Digital Engagement and Environmental-Social Governance Innovation in the Oil and Gas Sector: Behavioural Insights from Oman and Vision 2040

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Design/methodology/approach A qualitative secondary-data synthesis was undertaken using ESG and sustainability reports (2022–2024) from BP, Chevron, and Murphy Oil, supported by sector datasets and Vision 2040 policy documentation. A reflexive thematic approach guided the analysis, conceptually informed by the Technology Acceptance Model and Self-Determination Theory. Findings Four themes emerged: (1) real-time digital feedback mechanisms; (2) capability building through Augmented Reality (AR)/ Virtual Reality (VR) simulation; (3) meaning and reciprocity via ESG-linked KPIs; and (4) reduced engagement associated with employment precarity. Reported figures from the analysed firms indicate modest increases in satisfaction (5–8%) and retention (up to ~ 10%) following digital engagement rollouts, viewed as indicative associations rather than causal effects. The study proposes the Oman Oil and Gas Engagement Alignment Model (OGEAM) to connect firm-level engagement practices with national transformation objectives. Research limitations/implications Findings draw on organisational self-reported datasets and may reflect institutional bias; further validation using mixed methods within Oman’s sector is recommended. Practical and social implications Aligning digital engagement practices with transparent ESG communication and more stable employment structures may strengthen workforce resilience and support Vision 2040 productivity targets. Originality/value This study offers the first integrated framework linking employee engagement, ESG alignment, and digital transformation to national development goals in Oman, advancing HRM theory by positioning engagement as a behavioural mechanism tied to macro-level transformation. Business and commerce/Business and management Social science/Business and management Business and commerce/Information systems and information technology Social science/Science technology and society Digital engagement Environmental-Social Governance integration AR/VR Technology Acceptance Model Self-Determination Theory Oman Vision 2040 Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 1. Introduction Oman’s oil and gas sector is experiencing accelerated transformation driven by digitalisation, Environmental-Social Governance (ESG) expectations, and shifting workforce priorities. These dynamics are reshaping organisational practices, particularly digital engagement mechanisms that influence performance, innovation adoption, and operational safety. Emerging platforms such as Augmented Reality (AR)/ Virtual Reality (VR) training, mobile dashboards, and IoT-based reporting systems now support behavioural feedback loops and employee autonomy—core domains within behavioural technology research (Xiao, Wang & Chen, 2023 ; IEA, 2024). Recent evidence shows that engagement improves when digital systems complement human capability and technological self-efficacy (Ye et al., 2024 ). Concurrently, structural pressures—including generational expectations, the expansion of contract labour, and rising scrutiny of ESG accountability—continue to challenge stable engagement outcomes. Although global oil and gas employment reached 12.4 million in 2023 (IEA, 2024), persistent concerns remain regarding morale, skills utilisation, and participation in organisational decision-making. Recent shifts toward digital HR appraisal systems illustrate the evolving structure of engagement processes within large energy firms (Munawir & Suseno, 2024 ). Despite increased investment in digital capability, empirical research on engagement within the MENA energy context remains limited. Studies indicate that engagement is strongly associated with organisational resilience and performance under volatile operating conditions (Ibrahim & Hussein, 2024 ). Recent Omani research highlights weak documentation of engagement outcomes and a disconnect between digital transformation expenditure and measurable workforce results (Al-Hajri et al., 2024 ). These limitations reflect challenges in ESG integration, digital maturity, and motivational support structures. The urgency of these issues becomes more pronounced when viewed against Oman’s Vision 2040 workforce objectives. Although national targets emphasise retention, competitiveness, and digital readiness, current indicators remain below expectations, with retention at approximately 68% and digital maturity rated as moderate (NCSI, 2023; WEF, 2024). This gap demonstrates structural misalignment between policy ambition and organisational reality. Addressing this misalignment requires a framework that links firm-level engagement practices to national-level transformation outcomes. This study integrates behavioural science, organisational psychology, and digital transformation perspectives to conceptualise employee engagement as a mechanism supporting national reform. It introduces the Oman Oil and Gas Engagement Alignment Model (OGEAM), which aligns organisational engagement with Vision 2040 through ESG-linked KPIs, digital enablement, and stable employment models. This paper offers three contributions: (1) positioning engagement as a behavioural mechanism aligned with national economic transformation; (2) applying TAM and SDT to interpret behavioural pathways in digital engagement settings; and (3) proposing OGEAM as a conceptual alignment model developed through thematic synthesis of secondary evidence. To clarify research intent and avoid assumptions of statistical inference, the study adopts a conceptual qualitative synthesis and presents interpretive propositions (P1–P3) that guide future empirical validation rather than hypothesis testing. 2. Literature Review 2.1 Theoretical Foundations of Employee Engagement Employee engagement has evolved from a psychological construct toward a multidimensional concept shaped by digital work environments and sustainability expectations. Kahn’s ( 1990 ) seminal work conceptualised engagement as the physical, emotional, and cognitive investment of individuals in their roles; however, this perspective offers limited insight into how technology shapes motivational dynamics in digitally intensive sectors. Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000 ) expands this by emphasising autonomy, competence, and relatedness as core requirements for sustained motivation. Empirical studies demonstrate that autonomy-supportive digital feedback systems strengthen perceived competence and intrinsic motivation, contributing to higher engagement (Munawir & Suseno, 2024 ). Complementing this, Social Exchange Theory highlights reciprocal behavioural responses between organisational support and employee commitment (Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005 ), while the Technology Acceptance Model clarifies how perceived usefulness and ease of use influence engagement with digital HR platforms. Together, these frameworks provide a behavioural foundation for examining engagement in digitally transforming industries such as energy and petrochemicals in Oman. 2.2 Engagement in High-Risk and Remote Sectors In high-risk environments like oil and gas, engagement has significant implications for safety, retention, and performance—particularly for offshore or remote workforces operating under extended rotational schedules. Studies demonstrate that strong engagement reduces turnover intentions and enhances safety adherence (Fleming, Jones & Hart, 2018 ). These outcomes highlight the need to understand engagement as both a human-capital driver and a risk-mitigation mechanism in sectors where operational disruptions carry strategic consequences. 2.3 Digitalisation and Engagement Digital transformation initiatives—including IoT monitoring, AR-based training, and data-driven dashboard systems—are reshaping workforce interactions and enabling real-time performance assessment, transparency, and communication. These tools facilitate continuous feedback and enhanced decision-making, strengthening engagement when aligned with organisational readiness and supportive leadership cultures. Kapadia and Patel ( 2023 ) emphasised that digital infrastructure investment increases satisfaction and perceived fairness when integrated into performance and feedback systems. Similarly, research from Egypt’s oil and gas sector found that digital tools mediate the relationship between organisational transformation and engagement only when institutional readiness and leadership endorsement are present (Bakry, Ragheb & Ragab, 2024 ). Global comparative evidence confirms that a strong digital employee experience improves adaptability and performance when supported by usability and leadership support (Porkodi et al., 2023 ). However, inconsistent outcomes persist among firms with weak digital infrastructure or resistance to technological change, underscoring that the success of digital engagement depends not only on the tools themselves but also on organisational culture, digital literacy, and change management maturity. 