Phytochemistry and medicinal potential of Nigerian medicinal plants: ethnobotanical foundations, bioactive compounds, and translational prospects

Phytochemistry and medicinal potential of Nigerian medicinal plants: ethnobotanical foundations, bioactive compounds, and translational prospects | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Systematic Review Phytochemistry and medicinal potential of Nigerian medicinal plants: ethnobotanical foundations, bioactive compounds, and translational prospects Ahmed Attahiru, Bashar Attahiru This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7876763/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Flora of Nigeria is a rich source of diverse plant resources, which are used in traditional medical practice. Use of plants in controlling malaria, sickle cure anemia, infections, inflammation complications metabolic effects and cancer have been widely discussed since ancient times. Current phytochemical and pharmacological investigations prove that Nigerian medicinal plants are rich in alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, tannins, and phenolic with antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antimalarial and anticancer activities. This review compiles ethnobotanical, phytochemical and pharmacological information on Nigerian medicinal plants that have been validated about their uses which included representative species such as Vernonia amygdalina, Azadirachta indica, Garcinia kola, Allstonia boonei, food medicinal plants like Allium sativum and Zingiber officinale. A systematic literature searches from 2000 to 2025 across PUBMED, SCOPUS, SCIENCE DIRECT, and GOOGLE SCHOLAR identified 37 relevant studies, which were analyzed for phytochemical profiles, bioassay guided isolation of bioactive compounds, and therapeutic potential. Typical methodologies involve solvent extraction, preliminary phytochemical screening, chromatographic techniques (thin layer chromatography, column chromatography and high performance liquid chromatography), and spectroscopic methods (ultraviolet visible spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and mass spectrometry). Many findings support traditional uses, translational applications remain limited due to experimental variability, insufficient toxicological and clinical studies, and regulatory challenges. The development of Niprisan® (Nicosan), a polyherbal anti-sickle cell formulation, exemplifies both the promise and the obstacles in commercializing phytomedicines. Advancing Nigerian phytomedicine requires standardized methodologies, investment in advanced analytical platforms, locally relevant clinical trials, conservation strategies, equitable benefit sharing, and integration of traditional knowledge with modern scientific approaches. Medicinal Chemistry Nigeria Medicinal plants Phytochemistry Pharmacology Natural products Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Introduction Global importance of medicinal plants Natural products have served as a foundation for medicine ever since. An estimated 60–70 percent of modern drugs are either derived directly or indirectly from plants (Newman & Cragg, 2020). Ethnopharmacological avenues have had a powerful influence on pharmacological discoveries; some examples being pharmacology of quinine from Cinchona bark and that of artemisinin from Artemisia annua. In many low- and middle-income countries, medicinal plants have remained the principal form of healthcare (WHO, 2019). Biodiversity and ethnomedicine in Nigeria Ecologically diverse ranging from mangroves and savannas to rainforests, Nigeria shares this diversity that supports some 5,000–7,000 plant species, several of which are used ethnomedicinally (Keay, 1989; Gbile, 1992). Ethnobotanical surveys across Nigerian states have invariably reported utilization of plants for the treatment of diseases or conditions such as malaria, fever, gastrointestinal disorders, hypertension, diabetes, and sickle cell anemia (Rafiu, 2025; Sulaiman, 2022). Phytochemistry of Traditional Medicine and Its Modern Counterpart Phytochemical studies focus on the bioactive principles behind any traditional claims. Nigerian plants have produced varieties of metabolites like alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, saponins, tannins, and phenolic glycosides that much of their pharmacological activity can be attributed to (Edeoga et al., 2005 ). These compounds exert antimicrobial (Anyanwu et al., 2017), antimalarial (Islas et al., 2020), anticancer (Abdulazeez, 2024), anti-inflammatory (Adotey et al., 2012), and metabolic disease related activities (Farombi & Owoeye, 2011 ). Translational Significance and Niprisan Case Perhaps the most famous Nigerian phytomedicine is Niprisan® (Nicosan), a polyherbal formulation developed by the National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development (NIPRD) for the management of sickle-cell disease. Niprisan had Phase II clinical trial success, reducing painful crises (Oniyangi et al., 2018), and was granted orphan drug status in the United States. Commercialization later, however, stalled due to regulatory, manufacturing, and intellectual property issues (Quartz Africa, 2019). The Niprisan story underscores both the immense potential and the systemic hurdles in developing Nigerian phytomedicines. Rationale for this review The previous reviews on Nigerian medicinal plants had tended to limit themselves to specific plant families (Achika, 2023), certain bioactive classes (Ugbogu, 2021), and therapeutic areas (Abdulazeez, 2024). However, composite amalgamation of ethnobotany, phytochemistry, pharmacology, methodology, and translational pathways is scarce. The task of this review is to fill the lacuna, drawing on 37 representative sources spanning 2000–2025. Methodology Literature Search Strategy This review has been discussed systematically in order to retrieve, analyze, and synthesize published evidence relating to the phytochemistry and medicinal properties of Nigerian medicinal plants. A thorough literature search was performed across major scientific indices including PubMed, Scopus, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. The search was constructed for publications tracing from January 2000 to June 2025; the dates were chosen: contemporaneous with the advances seen in phytochemical analysis, ethnobotanical surveys, and pharmacological validation of Nigerian medicinal plants.Search terms combined Boolean operators and keywords, including: “Nigerian medicinal plants” , “phytochemistry of Nigerian plants” , “traditional medicine Nigeria” , “ethnobotany Nigeria” , “bioactive compounds Nigerian flora” , “pharmacology of Nigerian plants” , and “clinical studies on Nigerian phytomedicine” . To ensure relevance, plant names were searched both by scientific nomenclature (e.g., Vernonia amygdalina , Garcinia kola ) and vernacular names (e.g., “bitter leaf,” “bitter kola”). Reference lists of included studies were also screened to capture additional relevant papers (snowballing technique). Priority was given to peer-reviewed journal articles, though theses, ethnobotanical survey reports, and WHO/FAO documents were included where primary data were available. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria Inclusion criteria were established to ensure methodological rigor and relevance: Studies focusing on Nigerian medicinal plants with ethnomedicinal or phytochemical data. Reports presenting phytochemical screening, isolation, or structural elucidation of bioactive compounds. Experimental pharmacological evaluations (in vitro, in vivo, or ex vivo) of extracts or isolated compounds. Clinical or toxicological studies of Nigerian herbal formulations. Ethnobotanical surveys with detailed documentation of plant uses, parts used, and preparation methods. Exclusion criteria: Articles without clear methodological descriptions. Studies outside Nigeria unless they directly investigated Nigerian species. Papers lacking either phytochemical or pharmacological relevance (e.g., purely ecological studies). Non-English publications without accessible translation. This filtering process ensured that the final dataset consisted of studies that were both scientifically credible and contextually relevant to Nigerian phytomedicine. Data Extraction and Organization From each eligible study, data were systematically extracted and tabulated under the following categories: Botanical Information : family, genus, species, and common/local names. Plant Part Used : leaves, stem bark, roots, seeds, fruits, or whole plant. Ethnopharmacological Uses : traditional applications documented in surveys. Phytochemical Profile : classes of compounds (alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, saponins, tannins, phenolic acids, glycosides). Isolation/Analytical Techniques : solvents, chromatographic methods, spectroscopic tools. Pharmacological Activity : antimicrobial, antimalarial, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, metabolic disease effects. Toxicological or Clinical Data : safety assessments, dosage, reported adverse effects. Research Gaps : lack of clinical validation, poor standardization, or conservation concerns. This approach allowed comparative analysis and identification of trends across different studies, while also highlighting methodological strengths and weaknesses. Analytical Framework The data were analyzed through thematic synthesis: Phytochemical synthesis : focused on identifying recurring classes of compounds across different species and their putative biosynthetic origins. Pharmacological mapping : linked phytochemicals to biological activities validated experimentally. Ethnobotanical triangulation : examined the alignment between traditional uses and modern pharmacological findings. Critical appraisal : considered the robustness of extraction protocols, reproducibility of results, and gaps in toxicological/clinical evaluation. The methodology used here aligns with PRISMA-based systematic review guidelines (Page et al., 2021) but was adapted to accommodate ethnopharmacological and natural product research contexts, where heterogeneity of study design is common. Limitations of the Review Methodology On account of some methodological shortcomings, several are acknowledged. First, while we aimed to have exhaustive coverage, some information on ethnobotany remains unpublished or is contained in local archives. Second, cross-comparison of studies was made difficult because of certain heterogeneities in experimental design (extraction solvent, assay conditions, reporting standards). Third, there was some language bias introduced as well, since only papers published in English were consulted. Finally, very little could be said about the translational conclusions since most plants have no clinical trials. Despite these limitations, the method offers a good framework for the synthesis of phytochemical and pharmacological evidence of Nigerian medicinal plants. It allows for a fair balance of traditional knowledge with scientific validation, thus, preparing the ground for further elaborations in the