor distress tolerance, elevated levels of emotional distress, substance use and interpersonal difficulties. While the impacts of overparenting are a well-studied phenomenon, relatively little is known about the emotional and psychological factors that may contribute to parents’ tendency to engage in overparenting behaviors in the first place. Using a sample of 318 parents of college students, collected through Mechanical Turk, we assessed parents’ anxiety, fear, and stress as potential predictors of overparenting. Results provide preliminary evidence that parents’ anxiety, fear, and stress may be associated with overparenting, with fear associated with threats to child safety emerging as the strongest predictor. Interestingly, stress had an inverse relationship with overparenting, and we found that overparenting mediates the relationship between parental fear for child safety and parenting stress. This suggests that overparenting may be a coping mechanism designed to address experiences of fear and thereby reduce parenting stress. Implications and possible directions for future research are discussed. overparenting helicopter parenting parental anxiety parental fear parental stress Highlights Overparenting is linked to parental anxiety, fear for child safety, and stress. Parenting stress shows an inverse relationship with overparenting, suggesting complex coping dynamics. Fear for child safety is the strongest predictor of overparenting. Overparenting mediates the relationship between fear for child safety and parenting stress. Findings offer insights into interventions targeting fear to reduce overparenting behaviors. Introduction The buzzworthy phenomenon of overparenting, or ‘helicopter parenting’, has captured both headlines and scholarly attention (Padilla-Walker et al., 2021). In the context of parenting young adults, this parenting style tends to emphasize parents’ overprotection, overinvolvement, and control in their emerging adult’s life (Locke et al., 2012; Odenweller, Booth-Butterfield, & Weber, 2014; Rousseau & Scharf, 2018). Far from merely offering a helping hand, this parenting style may result in parents interfering in their child’s development of autonomy as they remove potential obstacles for their young adult and provide unsolicited problem-solving support (Schiffrin et al., 2019; Segrin et al., 2012). While overparenting has been associated with negative outcomes for emerging adults (Ciu, Hong, & Jiao, 2022; Author, 2021), far less is known about why parents engage in these behaviors in the first place. Parents today must contend with societal expectations around child safety and success, exacerbated by a 24-hour news cycle and increased social media use, which may contribute to parents’ experiences of anxiety, fear, and stress. These emotional states, under repeated and chronic exposures, may influence how adults’ parent and, in turn, affect their young adult’s development and wellbeing. Therefore, it is important to investigate possible emotional and psychological factors that might contribute to overparenting. We examined the relationship between parental anxiety, fear for their child’s as well as their own safety, parenting stress and overparenting. Overparenting Intruding and protective parenting behaviors are often intended to safeguard children against perceived dangers and may even elicit positive sentiments on part of the child in the short-term. However, when these practices extend beyond childhood, young adults may view these behaviors as intrusive and impeding their sense of autonomy, often leaving these emerging adults ill-equipped to transition into adulthood in a healthy way (Odenweller et al., 2014; Segrin et al., 2013). Even the seemingly positive attributes of overparenting such as a high level of responsiveness to a child’s needs may contribute to their young adult child’s lack of competence in problem-solving and interpersonal functioning which are essential for leading a healthy adult life. The downstream effects of overparenting on overall outcomes among young adults are extensive, affecting not only the parent-child relationships in the short-term, but also may leave children ill-equipped for positive, long-term emotional, social, and cognitive outcomes (Givertz & Segrin, 2014; Nelson, Padilla-Walker, & Nielson, 2015). Researchers have found overparenting may also be associated with the development of maladaptive coping skills, impaired interpersonal functioning, and a decreased sense of well-being in young adults (Padilla-Walker & Nelson, 2012; Segrin et al., 2012). Children’s developmental pathways and overall wellbeing tend to be influenced by their parents' experience with mental health. Research by Elgar et al. (2007) and Wu et al. (2020) demonstrate that children may be deprived of critical opportunities to adaptively respond to adversity when parents excessively shield them from experiencing challenges (Nelson, Padilla-Walker, & Nielson, 2015). Kohut (1977) referred to these opportunities as “optimal frustrations” (p. 16) and theorized that parenting characterized by protecting children against the experience of these learning opportunities may increase their risk for pathological outcomes. This may inevitably result in overparented young adults struggling to respond to stressors effectively. Likewise, this thwarting of developmentally appropriate experiences may lead to young adults’ sense of well-being (Odenweller et al., 2014) and diminished overall quality of life (LeMoyne & Buchanan, 2011). Moreover, research suggests that overparenting may lead to lower life satisfaction and higher rates of psychological distress including depression and anxiety which may further deteriorate their emotional health (Schiffrin et al., 2014; Thomasgard, 1998). These children may associate their parents' behavior with feeling overcontrolled, which in turn may lead to reduced self-esteem, low self-efficacy, and a diminished sense of personal accomplishment and sense of mastery (Givertz & Segrin, 2014; Segrin et al., 2013). Overparented children may also experience difficulty with interpersonal and social functioning. This challenge may be worsened in part by limited unstructured interactions with peers, potentially stifling their development of effective social skills (Segrin et al., 2012; Padilla-Walker & Nelson, 2012). Moreover, overparented children may struggle to form and maintain relationships throughout their lives, leading to feelings of loneliness and a lack of experience managing conflict (Segrin et al., 2015). Unsolicited parental involvement may increase children’s reliance on their parents to manage social situations, which may contribute to their difficulty in responding to and solving conflict appropriately (Jiao, Cui, & Fincham, 2024). Another line of research has drawn attention to the potential adverse effects of overparenting among college-aged students, highlighting several potential psychological and behavioral consequences. Author (2018) elaborated on these potential outcomes, concluding that overparenting in emerging adulthood may give rise to narcissistic traits in young adults which may be exacerbated by parental psychological control. They also found that overinvolvement can not only foster poor emotional health, marked by increased anxiety and depression, but might also impair effective coping. This, in turn, can increase young adults’ predisposition toward both grandiose and vulnerable forms of narcissism in addition to increased dependency and functional decline (Author, 2018). Adding another dimension, Author (2019) revealed that overparenting displayed a negative association with grit, which stands as a valuable resource and characteristic necessary for developing academic resilience and success. In contrast, positive parenting showed a positive association with grit and students’ academic performance. These results emphasize the importance of autonomy and resilience in students’ success which are characteristics that are often undermined by excessive parental involvement (Author, 2019). Relatedly, Author (2021) observed that overparenting also appeared to be associated with a decrease in the use of protective behavioral strategies in alcohol use that, in turn, may increase alcohol-related adverse outcomes among college students (Author, 2021). Given that the literature seems to suggest that overparenting can lead to difficulties for young adults in several key areas of their lives, it is surprising that we know so little about the factors which lead to the propensity toward overparenting. Therefore, we explored the possibility that parents’ anxiety, fear, and stress might lead to higher rates of overparenting based on the literature suggesting that overparenting and the over-utilization of controlling behaviors may be an attempt by parents to manage their anxiety (Segrin et al., 2013), fear (Tulloch, 2004) and stress (Brown et al., 2020). Parental Mental Health and Parenting The connection between parental mental health and parenting behaviors, in general, provides a broad foundation and suggests that, generally speaking, fear, anxiety and stress are associated with non-optimal approaches to parenting. While depression and stress (Brown et al., 2020) are most commonly identified as predictors of poor parenting, anxiety (Garst & Gagnon, 2015), fear (Locke, Campbell, & Kavanagh, 2012), and trauma (Christie et al., 2019; 2023) are also implicated as important predictors of maladaptive parenting behaviors. For example, Bögels, Lehtonen, and Restifo (2010) found that when faced with high levels of stress, parents tended to default to automatic, counterproductive parenting methods. There is a solid research base which suggests that parental mental health challenges, especially in mothers, can lead to harsh or inconsistent parenting practices. Notably, maternal depression is identified as a major predictor of such behaviors, as highlighted in a study by Kalomiris and Kiel (2016).Borre and Kliewer (2014) also found when parents feel that their own safety or that of their child’s is at risk, they may become increasingly anxious and hostile, emotions that can impact their capacity and urge to attentively supervise and emotionally connect with their child. Odenweller and colleagues (2014) provide an explanation for the link between parental mental health and parenting behaviors, suggesting that parents’ mental health might amplify their concerns about their children's vulnerability, thereby inducing the parents’ engagement in overprotective and micromanaging behaviors. Most of the research focuses on harsh or inconsistent parenting, and while this is an important construct, particularly in relation to the well-being of young children, relatively less is known about how these variables may impact the application of overparenting behaviors in general and in relation to overparenting young adult children in particular. The assumption was that stress, anxiety, and fear may be partly responsible for the inclination to over parent. Anxiety Anxiety, characterized by excessive worry and apprehension toward perceived yet non-existent threat (Rapee, 2009), can manifest in various ways that impact daily life and parenting behaviors. Individuals often cope with anxiety by developing controlling behaviors in an effort to manage the uncertainty of both their internal and external environment, hence reducing their discomfort (Kalomiris & Kiel, 2016). Unlike the clear physical threats faced by their ancestors, today's parents are bombarded with information about potential dangers from various media sources, amplifying their perception of risk in even safe contexts. Their protective instinct may translate into excessive worry and overprotective behaviors (Thomasgard et al., 1995). According to Chorpita and Barlow (1998) ,increased maternal worry may result in restrictive behaviors that limit children's independence and mobility – behaviors similar to overparenting. Similarly, parents with anxiety may also experience an enhanced sense of responsibility for their child's welfare (Gagnon & Garst, 2019; Segrin et al., 2013). Concern for their child's safety and well-being could manifest as overprotective parenting behaviors, which might limit the child’s opportunities to face and effectually manage challenges on their own. For example, Murray, Creswell, and Cooper (2009) indicated that anxious parents might adopt an overprotective parenting style, which can limit their children's experiences and discourage the development of healthy coping skills. Furthermore, there is evidence supporting the projection hypothesis which proposes that anxious parents may view their children as more vulnerable and, thus, engage in overparenting behaviors to alleviate their own discomfort or fears (Thomasgard et al., 1995). For instance, Woodruff Borden et al. (2002) observed an association between parental anxiety and perceptions of child vulnerability. This perception could lead parents to overprotect and micromanage their children, potentially limiting the child's opportunities for exploration and growth. While anxiety has been linked to parenting in previous literature (Garst et al., 2020), less research has specifically examined the impacts of parental anxiety on overparenting young adults. Therefore, one of our aims was to explore the impact of parental anxiety on overparenting behaviors in parents of emerging adult children. Fear Unlike anxiety, fear is characterized by an emotional response to an immediate threat. It is a primal, basic emotion that is critical for survival, triggering the body’s fight or flight response (Gross & Canteras, 2012). Interestingly, this evolutionary response to fear can also give rise to maladaptive behaviors such as overestimating potential risks (Foster et al., 2014), oftentimes resulting in viewing the world as dangerous or something to be avoided (Bradley-Geist & Olson-Buchanan, 2013). While researchers often examine fear in relation to physiological disorders, stress responses, and societal influences, relatively fewer studies have explored the complex connections between fear and parenting. Parenting is a complex role which naturally brings a plethora of concerns, ranging from worries about their child’s physical safety and well-being to concerns over their child’s future success (Foster et al., 2016). While moderate levels of fear serve as a biologically hard-wired protective factor, potentially allowing parents to anticipate and prepare for various challenges, excessive fear may hinder a parent’s ability to engage in healthy and adaptive behaviors in relation to parenting their children (Grupe & Nitschke, 2013). For instance, a parent who views the world as dangerous might restrict their child’s engagement in age-appropriate activities that are often critical for the child’s development (Garst, Gangnon, & Bennett, 2016). This complex relationship between fear and parenting may be influenced by various factors, including parents’ mental health. Research suggests that parents with preexisting mental health conditions are more likely to interpret the world around them through a lens of distrust and fear, potentially leading parents to overinterpret their child’s vulnerability to danger and to overestimate the prevalence of violence (Callanan, 2022; Foster, 2016; Segrin et al., 2013). In studies exploring fear of crime, methodological approaches often include items which assess participants’ fear of crime specifically, in addition to fear for their loved ones’ safety, how safe they perceive their neighborhood to be, and whether they themselves or a loved one were a victim of crime (Callanan, 2022; Tulloch, 2004). In an effort to capture the full complexity of individuals’ experience with fear, Tulloch (2004) combined data on fear of crime from parents, alluding that fear for their children's safety might be associated with broader social discourses about crime and safety. This multidimensional approach allowed the researchers to gain a more nuanced understanding into the ways parents' fears, revealing that fear for their children's safety may not be tied to specific neighborhood crime risks but could reflect more generalized anxiety-related symptoms (Tulloch, 2004). As the prevalence of stress and anxiety-related mental health conditions increases, the role of fear in parenting may become increasingly important. Therefore, one of our aims was to explore the role of parents’ fear for their own safety as well fear for their child in the context of overparenting young adult children (Intravia et al., 2017; Tulloch, 2004). Research highlights a potential association between parents’ fear and overprotection, often manifesting as unsolicited supervision, monitoring, and involvement irrespective of their child’s age (Garst et al., 2016; Tulloch, 2004; Drakulich, 2015; Foster, 2016). Although the literature points to a possible connection between the two, research has yet to investigate the relationship between parents’ fear and the construct of overparenting specifically. Therefore, we hypothesized that parents’ excessive fear may manifest itself in overparenting. Here, fear may serve as a significant motivator, encouraging parents to implement overcontrolling behaviors as they strive to protect their child from perceived dangers. Parenting Stress The existing body of literature overwhelmingly attests to the impact of stress on parenting (Lange, Callinan, & Smith, 2019). Parenting stress, defined as the subjective experience of distress resulting from the perceived imbalance between the demands of parenting and the available resources (Abidin, 1992), has been found to influence parental behavior in