2.4 ESG Imperatives and Workforce Motivation ESG initiatives have emerged as a critical driver of organisational commitment and purpose-oriented engagement. PwC ( 2023 ) reports that more than 40% of employees perceive ESG participation as strengthening commitment to their organisations. Evidence in GCC energy firms suggests that integrating ESG indicators into performance appraisal frameworks enhances alignment between individual values and organisational priorities (Al-Hajri et al., 2024 ). Employee-led sustainability forums and ESG-linked KPI frameworks reinforce meaning, reciprocity, and identity—key motivational mechanisms underpinning engagement. 2.5 Identified Research Gaps Although research highlights the importance of engagement, digitalisation, and ESG as individual fields, limited scholarship examines their integration or explores their combined impact in national policy and macroeconomic contexts. Existing studies are predominantly firm-level case analyses with limited generalisability, and findings across GCC countries remain inconsistent (Mansour et al., 2025 ; Bakry et al., 2024 ). This creates a need for research that explains why digital and ESG investment does not consistently translate into engagement outcomes. Moreover, few studies investigate how engagement functions as a behavioural mechanism contributing to national transformation objectives—an area particularly relevant for hydrocarbon economies such as Oman, where labour dynamics directly influence GDP stability. 2.6 National Development Priorities and Engagement in Oman Oman’s Vision 2040 emphasises workforce competitiveness, digital readiness, and sustainable value creation (Oman Vision 2040 Committee, 2020 ). However, recent NCSI (2023) data report fragmented workforce outcomes and insufficient integration between digital transformation spending and measurable engagement results within the energy sector. The intersection between employee engagement and national development remains conceptually underdeveloped, especially concerning how technology-enabled engagement practices support macro-level transformation goals. This study addresses that gap by linking micro-level engagement mechanisms with Vision 2040 priorities using integrated perspectives from behavioural psychology, technology adoption, and ESG governance. By synthesising secondary data sources—including ESG disclosures, IEA labour datasets, and national policy frameworks—this study develops a conceptual bridge between firm-level practices and national objectives. 3. Research Objectives, Questions, and Hypotheses 3.1 Objectives • Examine workforce engagement patterns in the oil and gas sector using secondary evidence. • Explore behavioural relationships between digital transformation, ESG practices, and employee engagement outcomes. • Formulate practice-oriented recommendations aligned with Oman’s Vision 2040 workforce priorities. 3.2 Research Questions RQ1: What are the current engagement trends and behavioural outcomes among employees in leading oil and gas firms? RQ2: How do digital platforms (e.g., AR/VR, mobile dashboards) influence employee engagement and autonomy? RQ3: What roles do ESG policies play in shaping workforce motivation and commitment? 3.3 Analytical Propositions Based on thematic patterns derived from secondary sources, this study develops three interpretive propositions intended to guide future empirical validation rather than infer causal claims: • P1: Investment in digital transformation aligns with stronger patterns of workforce engagement. • P2: ESG-aligned practices contribute to enhanced employee motivation and organisational alignment. • P3: Employment precarity corresponds with reduced engagement stability in high-risk operational settings. 4. Materials and Methods This study adopts a qualitative-descriptive methodology grounded in secondary data analysis. The objective is to synthesise employee engagement metrics, technology-enabled transformation indicators, and ESG alignment practices from publicly available and verifiable sources. The methodology aimed to ensure transparency and rigour while preventing ethical issues that can arise from primary data collection in industrial contexts. A reflexivity statement was included to acknowledge the researcher’s positionality and assumptions regarding workforce transformation in Oman’s energy sector. To enhance analytical rigour, a reflexive thematic analysis approach was adopted, and coding was conducted manually using a structured codebook derived from TAM and SDT constructs. A peer-debriefing process involving two independent academic reviewers was used to examine coding interpretations and strengthen credibility. Coding consistency was strengthened through cross-review of 20% of the coded material, where interpretive alignment was confirmed between reviewers. To maintain transparency and reflexivity, the primary researcher recorded an audit trail that documented coding decisions, interpretive reflections, and adjustments across iterative coding cycles. 4.1 Data Sources Data selection was based on the prominence of these companies within global oil and gas sectors, their transparent ESG reporting practices, and their relevance to Oman’s policy frameworks. Firms were shortlisted based on accessibility of multi-year ESG data, relevance to Oman’s policy context, and comparability across digital maturity indicators. A transparent document selection protocol was applied to ensure relevance, recency, and verifiable data integrity. The data utilised in this study were obtained from: Corporate ESG and Sustainability Reports : Reports from BP (2023–2024), Murphy Oil ( 2024 ), and Chevron ( 2023 –2024) were examined for digitally measured employee engagement rates, digital initiatives, and ESG strategies (International Energy Agency, 2024 ; Oman Vision 2040 Committee, 2020 ). International Energy Agency (IEA) : The World Energy Employment Report (2024) provided global employment figures in oil and gas, sector-specific labour trends, and technology-related workforce metrics (International Energy Agency, 2024 ; Oman Vision 2040 Committee, 2020 ). Industry Whitepapers and HR Surveys : PwC’s Global Workforce Sustainability Study (2023) reports provided survey-based insights into employee perception and ESG engagement (PwC, 2023 ). Academic Literature and Secondary Case Studies : Peer-reviewed studies from Scopus-indexed journals were used to validate observed engagement drivers and challenges (Kahn, 1990 ; Deci & Ryan, 2000 ; Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005 ; Fleming, Jones, & Hart, 2018 ; Xiao, Wang, & Chen, 2023 ; Al-Hajri et al., 2024 ; Bakry, Ragheb, & Ragab, 2024 ). 4.2 Analysis Method A thematic analysis was conducted to identify recurring patterns related to engagement outcomes, followed Braun and Clarke’s ( 2006 ) methodology. Codebook (constructs → exemplar codes) : TAM – perceived usefulness : mobile dashboards improve task completion; ease of use : low-friction survey apps. SDT – autonomy : self-paced AR modules; competence : simulation-based skills mastery; relatedness : peer ESG forums. ESG salience KPI-linked appraisal components (safety & sustainability weighting). Employment model contracting/outsourcing and perceived precarity. (Coding artefacts summarized in Supplementary Table S1 .) This followed Braun and Clarke’s ( 2006 ) six-phase reflexive method, commonly used for behavioural and organisational research. Data were coded manually to ensure consistency and transparency in identifying patterns aligned with the study’s objectives. Key engagement indicators such as participation rates, employee satisfaction trends, and internal communication practices were mapped against the companies’ investment in technology-enabled transformation and ESG integration. Comparative analysis across firms and timeframes ( 2022–2024 ) was used to highlight industry-wide patterns. Table 3 presents an interpretive comparative index summarising the relative prominence of key themes across sources; it is not a statistical measure but an indicative synthesis tool to compare relative influence across drivers. Representative verbatim excerpts underpin each theme and are cited in-text (see 5.2) and tabulated in Supplementary Table S1 . 