ensuing section. Phytochemical Constituents of Nigerian Medicinal Plants It is well established that Nigerian medicinal plants contain a wide spectrum of secondary metabolites which bestow therapeutic potentials on them. Phytochemical studies have shown the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, saponins, tannins, glycosides, phenolic acids, lignans, and steroids. These compounds are biosynthesized via diverse metabolic pathways (shikimate, acetate malonate, mevalonate, methylerythritol phosphate), and their structural diversity accounts for the wide spectrum of pharmacological effects observed in Nigerian plants (Cowan, 1999; Fabricant & Farnsworth, 2001; Balunas & Kinghorn, 2005 ). Alkaloids Alkaloids stand as possibly pharmacologically most important classes of secondary metabolites. Nigerian species such as Alstonia boonei (Apocynaceae) contain indole alkaloids such as echitamine and alstonine shown to possess activities against malaria, pain, and cancer (Tijani et al., 2012; Nworu et al., 2015). Similarly, Rauvolfia vomitoria yields reserpine-type indole alkaloids useful traditionally to treat hypertension and psychiatric disorders (Iwu, 2014 ). Alkaloids from Cryptolepis sanguinolenta (cryptolepine) exert repellent antiplasmodial effect and so support its ethnomedical use against malaria in Nigeria (Olajide et al., 2011). Studies on Senna alata have also revealed the presence of quinoline alkaloids with antimicrobial properties (Edeoga et al., 2005 ). Flavonoids and Phenolic Compounds Flavonoids are widespread across Nigerian medicinal plants and confer strong antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties. Vernonia amygdalina leaves contain luteolin, apigenin, and quercetin derivatives linked to antidiabetic and anti-inflammatory effects (Farombi & Owoeye, 2011 ). Garcinia kola seeds, known locally as bitter kola, are particularly rich in biflavonoids such as kolaviron, which exhibit hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activities (Abarikwu et al., 2017). Phenolic acids, including caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, and gallic acid, have been reported in Ocimum gratissimum and Allium sativum , supporting their antimicrobial and cardiovascular protective effects (Ezekwesili-Ofili et al., 2019). Table 1 Representative flavonoids and phenolic compounds isolated from Nigerian medicinal plants Plant species Compound(s) Pharmacological activity Reference Vernonia amygdalina Luteolin, apigenin Antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory Farombi & Owoeye ( 2011 ) Garcinia kola Kolaviron (biflavonoids) Hepatoprotective, anticancer Abarikwu et al. (2017) Ocimum gratissimum Rosmarinic acid Antimicrobial, antioxidant Ezekwesili-Ofili et al. (2019) Allium sativum Gallic acid, quercetin Cardioprotective, anti-inflammatory Edeoga et al. ( 2005 ) Nigerian medicinal plants like Vernonia amygdalina , Garcinia kola , Ocimum gratissimum , and Allium sativum possess phytochemicals with antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, antimicrobial, cardioprotective, and anti-inflammatory activities. Terpenoids and Steroids Terpenoids are among the most structurally diverse classes of compounds in Nigerian medicinal flora. The neem tree ( Azadirachta indica ) produces limonoids such as azadirachtin and gedunin, with well-documented insecticidal, antimicrobial, and anticancer properties (Biswas et al., 2002). Boswellia dalzielii yields boswellic acids, triterpenoids with anti-inflammatory and analgesic potential (Abdulrahman et al., 2014). Steroidal saponins and phytosterols are reported in Dioscorea bulbifera and Fadogia agrestis , linked to hormonal and adaptogenic effects (Yakubu et al., 2005 ). Saponins and Glycosides Saponins occur widely in Gongronema latifolium , Aloe vera , and Dioscorea species, where they contribute to anti-inflammatory, antihyperglycemic, and immunomodulatory activities (Atangwho et al., 2009). Cardiac glycosides from Calotropis procera and Strophanthus hispidus have been documented for their cardiotonic effects but also highlight toxicity risks (Elujoba et al., 2005). Table 2 Representative saponins and glycosides from Nigerian medicinal plants Plant species Compound(s) Activity Reference Gongronema latifolium Saponin glycosides Antihyperglycemic, immunomodulatory Atangwho et al. (2009) Calotropis procera Cardiac glycosides Cardioprotective (toxic risk) Elujoba et al. (2005) Aloe vera Aloin (anthraquinone glycoside) Laxative, wound healing Edeoga et al. ( 2005 ) Gongronema latifolium , Calotropis procera , and Aloe vera contain glycosides with antihyperglycemic, cardioprotective, laxative, and wound healing activities, though Calotropis procera also poses toxicity risks Tannins and Other Polyphenols Hydrolyzable and condensed tannins are prevalent in Nigerian plants such as Anogeissus leiocarpa and Khaya senegalensis . These compounds exhibit strong antimicrobial, antiviral, and antioxidant effects (Olajuyigbe & Afolayan, 2011). The use of tannin-rich plants in water purification and wound healing is also documented in ethnomedicine. Analytical Methods in Nigerian Phytochemistry Studies In Nigeria, phytochemical investigations often rely on classical extraction techniques, such as maceration and Soxhlet, and qualitative phytochemical screening, e.g., alkaloid tests, ferric chloride tests for phenolics, and frothing tests for saponins. There has been a massive increase in applying chromatographic and spectroscopic techniques that have allowed for better compound identifications. Chromatography: TLC is used for rapid profiling and column chromatography along with HPLC for isolation. Spectroscopy: UV-Vis, IR, NMR, and MS for structural elucidation, though the availability of advanced instruments is still limited in most Nigerian laboratories. Metabolomics: LC-MS/MS based metabolomics approaches are beginning to be available at a few institutions and may promise deeper insight into Nigerian phytochemistry (Okoye et al., 2021). Table 3 Common analytical methods employed in Nigerian phytochemical studies Technique Application Example use in Nigerian plant studies TLC Fingerprinting, compound detection Vernonia amygdalina flavonoid profile Column Chromatography Isolation of alkaloids, terpenoids Alstonia boonei alkaloids HPLC Quantification, purity assessment Garcinia kola biflavonoids NMR & MS Structural elucidation Azadirachta indica limonoids Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC), Column Chromatography, High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC), Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR), and Mass Spectrometry (MS). Pharmacological Activities of Nigerian Medicinal Plants The pharmacological potentials of Nigerian medicinal plants come from their diverse phytochemical profiles. Selected representational plants widely used in Nigerian ethnomedicine are discussed here, focusing on the bioactive compounds and relevant tested biological activities. The discussion alone gives an example of what phytochemistry is about in the application of therapy; the presentation follows a species wise arrangement. Vernonia amygdalina (Bitter Leaf; Asteraceae) Vernonia amygdalina is one of the most studied medicinal plants in Nigeria, widely used in treating malaria, diabetes, gastrointestinal disturbances, and microbial infections. Phytochemical profile : It contains sesquiterpene lactones (vernodalin, vernomygdin), flavonoids (luteolin, apigenin, quercetin), alkaloids, and saponins (Igile et al., 1995; Farombi & Owoeye, 2011 ). Antimicrobial activities : Aqueous and ethanol extracts inhibited Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Candida albicans, hence confirming its traditional uses in infections (Ezekwesili-Ofili et al., 2019). Antimalarial effects : The sesquiterpene lactones act against Plasmodium falciparum; animal studies showed dose dependent parasitemia reduction. (Abosi & Raseroka, 2003). Antidiabetic activity : Flavonoids enhance insulin sensitivity and modulate glucose metabolism; animal studies report significant hypoglycemic effects (Nwanjo, 2005). Anticancer activity : Methanol extracts inhibit proliferation of breast cancer and prostate cancer cell lines, possibly through flavonoid-mediated apoptosis induction (Izevbigie, 2003). Azadirachta indica (Neem; Meliaceae) Neem is a naturalized species in Nigeria and is highly valued for its antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and insecticidal properties. Phytochemical profile : Limonoid rich (azadirachtin, gedunin, nimbin), with flavonoids, tannins, and saponins (Biswas et al., 2002). Antimicrobial activity : Crude extracts show broad spectrum antibacterial activity, including multidrug-resistant strains (Kone et al., 2004). Antimalarial properties : Gedunin and nimbolide revealed activity against chloroquine-resistant P. falciparum (MacKinnon et al., 1997). Anti-inflammatory effects : Neem oil and leaf extracts inhibit the cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase pathways and thus the inflammation due to prostaglandins (Talwar et al., 1997). Anticancer potential : Gedunin is cytotoxic to prostate and pancreatic cancer cells by inhibiting HSP90 (Patwardhan & Gautam, 2005). Garcinia kola (Bitter Kola; Clusiaceae) Garcinia kola seeds rank among those eaten both for medicine and as a cultural stimulant all over Nigeria. Phytochemical profile : Compound groups of biflavonoids (kolaviron), xanthones, benzophenones, tannins, and saponins reported (Farombi et al., 2005). Hepatoprotective effects : Kolaviron protects against aflatoxin- and carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatotoxicity by enhancing antioxidant defenses (Farombi et al., 2009). Antimicrobial activity : Extracts inhibit bacterial and fungal pathogens, with notable activity against Candida albicans (Iwu, 2014 ). Anti-inflammatory effects : Kolaviron downregulates NF-κB signaling, reducing cytokine mediated inflammation (Adaramoye et al., 2011). Anticancer activity : Demonstrated growth inhibition in human hepatocellular carcinoma models (Farombi et al., 2005). Neuroprotective effects : Preclinical studies suggest kolaviron attenuates oxidative stress in models of neurodegeneration (Adedara et al., 2014). Alstonia boonei (Apocynaceae) Traditionally known as the “God’s tree” or “devil’s tree,” Alstonia boonei bark is widely used as an analgesic, antipyretic, and antimalarial remedy. Phytochemical profile : Contains indole alkaloids (echitamine, alstonine, akuammicine), triterpenoids, tannins, and flavonoids (Tijani et al., 2012). Antimalarial activity : Alkaloid rich fractions reduce P. berghei parasitemia in murine models (Tijani et al., 2012). Analgesic and anti-inflammatory activity : Ethanolic extracts inhibit carrageenan induced paw edema and writhing reflex in mice (Olajide et al., 2000 ). Anticancer potential : In vitro studies show cytotoxicity of alkaloid fractions against leukemia cell lines (Nworu et al., 2015). Antidiabetic effects : Extracts improve glucose tolerance and modulate carbohydrate metabolism enzymes (Etuk et al., 2010). Cryptolepis sanguinolenta (Periplocaceae) Although more widespread in West Africa, C. sanguinolenta is used in Nigeria primarily as an antimalarial. Phytochemical profile : Contains indoloquinoline alkaloids such as cryptolepine, quindoline, and neocryptolepine (Olajide et al., 2011). Antimalarial activity : Cryptolepine exhibits strong in vitro and in vivo activity against chloroquine-resistant strains of P. falciparum (Cimanga et al., 2004). Antimicrobial effects : Extracts inhibit Staphylococcus aureus and Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Ansah & Gooderham, 2002). Anti-inflammatory potential : Cryptolepine modulates nitric oxide synthesis in activated macrophages, reducing inflammatory responses (Ansah et al., 2009). Toxicity considerations : High doses of cryptolepine are genotoxic, highlighting safety concerns for clinical development (Akinmoladun et al., 2019). Zingiber officinale (Ginger; Zingiberaceae) Ginger rhizomes are widely consumed as both food and medicine in Nigeria. Phytochemical profile : Contains gingerols, shogaols, zingerone, paradols, and volatile oils (Shukla & Singh, 2007). Antimicrobial effects : Extracts inhibit enteric bacteria and fungi, validating use in gastrointestinal disorders (Ezekwesili-Ofili et al., 2019). Anti-inflammatory activity : [6]-gingerol suppresses prostaglandin synthesis and inhibits COX-2 expression (Grzanna et al., 2005). Anticancer potential : [6]-gingerol and [6]-shogaol induce apoptosis in colon and breast cancer cell lines (Shukla & Singh, 2007). Metabolic disease management : Ginger extract improves lipid profiles and reduces oxidative stress in diabetic models (Al-Amin et al., 2006). Allium sativum (Garlic; Amaryllidaceae) Garlic is a dietary staple with dual roles as food and medicine in Nigeria. Phytochemical profile : Rich in sulfur compounds (allicin, ajoene, diallyl sulfides), flavonoids, and saponins (Iciek et al., 2009). Antimicrobial activity : Allicin is a potent broad spectrum antimicrobial effective against Gram-positive, Gram-negative, and fungal pathogens (Ankri & Mirelman, 1999). Cardiovascular benefits : Garlic lowers blood pressure, reduces cholesterol, and improves endothelial function (Ried et al., 2013). Anticancer potential : Sulfur compounds modulate carcinogen metabolism and induce apoptosis in tumor cells (Iciek et al., 2009). Antidiabetic activity : Garlic extract improves insulin sensitivity and reduces hyperglycemia in diabetic models (Eidi et al., 2006). The Case of Niprisan® (Nicosan) Niprisan, a phytomedicine developed by Nigeria’s National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development (NIPRD), represents the first standardized polyherbal product for sickle cell disease. Composition : Extracts of Piper guineense , Pterocarpus osun , Eugenia caryophyllata , and Sorghum bicolor . Pharmacological activity : Demonstrates anti-sickling effects by inhibiting hemoglobin polymerization and improving red blood cell deformability (Wambebe et al., 2001). Clinical validation : Phase II clinical trials in Nigeria confirmed efficacy and safety, leading to commercialization as Niprisan® (Wambebe et al., 2001). Challenges : Limited large-scale clinical validation and manufacturing constraints hindered sustained global distribution (Ogunkunle & Oladele, 2014). Methodological Challenges and Future Perspectives Research on medicinal plant species used in Nigeria has been encouraging but there are still some methodological roadblocks. These roadblocks involve plant identification, extraction and standardization of plant products, phytochemical characterization, and clinically testing the plants. If the roadblocks are not addressed, the reproducibility and translational potential of the research will continue to remain very low. Plant Identification and Authentication There are the ongoing challenges of misidentification of plant species in the phytochemical studies conducted in Nigeria. In some studies, plant species were only referenced by their local name and herbarium voucher specimens were not stored as part of the record which brings into question scientific reproducibility (Soladoye et al., 2014 ). The processes of DNA barcoding and molecular taxonomy are still not fully optimized in many contexts in Nigeria. Extraction and Standardization Similar to phytochemical studies on other plants, most studies of Nigerian medicinal plants employ traditional solvent extraction (for example ethanol, methanol, aqueous maceration), however as Eloff ( 2019 ) noted there is little standardization in extraction procedure. The lack of standardization in extraction protocols leads to variability in yield and composition. Sometimes standardization parameters such as extraction time, temperature, and solvent polarity are only reported once in a study. Phytochemical characterization and quantification In qualitative screening, the classes of phytochemicals investigated are common to studies conducted with some members of family which include alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, and saponins. Despite the availability of advanced instrumentation such as High Pressure Liquid Chromatography (HPLC), Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS), and Nuclear Magnetic Resonnce (NMR) for quantitative profiling of phytochemical compositions in plant extracts, their use is low compared to qualitative screening (Owolabi et al., 2020 ). Bioassay and Clinical Translation Most research on Nigerian medicinal plants continue to use in vitro bioassays such as antioxidant, antimicrobial, and cytotoxicity. Few studies progress to in vivo pharmacological testing, and even fewer to clinical evaluation. Issues of dosage determination, toxicity assessment, and pharmacokinetics remain underexplored (Balogun et al., 2021 ). Comparative Table of Challenges and Recommendations Table 4 Methodological challenges in Nigerian medicinal plant research and suggested recommendations. Methodological Area Key Challenges Recommendations Plant Identification Misidentification due to reliance on local names; absence of voucher specimens Adopt herbarium voucher system; integrate DNA barcoding and molecular markers Extraction Methods Inconsistent protocols; lack of optimization; solvent variability Develop standardized extraction guidelines; apply green extraction technologies Phytochemical Profiling Overreliance on qualitative screening; limited use of LC-MS/NMR Expand access to advanced analytical instruments; promote collaborative networks Bioassays Predominantly in vitro testing; weak correlation with clinical relevance Combine in vitro, in vivo, and ex vivo studies; employ standardized bioassays Toxicity and Safety Few toxicity and dose response studies; lack of pharmacokinetic evaluation Conduct systematic toxicity studies; integrate ADME and pharmacokinetics models Clinical Translation Minimal clinical trials; poor regulatory framework Strengthen clinical research infrastructure; align with WHO/NAFDAC guidelines Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA), Absorption Distribution Metabolism and Excretion (ADME), World Health Organization (WHO), and National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC). Future Perspectives To address these shortcomings, Nigerian phytochemical research needs to adopt a multidisciplinary ethos that incorporates ethnobotany, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and molecular biology. Developing national phytochemical databases, stimulating south-south collaboration within Africa, and promoting drug discovery through artificial intelligence technologies exemplify these forward thinking strategies. Finally, linking research outputs with regulatory bodies such as NAFDAC and WHO will facilitate and strengthen processes for validating Nigerian medicinal plants to develop therapeutic agents. Conclusion Nigeria has a large, yet untapped supply of medicinal plants, mostly associated with ethnomedicinal uses, which have provided strong evidence of their phytochemical and pharmacological activities. This review recognizes the potentials of Nigerian plant species in producing vast types of secondary metabolites (e.g., alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, saponins, phenolic compounds) with various bioactions against infectious disease, inflammatory disease, cancer, and metabolic syndrome. However, the future of work on Nigerian medicinal plants in entangled in methodological challenges including poor authentication of plant species, variability in extraction methods, inadequate phytochemical profiling, and poorly developed clinical reagent and translation strategies. As a result, it is often difficult to reproduce and broadly accept scientific empiricism from studies conducted on Nigerian medicinal plants. Recommendations need to be made to improve the current methodologies by standardizing methods throughout the study process, introducing more complex analytical methods and pipelines that go from preclinical-to-clinical trials in a systematic way. In the future, Nigeria should capitalize on this form of biodiversity, making it a national resource, and proceed to create herbal 'pharmacopeia' type references, build phytochemical research resource centers, and improve their regulatory networks. Building collaborative networks with African institutions and global collaborations would also significantly impact opportunities for the discovery of new lead compounds from Nigerian plants. Equally significant, thinking about modern analyses, including but not limited to omics technologies, metabolomics, bioinformatics, and artificial intelligence, will also open greater drug discovery avenues. Inclusively, the phytochemistry and medicinal potential of Nigerian plants offer a unique opportunity not only for importance to science, but also for sustainable options for improved health, economic development, and cultural preservation. Therefore, Nigerian medicinal plants have the potential to provide a new generation of therapeutic agents with global relevance, if mobilized in a systemic manner. Abbreviations DNA: Deoxyribonucleic Acid ADME: Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, and Excretion WHO: World Health Organization NAFDAC: National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control (Nigeria) TLC: Thin Layer Chromatography UV-Vis: Ultraviolet Visible Spectroscopy IR: Infrared Spectroscopy NMR: Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy MS: Mass Spectrometry LC-MS: Liquid Chromatography Mass Spectrometry HSP90: Heat Shock Protein 90 NF-κB: Nuclear Factor kappa light chain enhancer of activated B cells COX-2: Cyclooxygenase-2 Declarations Acknowledgements Not applicable. Author Contributions All authors contributed to the study. Data Availability All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this article. 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C., & Sulaiman, O. M. (2014). Plant taxonomy in Nigeria: Misidentification, implications and solutions. African Journal of Plant Science, 8 (5), 249–256. Sule, M. I., Ahmed, A., & Musa, A. (2012). Phytochemical and antimicrobial screening of Ficus sycomorus leaf extracts. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research, 6 (19), 3709–3712. Tijjani, A., Bello, I., & Aliyu, A. (2017). Traditional uses and pharmacological properties of Vernonia amygdalina . Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 6 (6), 1746–1751. Yakubu, M. T., Akanji, M. A., & Oladiji, A. T. (2005). Aphrodisiac potentials of the aqueous extract of Fadogia agrestis stem in male albino rats. Asian Journal of Andrology, 7 (4), 399–404. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-7262.2005.00052.x Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Supplementary Files GraphicalAbstract.png Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. 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08:30:56","extension":"html","order_by":16,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":123863,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7876763/v1/3da14d756adff3bd6f5e9968.html"},{"id":93755287,"identity":"f3ff3ba1-c97f-425c-b3ed-2ee20c7da184","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 08:38:55","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":79194,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRepresentative alkaloid structures from Nigerian medicinal plants. Selected examples include echitamine from \u003cem\u003eAlstonia boonei\u003c/em\u003e; cryptolepine from \u003cem\u003eCryptolepis sanguinolenta\u003c/em\u003e; reserpine from \u003cem\u003eRauvolfia vomitoria\u003c/em\u003e; and alstonine from \u003cem\u003eAlstonia boonei\u003c/em\u003e. These alkaloids support diverse pharmacological activities including antimalarial, antihypertensive, and anticancer effects. Chem Draw software, version 18.0.0.20 was used to perform chemical structures.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7876763/v1/4b298302f57d769dfb7a453b.png"},{"id":93754438,"identity":"a8c6c308-304c-428c-bbd5-9156b923f7b1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 08:30:55","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":259843,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStructural diversity of terpenoids from Nigerian medicinal plants.\u003c/strong\u003e Examples shown: azadirachtin (limonoid) from \u003cem\u003eAzadirachta indica\u003c/em\u003e; boswellic acid (triterpenoid) from \u003cem\u003eBoswellia dalzielii\u003c/em\u003e; oleanolic acid (pentacyclic triterpenoid) from \u003cem\u003eVernonia amygdalina\u003c/em\u003e; and phytosterols from \u003cem\u003eDioscorea bulbifera\u003c/em\u003e. The figure highlights the wide structural range and therapeutic potential of Nigerian terpenoids. Chem Draw software, version 18.0.0.20 was used to perform chemical structures.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7876763/v1/377f3ff36058cb0cc9bee00a.png"},{"id":93756120,"identity":"cac650ca-21b6-4c9d-87d7-09c5856fb162","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 08:46:55","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":214620,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRole of tannins and polyphenols in pharmacological activities of Nigerian medicinal plants. \u003c/strong\u003ePolyphenolic constituents such as gallic acid, catechins, and condensed tannins contribute to antioxidant, antimicrobial, and antiviral activities of plants including \u003cem\u003eKhaya senegalensis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eAnogeissus leiocarpa\u003c/em\u003e. Chem Draw software, version 18.0.0.20 was used to perform chemical structures.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7876763/v1/cbfaec3be36b7fd54f9470ae.png"},{"id":93754442,"identity":"107de97f-bcda-41bf-b0e7-46f122f071cd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 08:30:55","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":363561,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePharmacological activities of \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003eVernonia amygdalina\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003emapped to its phytochemical constituents.\u003c/strong\u003e Major phytochemicals such as flavonoids (luteolin, apigenin), terpenoids, and sesquiterpene lactones are linked to activities including antidiabetic, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial effects.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7876763/v1/130262a54b9694acd3dafb9c.png"},{"id":93755294,"identity":"72ef3cbc-2da9-479f-80ce-f6e2f51eba75","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 08:38:55","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":308649,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTranslational trajectory of Niprisan from ethnomedicine to clinical development. \u003c/strong\u003eThe figure underscores both the scientific successes and translational bottlenecks in African phytomedicine development.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7876763/v1/d673564a0eaf4fe114a8c1a9.png"},{"id":93756944,"identity":"6cb1664b-7e22-4d91-976c-14ffd272113e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 08:55:06","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2704499,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7876763/v1/48433f9f-1e87-4150-a275-de534997ac8a.pdf"},{"id":93755290,"identity":"e856458e-5f70-438c-8f79-0e50eb5951b5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 08:38:55","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":722281,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"GraphicalAbstract.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7876763/v1/b342a370b428a4a78ea7809e.png"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePhytochemistry and medicinal potential of Nigerian medicinal plants: ethnobotanical foundations, bioactive compounds, and translational prospects\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec2\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eGlobal importance of medicinal plants\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eNatural products have served as a foundation for medicine ever since. An estimated 60\u0026ndash;70 percent of modern drugs are either derived directly or indirectly from plants (Newman \u0026amp; Cragg, 2020). Ethnopharmacological avenues have had a powerful influence on pharmacological discoveries; some examples being pharmacology of quinine from Cinchona bark and that of artemisinin from Artemisia annua. In many low- and middle-income countries, medicinal plants have remained the principal form of healthcare (WHO, 2019).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eBiodiversity and ethnomedicine in Nigeria\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eEcologically diverse ranging from mangroves and savannas to rainforests, Nigeria shares this diversity that supports some 5,000\u0026ndash;7,000 plant species, several of which are used ethnomedicinally (Keay, 1989; Gbile, 1992). Ethnobotanical surveys across Nigerian states have invariably reported utilization of plants for the treatment of diseases or conditions such as malaria, fever, gastrointestinal disorders, hypertension, diabetes, and sickle cell anemia (Rafiu, 2025; Sulaiman, 2022).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePhytochemistry of Traditional Medicine and Its Modern Counterpart\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePhytochemical studies focus on the bioactive principles behind any traditional claims. Nigerian plants have produced varieties of metabolites like alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, saponins, tannins, and phenolic glycosides that much of their pharmacological activity can be attributed to (Edeoga et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). These compounds exert antimicrobial (Anyanwu et al., 2017), antimalarial (Islas et al., 2020), anticancer (Abdulazeez, 2024), anti-inflammatory (Adotey et al., 2012), and metabolic disease related activities (Farombi \u0026amp; Owoeye, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eTranslational Significance and Niprisan Case\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePerhaps the most famous Nigerian phytomedicine is Niprisan\u0026reg; (Nicosan), a polyherbal formulation developed by the National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development (NIPRD) for the management of sickle-cell disease. Niprisan had Phase II clinical trial success, reducing painful crises (Oniyangi et al., 2018), and was granted orphan drug status in the United States. Commercialization later, however, stalled due to regulatory, manufacturing, and intellectual property issues (Quartz Africa, 2019). The Niprisan story underscores both the immense potential and the systemic hurdles in developing Nigerian phytomedicines.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eRationale for this review\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe previous reviews on Nigerian medicinal plants had tended to limit themselves to specific plant families (Achika, 2023), certain bioactive classes (Ugbogu, 2021), and therapeutic areas (Abdulazeez, 2024). However, composite amalgamation of ethnobotany, phytochemistry, pharmacology, methodology, and translational pathways is scarce. The task of this review is to fill the lacuna, drawing on 37 representative sources spanning 2000\u0026ndash;2025.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methodology","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eLiterature Search Strategy\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis review has been discussed systematically in order to retrieve, analyze, and synthesize published evidence relating to the phytochemistry and medicinal properties of Nigerian medicinal plants. A thorough literature search was performed across major scientific indices including PubMed, Scopus, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. The search was constructed for publications tracing from January 2000 to June 2025; the dates were chosen: contemporaneous with the advances seen in phytochemical analysis, ethnobotanical surveys, and pharmacological validation of Nigerian medicinal plants.Search terms combined Boolean operators and keywords, including: \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Nigerian medicinal plants\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;phytochemistry of Nigerian plants\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;traditional medicine Nigeria\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;ethnobotany Nigeria\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;bioactive compounds Nigerian flora\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;pharmacology of Nigerian plants\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;clinical studies on Nigerian phytomedicine\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e. To ensure relevance, plant names were searched both by scientific nomenclature (e.g., \u003cem\u003eVernonia amygdalina\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eGarcinia kola\u003c/em\u003e) and vernacular names (e.g., \u0026ldquo;bitter leaf,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;bitter kola\u0026rdquo;). Reference lists of included studies were also screened to capture additional relevant papers (snowballing technique). Priority was given to peer-reviewed journal articles, though theses, ethnobotanical survey reports, and WHO/FAO documents were included where primary data were available.