various dimensions (Hadjicharalambous & Demetriou, 2021). Parenting stress is commonly associated with negative parenting behaviors including increased levels of harsh discipline, irritability, less warmth, and impulsive decision-making among parents (Shenk et al., 2017), resulting in increased levels of externalizing behaviors like aggression or defiance, emotional problems, and academic struggles among young adult children (Savage et al., 2019). While much is known regarding the impacts of parenting stress on parenting behaviors, less is known about how parenting stress impacts overparenting. Brown et al. (2020) explored how stress can lead parents to adopt more controlling and overprotective strategies. Their research suggests when overwhelmed by their own stressors, parents may inadvertently channel their anxieties and worries into an excessive focus on their child's life, mistaking control for care (Brown et al., 2020; Wu et al., 2020). For example, stress associated with job loss or financial instability might be associated with parents’ hypervigilance about their child's academic performance, resulting in over-involvement in their child’s schoolwork as a way to regain a sense of control (Elgar et al., 2007). These external pressures can result in a vicious cycle, as parenting stress may lead to overparenting, which in turn can cause stress and anxiety in the child, thus further escalating the parent's stress (Kalomiris & Kiel, 2016). Parents whose stress becomes unmanageable might also revert to what Bögels, Lehtonen, and Restifo (2010) describe as "automatic, subconscious schemas”, encouraging parents’ use of counterproductive parenting methods (p. 112). For example, when parenting stress results in parents becoming increasingly frustrated, depressed, or anxious, their use of negative parenting practices ( i.e., less indicative reasoning, limiting their child’s autonomy) tends to increase (Carapito et al., 2018). Moreover, when parents perceive their stress as a direct result of their child’s behavior or interaction with their child, they may engage in overparenting as a reactionary coping mechanism. This is in line with the findings by Odenweller et al. (2014), which suggest that parents’ mental health concerns amplify their worries about their child’s vulnerability, pushing them toward more controlling and overprotective behaviors. The issue becomes compounded when considering the cascading effects on the child's development. Overparented children who are not given the space to navigate challenges become ill-equipped to manage stress, thereby setting the stage for future mental health concerns (Van Ingen et al., 2015). Given the potential negative impact parenting stress poses to both parent and child development, one of our aims was to explore the impact of stress on overparenting behaviors. Purpose of the Study In contemporary society, the phenomenon of overparenting has garnered significant attention due to its association with several negative outcomes for emerging adults including decreased emotion regulation (Author, 2019), increased substance-use (Cook, 2020), poor interpersonal skills (Scharf, Rousseau, & Bsoul, 2017), and reduced self-efficacy (Bradley-Geist & Olson-Buchanan, 2013). While much is known about the myriad of ways overparenting impacts development, relatively less is known about the factors influencing parents’ use of these overly protective and controlling parenting practices (Cui, Hong, & Jiao, 2022). Stress (Bögels, Lehtonen & Restifo, 2010) and anxiety (Rapee, 2009) have well established associations with harsh and inconsistent parenting practices but have not been examined in the context of overparenting. Both stress and anxiety share a propensity for hypervigilance, or the continuous assessment of potential danger, which may be associated with parents’ levels of fear – particularly in relation to the safety and well-being of their children. Parents confronted with these intense emotions might feel driven to adopt overparenting strategies as a means to cope, attempting to manage their own emotional distress, to shield their children from perceived threats, or both (Odenweller et al., 2014). These insights provide new research opportunities, paving the way for potential interventions aimed at reducing parental anxiety, fear, and stress and thereby possibly decreasing the use of overparenting. Given these gaps in the literature, we examined stress, anxiety, and fear as predictors of overparenting in a national sample of parents of college-aged children. We examined two research questions. First, to what degree are anxiety, fear, and stress associated with self-reported overparenting in a sample of parents of college students. We hypothesized that all three ( i.e., anxiety, fear, stress) will be positively associated with parents’ reports of overparenting. Second, we sought to examine models which elucidated the mechanisms that explain the relationships between anxiety, fear, stress and overparenting by considering overparenting a mediator in the relationships among these variables. Methods Participants and Procedures Our study was approved by the Institutional Review Board Human Subjects Protection ReviewCommittee at a midsize southern university. Participants were required to be a parent of at least one college-aged child (18-25 years old) and recruited through Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk), a crowdsourcing site that advertises surveys and other tasks requiring human intelligence. The survey link was posted on MTurk which then routed participants to Qualtrics for data collection. Following informed consent, participants were directed to the survey instruments which were presented in randomized order to reduce order effects. We implemented quality assurance checks to ensure accuracy of responding which included two instructed response questions ( i.e ., “Please select ‘always true’ for this item” and “Select ‘definitely true’ for this item.”). Of the 334 participants who initiated the survey, we excluded 11 for failing both quality assurance items. Four additional participants were excluded from the data set due to inconsistent responding and incomplete submissions. One additional case was removed as an outlier ( i.e., participant reported having 18 children). The final sample included 318 parents of at least one college-aged child with an average age of 45.36 ( SD = 6.97) for participants and an average age of 19.89 ( SD = 1.76) for their children. Participants were predominately female ( n =168; 52.3%), White ( n = 221; 69.7%) or Black/African American ( n =47, 14.8%) and identified their children as predominately male ( n =181; 56.9%). The sample included 77.9% married parents or in a domestic partnership with an average income of $75,000-$99,000 per year. Parents tended to be well educated with the greatest proportion holding a bachelor’s degree (43.4%) and represented regions across the US. Parents who reported a diagnosed mental health disorder comprised 31% of the total sample whereas 10.7% reported a diagnosed substance use disorder. Results on children based on parents’ reports indicated 13.1% of participants’ children had a current diagnosed mental health disorder while 5.4% were diagnosed with a substance-use disorder. Participants also reported on their personal as well as their child’s involvement in the criminal justice system, where 6% of parents and 2.5% of children engaged with this system at least one time. Parents reported on their chronic health conditions, where 31.5% of the sample reported having a current health diagnosis. Additionally, parents ported on their child’s chronic health conditions, where 11.5% of parents’ children had a chronic condition. 11% of children had been diagnosed with a learning disability. Parent reports on their child’s past versus current behavior problems suggests 9.6% of children had experienced behavior problems at some point whereas 5.1% were experiencing behavior problems currently. Measures Demographics Survey The demographic questionnaire was used to gather information about gender, age, race, and ethnicity of the participants as well as that of their college-aged children. Additional questions about marital status, education level, employment status, household income, religious affiliation, and attitudes towards spirituality and religion were included to provide a comprehensive understanding of the participants' backgrounds and beliefs. The survey also investigated the participants’ and their college-aged children’s health, covering areas such as chronic health conditions, learning disabilities, mental health conditions, substance use disorders, behavioral problems, and involvement in the criminal justice system. Overparenting The Overparenting Scale was used to provide an assessment of overparenting (OPS; Segrin et al., 2012; 2015). The measure consists of 39 questions on a 5-point Likert scale with items ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) which resulted in four subscale scores (Anticipatory Problem Solving, Advice/ Affect Management, Child Self-Direction, and Tangible Assistance) and an average score. The earliest version of the overparenting scale, originally included five factors (i.e., advice/affect management; anticipatory problem-solving; child self-direction; tangible assistance; risk aversion) with a total of 45 items. The fifth factor, risk aversion, was excluded due to inadequate reliability. Segrin et al. (2012) demonstrated satisfactory reliability for child self-direction (α=0.79), advice/affect management (α=0.81), anticipatory problem-solving (α=0.88), and tangible assistance (α=0.74). While the original development study provided evidence of construct validity (Segrin et al., 2012), the use of an average score versus individual subscale scores, as well as the inclusion and exclusion of particular subscales, has differed across subsequent studies (Segrin et al., 2013; Segrin et al., 2015; Rousseau & Scharf, 2015; 2018; Scharf et al., 2017). Additionally, prior research found items from four subscales to correlate significantly with one another (Rousseau & Scharf, 2015; 2018; Scharf et al., 2017). Therefore, we conducted a Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) to determine factor loadings for a single latent variable. Results of the CFA supported the use of a single, averaged score which is consistent with other researchers (Rousseau & Scharf, 2015; 2018). For the complete list of items in the Overparenting Scale (OPS), see the original development study (Segrin et al., 2012). Anxiety Parents' anxiety was assessed using the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7; Spitzer et al., 2006) which is a self-report assessment consisting of seven items that are used to quantify the intensity of symptoms throughout the past 14 days associated with generalized anxiety disorder all rated on a 4-point Likert scale from 0 (not at all) to 3 (nearly every day) resulting in a total score. Higher scores indicate greater endorsement of anxiety symptoms. The internal reliability of the scale has been determined to be satisfactory, with an internal reliability of 0.90 (Spitzer et al., 2006). Parenting Stress Parenting stress was measured using the Parental Stress Scale (PSS), developed by Berry and Jones in 1995. The instrument consists of 18 items rated on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). To compute the total score, the positive items 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 17, and 19 are reverse scored, and then, all items are summed. Higher scores reflect more parental stress. The possible range of the PSS is 18 (low stress) to 90 (high stress). Berry and Jones (1995) reported that the scores of the scale were reliable, with a coefficient α of .83 and a mean interitem correlation of .23. A 6-week test–retest correlation was .81. Fear For the purposes of this study, we developed a 12-item self -report measure based loosely on previous research completed by Intravia and colleagues (2017). Five items were included to assess parents’ fear for their safety (Fear for Self) in addition to parents’ fear for their child safety (Fear for Child). Parents were asked to rate the degree to which they feared various crime-related events including being robbed, someone breaking into their home, being sexually assaulted or raped, being beaten up or assaulted, and being murdered. In addition to assessing parents fear for themselves, parents were asked the same five questions, but rather than rating their fear for themselves, parents rated the degree to which they feared these events may happen to their child (Foster et al., 2016; Intravi et al., 2014). These items were rated on a 10-point scale from 1 (not fearful) to 10 (very fearful). Higher scores indicate a greater sense of Fear for Self and/or Fear for Child. Data Analyses The proposed research questions were tested using the regression and Advanced Mediation Models modules in JAMOVI 2.2.5 statistical package. Specifically, JAMOVI modules were employed to generate descriptive statistics, assess questionnaire reliability, check the assumptions, and perform correlational and regression analyses. An additional JAMOVI module, the GLM mediation models, was utilized for mediation analyses. Preliminary investigations were performed to check the internal reliability (α) of scales and normality assumptions of variables before evaluating the hypothesized models. Skewness and kurtosis values were used to assess the applicability of the assumption of normality (skewness and kurtosis ≤ |2|). To ensure an average score could be used for OPS, a confirmatory factor analysis was performed by fitting a four-factor model to the data (Segrin et al., 2012; Rousseau & Scharf, 2018). Pearson correlations examined the relationships among study variables. Scores on GAD-7, Fear-Self, Fear- Child and PSS were entered as independent variables in predicting OPS. Next, two mediation analyses were carried out to identify if OPS played a mediating role in the associations between GAD-7, Fear – Self, Fear - Child, and PSS (Gallucci, 2020). We used a bootstrap procedure with 1000 resamples to identify the indirect effects to estimate 95% confidence (Preacher & Hayes, 2008). Results Similar to studies using the OPS (Segrin et al., 2012; 2013; 2015), we used confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) assess whether the data from the measurement model loaded onto the hypothesized single latent variable, OPS (Segrin, Jiao, & Cooper, 2022). The model consisted of four factors comprised of the four subscales most commonly used in previous research: anticipatory problem solving, advice/affect management, child self-direction, and tangible assistance (Segrin et al., 2012; 2013; 2015). The fit of the measurement model was assessed using a chi-square difference test, the comparative fit index (CFI), the Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) and the root mean square of error approximation (RMSEA). Research using CFA suggests adequate CFI and TLI values tend to fall above .90 while sufficient RMSEA values tend to fall below .05. Our analysis yielded a significant chi-square value (χ2 (1, 52) = 81.9, p = .005), appropriate CFI (.983) and TLI (.974) values, and a probability of RMSEA = .0425. Each of the first-order factor loadings were found to be significant as well, p = .001, ranging from .45 to .85. The four factors loaded significantly onto the latent variable of OPS. Additionally, similar to previous studies using this measure, the four subscales were highly correlated with one another (Rousseau & Scharf, 2015; 2018). Therefore, a single measure was created by averaging item responses which was used in subsequent analyses. Means, standard deviations, and Cronbach's α’s for each measure are displayed in the table below including the OPS average score described above (see Table 1). Table1 also includes correlations for the OPS subscales for reference, although these were not included in subsequent analyses given the CFA results. Additional preliminary analyses were conducted, including Pearson correlations, indicating a significant positive relationship between PSS and Fear – Self, r (318) =.167, p = .003 as well as GAD-7, r (318) = .469, p <.001. Interestingly, PSS was significantly, yet inversely, associated with OPS, r (318) = −.324, p <.001. Fear - Child also showed a significant positive correlation with Fear – Self, r (318) = .754, p <.001, and OPS r (318) = .279, p <.001. Fear - Self was significantly and positively correlated with GAD-7, r (318) =.157, p =.005, and OPS, r (318) = .190, p <.001; although, no significant correlation between GAD-7 and OPS, r (318) = .000, p = .998, was found (see Table 1). Note. Place Table 1 here. As our initial intent was to investigate factors which may be associated with overparenting, the first research question aimed to examine possible predictors of OPS. Hypothesis 1 was assessed using a linear regression analysis which examined GAD-7, PSS, Fear - Self, Fear – Child as potential predictors (IV) of OPS (DV). Assumption testing revealed acceptable normality (Shapiro-Wilk = 0.985, p = .002), indicating the model's residuals were normally distributed. The regression model was statistically significant, explaining 21.1% of the variance in OPS, R² = .211, F(4, 311) = 9.54, p < .001. The results indicated that PSS was a significant negative predictor of OPS (β = -0.409, p < .001) and GAD-7 (β = 0.211, p < .001) and Fear - Child (β = 0.225, p = .004) were significant positive predictors of OPS. However, Fear -Self (β = 0.084, p = .285) did not significantly predict OPS and was excluded