4.3 Validity and Limitations The validity of this study is grounded in the triangulation of data sources and alignment with previous scholarly findings. Limitations include the study’s reliance on corporate self-reporting, which may carry inherent bias despite verification steps. The use of corporate ESG reports introduces the possibility of positive reporting bias, as companies may frame engagement outcomes to reinforce stakeholder confidence. To mitigate this limitation, findings were systematically cross-checked against third-party labour datasets and independent global reports (IEA, WEF, ILO), and emphasis was placed on thematic convergence rather than accepting numerical outcomes at face value. These limitations are acknowledged, and findings are interpreted cautiously, emphasising pattern identification rather than generalisation. The use of secondary data is further justified in this study by the restricted access to primary data in the oil and gas industry due to security, confidentiality, and geopolitical sensitivities. Leveraging publicly available corporate disclosures and reputable industry reports ensures the analysis remains grounded in verifiable, ethically sourced evidence while enabling cross-firm comparisons aligned with the study’s aims. Furthermore, to ensure objectivity, corporate data were triangulated with third-party reports from IEA, World Bank, and ILO. Data validity was reinforced by cross-verifying engagement metrics with industry-wide benchmarks. Reflexivity and rigour. A single coder conducted the initial coding; an audit trail (codebook versions, memos, decision logs) was maintained. Ambiguities were resolved by memoing and re-checking sources. Triangulation combined corporate documents with IEA/ILO materials to validate interpretations and reduce single-source bias. 5. Data and Analysis This section synthesises key findings from secondary data using descriptive analysis and thematic coding to assess evolving employee engagement trends in the oil and gas sector. 5.1 Oman baseline metrics and benchmarks Oman’s baseline metrics and international benchmarks establish to anchor the subsequent firm-level analysis. As shown in Table 1 , Oman’s current workforce performance reveals measurable gaps in retention, satisfaction, and ESG integration compared to Vision 2040 targets and global standards. Table 1. Comparison of current Oman oil and gas sector engagement metrics against Oman’s Vision 2040 targets and international benchmarks. Note Data adapted from National Centre for Statistics and Information (NCSI, 2023); World Economic Forum ( 2024 ); United Nations ( 2023 ); Chen, Liu & Singh ( 2023 ); International Labour Organization ( 2023 ). Indicator Oman Oil & Gas (2024) Vision 2040 Target Global Benchmark (WEF/UN) Employee Retention Rate 68% 85% 80–85% Engagement Satisfaction Score 65% 80% 80–85% Alignment with ESG KPIs Partial Full Integration Full Integration Training and Digital Readiness Moderate Advanced Advanced This comparative analysis in Table 1 highlights the clear gap between Oman’s current engagement metrics in the oil and gas sector and both its Vision 2040 aspirations and international best practices (World Economic Forum, 2024 ; United Nations, 2023 ). The data illustrates that Oman’s energy companies continue to struggle particularly in employee retention, engagement satisfaction, and digital readiness, which are all central to achieving organizational performance standards and human capital competitiveness. A recent analysis by the International Labour Organization (ILO, 2023) indicates that ESG-led digital engagement models improve workforce retention by up to 25% in resource-intensive sectors when aligned with national productivity benchmarks. Addressing these disparities is essential for strengthening workforce strategy and advancing productivity-based policy implementation. These indicators provide a macro-level view of how energy-related performance continues to lag behind established policy goals, indirectly impacting workforce engagement and sector competitiveness. 5.2 Engagement Levels Across Major Companies Engagement trends among leading international firms offer a useful comparative reference. Based on sustainability and ESG disclosures, the employee engagement rates for BP, Murphy Oil, and Chevron between 2022 and 2024 were reported as follows in Table 2 : Table 2 Employee engagement rates (%) for BP, Murphy Oil, and Chevron from 2022 to 2024, reflecting continued upward trends aligned with digital and ESG initiatives. Company Engagement Rate (2022) Engagement Rate (2023) Engagement Rate (2024) BP 70% 73% 75% Murphy Oil 68% 70% 71% Chevron 65% 66% 68% Note . Data compiled from International Energy Agency ( 2024 ) and Oman Vision 2040 Committee ( 2020 ). Where specified in corporate reports, self-reported satisfaction gains of 5–8% and retention improvements of up to ~ 10% were noted by some firms after AR/VR, mobile dashboards and IoT deployments; figures are not directly comparable across firms. Table 2 suggests a positive association between investment in digital tools and reported improvements in engagement outcomes. While such progress is evident among international firms, secondary reporting from Oman’s State Budget and Energy Transition Reports highlights minimal references to workforce engagement indicators, despite the sector's strategic national role. The absence of workforce engagement reporting restricts assessment of alignment between organisational practices and national workforce objectives. According to the World Bank's Oman Labor Market Strategy Report, persistent mismatches between workforce skills and institutional productivity targets continue to impede public-private reform objectives—an issue that correlates closely with low engagement levels in strategic sectors (World Bank, 2022 ). Such upward trends, if similarly observed in Oman’s energy sector, could support national efforts under Oman’s Vision 2040 to enhance human capital competitiveness and modernise institutional performance. These trends suggest the value of exploring structured approaches to better align workforce strategies with national transformation objectives. To visually contextualise these findings, Figs. 1 and 2 summarise the comparative benchmarks referenced. Figure 1 visually highlights underperformance in retention, satisfaction, and ESG-linked engagement relative to national and global benchmarks. Comparative performance of Oman’s oil and gas sector (2024) against Oman’s Vision 2040 targets and international benchmarks for retention, satisfaction, digital readiness, and ESG engagement. Source: Adapted from National Centre for Statistics and Information ( 2023 ); World Bank ( 2022 ); International Energy Agency ( 2024 ); and United Nations ( 2023 ). Figure 1 synthesises key workforce metrics, revealing a performance gap in digital readiness, satisfaction, and ESG engagement relative to Vision 2040 and global benchmarks. To support this analysis, the following Fig. 2 offers a comparative overview of key performance metrics of Oman’s energy sector performance compared to Vision 2040 targets across key national indicators. Comparison of Oman’s current energy sector metrics with Vision 2040 targets. Source: Adapted from National Centre for Statistics and Information ( 2023 ); Oman Vision 2040 Committee ( 2020 ). Note Figure 2 visualises outcome metrics for Oman against Vision 2040 and global benchmarks; the numeric values are in Table 1 . By contrast, Fig. 3 summarises the relative effectiveness of engagement drivers (1–5) derived from thematic coding. 