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eInclusion and Exclusion Criteria\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eInclusion criteria were established to ensure methodological rigor and relevance:\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eStudies focusing on Nigerian medicinal plants with ethnomedicinal or phytochemical data.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eReports presenting phytochemical screening, isolation, or structural elucidation of bioactive compounds.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eExperimental pharmacological evaluations (in vitro, in vivo, or ex vivo) of extracts or isolated compounds.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eClinical or toxicological studies of Nigerian herbal formulations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eEthnobotanical surveys with detailed documentation of plant uses, parts used, and preparation methods.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eExclusion criteria:\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eArticles without clear methodological descriptions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eStudies outside Nigeria unless they directly investigated Nigerian species.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003ePapers lacking either phytochemical or pharmacological relevance (e.g., purely ecological studies).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eNon-English publications without accessible translation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis filtering process ensured that the final dataset consisted of studies that were both scientifically credible and contextually relevant to Nigerian phytomedicine.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Extraction and Organization\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFrom each eligible study, data were systematically extracted and tabulated under the following categories:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003col\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBotanical Information\u003c/b\u003e: family, genus, species, and common/local names.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePlant Part Used\u003c/b\u003e: leaves, stem bark, roots, seeds, fruits, or whole plant.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEthnopharmacological Uses\u003c/b\u003e: traditional applications documented in surveys.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePhytochemical Profile\u003c/b\u003e: classes of compounds (alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, saponins, tannins, phenolic acids, glycosides).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eIsolation/Analytical Techniques\u003c/b\u003e: solvents, chromatographic methods, spectroscopic tools.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePharmacological Activity\u003c/b\u003e: antimicrobial, antimalarial, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, metabolic disease effects.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eToxicological or Clinical Data\u003c/b\u003e: safety assessments, dosage, reported adverse effects.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eResearch Gaps\u003c/b\u003e: lack of clinical validation, poor standardization, or conservation concerns.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis approach allowed comparative analysis and identification of trends across different studies, while also highlighting methodological strengths and weaknesses.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAnalytical Framework\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe data were analyzed through thematic synthesis:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePhytochemical synthesis\u003c/b\u003e: focused on identifying recurring classes of compounds across different species and their putative biosynthetic origins.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePharmacological mapping\u003c/b\u003e: linked phytochemicals to biological activities validated experimentally.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEthnobotanical triangulation\u003c/b\u003e: examined the alignment between traditional uses and modern pharmacological findings.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCritical appraisal\u003c/b\u003e: considered the robustness of extraction protocols, reproducibility of results, and gaps in toxicological/clinical evaluation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe methodology used here aligns with PRISMA-based systematic review guidelines (Page et al., 2021) but was adapted to accommodate ethnopharmacological and natural product research contexts, where heterogeneity of study design is common.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eLimitations of the Review Methodology\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eOn account of some methodological shortcomings, several are acknowledged. First, while we aimed to have exhaustive coverage, some information on ethnobotany remains unpublished or is contained in local archives. Second, cross-comparison of studies was made difficult because of certain heterogeneities in experimental design (extraction solvent, assay conditions, reporting standards). Third, there was some language bias introduced as well, since only papers published in English were consulted. Finally, very little could be said about the translational conclusions since most plants have no clinical trials.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite these limitations, the method offers a good framework for the synthesis of phytochemical and pharmacological evidence of Nigerian medicinal plants. It allows for a fair balance of traditional knowledge with scientific validation, thus, preparing the ground for further elaborations in the ensuing section.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003ePhytochemical Constituents of Nigerian Medicinal Plants\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIt is well established that Nigerian medicinal plants contain a wide spectrum of secondary metabolites which bestow therapeutic potentials on them. Phytochemical studies have shown the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, saponins, tannins, glycosides, phenolic acids, lignans, and steroids. These compounds are biosynthesized via diverse metabolic pathways (shikimate, acetate malonate, mevalonate, methylerythritol phosphate), and their structural diversity accounts for the wide spectrum of pharmacological effects observed in Nigerian plants (Cowan, 1999; Fabricant \u0026amp; Farnsworth, 2001; Balunas \u0026amp; Kinghorn, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAlkaloids\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlkaloids stand as possibly pharmacologically most important classes of secondary metabolites. Nigerian species such as Alstonia boonei (Apocynaceae) contain indole alkaloids such as echitamine and alstonine shown to possess activities against malaria, pain, and cancer (Tijani et al., 2012; Nworu et al., 2015). Similarly, Rauvolfia vomitoria yields reserpine-type indole alkaloids useful traditionally to treat hypertension and psychiatric disorders (Iwu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlkaloids from Cryptolepis sanguinolenta (cryptolepine) exert repellent antiplasmodial effect and so support its ethnomedical use against malaria in Nigeria (Olajide et al., 2011). Studies on Senna alata have also revealed the presence of quinoline alkaloids with antimicrobial properties (Edeoga et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFlavonoids and Phenolic Compounds\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFlavonoids are widespread across Nigerian medicinal plants and confer strong antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties. \u003cem\u003eVernonia amygdalina\u003c/em\u003e leaves contain luteolin, apigenin, and quercetin derivatives linked to antidiabetic and anti-inflammatory effects (Farombi \u0026amp; Owoeye, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). \u003cem\u003eGarcinia kola\u003c/em\u003e seeds, known locally as bitter kola, are particularly rich in biflavonoids such as kolaviron, which exhibit hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activities (Abarikwu et al., 2017). Phenolic acids, including caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, and gallic acid, have been reported in \u003cem\u003eOcimum gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eAllium sativum\u003c/em\u003e, supporting their antimicrobial and cardiovascular protective effects (Ezekwesili-Ofili et al., 2019).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRepresentative flavonoids and phenolic compounds isolated from Nigerian medicinal plants\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePlant species\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCompound(s)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePharmacological activity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReference\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVernonia amygdalina\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLuteolin, apigenin\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAntidiabetic, anti-inflammatory\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFarombi \u0026amp; Owoeye (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGarcinia kola\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKolaviron (biflavonoids)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHepatoprotective, anticancer\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAbarikwu et al. (2017)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOcimum gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRosmarinic acid\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAntimicrobial, antioxidant\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEzekwesili-Ofili et al. (2019)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAllium sativum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGallic acid, quercetin\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCardioprotective, anti-inflammatory\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEdeoga et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNigerian medicinal plants like \u003cem\u003eVernonia amygdalina\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eGarcinia kola\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eOcimum gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eAllium sativum\u003c/em\u003e possess phytochemicals with antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, antimicrobial, cardioprotective, and anti-inflammatory activities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eTerpenoids and Steroids\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTerpenoids are among the most structurally diverse classes of compounds in Nigerian medicinal flora. The neem tree (\u003cem\u003eAzadirachta indica\u003c/em\u003e) produces limonoids such as azadirachtin and gedunin, with well-documented insecticidal, antimicrobial, and anticancer properties (Biswas et al., 2002). \u003cem\u003eBoswellia dalzielii\u003c/em\u003e yields boswellic acids, triterpenoids with anti-inflammatory and analgesic potential (Abdulrahman et al., 2014). Steroidal saponins and phytosterols are reported in \u003cem\u003eDioscorea bulbifera\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eFadogia agrestis\u003c/em\u003e, linked to hormonal and adaptogenic effects (Yakubu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eSaponins and Glycosides\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSaponins occur widely in \u003cem\u003eGongronema latifolium\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eAloe vera\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eDioscorea\u003c/em\u003e species, where they contribute to anti-inflammatory, antihyperglycemic, and immunomodulatory activities (Atangwho et al., 2009). Cardiac glycosides from \u003cem\u003eCalotropis procera\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eStrophanthus hispidus\u003c/em\u003e have been documented for their cardiotonic effects but also highlight toxicity risks (Elujoba et al., 2005).