from further analyses. Considering the important insights the regression analysis provided into the relationships between GAD-7, Fear-Child, and OPS, the unexpected finding that PSS was inversely related to OPS required further investigation. Additionally, the correlations between Fear - Child, GAD-7, and PSS suggested that these emotional states might influence overparenting as a means to cope with distress particularly among parents of college students. Given the unexpected negative prediction between OPS and PSS, consideration was given as to whether OPS may be an expression of the overcontrolled behaviors commonly exhibited in anxiety and fear. The literature seems to suggest that overcontrolled behaviors may help alleviate, or mediate, symptoms of stress (Fonseca, Moreira, & Canavarro, 2020), potentially elicited by one’s response to perceived threat. Therefore, the second research question explored OPS as a potential mediator where Fear - Child serves as the predictor variable (IV) and PSS serves as the outcome variable (DV). A mediation analysis was performed to assess this potential relationship using the medmod JAMOVI package. As shown in Table 2, the mediation model indicated a significant relationship between fear-child and PSS, mediated by OPS. The direct and indirect paths assessing Fear – Child as a predictor, PSS as an outcome variable, and OPS as mediator (Fear – Child ⇒ OPS ⇒ PSS) are detailed in Table 2. Additionally, Table 2 (direct path), the effect of Fear - Child on PSS was (β = 0.125, p = 0.024), accounting for 62.5% of the total effect. Results revealed the indirect effect of Fear - Child on PSS through OPS was also significant, (β = -.075, p < .001), accounting for 37.5% of the total effect. The total effect of Fear - Child on PSS was not significant, (β = 0.05, p = .391). The path estimates demonstrate that the effect of Fear – Child on Overparenting (path a ) is significant, ( β = 0.227, z = 3.820, CI [0.004, 0.012], p < 0.001), indicating that higher levels of Fear - Child may be associated with higher rates of OPS. The effect of OPS on PSS (path b ) is also significant, ( β = - 0.330, z = - 5.999, CI [- 9.267, 4.693], p < 0.001) indicating that higher OPS may be associated with higher PSS. These findings support this hypothesis, suggesting that higher incidence of fear for one’s child (Fear – Child) is associated with higher rates of self-reported parenting stress (PSS) within this sample of college students’ parents. Note:Place Table 2 here. An additional mediation analysis was conducted to examine whether these same relationships were evident when considering anxiety (rather than Fear) as an IV, OPS as the mediator, and PSS as the DV (see Table 3). Results showed that GAD-7 was positively associated with PSS scores (β = 0.459, p < 0.001), accounting for 97.96% of the total effect. Results also indicated a non-significant indirect effect of GAD-7 on PSS through OPS, ( β = 0.01, z = 0.556, CI [-0.053, 0.092], p = 0.578) suggesting no mediating effect. The findings suggest that overparenting did not mediate the relationship between GAD-7 and PSS (see Table 3 ). Note: Place Table 3 here. Discussion Our primary aims were to explore possible predictors of overparenting by examining associations between overparenting and parents’ self-reported anxiety, parenting stress, and fear for both themselves and their child. While there is a building literature base which indicates that overparenting often results in negative outcomes in emerging adults (Odenweller et al., 2014; Segrin et al., 2015; Author, 2018), there are few studies which examine what may be associated with parents’ propensity to engage in overparenting in the first place. Our findings partially support the hypothesis that anxiety and fear, specifically fear for child safety, may be positively associated with overparenting. However, contrary to our initial hypotheses, reports of parenting stress were negatively associated with overparenting. This led to additional investigations regarding the relationship between stress and overparenting. We considered that overparenting may be one mechanism used to cope with difficult emotions and thereby impact levels of stress. Stated differently, if overparenting was used to control and compensate for intense emotions, possibly this may result in less stress (or distress) on the part of the parent. Our next steps were to empirically explore this question through mediation analyses considering fear and anxiety as common predictors of parenting stress and including overparenting as one potential mediator in this relationship. Results that fear for child safety on parenting stress was mediated by overparenting. However, interesting, this same model was not significant when we considered anxiety as we found the effect of parents’ anxiety on parenting stress was not mediated by overparenting. We found that parents who reported higher rates of anxiety symptoms tended to report more overparenting behaviors. This aligns with previous research indicating that anxiety can lead to overprotective and controlling parenting practices (Chorpita & Barlow, 1998; Murray et al., 2009). Chorpita and Barlow (1998) found that increased maternal worry often results in restrictive behaviors that limit children’s independence and mobility. Similarly, Murray et al. (2009) suggested that anxious parents may engage in overprotective parenting, thus restricting their children's experiences, autonomy, and discourage the development of healthy coping skills. Kalomiris and Kiel (2016) expanded on this by examining how maternal anxiety and physiological reactivity contribute to overprotective behaviors. They found that primiparous mothers (first-time mothers) exhibited more anxiety and higher cortisol reactivity, which were linked to increased overprotective parenting. This suggests that the physiological stress response may lead to more controlling parenting practices. This finding is further supported by the "projection hypothesis" (Thomasgard et al., 1995, p. 16) which suggests that anxious parents may view their children as more vulnerable, thereby engaging in overparenting to alleviate their own fears (Woodruff Borden et al., 2002). This may be the first study to connect anxiety with overparenting in this way. We also found that parents’ fear was associated with higher rates of overparenting. While parents’ fear for their own safety did not elicit a significant relationship with overparenting, we did find that parents’ fear for their children’s safety was significantly associated with higher rates of overparenting behaviors. This is consistent with theories suggesting that fear can trigger overcontrolling behaviors as a means to manage perceived threats (Foster et al., 2014; Bradley-Geist & Olson-Buchanan, 2013). For instance, Bradley-Geist and Olson-Buchanan (2013) found that parents who view the world as dangerous may restrict their child’s engagement in activities critical for development. Fears about the perceived dangers of the outside world or that their child is unable to perform tasks independently may encourage parents to protect their child excessively irrespective of the child’s age (LeMoyne & Buchanan, 2011; Nelson, 2010). Connecting fear, especially fear for the child’s well-being, with overparenting is a novel finding and worthy of additional exploration. For these reasons we explored the question of whether overparenting is an expression of this tendency to act restrictively in situations where fear is a concern and found that, in fact, overparenting does mediate the relationship between parental fear for child’s safety and parenting stress suggesting that parents may be utilizing these overparenting tendencies in response to fear and concerns for safety. Previous literature indicates fear for their child's safety can prompt parents to adopt overprotective and controlling behaviors to mitigate perceived threats their child may face (Drakulich, 2015; Foster et al.,2014). This fear-based motivation to protect their young adult can lead parents to engage in overparenting. Some protective parenting behaviors can reduce perceived stress by limiting exposure to stressors through avoidance, supporting the initial finding that higher rates of overparenting may be associated with lower parenting stress (Woodruff Borden et al., 2002). This is the first study we are aware of which has considered overparenting a strategy employed to control the environment and cope with distress. Certainly further examination of this finding is warranted but believe this provides a key piece of evidence which helps explain the motivations to engage in overparenting and can perhaps provide one key target for intervention. We wonder whether reducing fear may impact the compulsion to overparent. In a similar vein, we explored whether overparenting mediates the effect of parent’s self-reported anxiety on their levels of parenting stress. Interestingly, while overparenting did impact the relationship between fear and stress, it did not have a similar impact on the link between anxiety and stress. Research indicates that while anxiety can influence parenting, the extent and direction of this influence can vary widely (Murray et al., 2009). Anxiety is often characterized by chronic and excessive worry that is difficult to control. Feeling persistently anxious may lead to significant stress, irrespective of other factors such as parenting style. Research has shown that individuals with anxiety experience higher levels of perceived stress due to the constant nature of their worry and anxiety symptoms (Roemer & Orsillo, 2002). This may help explain the strong direct effect of anxiety on PSS we found, although more research will be needed to consider why overparenting impacts stress in the presence of fear but not anxiety. Given the intent was to provide a preliminary basis for future research into the factors contributing to parents’ propensity towards overparenting, we considered several limitations. First, one-third of participants reported rates of mental health and physical health concerns, so it is difficult to ascertain the degree to which these reports impact the generalizability of these findings. Although, GAD-7 (Kavelaars et al., 2023; Sequeira et al., 2021; Spitzer et al., 2006) and PSS (Johnson et al., 2020; 2022; Zhang et al. 2021) means were similar to those reported in previous studies, the fact that one-third of our sample also indicated some mental health or physical health concern suggests that this sample may also have additional issues not captured by the measures. Second, we did not explore gender differences in overparenting behaviors. Fathers and mothers may differ in their approaches to parenting and in the psychological factors influencing their behaviors (Padilla-Walker, Son, & Nelson, 2021). Future research might consider gender-specific analyses to understand if and how fathers' and mothers' experiences of anxiety, fear, and stress differentially impact overparenting. We also utilized a modified version of the Overparenting Scale developed by Segrin et al. (2012). The lack of detailed justification for the modifications and explanation of which items were included or excluded throughout the literature could limit the comparability of findings with other studies using the scale. Future studies could provide clear rationale for any modifications and detail the specific components of the scale used to enhance replicability and comparability (Segrin et al., 2012; 2013). Given the preliminary nature of our study, we did not extensively explore the underlying factors contributing to parental anxiety, fear, and parenting stress such as personality traits, past experiences, cultural differences, or social influences (Rapee et al., 2009). Additionally, the potential role of intolerance of uncertainty (Rambodet al., 2023) in contributing to parental anxiety, fear, and stress was not explored. Uncertainty intolerance might amplify overprotective behaviors as parents attempt to control their environment to reduce discomfort, particularly as parents’ young adult children transition to adulthood (Dugas et al., 1998). Furthermore, the influence of media consumption on parenting fears and behaviors was not examined. Given the pervasive nature of media, its potential role in amplifying parental fears and subsequently influencing overparenting behaviors warrants investigation (Foster et al., 2014; Francis et al., 2017). Future research should explore how media consumption influences parental fears and overparenting behaviors. This could involve examining the content and frequency of media exposure and its impact on parents' perceptions of safety, risk, and subsequent experiential avoidance (Hayes et al., 2018). We also did not thoroughly explore the mechanisms by which anxiety, fear, and stress interact and potentially exacerbate one another. Understanding these interactions could provide insights into the development of overparenting behaviors (Locke et al., 2012; Segrin et al., 2013). Moreover, while we assessed parents’ fear, a comprehensive tool specifically designed to capture the nuances of parental fear and its impact on parenting practices is still warranted. A tailored measure could provide more accurate assessments and insights into the role of fear in potentiating overparenting. The findings suggest that more overparenting results in less parenting stress or vice versa were not fully explored either. It is important to investigate the conditions under which this relationship is maintained and to understand whether this pattern is influenced by other factors such as socioeconomic status, marital status, life transitions, or children's age. Additionally, future studies could investigate how fathers and mothers differ in their overparenting behaviors and the psychological factors driving these behaviors. This could involve examining how gender roles, societal expectations, and individual psychological influences impact parenting styles (de Roo, Veenstra, & Kretschmer, 2022). There is also a need for studies to standardize the use of overparenting measures and clearly report modifications. Developing a consensus on the most effective measure could improve the consistency and comparability of research findings. Future research could delve into the factors that contribute to parental anxiety and fear, including potential factors such as personality traits, past trauma, cultural norms, relationship dynamics, and societal pressures. This would provide a more comprehensive understanding of why some parents are more prone to overparenting (McLeod, Weisz, & Wood, 2007). Furthermore, studies can focus on clarifying whether parental anxiety leads to increased fears about their children's safety, if the reverse is true, or if there is a cyclical reinforcement pattern which potentially increases ineffective coping through the use of experiential avoidance (psychological Inflexibility; Kashdan & Rottenberg, 2010; Levin et al., 2014). This could involve longitudinal studies to track changes over time. There is a need to understand how anxiety, fear, and stress interact and reinforce each other in the context of parenting (Ewing et al., 2020; Huizink et al., 2017). This could involve qualitative studies to gain deeper insights into parents' experiences and perceptions. Developing a measure of parental fear could help in accurately assessing its impact on parenting practices and identifying parents at risk of overparenting (Rapee et al., 2009). Further research could explore the conditions under which overparenting reduces or increases parenting stress. This could involve examining the role of contextual factors such as socioeconomic status, marital status, and the age and developmental stage of children. Our study was among the first to identify factors associated with parents’ tendency towards overparenting. Both fear for their child and anxiety seem to be important in understanding the propensity to use overparenting and fear for the child is uniquely inversely associated with parenting stress via utilization of overparenting. This may suggest that overparenting may be employed by parents as a mechanism to exact control over the environment particularly when there is concern (fear) associated with the child’s well-being. Further, our findings suggest that using overparenting may actually result in decreases in parental stress – we believe this may be linked to the satisfaction experienced via controlling otherwise fear-inducing situations. Clinicians may find that addressing underlying fears can help parents rely less on controlling, overparenting behaviors as a means of managing their distress. However, additional research is needed to substantiate this claim. References Abidin, R. R. (1992). The determinants of parenting behavior. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 21 (4), 407-412. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp2104_12 Berry, J. O., & Jones, W. H. (1995). Parental Stress Scale (PSS). Bögels, S. M., Lehtonen, A., & Restifo, K. (2010). Mindful parenting in mental health care. 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Journal of Child and Family Studies, 23 , 548-557. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-013-9716-3 Segrin, C., Jiao, J., & Cooper, R. A. (2022). Neighborhood disadvantage and mental health: Test of a parallel mediation model through social support and negative emotionality. Health Communication, 37 (13), 1581-1589. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2021.1903733 Segrin, C., Givertz, M., Swaitkowski, P., & Montgomery, N. (2015). Overparenting is associated with child problems and a critical family environment. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24 , 470-479. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-013-9858-3 Segrin, C., Woszidlo, A., Givertz, M., & Montgomery, N. (2013). Parent and child traits associated with overparenting. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology , 32 (6), 569-595. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2013.32.6.569 Segrin, C., Woszidlo, A., Givertz, M., Bauer, A., & Taylor Murphy, M. (2012). The association between overparenting, parent‐child communication, and entitlement and adaptive traits in adult children. Family Relations, 61 (2), 237-252. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.17413729.2011.00689.x Sequeira, S. L., Morrow, K. E., Silk, J. S., Kolko, D. J., Pilkonis, P. A., & Lindhiem, O. (2021). National norms and correlates of the PHQ-8 and GAD-7 in parents of school-age children. Journal of Child and Family Studies , 30 , 2303-2314. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-021-02026-x Shenk, C. E., Ammerman, R. T., Teeters, A. R., Bensman, H. E., Allen, E. K., Putnam, F. W., & Van Ginkel, J. B. (2017). History of maltreatment in childhood and subsequent parenting stress in at-risk, first-time mothers: Identifying points of intervention during home visiting. Prevention Science , 18 , 361-370. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-017-0758-4 Spitzer, R. L., Kroenke, K., Williams, J. B., & Löwe, B. (2006). A brief measure for assessing generalized anxiety disorder: the GAD-7. Archives of Internal Medicine , 166 (10), 1092-1097. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.166.10.1092 Thomasgard, M. (1998). Parental perceptions of child vulnerability, overprotection, and parental psychological characteristics. Child Psychiatry and Human Development , 28 , 223–240. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022631914576 Thomasgard, M., Shonkoff, J. P., Metz, W. P., & Edelbrock, C. (1995). Parent-child relationship disorders: Part II. The vulnerable child syndrome and its relation to parental overprotection. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics,16, 251 - 256. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004703-199508000-00007 Tulloch, M. I. (2004). Parental fear of crime: A discursive analysis. Journal of Sociology, 40 (4), 362-377. https://doi.org/10.1177/1440783304048380 Van Ingen, D. J., Freiheit, S. R., Steinfeldt, J. A., Moore, L. L., Wimer, D. J., Knutt, A. D., ... & Roberts, A. (2015). Helicopter parenting: The effect of an overbearing caregiving style on peer attachment and self‐efficacy. Journal of College Counseling, 18( 1), 7-20. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1882.2015.00065.x Author (2018). Woodruff-Borden, J., Morrow, C., Bourland, S., & Cambron, S. (2002). The behavior of anxious parents: Examining mechanisms of transmission of anxiety from parent to child. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 31 (3), 364-374. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15374424JCCP3103_08 Wu, M., Xu, W., Yao, Y., Zhang, L., Guo, L., Fan, J., & Chen, J. (2020). Mental health status of students’ parents during COVID-19 pandemic and its influence factors. General Psychiatry , 33 (4). https://doi.org/10.1136/gpsych-2020-100250 Zhang, L., Wu, M. T., Guo, L., Zhu, Z. Y., Peng, S. F., Li, W., Chen, H., Fan, J., & Chen, J. (2021). Psychological distress and associated factors of the primary caregivers of offspring with eating disorder during the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic. Journal of Eating Disorders , 9 (1), 58. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40337-021-00405-9 Tables Table 1 Means, Standard Deviations and Correlations among study variables M SD α 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1. PSS 41.6 12.3 (.90) – .05 .17** .47*** -.33*** -.12 -.47*** .31*** -.18** 2. Fear-Child 33.6 16.8 (.97) – .75*** .08 .28*** .28*** .22*** -.11* .19** 3. Fear-Self 26.9 16.7 (.97) – .16** .19*** .25** .102 -.02 .16** 4. GAD-7 6.14 5.70 (.94) – 0.0 .12* -.07 .12* .02 5. OPS 3.67 0.62 (.93) – .82*** .83*** -.60*** .66*** 6. OPS – Problem Solving 2.36 0.60 (.91) – .63*** -.15** .57*** 7. OPS - Advice Management 3.88 0.69 (.89) – -.40*** .47*** 8. OPS - Self-Direction 3.50 0.73 (.87) – -.10 9. OPS – Tangible Assistance 3.58 0.76 (.84) – Note . PSS – Parenting Stress Scale, GAD – 7 = Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 Scale; OPS = Overparenting Scale; * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001. Table 2 Regression analysis of Fear - Child to PSS through OPS 95% C.I. (a) Type Effect Label Estimate SE Lower Upper β z p Indirect Fear - Child ⇒ OPS ⇒ PSS a∙b -0.055 0.017 -0.089 -0.023 -0.075 -3.246 0.001 Component Fear - Child ⇒ OPS a 0.008 0.002 0.004 0.012 0.227 3.893 < .001 OPS ⇒ PSS b -7.045 1.160 -9.273 -4.608 -0.330 -6.071 < .001 Direct Fear - Child ⇒ PSS c’ 0.092 0.040 0.008 0.168 0.125 2.263 0.024 Total Fear - Child ⇒ PSS c’ + a∙b 0.037 0.041 -0.048 0.112 0.050 0.894 0.371 Note . CI = Confidence Interval; Fear - Child = Parents’ fear for their child’s safety; OPS = Overparenting Scale; PSS = Parenting Stress Scale. Table 3 Regression analysis of GAD-7 to PSS through OPS 95% C.I. (a) Type Effect Label Estimate SE Lower Upper β z p Indirect GAD-7 ⇒ OPS ⇒ PSS a∙b 0.021 0.040 -0.053 0.108 0.010 0.519 0.604 Component GAD-7 ⇒ OPS a -0.004 0.007 -0.017 0.001 -0.033 -0.531 0.596 OPS ⇒ PSS b -6.114 0.929 -7.999 -4.275 -0.287 -6.585 < .001 Direct GAD-7 ⇒ PSS c’ 0.990 0.121 0.763 1.238 0.459 8.186 < .001 Total GAD-7 ⇒ PSS c’ + a∙b 1.011 0.131 0.761 1.271 0.469 7.747 < .001 Note . CI = Confidence Interval. GAD-7 = Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 Scale; OPS = Overparenting Scale; PSS = Parenting Stress Scale. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7538300","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":590824202,"identity":"85fd5a51-2c48-48e2-b542-6037ac7aecbf","order_by":0,"name":"Sarah Stroud","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Southern Mississippi","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sarah","middleName":"","lastName":"Stroud","suffix":""},{"id":590824203,"identity":"01c68652-a362-4bc9-b03c-2fef7bb75a86","order_by":1,"name":"Bonnie Nicholson","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA8klEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACAxCRAMRsDDwMDA+ADH6IBDORWkAMyQZitEAAVIvBAQJazNl7jz14UMGQx8d+9uCDhD82ecY30p9uYKiwTmzAocWy51y6QcIZhmI2nrxkg8S2tGKzGzlmNxjOpOPUYgBUIJHYxpDYJsEDZDQcTtx2I4ftBmPbYQJa/kG1JPw5nLh5RvqzG4z/CGlpgGlhO5y4QSLB7AZjA24tlj1ngCqPAd3Gk2MM8kvijDNvzG4kHEs3xqXFnL3HTPJHjU3i/PYzhg8+/LFJ7G8HOuxDjbUsLi1QIIHGT8CvfBSMglEwCkYBAQAAy/5aJfSPaDAAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"University of Southern Mississippi","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Bonnie","middleName":"","lastName":"Nicholson","suffix":""},{"id":590824204,"identity":"ff2855b9-eff4-490e-b84c-d63e4a25114f","order_by":2,"name":"Chrissy Ammons","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Chrissy","middleName":"","lastName":"Ammons","suffix":""},{"id":590824205,"identity":"c635d073-b906-4a19-aae8-419c10bf19bd","order_by":3,"name":"Jack Howard","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jack","middleName":"","lastName":"Howard","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-09-04 17:23:20","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7538300/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7538300/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":102962924,"identity":"446161c9-a83e-4ee2-ac83-1a4d627da9eb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-19 04:12:12","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":700867,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7538300/v1/6ee21e22-3c41-4787-b6c3-d6c3997321f6.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Anxiety, Fear and Stress as Predictors of Overparenting","fulltext":[{"header":"Highlights","content":"\u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eOverparenting is linked to parental anxiety, fear for child safety, and stress.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eParenting stress shows an inverse relationship with overparenting, suggesting complex coping dynamics.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eFear for child safety is the strongest predictor of overparenting.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eOverparenting mediates the relationship between fear for child safety and parenting stress.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eFindings offer insights into interventions targeting fear to reduce overparenting behaviors.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e"},{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe buzzworthy phenomenon of overparenting, or \u0026lsquo;helicopter parenting\u0026rsquo;, has captured both headlines and scholarly attention (Padilla-Walker et al., 2021). In the context of parenting young adults, this parenting style tends to emphasize parents\u0026rsquo; overprotection, overinvolvement, and control in their emerging adult\u0026rsquo;s life (Locke et al., 2012; Odenweller, Booth-Butterfield, \u0026amp; Weber, 2014; Rousseau \u0026amp; Scharf, 2018). Far from merely offering a helping hand, this parenting style may result in parents interfering in their child\u0026rsquo;s development of autonomy as they remove potential obstacles for their young adult and provide unsolicited problem-solving support (Schiffrin et al., 2019; Segrin et al., 2012). While overparenting has been associated with negative outcomes for emerging adults (Ciu, Hong, \u0026amp; Jiao, 2022; Author, 2021), far less is known about why parents engage in these behaviors in the first place. Parents today must contend with societal expectations around child safety and success, exacerbated by a 24-hour news cycle and increased social media use, which may contribute to parents\u0026rsquo; experiences of anxiety, fear, and stress. These emotional states, under repeated and chronic exposures, may influence how adults\u0026rsquo; parent and, in turn, affect their young adult\u0026rsquo;s development and wellbeing. Therefore, it is important to investigate possible emotional and psychological factors that might contribute to overparenting. We examined the relationship between parental anxiety, fear for their child\u0026rsquo;s as well as their own safety, parenting stress and overparenting. \u003cbr\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eOverparenting \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIntruding and protective parenting behaviors are often intended to safeguard children against perceived dangers and may even elicit positive sentiments on part of the child in the short-term. However, when these practices extend beyond childhood, young adults may view these behaviors as intrusive and impeding their sense of autonomy, often leaving these emerging adults ill-equipped to transition into adulthood in a healthy way (Odenweller et al., 2014; Segrin et al., 2013). Even the seemingly positive attributes of overparenting such as a high level of responsiveness to a child\u0026rsquo;s needs may contribute to their young adult child\u0026rsquo;s lack of competence in problem-solving and interpersonal functioning which are essential for leading a healthy adult life. The downstream effects of overparenting on overall outcomes among young adults are extensive, affecting not only the parent-child relationships in the short-term, but also may leave children ill-equipped for positive, long-term emotional, social, and cognitive outcomes (Givertz \u0026amp; Segrin, 2014; Nelson, Padilla-Walker, \u0026amp; Nielson, 2015). Researchers have found overparenting may also be associated with the development of maladaptive coping skills, impaired interpersonal functioning, and a decreased sense of well-being in young adults (Padilla-Walker \u0026amp; Nelson, 2012; Segrin et al., 2012). \u003cbr\u003eChildren\u0026rsquo;s developmental pathways and overall wellbeing tend to be influenced by their parents\u0026apos; experience with mental health. Research by Elgar et al. (2007) and Wu et al. (2020) demonstrate that children may be deprived of critical opportunities to adaptively respond to adversity when parents excessively shield them from experiencing challenges (Nelson, Padilla-Walker, \u0026amp; Nielson, 2015). Kohut (1977) referred to these opportunities as \u0026ldquo;optimal frustrations\u0026rdquo; (p. 16) and theorized that parenting characterized by protecting children against the experience of these learning opportunities may increase their risk for pathological outcomes. This may inevitably result in overparented young adults struggling to respond to stressors effectively. Likewise, this thwarting of developmentally appropriate experiences may lead to young adults\u0026rsquo; sense of well-being (Odenweller et al., 2014) and diminished overall quality of life (LeMoyne \u0026amp; Buchanan, 2011). Moreover, research suggests that overparenting may lead to lower life satisfaction and higher rates of psychological distress including depression and anxiety which may further deteriorate their emotional health (Schiffrin et al., 2014; Thomasgard, 1998). These children may associate their parents\u0026apos; behavior with feeling overcontrolled, which in turn may lead to reduced self-esteem, low self-efficacy, and a diminished sense of personal accomplishment and sense of mastery (Givertz \u0026amp; Segrin, 2014; Segrin et al., 2013). \u003cbr\u003eOverparented children may also experience difficulty with interpersonal and social functioning. This challenge may be worsened in part by limited unstructured interactions with peers, potentially stifling their development of effective social skills (Segrin et al., 2012; Padilla-Walker \u0026amp; Nelson, 2012). Moreover, overparented children may struggle to form and maintain relationships throughout their lives, leading to feelings of loneliness and a lack of experience managing conflict (Segrin et al., 2015). Unsolicited parental involvement may increase children\u0026rsquo;s reliance on their parents to manage social situations, which may contribute to their difficulty in responding to and solving conflict appropriately (Jiao, Cui, \u0026amp; Fincham, 2024). \u003cbr\u003e Another line of research has drawn attention to the potential adverse effects of overparenting among college-aged students, highlighting several potential psychological and behavioral consequences. Author (2018) elaborated on these potential outcomes, concluding that overparenting in emerging adulthood may give rise to narcissistic traits in young adults which may be exacerbated by parental psychological control. They also found that overinvolvement can not only foster poor emotional health, marked by increased anxiety and depression, but might also impair effective coping. This, in turn, can increase young adults\u0026rsquo; predisposition toward both grandiose and vulnerable forms of narcissism in addition to increased dependency and functional decline (Author, 2018). \u003cbr\u003eAdding another dimension, Author (2019) revealed that overparenting displayed a negative association with grit, which stands as a valuable resource and characteristic necessary for developing academic resilience and success. In contrast, positive parenting showed a positive association with grit and students\u0026rsquo; academic performance. These results emphasize the importance of autonomy and resilience in students\u0026rsquo; success which are characteristics that are often undermined by excessive parental involvement (Author, 2019). Relatedly, Author (2021) observed that overparenting also appeared to be associated with a decrease in the use of protective behavioral strategies in alcohol use that, in turn, may increase alcohol-related adverse outcomes among college students (Author, 2021). Given that the literature seems to suggest that overparenting can lead to difficulties for young adults in several key areas of their lives, it is surprising that we know so little about the factors which lead to the propensity toward overparenting. Therefore, we explored the possibility that parents\u0026rsquo; anxiety, fear, and stress might lead to higher rates of overparenting based on the literature suggesting that overparenting and the over-utilization of controlling behaviors may be an attempt by parents to manage their anxiety (Segrin et al., 2013), fear (Tulloch, 2004) and stress (Brown et al., 2020). \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParental Mental Health and Parenting \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe connection between parental mental health and parenting behaviors, in general, provides a broad foundation and suggests that, generally speaking, fear, anxiety and stress are associated with non-optimal approaches to parenting. While depression and stress (Brown et al., 2020) are most commonly identified as predictors of poor parenting, anxiety (Garst \u0026amp; Gagnon, 2015), fear (Locke, Campbell, \u0026amp; Kavanagh, 2012), and trauma (Christie et al., 2019; 2023) are also implicated as important predictors of maladaptive parenting behaviors. For example, B\u0026ouml;gels, Lehtonen, and Restifo (2010) found that when faced with high levels of stress, parents tended to default to automatic, counterproductive parenting methods. There is a solid research base which suggests that parental mental health challenges, especially in mothers, can lead to harsh or inconsistent parenting practices. Notably, maternal depression