5.3 Thematic findings The themes below reflect interpretive patterns derived from secondary sources and do not represent causal claims. Drawing on coded excerpts from 2022–2024 corporate and institutional sources, four cross-cutting themes (T1–T4) emerged. Each theme is illustrated with a brief verbatim excerpt and interpreted through Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and Self-Determination Theory (SDT) mechanisms. A source-by-code matrix documenting where each construct/theme was evidenced is provided in Supplementary Table S1 (with page or section citations), supporting transparency and replicability of the coding. T1. Feedback loops via digital surveys and dashboards. Companies formalize real-time workforce voice (pulse surveys, issue reporting) and route it to board and committee oversight, strengthening responsiveness and action tracking. “The board reviewed an anonymized summary of Pulse employee survey reports and OpenTalk reports (bp’s whistleblowing service).” (BP p.l.c., 2025, p. 79). Interpretation Continuous digital feedback increases perceived usefulness and ease-of-use (TAM) and supports relatedness (SDT) by signalling that employee input is seen and acted upon. T2. Skills mastery through AR/VR. Field teams receive just-in-time, on-the-job support via augmented-reality workflows, enabling safer execution and faster competence gains. “The mobile applications also provide remote troubleshooting assistance and just-in-time training for technicians in the field via Augmented Reality (AR) technology.” (Murphy Oil Corporation, 2024, p. 50). Interpretation AR/VR elevates competence and autonomy (SDT) and perceived usefulness (TAM), which are associated with higher engagement in high-risk settings. T3. Meaning and reciprocity via ESG-linked KPIs. Safety and sustainability outcomes are embedded in performance scorecards, signalling purpose alignment and reciprocity between employee effort and organisational priorities. “The 2024 annual bonus was based on a scorecard of performance measures across three categories: safety and sustainability (30% weight), operations (20% weight) and financials (50% weight).” (BP p.l.c., 2025, p. 1). Interpretation : Linking rewards to ESG salience supports relatedness/meaning (SDT) and reciprocity (Social Exchange Theory), reinforcing engagement with sustainability goals. T4. Employment precarity appears to weaken sustained engagement. Growing dependence on contract-based labour during transition periods is linked to weaker organisational attachment and increased risks of workforce exclusion. As noted by Saha, Walls, Waskow, and Lazer ( 2023 ), contract workers often experience reduced job security and limited participation in transition-related decision-making. Interpretation Employment precarity weakens relatedness and autonomy (SDT), limiting the ability to sustain engagement even in digitally supported environments. See Supplementary Table S1 for a source × code matrix showing where each construct/theme ( T1–T4 ) is evidenced by the quoted excerpts. 5.4 Global Employment and Workforce Trends Global workforce mobility and sector employment trends were reviewed to contextualise Oman’s position. This context informs interpretation of workforce engagement challenges in Oman’s domestic sector. According to the International Energy Agency ( 2024 ), global oil and gas employment reached approximately 12.4 million in 2023 and remained stable through early 2024, with growth driven by new upstream and liquefied natural gas (LNG) projects. However, the sector also saw rising turnover among technical staff in offshore operations and contract-based labour roles. 5.5 Digital and ESG Integration in HR Practices Companies such as BP and Murphy Oil reported the rollout of AR/VR-based training tools, mobile engagement dashboards, and ESG-linked performance evaluation schemes. Reports and consultancy reviews describe perceived improvements in engagement outcomes following digital and ESG initiatives (PwC, 2023 ). A consolidated view of these drivers and their observed effects is presented in Table 3 . 5.6 Comparative Summary of Drivers As shown in Table 3 , the relative influence of drivers varies across sources, with digital tools showing the strongest observed association with engagement. Thematic analysis identified four dominant engagement drivers across firms, classified by their reported effectiveness and alignment with engagement outcomes. The observed effectiveness of these drivers, based on secondary data analysis and industry reports, is summarised in Table 3 below: Table 3 Comparative summary of employee engagement drivers. Ratings derived from thematic coding (1–5); qualitative synthesis—not effect sizes . Engagement Driver Observed Effectiveness Digital tools (AR/IoT) High ESG communication campaigns Moderate Contract-based employment Negative Internal recognition programs Moderate to High The analysis in Table 3 indicates that digital tools and ESG alignment are more frequently associated with positive engagement outcomes, while contract staffing is commonly associated with lower stability and reduced long-term commitment. This observation aligns with wider organisational psychology literature on the detrimental effects of employment precarity on motivation, loyalty, and workplace safety adherence. A visual representation of these findings is provided in Fig. 3 , illustrating the observed effectiveness of key employee engagement drivers based on the analysis. Observed effectiveness (on a 1–5 scale) of key employee engagement drivers as reported in company data and literature (1 = Negative impact, 5 = Strong positive impact). Source: Created by the authors using data synthesized from BP (2023–2024) , Murphy Oil ( 2024 ) , Chevron ( 2023 –2024), and PwC ( 2023 ). Digital tools and recognition programmes appear to exert stronger positive influence on engagement, whereas contract staffing is frequently linked to reduced stability and commitment. 6. Results and Discussion The analysis reveals clear behavioural patterns in employee engagement aligned with the thematic propositions developed from secondary data synthesis. Thematic patterns ( T1–T4 ) were constructed from coded excerpts across 2022–2024 sources and then mapped to TAM/SDT mechanisms to interpret behavioural pathways. One of the most striking outcomes is the consistent improvement in reported engagement scores across major companies such as BP and Murphy Oil. These improvements are frequently attributed to increased adoption of digital communication tools, expanded training opportunities, and better feedback mechanisms supported by ESG-linked initiatives (BP, 2024 ; Murphy Oil, 2024 ). Recent evidence demonstrates that strengthening organisational support systems and prioritising employee well-being significantly enhances engagement and contributes to higher performance levels in public-sector environments (Awashreh & AlGhunaimi, 2024 ). As the engagement metrics are derived from self-reported corporate datasets, the findings should be interpreted as indicative associations rather than causal conclusions. To visually illustrate these engagement trends across key industry players, Fig. 4 presents engagement data for BP, Murphy Oil, and Chevron over the 2022–2024 period. Employee engagement trends (self-reported or HR-reported) in BP, Murphy Oil, and Chevron (2022–2024). Data does not differentiate between digital or in-person engagement channels. Source: Compiled from corporate ESG reports—BP (2022–2024) , Murphy Oil ( 2024 ), and Chevron (2022–2024). Where specified in corporate disclosures, these increases were captured through digital HR information systems, mobile engagement surveys, and employee feedback applications, indicating that the measurement processes themselves are digitally mediated. This pattern aligns with broader strategic investment in technology-enabled transformation and ESG initiatives across the reviewed firms. The thematic patterns observed are consistent with Proposition 1 (P1) , which suggests that companies investing more heavily in digital transformation tend to demonstrate stronger engagement outcomes. The mechanisms supporting P1 align with TAM constructs and SDT motivational dimensions: AR/VR training tools and real-time dashboards enhance perceived usefulness and ease-of-use (TAM), while simultaneously supporting competence and autonomy (SDT), reinforcing engagement behaviours. For example, BP’s adoption of real-time human–technology systems and mobile training interfaces coincides with a five-percentage-point rise in self-reported employee engagement between 2022 and 2024. Murphy Oil reports similar outcomes, with AR-supported field training associated with a three-point increase in engagement ratings over the same period. The thematic evidence also aligns with Proposition 2 (P2) , which posits that stronger ESG integration is associated with higher levels of motivation and organisational commitment. ESG-linked appraisal mechanisms—such as Chevron’s sustainability-weighted performance scorecards—appear to strengthen internal alignment and morale by reinforcing meaning, reciprocity, and purpose. These findings echo recent evidence from the Omani public sector, where organisational commitment mediates the relationship between transformational leadership and employee engagement (Sallem et al., 2023 ). Effective leadership strategies and transparent communication structures have