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRepresentative saponins and glycosides from Nigerian medicinal plants\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePlant species\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCompound(s)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eActivity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReference\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGongronema latifolium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSaponin glycosides\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAntihyperglycemic, immunomodulatory\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAtangwho et al. (2009)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCalotropis procera\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCardiac glycosides\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCardioprotective (toxic risk)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eElujoba et al. (2005)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAloe vera\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAloin (anthraquinone glycoside)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLaxative, wound healing\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEdeoga et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGongronema latifolium\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eCalotropis procera\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eAloe vera\u003c/em\u003e contain glycosides with antihyperglycemic, cardioprotective, laxative, and wound healing activities, though \u003cem\u003eCalotropis procera\u003c/em\u003e also poses toxicity risks\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eTannins and Other Polyphenols\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eHydrolyzable and condensed tannins are prevalent in Nigerian plants such as \u003cem\u003eAnogeissus leiocarpa\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eKhaya senegalensis\u003c/em\u003e. These compounds exhibit strong antimicrobial, antiviral, and antioxidant effects (Olajuyigbe \u0026amp; Afolayan, 2011). The use of tannin-rich plants in water purification and wound healing is also documented in ethnomedicine.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAnalytical Methods in Nigerian Phytochemistry Studies\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn Nigeria, phytochemical investigations often rely on classical extraction techniques, such as maceration and Soxhlet, and qualitative phytochemical screening, e.g., alkaloid tests, ferric chloride tests for phenolics, and frothing tests for saponins. There has been a massive increase in applying chromatographic and spectroscopic techniques that have allowed for better compound identifications.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eChromatography: TLC is used for rapid profiling and column chromatography along with HPLC for isolation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eSpectroscopy: UV-Vis, IR, NMR, and MS for structural elucidation, though the availability of advanced instruments is still limited in most Nigerian laboratories.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eMetabolomics: LC-MS/MS based metabolomics approaches are beginning to be available at a few institutions and may promise deeper insight into Nigerian phytochemistry (Okoye et al., 2021).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCommon analytical methods employed in Nigerian phytochemical studies\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTechnique\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eApplication\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExample use in Nigerian plant studies\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTLC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFingerprinting, compound detection\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVernonia amygdalina\u003c/em\u003e flavonoid profile\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eColumn Chromatography\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIsolation of alkaloids, terpenoids\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAlstonia boonei\u003c/em\u003e alkaloids\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHPLC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eQuantification, purity assessment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGarcinia kola\u003c/em\u003e biflavonoids\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNMR \u0026amp; MS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStructural elucidation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAzadirachta indica\u003c/em\u003e limonoids\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThin Layer Chromatography (TLC), Column Chromatography, High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC), Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR), and Mass Spectrometry (MS).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003ePharmacological Activities of Nigerian Medicinal Plants\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe pharmacological potentials of Nigerian medicinal plants come from their diverse phytochemical profiles. Selected representational plants widely used in Nigerian ethnomedicine are discussed here, focusing on the bioactive compounds and relevant tested biological activities. The discussion alone gives an example of what phytochemistry is about in the application of therapy; the presentation follows a species wise arrangement.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eVernonia amygdalina (Bitter Leaf; Asteraceae)\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eVernonia amygdalina is one of the most studied medicinal plants in Nigeria, widely used in treating malaria, diabetes, gastrointestinal disturbances, and microbial infections.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePhytochemical profile\u003c/b\u003e: It contains sesquiterpene lactones (vernodalin, vernomygdin), flavonoids (luteolin, apigenin, quercetin), alkaloids, and saponins (Igile et al., 1995; Farombi \u0026amp; Owoeye, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAntimicrobial activities\u003c/b\u003e: Aqueous and ethanol extracts inhibited Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Candida albicans, hence confirming its traditional uses in infections (Ezekwesili-Ofili et al., 2019).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAntimalarial effects\u003c/b\u003e: The sesquiterpene lactones act against Plasmodium falciparum; animal studies showed dose dependent parasitemia reduction. (Abosi \u0026amp; Raseroka, 2003).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAntidiabetic activity\u003c/b\u003e: Flavonoids enhance insulin sensitivity and modulate glucose metabolism; animal studies report significant hypoglycemic effects (Nwanjo, 2005).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAnticancer activity\u003c/b\u003e: Methanol extracts inhibit proliferation of breast cancer and prostate cancer cell lines, possibly through flavonoid-mediated apoptosis induction (Izevbigie, 2003).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAzadirachta indica\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003e(Neem; Meliaceae)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNeem is a naturalized species in Nigeria and is highly valued for its antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and insecticidal properties.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePhytochemical profile\u003c/b\u003e: Limonoid rich (azadirachtin, gedunin, nimbin), with flavonoids, tannins, and saponins (Biswas et al., 2002).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAntimicrobial activity\u003c/b\u003e: Crude extracts show broad spectrum antibacterial activity, including multidrug-resistant strains (Kone et al., 2004).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAntimalarial properties\u003c/b\u003e: Gedunin and nimbolide revealed activity against chloroquine-resistant P. falciparum (MacKinnon et al., 1997).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAnti-inflammatory effects\u003c/b\u003e: Neem oil and leaf extracts inhibit the cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase pathways and thus the inflammation due to prostaglandins (Talwar et al., 1997).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAnticancer potential\u003c/b\u003e: Gedunin is cytotoxic to prostate and pancreatic cancer cells by inhibiting HSP90 (Patwardhan \u0026amp; Gautam, 2005).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eGarcinia kola (Bitter Kola; Clusiaceae)\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eGarcinia kola seeds rank among those eaten both for medicine and as a cultural stimulant all over Nigeria.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePhytochemical profile\u003c/b\u003e: Compound groups of biflavonoids (kolaviron), xanthones, benzophenones, tannins, and saponins reported (Farombi et al., 2005).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHepatoprotective effects\u003c/b\u003e: Kolaviron protects against aflatoxin- and carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatotoxicity by enhancing antioxidant defenses (Farombi et al., 2009).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAntimicrobial activity\u003c/b\u003e: Extracts inhibit bacterial and fungal pathogens, with notable activity against \u003cem\u003eCandida albicans\u003c/em\u003e (Iwu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAnti-inflammatory effects\u003c/b\u003e: Kolaviron downregulates NF-κB signaling, reducing cytokine mediated inflammation (Adaramoye et al., 2011).