is identified as a major predictor of such behaviors, as highlighted in a study by Kalomiris and Kiel (2016).Borre and Kliewer (2014) also found when parents feel that their own safety or that of their child\u0026rsquo;s is at risk, they may become increasingly anxious and hostile, emotions that can impact their capacity and urge to attentively supervise and emotionally connect with their child. \u003cbr\u003e Odenweller and colleagues (2014) provide an explanation for the link between parental mental health and parenting behaviors, suggesting that parents\u0026rsquo; mental health might amplify their concerns about their children\u0026apos;s vulnerability, thereby inducing the parents\u0026rsquo; engagement in overprotective and micromanaging behaviors. Most of the research focuses on harsh or inconsistent parenting, and while this is an important construct, particularly in relation to the well-being of young children, relatively less is known about how these variables may impact the application of overparenting behaviors in general and in relation to overparenting young adult children in particular. The assumption was that stress, anxiety, and fear may be partly responsible for the inclination to over parent. \u003cbr\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eAnxiety\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003eAnxiety, characterized by excessive worry and apprehension toward perceived yet non-existent threat (Rapee, 2009), can manifest in various ways that impact daily life and parenting behaviors. Individuals often cope with anxiety by developing controlling behaviors in an effort to manage the uncertainty of both their internal and external environment, hence reducing their discomfort (Kalomiris \u0026amp; Kiel, 2016). Unlike the clear physical threats faced by their ancestors, today\u0026apos;s parents are bombarded with information about potential dangers from various media sources, amplifying their perception of risk in even safe contexts. Their protective instinct may translate into excessive worry and overprotective behaviors (Thomasgard et al., 1995). According to Chorpita and Barlow (1998) ,increased maternal worry may result in restrictive behaviors that limit children\u0026apos;s independence and mobility \u0026ndash; behaviors similar to overparenting. Similarly, parents with anxiety may also experience an enhanced sense of responsibility for their child\u0026apos;s welfare (Gagnon \u0026amp; Garst, 2019; Segrin et al., 2013). \u003cbr\u003e Concern for their child\u0026apos;s safety and well-being could manifest as overprotective parenting behaviors, which might limit the child\u0026rsquo;s opportunities to face and effectually manage challenges on their own. For example, Murray, Creswell, and Cooper (2009) indicated that anxious parents might adopt an overprotective parenting style, which can limit their children\u0026apos;s experiences and discourage the development of healthy coping skills. Furthermore, there is evidence supporting the projection hypothesis which proposes that anxious parents may view their children as more vulnerable and, thus, engage in overparenting behaviors to alleviate their own discomfort or fears (Thomasgard et al., 1995). For instance, Woodruff Borden et al. (2002) observed an association between parental anxiety and perceptions of child vulnerability. This perception could lead parents to overprotect and micromanage their children, potentially limiting the child\u0026apos;s opportunities for exploration and growth. While anxiety has been linked to parenting in previous literature (Garst et al., 2020), less research has specifically examined the impacts of parental anxiety on overparenting young adults. Therefore, one of our aims was to explore the impact of parental anxiety on overparenting behaviors in parents of emerging adult children.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eFear\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cbr\u003eUnlike anxiety, fear is characterized by an emotional response to an immediate threat. It is a primal, basic emotion that is critical for survival, triggering the body\u0026rsquo;s fight or flight response (Gross \u0026amp; Canteras, 2012). Interestingly, this evolutionary response to fear can also give rise to maladaptive behaviors such as overestimating potential risks (Foster et al., 2014), oftentimes resulting in viewing the world as dangerous or something to be avoided (Bradley-Geist \u0026amp; Olson-Buchanan, 2013). While researchers often examine fear in relation to physiological disorders, stress responses, and societal influences, relatively fewer studies have explored the complex connections between fear and parenting.\u003cbr\u003eParenting is a complex role which naturally brings a plethora of concerns, ranging from worries about their child\u0026rsquo;s physical safety and well-being to concerns over their child\u0026rsquo;s future success (Foster et al., 2016). While moderate levels of fear serve as a biologically hard-wired protective factor, potentially allowing parents to anticipate and prepare for various challenges, excessive fear may hinder a parent\u0026rsquo;s ability to engage in healthy and adaptive behaviors in relation to parenting their children (Grupe \u0026amp; Nitschke, 2013). For instance, a parent who views the world as dangerous might restrict their child\u0026rsquo;s engagement in age-appropriate activities that are often critical for the child\u0026rsquo;s development (Garst, Gangnon, \u0026amp; Bennett, 2016). This complex relationship between fear and parenting may be influenced by various factors, including parents\u0026rsquo; mental health. \u003cbr\u003eResearch suggests that parents with preexisting mental health conditions are more likely to interpret the world around them through a lens of distrust and fear, potentially leading parents to overinterpret their child\u0026rsquo;s vulnerability to danger and to overestimate the prevalence of violence (Callanan, 2022; Foster, 2016; Segrin et al., 2013). In studies exploring fear of crime, methodological approaches often include items which assess participants\u0026rsquo; fear of crime specifically, in addition to fear for their loved ones\u0026rsquo; safety, how safe they perceive their neighborhood to be, and whether they themselves or a loved one were a victim of crime (Callanan, 2022; Tulloch, 2004). In an effort to capture the full complexity of individuals\u0026rsquo; experience with fear, Tulloch (2004) combined data on fear of crime from parents, alluding that fear for their children\u0026apos;s safety might be associated with broader social discourses about crime and safety. This multidimensional approach allowed the researchers to gain a more nuanced understanding into the ways parents\u0026apos; fears, revealing that fear for their children\u0026apos;s safety may not be tied to specific neighborhood crime risks but could reflect more generalized anxiety-related symptoms (Tulloch, 2004). As the prevalence of stress and anxiety-related mental health conditions increases, the role of fear in parenting may become increasingly important. Therefore, one of our aims was to explore the role of parents\u0026rsquo; fear for their own safety as well fear for their child in the context of overparenting young adult children (Intravia et al., 2017; Tulloch, 2004). Research highlights a potential association between parents\u0026rsquo; fear and overprotection, often manifesting as unsolicited supervision, monitoring, and involvement irrespective of their child\u0026rsquo;s age (Garst et al., 2016; Tulloch, 2004; Drakulich, 2015; Foster, 2016). Although the literature points to a possible connection between the two, research has yet to investigate the relationship between parents\u0026rsquo; fear and the construct of overparenting specifically. Therefore, we hypothesized that parents\u0026rsquo; excessive fear may manifest itself in overparenting. Here, fear may serve as a significant motivator, encouraging parents to implement overcontrolling behaviors as they strive to protect their child from perceived dangers.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eParenting Stress\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe existing body of literature overwhelmingly attests to the impact of stress on parenting (Lange, Callinan, \u0026amp; Smith, 2019). Parenting stress, defined as the subjective experience of distress resulting from the perceived imbalance between the demands of parenting and the available resources (Abidin, 1992), has been found to influence parental behavior in various dimensions (Hadjicharalambous \u0026amp; Demetriou, 2021). Parenting stress is commonly associated with negative parenting behaviors including increased levels of harsh discipline, irritability, less warmth, and impulsive decision-making among parents (Shenk et al., 2017), resulting in increased levels of externalizing behaviors like aggression or defiance, emotional problems, and academic struggles among young adult children (Savage et al., 2019). While much is known regarding the impacts of parenting stress on parenting behaviors, less is known about how parenting stress impacts overparenting. Brown et al. (2020) explored how stress can lead parents to adopt more controlling and overprotective strategies. Their research suggests when overwhelmed by their own stressors, parents may inadvertently channel their anxieties and worries into an excessive focus on their child\u0026apos;s life, mistaking \u003cem\u003econtrol\u003c/em\u003e for \u003cem\u003ecare\u003c/em\u003e (Brown et al., 2020; Wu et al., 2020). For example, stress associated with job loss or financial instability might be associated with parents\u0026rsquo; hypervigilance about their child\u0026apos;s academic performance, resulting in over-involvement in their child\u0026rsquo;s schoolwork as a way to regain a sense of control (Elgar et al., 2007). These external pressures can result in a vicious cycle, as parenting stress may lead to overparenting, which in turn can cause stress and anxiety in the child, thus further escalating the parent\u0026apos;s stress (Kalomiris \u0026amp; Kiel, 2016). Parents whose stress becomes unmanageable might also revert to what B\u0026ouml;gels, Lehtonen, and Restifo (2010) describe as \u0026quot;automatic, subconscious schemas\u0026rdquo;, encouraging parents\u0026rsquo; use of counterproductive parenting methods (p. 112). For example, when parenting stress results in parents becoming increasingly frustrated, depressed, or anxious, their use of negative parenting practices (\u003cem\u003ei.e.,\u003c/em\u003e less indicative reasoning, limiting their child\u0026rsquo;s autonomy) tends to increase (Carapito et al., 2018). Moreover, when parents perceive their stress as a direct result of their child\u0026rsquo;s behavior or interaction with their child, they may engage in overparenting as a reactionary coping mechanism. This is in line with the findings by Odenweller et al. (2014), which suggest that parents\u0026rsquo; mental health concerns amplify their worries about their child\u0026rsquo;s vulnerability, pushing them toward more controlling and overprotective behaviors. The issue becomes compounded when considering the cascading effects on the child\u0026apos;s development. Overparented children who are not given the space to navigate challenges become ill-equipped to manage stress, thereby setting the stage for future mental health concerns (Van Ingen et al., 2015). Given the potential negative impact parenting stress poses to both parent and child development, one of our aims was to explore the impact of stress on overparenting behaviors.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePurpose of the Study\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn contemporary society, the phenomenon of overparenting has garnered significant attention due to its association with several negative outcomes for emerging adults including decreased emotion regulation (Author, 2019), increased substance-use (Cook, 2020), poor interpersonal skills (Scharf, Rousseau, \u0026amp; Bsoul, 2017), and reduced self-efficacy (Bradley-Geist \u0026amp; Olson-Buchanan, 2013). While much is known about the myriad of ways overparenting impacts development, relatively less is known about the factors influencing parents\u0026rsquo; use of these overly protective and controlling parenting practices (Cui, Hong, \u0026amp; Jiao, 2022). Stress (B\u0026ouml;gels, Lehtonen \u0026amp; Restifo, 2010) and anxiety (Rapee, 2009) have well established associations with harsh and inconsistent parenting practices but have not been examined in the context of overparenting. Both stress and anxiety share a propensity for hypervigilance, or the continuous assessment of potential danger, which may be associated with parents\u0026rsquo; levels of fear \u0026ndash; particularly in relation to the safety and well-being of their children. Parents confronted with these intense emotions might feel driven to adopt overparenting strategies as a means to cope, attempting to manage their own emotional distress, to shield their children from perceived threats, or both (Odenweller et al., 2014). These insights provide new research opportunities, paving the way for potential interventions aimed at reducing parental anxiety, fear, and stress and thereby possibly decreasing the use of overparenting. Given these gaps in the literature, we examined stress, anxiety, and fear as predictors of overparenting in a national sample of parents of college-aged children. \u003cbr\u003eWe examined two research questions. First, to what degree are anxiety, fear, and stress associated with self-reported overparenting in a sample of parents of college students. We hypothesized that all three (\u003cem\u003ei.e., \u003c/em\u003eanxiety, fear, stress) will be positively associated with parents\u0026rsquo; reports of overparenting. Second, we sought to examine models which elucidated the mechanisms that explain the relationships between anxiety, fear, stress and overparenting by considering overparenting a mediator in the relationships among these variables.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParticipants and Procedures\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur study was approved by the Institutional Review Board Human Subjects Protection ReviewCommittee at a midsize southern university. Participants were required to be a parent of at least one college-aged child (18-25 years old) and recruited through Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk), a crowdsourcing site that advertises surveys and other tasks requiring human intelligence. The survey link was posted on MTurk which then routed participants to Qualtrics for data collection. Following informed consent, participants were directed to the survey instruments which were presented in randomized order to reduce order effects. We implemented quality assurance checks to ensure accuracy of responding which included two instructed response questions (\u003cem\u003ei.e\u003c/em\u003e., \u0026ldquo;Please select \u0026lsquo;always true\u0026rsquo; for this item\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;Select \u0026lsquo;definitely true\u0026rsquo; for this item.\u0026rdquo;). Of the 334 participants who initiated the survey, we excluded 11 for failing both quality assurance items. Four additional participants were excluded from the data set due to inconsistent responding and incomplete submissions. One additional case was removed as an outlier (\u003cem\u003ei.e., \u003c/em\u003eparticipant\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003ereported having 18 children). \u003cbr\u003e The final sample included 318 parents of at least one college-aged child with an average age of 45.36 (\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e = 6.97) for participants and an average age of 19.89 (\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e = 1.76) for their children. Participants were predominately female (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e=168; 52.3%), White (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e= 221; 69.7%) or Black/African American (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e=47, 14.8%) and identified their children as predominately male (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e=181; 56.9%). The sample included 77.9% married parents or in a domestic partnership with an average income of $75,000-$99,000 per year. Parents tended to be well educated with the greatest proportion holding a bachelor\u0026rsquo;s degree (43.4%) and represented regions across the US. Parents who reported a diagnosed mental health disorder comprised 31% of the total sample whereas 10.7% reported a diagnosed substance use disorder. Results on children based on parents\u0026rsquo; reports indicated 13.1% of participants\u0026rsquo; children had a current diagnosed mental health disorder while 5.4% were diagnosed with a substance-use disorder. Participants also reported on their personal as well as their child\u0026rsquo;s involvement in the criminal justice system, where 6% of parents and 2.5% of children engaged with this system at least one time. Parents reported on their chronic health conditions, where 31.5% of the sample reported having a current health diagnosis. Additionally, parents ported on their child\u0026rsquo;s chronic health conditions, where 11.5% of parents\u0026rsquo; children had a chronic condition. 11% of children had been diagnosed with a learning disability. Parent reports on their child\u0026rsquo;s past versus current behavior problems suggests 9.6% of children had experienced behavior problems at some point whereas 5.1% were experiencing behavior problems currently. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMeasures\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cbr\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eDemographics Survey\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cbr\u003eThe demographic questionnaire was used to gather information about gender, age, race, and ethnicity of the participants as well as that of their college-aged children. Additional questions about marital status, education level, employment status, household income, religious affiliation, and attitudes towards spirituality and religion were included to provide a comprehensive understanding of the participants\u0026apos; backgrounds and beliefs. The survey also investigated the participants\u0026rsquo; and their college-aged children\u0026rsquo;s health, covering areas such as chronic health conditions, learning disabilities, mental health conditions, substance use disorders, behavioral problems, and involvement in the criminal justice system. \u003cbr\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eOverparenting\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cbr\u003e \u003c/em\u003eThe Overparenting Scale was used to provide an assessment of overparenting (OPS; Segrin et al., 2012; 2015). The measure consists of 39 questions on a 5-point Likert scale with items ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) which resulted in four subscale scores (Anticipatory Problem Solving, Advice/ Affect Management, Child Self-Direction, and Tangible Assistance) and an average score.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe earliest version of the overparenting scale, originally included five factors (i.e., advice/affect management; anticipatory problem-solving; child self-direction; tangible assistance; risk aversion) with a total of 45 items. The fifth factor, risk aversion, was excluded due to inadequate reliability. Segrin et al. (2012) demonstrated satisfactory reliability for child self-direction (\u0026alpha;=0.79), advice/affect management (\u0026alpha;=0.81), anticipatory problem-solving (\u0026alpha;=0.88), and tangible assistance (\u0026alpha;=0.74). While the original development study provided evidence of construct validity (Segrin et al., 2012), the use of an average score versus individual subscale scores, as well as the inclusion and exclusion of particular subscales, has differed across subsequent studies (Segrin et al., 2013; Segrin et al., 2015; Rousseau \u0026amp; Scharf, 2015; 2018; Scharf et al., 2017). Additionally, prior research found items from four subscales to correlate significantly with one another (Rousseau \u0026amp; Scharf, 2015; 2018; Scharf et al., 2017). Therefore, we conducted a Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) to determine factor loadings for a single latent variable. Results of the CFA supported the use of a single, averaged score which is consistent with other researchers (Rousseau \u0026amp; Scharf, 2015; 2018). For the complete list of items in the Overparenting Scale (OPS), see the original development study (Segrin et al., 2012). \u003cbr\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eAnxiety\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003eParents\u0026apos; anxiety was assessed using the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7; Spitzer et al., 2006) which is a self-report assessment consisting of seven items that are used to quantify the intensity of symptoms throughout the past 14 days associated with generalized anxiety disorder all rated on a 4-point Likert scale from 0 (not at all) to 3 (nearly every day) resulting in a total score. Higher scores indicate greater endorsement of anxiety symptoms. The internal reliability of the scale has been determined to be satisfactory, with an internal reliability of 0.90 (Spitzer et al., 2006). \u003cbr\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eParenting Stress \u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003eParenting stress was measured using the Parental Stress Scale (PSS), developed by Berry and Jones in 1995. The instrument consists of 18 items rated on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). To compute the total score, the positive items 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 17, and 19 are reverse scored, and then, all items are summed. Higher scores reflect more parental stress. The possible range of the PSS is 18 (low stress) to 90 (high stress). Berry and Jones (1995) reported that the scores of the scale were reliable, with a coefficient \u0026alpha; of .83 and a mean interitem correlation of .23. A 6-week test\u0026ndash;retest correlation was .81.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eFear\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFor the purposes of this study, we developed a 12-item self -report measure based loosely on previous research completed by Intravia and colleagues (2017). Five items were included to assess parents\u0026rsquo; fear for their safety (Fear for Self) in addition to parents\u0026rsquo; fear for their child safety (Fear for Child). Parents were asked to rate the degree to which they feared various crime-related events including being robbed, someone breaking into their home, being sexually assaulted or raped, being beaten up or assaulted, and being murdered. In addition to assessing parents fear for themselves, parents were asked the same five questions, but rather than rating their fear for themselves, parents rated the degree to which they feared these events may happen to their child (Foster et al., 2016; Intravi et al., 2014). These items were rated on a 10-point scale from 1 (not fearful) to 10 (very fearful). Higher scores indicate a greater sense of Fear for Self and/or Fear for Child. \u003cbr\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eData Analyses \u003cbr\u003e \u003c/strong\u003eThe proposed research questions were tested using the regression and Advanced Mediation Models modules in JAMOVI 2.2.5 statistical package. Specifically, JAMOVI modules were employed to generate descriptive statistics, assess questionnaire reliability, check the assumptions, and perform correlational and regression analyses. An additional JAMOVI module, the GLM mediation models, was utilized for mediation analyses. Preliminary investigations were performed to check the internal reliability (\u0026alpha;) of scales and normality assumptions of variables before evaluating the hypothesized models. Skewness and kurtosis values were used to assess the applicability of the assumption of normality (skewness and kurtosis \u0026le; |2|). To ensure an average score could be used for OPS, a confirmatory factor analysis was performed by fitting a four-factor model to the data (Segrin et al., 2012; Rousseau \u0026amp; Scharf, 2018). Pearson correlations examined the relationships among study variables. Scores on GAD-7, Fear-Self, Fear- Child and PSS were entered as independent variables in predicting OPS. Next, two mediation analyses were carried out to identify if OPS played a mediating role in the associations between GAD-7, Fear \u0026ndash; Self, Fear - Child, and PSS (Gallucci, 2020). We used a bootstrap procedure with 1000 resamples to identify the indirect effects to estimate 95% confidence (Preacher \u0026amp; Hayes, 2008). \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eSimilar to studies using the OPS (Segrin et al., 2012; 2013; 2015), we used confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) assess whether the data from the measurement model loaded onto the hypothesized single latent variable, OPS (Segrin, Jiao, \u0026amp; Cooper, 2022).\u0026nbsp;The model consisted of four factors comprised of the four subscales most commonly used in previous research: anticipatory problem solving, advice/affect management, child self-direction, and tangible assistance (Segrin et al., 2012; 2013; 2015). The fit of the measurement model was assessed using a chi-square difference test, the comparative fit index (CFI), the Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) and the root mean square of error approximation (RMSEA). Research using CFA suggests adequate CFI and TLI values tend to fall above .90 while sufficient RMSEA values tend to fall below .05. Our analysis yielded a significant chi-square value (\u0026chi;2 (1, 52) = 81.9, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .005), appropriate CFI (.983) and TLI (.974) values, and a probability of RMSEA = .0425. Each of the first-order factor loadings were found to be significant as well, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .001, ranging from .45 to .85. The four factors loaded significantly onto the latent variable of OPS. Additionally, similar to previous studies using this measure, the four subscales were highly correlated with one another (Rousseau \u0026amp; Scharf, 2015; 2018). Therefore, a single measure was created by averaging item responses which was used in subsequent analyses.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMeans, standard deviations, and Cronbach\u0026apos;s \u0026alpha;\u0026rsquo;s for each measure are displayed in the table below including the OPS average score described above (see Table 1). Table1 also includes correlations for the OPS subscales for reference, although these were not included in subsequent analyses given the CFA results. Additional preliminary analyses were conducted, including Pearson correlations, indicating a significant positive relationship between PSS and Fear \u0026ndash; Self, \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e(318) =.167, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .003 as well as GAD-7, \u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e(318) = .469, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;.001. Interestingly, PSS was significantly, yet inversely, associated with OPS, \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e(318) = \u0026minus;.324, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;.001. Fear - Child also showed a significant positive correlation with Fear \u0026ndash; Self, \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e(318) = .754, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;.001, and OPS \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e(318) = .279, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;.001. Fear - Self was significantly and positively correlated with GAD-7, \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e(318) =.157, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e =.005, and OPS, \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e(318) = .190, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;.001; although, no significant correlation between GAD-7 and OPS, \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e(318) = .000, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= .998, was found (see Table 1).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote. Place Table 1 here.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs our initial intent was to investigate factors which may be associated with overparenting, the first research question aimed to examine possible predictors of OPS. Hypothesis 1 was assessed using a linear regression analysis which examined GAD-7, PSS, Fear - Self, Fear \u0026ndash; Child as potential predictors (IV) of OPS (DV). Assumption testing revealed acceptable normality (Shapiro-Wilk = 0.985, p = .002), indicating the model\u0026apos;s residuals were normally distributed. The regression model was statistically significant, explaining 21.1% of the variance in OPS, R\u0026sup2; = .211, F(4, 311) = 9.54, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001. The results indicated that PSS was a significant negative predictor of OPS (\u0026beta; = -0.409, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001) and GAD-7 (\u0026beta; = 0.211, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001) and Fear - Child (\u0026beta; = 0.225, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .004) were significant positive predictors of OPS. However, Fear -Self (\u0026beta; = 0.084, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .285) did not significantly predict OPS and was excluded from further analyses.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConsidering the important insights the regression analysis provided into the relationships between GAD-7, Fear-Child, and OPS, the unexpected finding that PSS was inversely related to OPS required further investigation. Additionally, the correlations between Fear - Child, GAD-7, and PSS suggested that these emotional states might influence overparenting as a means to cope with distress particularly among parents of college students. Given the unexpected negative prediction between OPS and PSS, consideration was given as to whether OPS may be an expression of the overcontrolled behaviors commonly exhibited in anxiety and fear. The literature seems to suggest that overcontrolled behaviors may help alleviate, or mediate, symptoms of stress (Fonseca, Moreira, \u0026amp; Canavarro, 2020), potentially elicited by one\u0026rsquo;s response to perceived threat. Therefore, the second research question explored OPS as a potential mediator where Fear - Child serves as the predictor variable (IV) and PSS serves as the outcome variable (DV). A mediation analysis was performed to assess this potential relationship using the medmod JAMOVI package. \u0026nbsp; \u003cs\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/s\u003e\u003cbr\u003eAs shown in Table 2, the mediation model indicated a significant relationship between fear-child and PSS, mediated by OPS. The direct and indirect paths assessing Fear \u0026ndash; Child as a predictor, PSS as an outcome variable, and OPS as mediator (Fear \u0026ndash; Child\u0026nbsp;\u0026rArr;\u0026nbsp;OPS\u0026nbsp;\u0026rArr;\u0026nbsp;PSS)\u0026nbsp;are detailed in Table 2. Additionally, Table 2 (direct path), the effect of Fear - Child on PSS was (\u0026beta; = 0.125, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = 0.024), accounting for 62.5% of the total effect. Results revealed the indirect effect of Fear - Child on PSS through OPS was also significant, (\u0026beta; = -.075, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001), accounting for 37.5% of the total effect. The total effect of Fear - Child on PSS was not significant, (\u0026beta; = 0.05, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= .391). The path estimates demonstrate that the effect of Fear \u0026ndash; Child on Overparenting (path \u003cem\u003ea\u003c/em\u003e) is significant, (\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 0.227, \u003cem\u003ez\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 3.820, CI [0.004, 0.012], \u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; 0.001), indicating that higher levels of Fear - Child may be associated with higher rates of OPS. The effect of OPS on PSS (path \u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e) is also significant, (\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= - 0.330, \u003cem\u003ez\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= - 5.999, CI [- 9.267, 4.693], \u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; 0.001) indicating that higher OPS may be associated with higher PSS. These findings support this hypothesis, suggesting that higher incidence of fear for one\u0026rsquo;s child (Fear \u0026ndash; Child) is associated with higher rates of self-reported parenting stress (PSS) within this sample of college students\u0026rsquo; parents. \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote:Place Table 2 here.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAn additional mediation analysis was conducted to examine whether these same relationships were evident when considering anxiety (rather than Fear) as an IV, OPS as the mediator, and PSS as the DV (see Table 3). Results showed that GAD-7 was positively associated with PSS scores (\u0026beta; = 0.459, p \u0026lt; 0.001), accounting for 97.96% of the total effect. Results also indicated a non-significant indirect effect of GAD-7 on PSS through OPS, (\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 0.01, \u003cem\u003ez\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 0.556, CI [-0.053, 0.092], \u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 0.578) suggesting no mediating effect. The findings suggest that overparenting did not mediate the relationship between GAD-7 and PSS (see Table 3 ).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote: Place Table 3 here.