been shown to positively influence job satisfaction and organisational commitment among employees in Oman (Awashreh, Al-Ghunaimi, Saleh, & Al-Bahri, 2024 ). In contrast, Proposition 3 (P3) identifies contract-based employment models as being associated with lower engagement stability. This aligns with case-based literature and global workforce reports highlighting that workers in temporary or outsourced arrangements express lower trust in management, reduced safety compliance, and higher attrition intentions. These outcomes correspond with the broader “intention–behaviour gap” perspective, where constraints limit the translation of positive attitudes into sustained engagement (Sheeran & Webb, 2016 ). The relationship is also consistent with evidence linking emotional exhaustion and depersonalisation to declines in commitment and performance during organisational transitions (Agarwal & Gupta, 2021 ). To further contextualize these findings, engagement trends over the period from 2022 to 2024 offer a visual representation of how major firms are progressing in this regard. Conceptual framework illustrating how enhanced employee engagement strategies align with Oman’s Vision 2040 pillars to drive national competitiveness and institutional excellence. Source: Adapted by the authors from Oman Vision 2040 (2020) and International Energy Agency ( 2024 ). These strategic connections presented in Fig. 5 reflect how workforce engagement advances Oman’s Vision 2040 policy objectives. Building on the previous trends, Fig. 6 provides a clear comparison of engagement rates across these leading companies. Comparative employee engagement rates (%) across BP, Murphy Oil, and Chevron between 2022 and 2024, based on corporate ESG reports. Source: Adapted from BP (2022–2024) , Murphy Oil ( 2024 ), and Chevron (2022–2024) corporate ESG reports. The data in Fig. 6 illustrate a consistent upward trend in engagement across the three companies, which is attributed to sustained investments in digital tools, enhanced communication strategies, and ESG-linked initiatives aimed at improving employee morale and operational performance. This upward trend aligns with improved internal practices, particularly those combining digital enablement and employee-centred ESG reporting. While international firms provide structured documentation of engagement trends, comparable transparency is limited within Oman. Therefore, the study draws cautiously from global benchmarks to build a conceptual reference point for analysing Oman’s policy-linked engagement context. This interpretive positioning strengthens rather than replaces the need for firm-level Omani data, which future empirical research should pursue. Such progress not only reflects internal organisational advancements but also signals potential for alignment with Oman’s Vision 2040 labour market KPIs if these strategies are strategically sustained. To visualise the projected impact more concretely, Fig. 7 offers a hypothetical projection of future trends demonstrating how sustained improvements in employee engagement could impact the achievement of Vision 2040 labour market objectives. This projection assumes that firms maintain current levels of investment in digital and ESG practices without significant policy disruptions. Conceptual projection of engagement trends and potential alignment with Vision 2040 labour market objectives. Illustrative; no statistical forecasting was conducted. The projection in Fig. 7 highlights how continuous improvements in employee engagement could contribute to achieving Vision 2040’s objectives, particularly in areas of retention, innovation, and human capital development. It shows a positive correlation between strategic engagement initiatives and national workforce performance metrics, reinforcing the broader argument for integrating these practices into Oman’s transformation agenda. This projected alignment underscores the broader argument that employee engagement serves not only as an internal performance driver but also as a critical enabler of national transformation strategies. Overall, the discussion affirms that employee engagement in the oil and gas industry is not only a reflection of HR policy but a broader strategic indicator of organisational alignment during transformation. Companies that strategically embed engagement within digital and ESG frameworks stand to benefit from better operational performance, talent retention, and reputational strength. Evidence from the higher-education sector in Oman confirms that higher engagement levels are strongly associated with increased productivity, motivation, and operational performance (Al Ghunaimi & AlGhenaimi, 2024 ). In Oman’s case, these benefits are doubly significant as the Sultanate aims to become a regional model for economic diversification. Disengagement among oil and gas employees—whether due to contract instability, poor digital infrastructure, or ESG policy ambiguity—could slow the implementation of Vision 2040 mandates. Thus, institutionalising engagement metrics across Omani oil and gas enterprises could serve as both a governance mechanism and a productivity enhancer. This finding supports the extension of engagement theories into the governance literature, suggesting that engagement metrics should not solely inform HR strategies but also public accountability frameworks, offering a novel lens for evaluating institutional agility within national visions like Oman 2040. For Omani policymakers and regulators, integrating employee engagement metrics into national monitoring frameworks (e.g., Vision 2040 progress dashboards) could serve as a lever to identify at-risk institutions and foster alignment with national transformation goals. Moreover, global policy frameworks reinforce this approach. This reporting gap complicates sector-wide benchmarking and reduces transparency regarding the alignment between firm-level workforce strategies and Vision 2040 expectations. The World Economic Forum ( 2024 ) emphasizes that aligning workforce engagement with digital reskilling and sustainability initiatives is critical for resilience in energy sectors. Similarly, the United Nations ( 2023 ) underscores that employee engagement strategies, when integrated with ESG frameworks, contribute not only to organisational performance but also to national goals aligned with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly Goals 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth) and 9 (Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure). Engagement should not be viewed as an HR metric alone but as a predictive indicator of institutional agility and sectoral sustainability. To illustrate this alignment more concretely, Table 4 summarises the relationship between key employee engagement drivers and the strategic pillars outlined in Oman’s Vision 2040. Table 4. Alignment of Engagement Drivers with Vision 2040 Strategic Pillars Adapted by the author based on Oman’s Vision 2040 priorities and cross-sectoral HR literature ( Oman Vision 2040 Committee, 2020 ). Engagement Driver Vision 2040 Pillar Aligned Expected Impact Digital Tools (AR/IoT) Innovation & Institutional Excellence Enhanced communication, faster upskilling ESG Integration Sustainability & Human Capital Morale, trust, and stakeholder alignment Stable Employment Models Labour Market Modernisation Reduced turnover, talent retention Recognition & Feedback Private Sector Competitiveness Higher motivation and productivity As shown in Table 4 , these engagement drivers align directly with Oman Vision 2040’s strategic pillars, reinforcing the argument that effective engagement strategies contribute to national development goals. Moreover, the findings suggest that employee engagement serves as both a firm-level performance catalyst and a mechanism for advancing broader national strategies. For Oman, high engagement supports Vision 2040 by improving talent retention, increasing ESG compliance, and strengthening organisational readiness for technology-enabled transformation. By contrast, workforce disengagement resulting from unstable contracts, ineffective leadership, or poor communication undermines morale, accelerates turnover, and hampers reform efforts. These risks directly disrupt Vision 2040's human capital and institutional excellence pillars. This paper argues that without deliberate integration of engagement metrics into national policy dashboards, the Vision’s implementation may be weakened by a misalignment between national aspirations and organisational realities. 