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAnticancer activity\u003c/b\u003e: Demonstrated growth inhibition in human hepatocellular carcinoma models (Farombi et al., 2005).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNeuroprotective effects\u003c/b\u003e: Preclinical studies suggest kolaviron attenuates oxidative stress in models of neurodegeneration (Adedara et al., 2014).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAlstonia boonei\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003e(Apocynaceae)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTraditionally known as the \u0026ldquo;God\u0026rsquo;s tree\u0026rdquo; or \u0026ldquo;devil\u0026rsquo;s tree,\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eAlstonia boonei\u003c/em\u003e bark is widely used as an analgesic, antipyretic, and antimalarial remedy.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePhytochemical profile\u003c/b\u003e: Contains indole alkaloids (echitamine, alstonine, akuammicine), triterpenoids, tannins, and flavonoids (Tijani et al., 2012).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAntimalarial activity\u003c/b\u003e: Alkaloid rich fractions reduce \u003cem\u003eP. berghei\u003c/em\u003e parasitemia in murine models (Tijani et al., 2012).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAnalgesic and anti-inflammatory activity\u003c/b\u003e: Ethanolic extracts inhibit carrageenan induced paw edema and writhing reflex in mice (Olajide et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAnticancer potential\u003c/b\u003e: In vitro studies show cytotoxicity of alkaloid fractions against leukemia cell lines (Nworu et al., 2015).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAntidiabetic effects\u003c/b\u003e: Extracts improve glucose tolerance and modulate carbohydrate metabolism enzymes (Etuk et al., 2010).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCryptolepis sanguinolenta\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003e(Periplocaceae)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlthough more widespread in West Africa, \u003cem\u003eC. sanguinolenta\u003c/em\u003e is used in Nigeria primarily as an antimalarial.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePhytochemical profile\u003c/b\u003e: Contains indoloquinoline alkaloids such as cryptolepine, quindoline, and neocryptolepine (Olajide et al., 2011).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAntimalarial activity\u003c/b\u003e: Cryptolepine exhibits strong in vitro and in vivo activity against chloroquine-resistant strains of \u003cem\u003eP. falciparum\u003c/em\u003e (Cimanga et al., 2004).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAntimicrobial effects\u003c/b\u003e: Extracts inhibit \u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus aureus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eMycobacterium tuberculosis\u003c/em\u003e (Ansah \u0026amp; Gooderham, 2002).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAnti-inflammatory potential\u003c/b\u003e: Cryptolepine modulates nitric oxide synthesis in activated macrophages, reducing inflammatory responses (Ansah et al., 2009).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eToxicity considerations\u003c/b\u003e: High doses of cryptolepine are genotoxic, highlighting safety concerns for clinical development (Akinmoladun et al., 2019).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eZingiber officinale\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003e(Ginger; Zingiberaceae)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGinger rhizomes are widely consumed as both food and medicine in Nigeria.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePhytochemical profile\u003c/b\u003e: Contains gingerols, shogaols, zingerone, paradols, and volatile oils (Shukla \u0026amp; Singh, 2007).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAntimicrobial effects\u003c/b\u003e: Extracts inhibit enteric bacteria and fungi, validating use in gastrointestinal disorders (Ezekwesili-Ofili et al., 2019).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAnti-inflammatory activity\u003c/b\u003e: [6]-gingerol suppresses prostaglandin synthesis and inhibits COX-2 expression (Grzanna et al., 2005).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAnticancer potential\u003c/b\u003e: [6]-gingerol and [6]-shogaol induce apoptosis in colon and breast cancer cell lines (Shukla \u0026amp; Singh, 2007).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMetabolic disease management\u003c/b\u003e: Ginger extract improves lipid profiles and reduces oxidative stress in diabetic models (Al-Amin et al., 2006).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAllium sativum\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003e(Garlic; Amaryllidaceae)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGarlic is a dietary staple with dual roles as food and medicine in Nigeria.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePhytochemical profile\u003c/b\u003e: Rich in sulfur compounds (allicin, ajoene, diallyl sulfides), flavonoids, and saponins (Iciek et al., 2009).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAntimicrobial activity\u003c/b\u003e: Allicin is a potent broad spectrum antimicrobial effective against Gram-positive, Gram-negative, and fungal pathogens (Ankri \u0026amp; Mirelman, 1999).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCardiovascular benefits\u003c/b\u003e: Garlic lowers blood pressure, reduces cholesterol, and improves endothelial function (Ried et al., 2013).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAnticancer potential\u003c/b\u003e: Sulfur compounds modulate carcinogen metabolism and induce apoptosis in tumor cells (Iciek et al., 2009).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAntidiabetic activity\u003c/b\u003e: Garlic extract improves insulin sensitivity and reduces hyperglycemia in diabetic models (Eidi et al., 2006).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eThe Case of\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eNiprisan\u0026reg;\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003e(Nicosan)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNiprisan, a phytomedicine developed by Nigeria\u0026rsquo;s National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development (NIPRD), represents the first standardized polyherbal product for sickle cell disease.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eComposition\u003c/b\u003e: Extracts of \u003cem\u003ePiper guineense\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ePterocarpus osun\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eEugenia caryophyllata\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eSorghum bicolor\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePharmacological activity\u003c/b\u003e: Demonstrates anti-sickling effects by inhibiting hemoglobin polymerization and improving red blood cell deformability (Wambebe et al., 2001).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eClinical validation\u003c/b\u003e: Phase II clinical trials in Nigeria confirmed efficacy and safety, leading to commercialization as Niprisan\u0026reg; (Wambebe et al., 2001).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eChallenges\u003c/b\u003e: Limited large-scale clinical validation and manufacturing constraints hindered sustained global distribution (Ogunkunle \u0026amp; Oladele, 2014).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethodological Challenges and Future Perspectives\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eResearch on medicinal plant species used in Nigeria has been encouraging but there are still some methodological roadblocks. These roadblocks involve plant identification, extraction and standardization of plant products, phytochemical characterization, and clinically testing the plants. If the roadblocks are not addressed, the reproducibility and translational potential of the research will continue to remain very low.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec26\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003ePlant Identification and Authentication\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThere are the ongoing challenges of misidentification of plant species in the phytochemical studies conducted in Nigeria. In some studies, plant species were only referenced by their local name and herbarium voucher specimens were not stored as part of the record which brings into question scientific reproducibility (Soladoye et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). The processes of DNA barcoding and molecular taxonomy are still not fully optimized in many contexts in Nigeria.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec27\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eExtraction and Standardization\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSimilar to phytochemical studies on other plants, most studies of Nigerian medicinal plants employ traditional solvent extraction (for example ethanol, methanol, aqueous maceration), however as Eloff (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) noted there is little standardization in extraction procedure. The lack of standardization in extraction protocols leads to variability in yield and composition. Sometimes standardization parameters such as extraction time, temperature, and solvent polarity are only reported once in a study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec28\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003ePhytochemical characterization and quantification\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn qualitative screening, the classes of phytochemicals investigated are common to studies conducted with some members of family which include alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, and saponins. Despite the availability of advanced instrumentation such as High Pressure Liquid Chromatography (HPLC), Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS), and Nuclear Magnetic Resonnce (NMR) for quantitative profiling of phytochemical compositions in plant extracts, their use is low compared to qualitative screening (Owolabi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec29\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eBioassay and Clinical Translation\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eMost research on Nigerian medicinal plants continue to use in vitro bioassays such as antioxidant, antimicrobial, and cytotoxicity. Few studies progress to in vivo pharmacological testing, and even fewer to clinical evaluation. Issues of dosage determination, toxicity assessment, and pharmacokinetics remain underexplored (Balogun et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eComparative Table of Challenges and Recommendations\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMethodological challenges in Nigerian medicinal plant research and suggested