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eOur primary aims were to explore possible predictors of overparenting by examining associations between overparenting and parents\u0026rsquo; self-reported anxiety, parenting stress, and fear for both themselves and their child. While there is a building literature base which indicates that overparenting often results in negative outcomes in emerging adults (Odenweller et al., 2014; Segrin et al., 2015; Author, 2018), there are few studies which examine what may be associated with parents\u0026rsquo; propensity to engage in overparenting in the first place. Our findings partially support the hypothesis that anxiety and fear, specifically fear for child safety, may be positively associated with overparenting. However, contrary to our initial hypotheses, reports of parenting stress were \u003cem\u003enegatively\u003c/em\u003e associated with overparenting. This led to additional investigations regarding the relationship between stress and overparenting. We considered that overparenting may be one mechanism used to cope with difficult emotions and thereby impact levels of stress. Stated differently, if overparenting was used to control and compensate for intense emotions, possibly this may result in less stress (or distress) on the part of the parent. Our next steps were to empirically explore this question through mediation analyses considering fear and anxiety as common predictors of parenting stress and including overparenting as one potential mediator in this relationship. Results that fear for child safety on parenting stress was mediated by overparenting. However, interesting, this same model was not significant when we considered anxiety as we found the effect of parents\u0026rsquo; anxiety on parenting stress was not mediated by overparenting.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe found that parents who reported higher rates of anxiety symptoms tended to report more overparenting behaviors. This aligns with previous research indicating that anxiety can lead to overprotective and controlling parenting practices (Chorpita \u0026amp; Barlow, 1998; Murray et al., 2009). Chorpita and Barlow (1998) found that increased maternal worry often results in restrictive behaviors that limit children\u0026rsquo;s independence and mobility. Similarly, Murray et al. (2009) suggested that anxious parents may engage in overprotective parenting, thus restricting their children\u0026apos;s experiences, autonomy, and discourage the development of healthy coping skills. Kalomiris and Kiel (2016) expanded on this by examining how maternal anxiety and physiological reactivity contribute to overprotective behaviors. They found that primiparous mothers (first-time mothers) exhibited more anxiety and higher cortisol reactivity, which were linked to increased overprotective parenting. This suggests that the physiological stress response may lead to more controlling parenting practices. This finding is further supported by the \u0026quot;projection hypothesis\u0026quot; (Thomasgard et al., 1995, p. 16) which suggests that anxious parents may view their children as more vulnerable, thereby engaging in overparenting to alleviate their own fears (Woodruff Borden et al., 2002). This may be the first study to connect anxiety with overparenting in this way.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe also found that parents\u0026rsquo; fear was associated with higher rates of overparenting. While parents\u0026rsquo; fear for their own safety did not elicit a significant relationship with overparenting, we did find that parents\u0026rsquo; fear for their children\u0026rsquo;s safety was significantly associated with higher rates of overparenting behaviors. This is consistent with theories suggesting that fear can trigger overcontrolling behaviors as a means to manage perceived threats (Foster et al., 2014; Bradley-Geist \u0026amp; Olson-Buchanan, 2013). For instance, Bradley-Geist and Olson-Buchanan (2013) found that parents who view the world as dangerous may restrict their child\u0026rsquo;s engagement in activities critical for development. Fears about the perceived dangers of the outside world or that their child is unable to perform tasks independently may encourage parents to protect their child excessively irrespective of the child\u0026rsquo;s age (LeMoyne \u0026amp; Buchanan, 2011; Nelson, 2010). Connecting fear, especially fear for the child\u0026rsquo;s well-being, with overparenting is a novel finding and worthy of additional exploration.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor these reasons we explored the question of whether overparenting is an expression of this tendency to act restrictively in situations where fear is a concern and found that, in fact, overparenting does mediate the relationship between parental fear for child\u0026rsquo;s safety and parenting stress suggesting that parents may be utilizing these overparenting tendencies in response to fear and concerns for safety. Previous literature indicates fear for their child\u0026apos;s safety can prompt parents to adopt overprotective and controlling behaviors to mitigate perceived threats their child may face (Drakulich, 2015; Foster et al.,2014). This fear-based motivation to protect their young adult can lead parents to engage in overparenting. Some protective parenting behaviors can reduce perceived stress by limiting exposure to stressors through avoidance, supporting the initial finding that higher rates of overparenting may be associated with lower parenting stress (Woodruff Borden et al., 2002). This is the first study we are aware of which has considered overparenting a strategy employed to control the environment and cope with distress. Certainly further examination of this finding is warranted but believe this provides a key piece of evidence which helps explain the motivations to engage in overparenting and can perhaps provide one key target for intervention. We wonder whether reducing fear may impact the compulsion to overparent.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn a similar vein, we explored whether overparenting mediates the effect of parent\u0026rsquo;s self-reported anxiety on their levels of parenting stress. Interestingly, while overparenting did impact the relationship between fear and stress, it did not have a similar impact on the link between anxiety and stress. Research indicates that while anxiety can influence parenting, the extent and direction of this influence can vary widely (Murray et al., 2009). Anxiety is often characterized by chronic and excessive worry that is difficult to control. Feeling persistently anxious may lead to significant stress, irrespective of other factors such as parenting style. Research has shown that individuals with anxiety experience higher levels of perceived stress due to the constant nature of their worry and anxiety symptoms (Roemer \u0026amp; Orsillo, 2002). This may help explain the strong direct effect of anxiety on PSS we found, although more research will be needed to consider why overparenting impacts stress in the presence of fear but not anxiety.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGiven the intent was to provide a preliminary basis for future research into the factors contributing to parents\u0026rsquo; propensity towards overparenting, we considered several limitations. First, one-third of participants reported rates of mental health and physical health concerns, so it is difficult to ascertain the degree to which these reports impact the generalizability of these findings. Although, GAD-7 (Kavelaars et al., 2023; Sequeira et al., 2021; Spitzer et al., 2006) and PSS (Johnson et al., 2020; 2022; Zhang et al. 2021) means were similar to those reported in previous studies, the fact that one-third of our sample also indicated some mental health or physical health concern suggests that this sample may also have additional issues not captured by the measures. Second, we did not explore gender differences in overparenting behaviors. Fathers and mothers may differ in their approaches to parenting and in the psychological factors influencing their behaviors (Padilla-Walker, Son, \u0026amp; Nelson, 2021). Future research might consider gender-specific analyses to understand if and how fathers\u0026apos; and mothers\u0026apos; experiences of anxiety, fear, and stress differentially impact overparenting. We also utilized a modified version of the Overparenting Scale developed by Segrin et al. (2012). The lack of detailed justification for the modifications and explanation of which items were included or excluded throughout the literature could limit the comparability of findings with other studies using the scale. Future studies could provide clear rationale for any modifications and detail the specific components of the scale used to enhance replicability and comparability (Segrin et al., 2012; 2013).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGiven the preliminary nature of our study, we did not extensively explore the underlying factors contributing to parental anxiety, fear, and parenting stress such as personality traits, past experiences, cultural differences, or social influences (Rapee et al., 2009). Additionally, the potential role of intolerance of uncertainty (Rambodet al., 2023) in contributing to parental anxiety, fear, and stress was not explored. Uncertainty intolerance might amplify overprotective behaviors as parents attempt to control their environment to reduce discomfort, particularly as parents\u0026rsquo; young adult children transition to adulthood (Dugas et al., 1998). Furthermore, the influence of media consumption on parenting fears and behaviors was not examined. Given the pervasive nature of media, its potential role in amplifying parental fears and subsequently influencing overparenting behaviors warrants investigation (Foster et al., 2014; Francis et al., 2017). Future research should explore how media consumption influences parental fears and overparenting behaviors. This could involve examining the content and frequency of media exposure and its impact on parents\u0026apos; perceptions of safety, risk, and subsequent experiential avoidance (Hayes et al., 2018).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe also did not thoroughly explore the mechanisms by which anxiety, fear, and stress interact and potentially exacerbate one another. Understanding these interactions could provide insights into the development of overparenting behaviors (Locke et al., 2012; Segrin et al., 2013). Moreover, while we assessed parents\u0026rsquo; fear, a comprehensive tool specifically designed to capture the nuances of parental fear and its impact on parenting practices is still warranted. A tailored measure could provide more accurate assessments and insights into the role of fear in potentiating overparenting. The findings suggest that more overparenting results in less parenting stress or vice versa were not fully explored either. It is important to investigate the conditions under which this relationship is maintained and to understand whether this pattern is influenced by other factors such as socioeconomic status, marital status, life transitions, or children\u0026apos;s age. Additionally, future studies could investigate how fathers and mothers differ in their overparenting behaviors and the psychological factors driving these behaviors. This could involve examining how gender roles, societal expectations, and individual psychological influences impact parenting styles (de Roo, Veenstra, \u0026amp; Kretschmer, 2022). There is also a need for studies to standardize the use of overparenting measures and clearly report modifications. Developing a consensus on the most effective measure could improve the consistency and comparability of research findings.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFuture research could delve into the factors that contribute to parental anxiety and fear, including potential factors such as personality traits, past trauma, cultural norms, relationship dynamics, and societal pressures. This would provide a more comprehensive understanding of why some parents are more prone to overparenting (McLeod, Weisz, \u0026amp; Wood, 2007). Furthermore, studies can focus on clarifying whether parental anxiety leads to increased fears about their children\u0026apos;s safety, if the reverse is true, or if there is a cyclical reinforcement pattern which potentially increases ineffective coping through the use of experiential avoidance (psychological Inflexibility; Kashdan \u0026amp; Rottenberg, 2010; Levin et al., 2014). This could involve longitudinal studies to track changes over time. There is a need to understand how anxiety, fear, and stress interact and reinforce each other in the context of parenting (Ewing et al., 2020; Huizink et al., 2017). This could involve qualitative studies to gain deeper insights into parents\u0026apos; experiences and perceptions. Developing a measure of parental fear could help in accurately assessing its impact on parenting practices and identifying parents at risk of overparenting (Rapee et al., 2009). Further research could explore the conditions under which overparenting reduces or increases parenting stress. This could involve examining the role of contextual factors such as socioeconomic status, marital status, and the age and developmental stage of children.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur study was among the first to identify factors associated with parents\u0026rsquo; tendency towards overparenting. Both fear for their child and anxiety seem to be important in understanding the propensity to use overparenting and fear for the child is uniquely inversely associated with parenting stress via utilization of overparenting. This may suggest that overparenting may be employed by parents as a mechanism to exact control over the environment particularly when there is concern (fear) associated with the child\u0026rsquo;s well-being. Further, our findings suggest that using overparenting may actually result in decreases in parental stress \u0026ndash; we believe this may be linked to the satisfaction experienced via controlling otherwise fear-inducing situations. Clinicians may find that addressing underlying fears can help parents rely less on controlling, overparenting behaviors as a means of managing their distress. However, additional research is needed to substantiate this claim. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAbidin, R. R. (1992). The determinants of parenting behavior. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Clinical Child Psychology, 21\u003c/em\u003e(4), 407-412. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp2104_12\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBerry, J. O., \u0026amp; Jones, W. H. (1995). Parental Stress Scale (PSS).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eB\u0026ouml;gels, S. M., Lehtonen, A., \u0026amp; Restifo, K. (2010). Mindful parenting in mental health care. \u003cem\u003eMindfulness, 1,\u003c/em\u003e 107-120. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-010-0014-5\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBorre, A., \u0026amp; Kliewer, W. (2014). 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Psychological distress and associated factors of the primary caregivers of offspring with eating disorder during the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Eating Disorders\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e9\u003c/em\u003e(1), 58. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40337-021-00405-9 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003eMeans, Standard Deviations and Correlations among study variables\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" align=\"\" width=\"720\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026alpha; \u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e7\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e8\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e9\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1. PSS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e41.6\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e12.3\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(.90)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.17**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.47***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.33***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.47***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.31***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.18**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2. Fear-Child\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e33.6\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e16.8\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(.97)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.75***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.28***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.28***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.22***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.11*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.19**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3. Fear-Self\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e26.9\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e16.7\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(.97)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.16**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.19***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.25**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.102\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.16**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4. GAD-7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e6.14\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e5.70\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(.94)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.12*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.12*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5. OPS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e3.67\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e0.62\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(.93)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.82***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.83***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.60***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.66***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6. OPS \u0026ndash; Problem Solving\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e2.36\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e0.60\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(.91)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.63***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.15**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.57***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7. OPS - Advice Management\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e3.88\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e0.69\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(.89)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.40***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.47***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8. OPS - Self-Direction\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e3.50\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e0.73\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(.87)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9. OPS \u0026ndash; Tangible Assistance\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e3.58\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e0.76\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(.84)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"13\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 720px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e. PSS \u0026ndash; Parenting Stress Scale, GAD \u0026ndash; 7 = Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 Scale; OPS = Overparenting Scale; * p \u0026lt; .05, ** p \u0026lt; .01, *** p \u0026lt; .001.