6.0.1 Limitations in Cross-National Application of the OGEAM Model While the OGEAM model is well-suited to Oman’s centralized policy structure, its transferability to decentralized or privatized sectors (e.g., U.S., EU energy firms) may be limited due to differences in policy feedback loops, ESG enforcement, and employment legislation. 6.1 Strategic Implications for Oman’s Vision 2040 As a key oil-producing nation, Oman’s ability to realize Vision 2040—anchored in human capital development, institutional excellence, and digital innovation—is closely tied to how effectively it engages and retains its workforce. Disengagement in strategic sectors like oil and gas risks derailing national productivity targets, slowing diversification efforts, and weakening institutional reform. The findings of this study suggest that structured engagement practices—particularly those supported by ESG communication strategies and digital tools—can enhance talent retention, boost innovation adoption, and increase organisational agility. International energy firms such as BP and Murphy Oil illustrate how transparent feedback channels, digital training, and ESG-linked KPIs are correlated with rising engagement and operational efficiency. These practices offer replicable models for Oman’s public-private energy sector. To mitigate these risks, the study recommends that sector leaders and policymakers: 1. Align employee engagement KPIs with digital and sustainability goals. 2. Promote transparency and participatory feedback in ESG communication. 3. Invest in digital tools that empower frontline workers and monitor satisfaction. 4. Transition from short-term staffing to stable, full-time employment models. 5. Utilize engagement data in workforce planning and national policy reviews. 6. Integrate engagement metrics into Vision 2040 monitoring dashboards. These recommendations align with Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) 8 (Decent Work) and SDG 9 (Industry and Innovation), reinforcing the global relevance of Oman’s Vision 2040 strategy. As the sector evolves amid energy transition pressures, embedding employee engagement within the strategic core of institutional transformation remains vital. The link between employee behaviour and sustainability objectives is reinforced by empirical findings showing that environmental knowledge and intention significantly influence responsible organisational behaviour and performance (Hamid et al., 2025 ). Future research may build on these findings using mixed-method approaches, including longitudinal case studies and international comparisons. Exploring frameworks such as HESG within broader HSDG contexts (Hammouch et al., 2024 ) could further deepen understanding of ESG-behavioural alignment in national development strategies. 6.2 Novel Contribution to National Policy Alignment This paper contributes new theoretical and policy insights by positioning employee engagement as a macro-strategic lever, directly tied to national transformation metrics such as retention, innovation, and institutional performance under Vision 2040. In Oman, the ability to align institutional engagement practices with Vision 2040 targets represents an untapped lever for accelerating public-private performance synergies. For instance, the inclusion of employee engagement KPIs in Vision 2040’s labour and institutional dashboards could allow the government to better monitor alignment between workforce practices and national development indicators. Further, the paper argues that disengagement—often perceived as an internal HR concern—should be seen as a systemic national risk. In highly centralised sectors like oil and gas, where employment trends and morale ripple into macroeconomic performance, poor digital engagement could compromise institutional agility within evolving human–technology systems , reform capacity, and citizen trust in strategic transitions. These findings directly address RQ1–RQ3 and support Propositions P1–P3 concerning the associations between digital transformation, ESG integration, and employee engagement. 7. Proposed Engagement Alignment Model for Oman’s Oil and Gas Sector 7.1 Model Overview Based on the study’s thematic insights and aligned with the strategic priorities of Oman’s Vision 2040, the Oman Oil and Gas Engagement Alignment Model (OGEAM) is proposed to structure and strengthen engagement in the sector. A recent case analysis highlights how structured engagement practices contributed to resilience and performance success in Ooredoo Oman, demonstrating the strategic value of engagement frameworks that are embedded within organisational transformation agendas (Al Ghunaimi & Kassim, 2024 ). The model serves as a structured framework to enhance employee engagement, strengthen organisational resilience, and ensure alignment with national transformation objectives. The model responds to persistent gaps between organisational workforce strategies and Vision 2040 transformation requirements. 7.2 Model Components OGEAM integrates four interrelated components as core drivers of employee engagement, directly aligning organisational strategies with Oman Vision 2040’s objectives. These components are intended to foster resilience, innovation, and workforce satisfaction across Oman’s oil and gas sector. Table 5 outlines OGEAM’s core components and their alignment with Vision 2040 priorities. Table 5 Key Components of the Oman Oil and Gas Engagement Alignment Model (OGEAM) Component Strategic Focus Alignment with Vision 2040 Digital Tools AR/VR training, IoT dashboards, AI-based feedback Institutional Excellence, Innovation ESG Integration Linking engagement KPIs to sustainability goals Sustainability, Social Responsibility Employment Models Transitioning from contract to stable employment Labour Market Modernisation, Job Security Recognition Practices Structured recognition, transparent promotions Human Capital Competitiveness The distinct value of OGEAM lies in positioning engagement metrics as national transformation levers rather than isolated organisational HR instruments . 7.3 Implementation Roadmap For Oil and Gas Firms: Integrate OGEAM components into existing HR strategies. Report engagement KPIs linked to digital tools and ESG outcomes on a quarterly basis. Transition contract-heavy departments toward more stable, permanent employment models. For Policymakers (Vision 2040 Committees / Ministries): Embed employee engagement KPIs (e.g., retention, innovation participation, satisfaction rates) within Vision 2040 performance monitoring dashboards. Require annual reporting from state-owned energy firms on engagement progress linked to Vision 2040 objectives. Provide policy incentives for organisations demonstrating effective adoption of OGEAM-aligned practices. Successful adoption depends on coordinated efforts between corporate leadership and policy stakeholders. Potential barriers include centralized governance structures, cultural resistance to change, and policy inertia. Mitigation strategies could involve stakeholder engagement programs, leadership training, and policy alignment mechanisms. These barriers may delay implementation unless addressed through cross-sectoral coordination and digital leadership mandates embedded in regulatory frameworks. 7.4 Expected Outcomes Improved workforce stability, morale, and operational productivity. Enhanced sector competitiveness contributing to Oman’s Vision 2040 economic diversification objectives. Stronger alignment between private-sector HR practices and public-sector KPIs for sustainable development. To consolidate these findings into a practical framework, Fig. 8 visualises the OGEAM model’s alignment pathways. Figure 8 should be interpreted as a conceptual model, requiring empirical validation through sector-specific implementation studies. 7.5 Conceptual Visualisation The following model in Fig. 8 demonstrates how enhanced engagement strategies at the organisational level can advance to Oman’s Vision 2040 strategic objectives by linking human capital initiatives with broader institutional outcomes. Conceptual map linking coded themes (T1–T4) to TAM/SDT mechanisms, proximal outcomes (retention, satisfaction), and Vision 2040 pillars. Conceptual; associations are based on coded themes. Source: Developed by the authors based on study findings aligned with Oman Vision 2040 (2020) and ESG engagement literature. 7.6 Adaptability of the OGEAM Model Although OGEAM is optimised for Oman’s centralised governance and hydrocarbon sector, adaptation may be required in contexts with different labour models, decentralised policy systems, or lower ESG maturity. Sectors like mining, logistics, and renewable energy with similar high-risk workforces and national reform agendas can leverage the framework to align behavioural engagement with national policy goals. 