recommendations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMethodological Area\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKey Challenges\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRecommendations\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePlant Identification\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMisidentification due to reliance on local names; absence of voucher specimens\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdopt herbarium voucher system; integrate DNA barcoding and molecular markers\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExtraction Methods\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInconsistent protocols; lack of optimization; solvent variability\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDevelop standardized extraction guidelines; apply green extraction technologies\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePhytochemical Profiling\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOverreliance on qualitative screening; limited use of LC-MS/NMR\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExpand access to advanced analytical instruments; promote collaborative networks\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBioassays\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePredominantly in vitro testing; weak correlation with clinical relevance\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCombine in vitro, in vivo, and ex vivo studies; employ standardized bioassays\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eToxicity and Safety\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFew toxicity and dose response studies; lack of pharmacokinetic evaluation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConduct systematic toxicity studies; integrate ADME and pharmacokinetics models\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eClinical Translation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMinimal clinical trials; poor regulatory framework\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStrengthen clinical research infrastructure; align with WHO/NAFDAC guidelines\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDeoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA), Absorption Distribution Metabolism and Excretion (ADME), World Health Organization (WHO), and National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec31\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFuture Perspectives\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo address these shortcomings, Nigerian phytochemical research needs to adopt a multidisciplinary ethos that incorporates ethnobotany, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and molecular biology. Developing national phytochemical databases, stimulating south-south collaboration within Africa, and promoting drug discovery through artificial intelligence technologies exemplify these forward thinking strategies. Finally, linking research outputs with regulatory bodies such as NAFDAC and WHO will facilitate and strengthen processes for validating Nigerian medicinal plants to develop therapeutic agents.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eNigeria has a large, yet untapped supply of medicinal plants, mostly associated with ethnomedicinal uses, which have provided strong evidence of their phytochemical and pharmacological activities. This review recognizes the potentials of Nigerian plant species in producing vast types of secondary metabolites (e.g., alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, saponins, phenolic compounds) with various bioactions against infectious disease, inflammatory disease, cancer, and metabolic syndrome. However, the future of work on Nigerian medicinal plants in entangled in methodological challenges including poor authentication of plant species, variability in extraction methods, inadequate phytochemical profiling, and poorly developed clinical reagent and translation strategies. As a result, it is often difficult to reproduce and broadly accept scientific empiricism from studies conducted on Nigerian medicinal plants. Recommendations need to be made to improve the current methodologies by standardizing methods throughout the study process, introducing more complex analytical methods and pipelines that go from preclinical-to-clinical trials in a systematic way. In the future, Nigeria should capitalize on this form of biodiversity, making it a national resource, and proceed to create herbal 'pharmacopeia' type references, build phytochemical research resource centers, and improve their regulatory networks. Building collaborative networks with African institutions and global collaborations would also significantly impact opportunities for the discovery of new lead compounds from Nigerian plants. Equally significant, thinking about modern analyses, including but not limited to omics technologies, metabolomics, bioinformatics, and artificial intelligence, will also open greater drug discovery avenues. Inclusively, the phytochemistry and medicinal potential of Nigerian plants offer a unique opportunity not only for importance to science, but also for sustainable options for improved health, economic development, and cultural preservation. Therefore, Nigerian medicinal plants have the potential to provide a new generation of therapeutic agents with global relevance, if mobilized in a systemic manner.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cp\u003eDNA: Deoxyribonucleic Acid\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eADME: Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, and Excretion\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWHO: World Health Organization\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNAFDAC: National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control (Nigeria)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTLC: Thin Layer Chromatography\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUV-Vis: Ultraviolet Visible Spectroscopy\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIR: Infrared Spectroscopy\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNMR: Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMS: Mass Spectrometry\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLC-MS: Liquid Chromatography Mass Spectrometry\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHSP90: Heat Shock Protein 90\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNF-\u0026kappa;B: Nuclear Factor kappa light chain enhancer of activated B cells\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCOX-2: Cyclooxygenase-2\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contributions\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll authors contributed to the study.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll data generated or analysed during this study are included in this article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAbdullahi, M. 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Traditional uses and pharmacological properties of \u003cem\u003eVernonia amygdalina\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 6\u003c/em\u003e(6), 1746\u0026ndash;1751.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYakubu, M. T., Akanji, M. A., \u0026amp; Oladiji, A. T. (2005). Aphrodisiac potentials of the aqueous extract of \u003cem\u003eFadogia agrestis\u003c/em\u003e stem in male albino rats. \u003cem\u003eAsian Journal of Andrology, 7\u003c/em\u003e(4), 399\u0026ndash;404. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-7262.2005.00052.x\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"Abdullahi Fodiyo University of Science and Technology, Aliero","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Nigeria, Medicinal plants, Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, Natural products","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7876763/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7876763/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eFlora of Nigeria is a rich source of diverse plant resources, which are used in traditional medical practice. Use of plants in controlling malaria, sickle cure anemia, infections, inflammation complications metabolic effects and cancer have been widely discussed since ancient times. Current phytochemical and pharmacological investigations prove that Nigerian medicinal plants are rich in alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, tannins, and phenolic with antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antimalarial and anticancer activities. This review compiles ethnobotanical, phytochemical and pharmacological information on Nigerian medicinal plants that have been validated about their uses which included representative species such as Vernonia amygdalina, Azadirachta indica, Garcinia kola, Allstonia boonei, food medicinal plants like Allium sativum and Zingiber officinale. A systematic literature searches from 2000 to 2025 across PUBMED, SCOPUS, SCIENCE DIRECT, and GOOGLE SCHOLAR identified 37 relevant studies, which were analyzed for phytochemical profiles, bioassay guided isolation of bioactive compounds, and therapeutic potential. Typical methodologies involve solvent extraction, preliminary phytochemical screening, chromatographic techniques (thin layer chromatography, column chromatography and high performance liquid chromatography), and spectroscopic methods (ultraviolet visible spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and mass spectrometry). Many findings support traditional uses, translational applications remain limited due to experimental variability, insufficient toxicological and clinical studies, and regulatory challenges. The development of Niprisan® (Nicosan), a polyherbal anti-sickle cell formulation, exemplifies both the promise and the obstacles in commercializing phytomedicines. Advancing Nigerian phytomedicine requires standardized methodologies, investment in advanced analytical platforms, locally relevant clinical trials, conservation strategies, equitable benefit sharing, and integration of traditional knowledge with modern scientific approaches.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Phytochemistry and medicinal potential of Nigerian medicinal plants: ethnobotanical foundations, bioactive compounds, and translational prospects","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-17 08:30:51","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7876763/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"66b1cd6d-2049-4195-8935-06416485c176","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 17th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":56406880,"name":"Medicinal Chemistry"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-10-17T08:30:51+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-17 08:30:51","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7876763","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7876763","identity":"rs-7876763","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}