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"742\"\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"15\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 18.1129%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003eRegression analysis of Fear - Child to PSS through OPS\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0.8279%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"14\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 95.1482%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"text-align: center;\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e95% C.I. (a)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 2.6843%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eType\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 4.315%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEffect\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 1.2544%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLabel\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 1.8564%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEstimate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 1.1791%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 1.43%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLower\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 1.3798%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUpper\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 1.3045%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 1.3547%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ez\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 1.3045%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2.6843%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIndirect\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 4.315%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFear - Child\u0026nbsp;\u0026rArr;\u0026nbsp;OPS\u0026nbsp;\u0026rArr;\u0026nbsp;PSS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 1.2544%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ea∙b\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 1.8564%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.055\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 1.1791%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.017\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 1.43%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.089\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 1.3798%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.023\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 1.3045%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.075\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 1.3547%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-3.246\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 1.3045%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2.6843%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eComponent\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 4.315%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFear - Child\u0026nbsp;\u0026rArr;\u0026nbsp;OPS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 1.2544%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ea\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 1.8564%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.008\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 1.1791%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 1.43%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.004\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 1.3798%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.012\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 1.3045%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.227\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 1.3547%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.893\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 1.3045%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 0.9031%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 3.9638%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOPS\u0026nbsp;\u0026rArr;\u0026nbsp;PSS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 3.4118%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 1.8564%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-7.045\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 1.1791%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.160\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 1.43%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-9.273\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 1.3798%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-4.608\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 1.3045%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.330\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 1.3547%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-6.071\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 1.7812%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2.6843%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDirect\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 4.315%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFear - Child\u0026nbsp;\u0026rArr;\u0026nbsp;PSS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 1.2544%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ec\u0026rsquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 1.8564%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.092\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 1.1791%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.040\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 1.43%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.008\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 1.3798%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.168\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 1.3045%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.125\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 1.3547%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.263\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 1.3045%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.024\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2.6843%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 4.315%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFear - Child\u0026nbsp;\u0026rArr;\u0026nbsp;PSS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 1.2544%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ec\u0026rsquo; + a∙b\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 1.8564%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.037\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 1.1791%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.041\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 1.43%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.048\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 1.3798%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.112\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 1.3045%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.050\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 1.3547%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.894\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 1.3045%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.371\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"15\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 18.1129%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e. CI = Confidence Interval; Fear - Child = Parents\u0026rsquo; fear for their child\u0026rsquo;s safety; OPS = Overparenting Scale; PSS = Parenting Stress Scale.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" align=\"\" width=\"690\"\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"15\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 686px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 3\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003eRegression analysis of GAD-7 to PSS through OPS \u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"14\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 87.971%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"text-align: center;\"\u003e95% C.I. (a)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eType\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEffect\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 52px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLabel\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEstimate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 46px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLower\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUpper\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 52px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 52px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ez\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 111px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIndirect\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGAD-7 \u0026rArr; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;OPS \u0026rArr; PSS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 52px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ea∙b\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.021\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 46px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.040\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.053\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.108\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 52px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.010\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 52px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.519\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.604\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eComponent\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 124px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGAD-7\u0026nbsp;\u0026rArr;\u0026nbsp;OPS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 52px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ea\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.004\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 46px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.007\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.017\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 52px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.033\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 52px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.531\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.596\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 124px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOPS\u0026nbsp;\u0026rArr;\u0026nbsp;PSS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 52px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-6.114\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 46px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.929\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-7.999\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-4.275\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 52px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.287\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 52px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-6.585\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 105px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDirect\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;GAD-7 \u0026rArr; PSS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 52px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ec\u0026rsquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.990\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 46px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.121\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.763\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.238\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 52px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.459\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 52px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.186\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 105px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;GAD-7 \u0026rArr; PSS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 52px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ec\u0026rsquo; + a∙b\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.011\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 46px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.131\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.761\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.271\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 52px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.469\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 52px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.747\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"15\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 686px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e. CI = Confidence Interval. GAD-7 = Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 Scale; OPS = Overparenting Scale; PSS = Parenting Stress Scale.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"overparenting, helicopter parenting, parental anxiety, parental fear, parental stress","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7538300/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7538300/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"Overparenting, often referred to as helicopter parenting, is characterized by developmentally inappropriate and overly involved parenting. Although it generally stems from a well-intended desire to help their child, overparenting often hinders the development of adaptive coping behaviors, effective interpersonal skills, and sense of well-being, specifically among young adult children resulting in poor distress tolerance, elevated levels of emotional distress, substance use and interpersonal difficulties. While the impacts of overparenting are a well-studied phenomenon, relatively little is known about the emotional and psychological factors that may contribute to parents’ tendency to engage in overparenting behaviors in the first place. Using a sample of 318 parents of college students, collected through Mechanical Turk, we assessed parents’ anxiety, fear, and stress as potential predictors of overparenting. Results provide preliminary evidence that parents’ anxiety, fear, and stress may be associated with overparenting, with fear associated with threats to child safety emerging as the strongest predictor. Interestingly, stress had an inverse relationship with overparenting, and we found that overparenting mediates the relationship between parental fear for child safety and parenting stress. This suggests that overparenting may be a coping mechanism designed to address experiences of fear and thereby reduce parenting stress. Implications and possible directions for future research are discussed.","manuscriptTitle":"Anxiety, Fear and Stress as Predictors of Overparenting","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-02-16 16:17:18","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7538300/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"796a8246-ffe0-4b2f-8312-59b4bd0460be","owner":[],"postedDate":"February 16th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-02-16T16:17:18+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-02-16 16:17:18","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7538300","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7538300","identity":"rs-7538300","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}