8. Conclusion This study demonstrates how technology-enabled transformation and ESG integration influence employee motivation, retention, and work engagement in the oil and gas sector. The evidence indicates that digital platforms—such as AR/VR training tools and mobile engagement dashboards—are consistently associated with improved communication quality, faster feedback loops, and modest increases in self-reported satisfaction and retention. Their impact, however, is most effective when complemented by transparent and participatory ESG practices that reinforce purpose, reciprocity, and organisational alignment. Conversely, reliance on contract-based employment appears to weaken trust and long-term commitment, reducing the effectiveness of digital and ESG initiatives and limiting the sector’s capacity for sustained transformation. Employee engagement emerges as a strategic organisational lever rather than a routine HR metric, directly influencing resilience, operational continuity, and institutional performance. Companies that embed engagement within integrated digital and ESG strategies demonstrate stronger capability in navigating transition pressures and strengthening workforce stability. Framed through the Technology Acceptance Model and Social Exchange Theory (Davis, 1989 ; Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005 ), the findings reinforce the behavioural mechanisms through which digital adoption translates into engagement outcomes shaped by perceived usefulness, ease of use, and reciprocal support. The Oman Oil and Gas Engagement Alignment Model (OGEAM) proposed in this study offers a structured framework for translating engagement practices into measurable actions aligned with Vision 2040’s priorities for human capital development, institutional excellence, and sustainable growth. A key insight is that national transformation strategies risk underperformance if frontline workforce behaviours and employment conditions are overlooked. Aligning digital, ESG, and employment policies represents a critical opportunity to enhance talent retention and workforce competitiveness. This research positions employee engagement as a behavioural pathway that connects organisational strategy to national development objectives. The alignment of human capital metrics with ESG-driven digital transformation provides a replicable foundation for other resource-dependent economies pursuing similar transition agendas. 9. Implications for Future Research, Public Policy, and Behavioural Technology A practical output of this research is the OGEAM model, offering a structured and actionable pathway for aligning engagement practices in Oman’s oil and gas sector with Vision 2040’s goals on human capital, innovation, and operational effectiveness. Future studies should examine how digital engagement influences competitiveness in resource-based economies and shapes sector-wide talent strategies. Embedding engagement metrics in national dashboards can guide institutional reform and workforce resilience. Future research should also explore leadership, culture, and digital maturity as mediators of engagement impact. Such research would contribute to a more nuanced understanding of workforce strategies within multidisciplinary contexts. Additionally, future studies could extend this model beyond Oman, exploring its applicability to other resource-dependent economies undergoing transitions driven by digital innovation and sustainability imperatives. As global economies navigate concurrent digital and ESG transitions, models such as OGEAM offer a scalable framework for aligning human capital development with sustainability objectives. The OGEAM model may be adapted to sectors beyond oil and gas where similar digital and sustainability transitions are underway. Its modular structure allows customisation for emerging economies pursuing digital and ESG integration under varied policy environments. Declarations Acknowledgments The authors gratefully acknowledge the institutional support and resources provided by their home organisations. No external technical assistance, consultancy input, or third-party sponsorship was involved. Funding This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Ethical Approval This study did not involve human participants, animals, or identifiable personal data. In line with institutional guidelines, formal ethics committee approval and informed consent were therefore not required. Conflicts of Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial or non-financial interests that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Data Availability Statement All data underpinning this study are publicly accessible from the sources cited in the reference list (corporate ESG and sustainability reports, and publications by organisations such as the IEA, ILO, WEF, and Vision 2040 bodies). The coding artefacts generated and analysed in this study are summarised in the Supplementary Material ( Table S1 ). Author Contributions (CRediT Taxonomy) First Author: Conceptualisation; Methodology; Validation; Formal analysis; Data curation; Writing – original draft; Writing – review & editing; Visualisation. Second Author: Methodology; Validation; Formal analysis; Data curation; Writing – original draft; Writing – review & editing; Supervision. Third Author: Conceptualisation; Validation; Writing – review & editing. Fourth Author: Validation; Visualisation; Writing – review & editing; Supervision. Fifth Author: Data curation; Writing – review & editing; Project administration. 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14:18:58","extension":"xml","order_by":19,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":133981,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"89079807d19d4aea94bf89477c1285d61structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8260370/v1/00d4f77548754688a78fe066.xml"},{"id":100425736,"identity":"bac0245f-917b-4154-93a6-9ed55bf68cb4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-16 14:18:45","extension":"html","order_by":20,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":146950,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8260370/v1/9b6f0532b3951eca218d0d92.html"},{"id":100425944,"identity":"4dd7a0ce-fcb0-4c89-9447-2c5a0528607b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-16 14:19:06","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":54789,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eComparative performance of Oman’s oil and gas sector (2024) against Oman’s Vision 2040 targets and international benchmarks for retention, satisfaction, digital readiness, and ESG engagement.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSource: Adapted from National Centre for Statistics and Information (2023); World Bank (2022); International Energy Agency (2024); and United Nations (2023).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8260370/v1/9d4bb6181933cc3301e20460.png"},{"id":100425683,"identity":"965d9574-8133-420c-a0c3-c05261441666","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-16 14:18:39","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1641190,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eComparison of Oman’s current energy sector metrics with Vision 2040 targets.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSource: Adapted from National Centre for Statistics and Information (2023); Oman Vision 2040 Committee (2020).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eFigure 2\u003c/strong\u003e visualises \u003cstrong\u003eoutcome metrics\u003c/strong\u003e for Oman against Vision 2040 and global benchmarks; the \u003cstrong\u003enumeric values\u003c/strong\u003e are in \u003cstrong\u003eTable 1\u003c/strong\u003e. By contrast, \u003cstrong\u003eFigure 3\u003c/strong\u003e summarises the \u003cstrong\u003erelative effectiveness of engagement drivers\u003c/strong\u003e (1–5) derived from thematic coding.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8260370/v1/cb53525293af0195d87d765c.png"},{"id":100425851,"identity":"8daa6727-94e2-4ef4-8fea-7d5884640a06","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-16 14:19:01","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":25021,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eObserved effectiveness (on a 1–5 scale) of key employee engagement drivers as reported in company data and literature (1 = Negative impact, 5 = Strong positive impact).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSource: Created by the authors using data synthesized from BP (2023–2024), Murphy Oil (2024), Chevron (2023–2024), and PwC (2023).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8260370/v1/b6538e490ac019f73dcae23f.png"},{"id":100425884,"identity":"932c88eb-b22f-49bd-ab97-da72747e423d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-16 14:19:05","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":51998,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEmployee engagement trends (self-reported or HR-reported) in BP, Murphy Oil, and Chevron (2022–2024). Data does not differentiate between digital or in-person engagement channels.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSource: Compiled from corporate ESG reports—BP (2022–2024), Murphy Oil (2024), and Chevron (2022–2024).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8260370/v1/26e4a74d696f5630ef8ab86e.png"},{"id":100425770,"identity":"84139891-2a1e-4113-88a2-708afa35a448","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-16 14:18:53","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1718269,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eConceptual framework illustrating how enhanced employee engagement strategies align with Oman’s Vision 2040 pillars to drive national competitiveness and institutional excellence. \u003cem\u003eSource: Adapted by the authors from Oman Vision 2040 (2020) and International Energy Agency (2024).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8260370/v1/306ef0f10fd639c2ec9dc95d.png"},{"id":100425647,"identity":"177adf84-de56-42f4-8420-2f002cd848b5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-16 14:18:38","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1465426,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eComparative employee engagement rates (%) across BP, Murphy Oil, and Chevron between 2022 and 2024, based on corporate ESG reports.\u003cbr\u003e\n \u003cem\u003eSource: Adapted from BP (2022–2024), Murphy Oil (2024), and Chevron (2022–2024) corporate ESG reports.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8260370/v1/230cad9433ec1ed190f668fe.png"},{"id":100425838,"identity":"416783de-33bb-4cc9-8555-c938882b0b88","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-16 14:19:00","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":96782,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eConceptual projection of engagement trends and potential alignment with Vision 2040 labour market objectives. \u003cem\u003eIllustrative; no statistical forecasting was conducted.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8260370/v1/c489ab2e3b1f8a3f3794c4ea.png"},{"id":100425730,"identity":"86f05f2a-ed14-4e55-985b-73efa1d35505","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-16 14:18:43","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1691349,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eConceptual map linking coded themes (T1–T4) to TAM/SDT mechanisms, proximal outcomes (retention, satisfaction), and Vision 2040 pillars. \u003cem\u003eConceptual; associations are based on coded themes.\u003c/em\u003e Source: Developed by the authors based on study findings aligned with Oman Vision 2040 (2020) and ESG engagement literature.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8260370/v1/5415668f839ebfd6f65abfb2.png"},{"id":100553711,"identity":"8bdda2fd-5b17-495e-8e74-cee87c0dfd6f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-19 08:38:16","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":7621459,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8260370/v1/97f526e1-7cd7-43fa-876c-a57b57284727.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Digital Engagement and Environmental-Social Governance Innovation in the Oil and Gas Sector: Behavioural Insights from Oman and Vision 2040","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eOman\u0026rsquo;s oil and gas sector is experiencing accelerated transformation driven by digitalisation, Environmental-Social Governance (ESG) expectations, and shifting workforce priorities. These dynamics are reshaping organisational practices, particularly digital engagement mechanisms that influence performance, innovation adoption, and operational safety. Emerging platforms such as Augmented Reality (AR)/ Virtual Reality (VR) training, mobile dashboards, and IoT-based reporting systems now support behavioural feedback loops and employee autonomy\u0026mdash;core domains within behavioural technology research (Xiao, Wang \u0026amp; Chen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; IEA, 2024). Recent evidence shows that engagement improves when digital systems complement human capability and technological self-efficacy (Ye et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConcurrently, structural pressures\u0026mdash;including generational expectations, the expansion of contract labour, and rising scrutiny of ESG accountability\u0026mdash;continue to challenge stable engagement outcomes. Although global oil and gas employment reached 12.4\u0026nbsp;million in 2023 (IEA, 2024), persistent concerns remain regarding morale, skills utilisation, and participation in organisational decision-making. Recent shifts toward digital HR appraisal systems illustrate the evolving structure of engagement processes within large energy firms (Munawir \u0026amp; Suseno, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite increased investment in digital capability, empirical research on engagement within the MENA energy context remains limited. Studies indicate that engagement is strongly associated with organisational resilience and performance under volatile operating conditions (Ibrahim \u0026amp; Hussein, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Recent Omani research highlights weak documentation of engagement outcomes and a disconnect between digital transformation expenditure and measurable workforce results (Al-Hajri et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). These limitations reflect challenges in ESG integration, digital maturity, and motivational support structures.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe urgency of these issues becomes more pronounced when viewed against Oman\u0026rsquo;s Vision 2040 workforce objectives. Although national targets emphasise retention, competitiveness, and digital readiness, current indicators remain below expectations, with retention at approximately 68% and digital maturity rated as moderate (NCSI, 2023; WEF, 2024). This gap demonstrates structural misalignment between policy ambition and organisational reality.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAddressing this misalignment requires a framework that links firm-level engagement practices to national-level transformation outcomes. This study integrates behavioural science, organisational psychology, and digital transformation perspectives to conceptualise employee engagement as a mechanism supporting national reform. It introduces the Oman Oil and Gas Engagement Alignment Model (OGEAM), which aligns organisational engagement with Vision 2040 through ESG-linked KPIs, digital enablement, and stable employment models.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis paper offers three contributions:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(1) positioning engagement as a behavioural mechanism aligned with national economic transformation;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(2) applying TAM and SDT to interpret behavioural pathways in digital engagement settings; and\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(3) proposing OGEAM as a conceptual alignment model developed through thematic synthesis of secondary evidence.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo clarify research intent and avoid assumptions of statistical inference, the study adopts a conceptual qualitative synthesis and presents interpretive propositions (P1\u0026ndash;P3) that guide future empirical validation rather than hypothesis testing.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Literature Review","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Theoretical Foundations of Employee Engagement\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmployee engagement has evolved from a psychological construct toward a multidimensional concept shaped by digital work environments and sustainability expectations. Kahn\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e) seminal work conceptualised engagement as the physical, emotional, and cognitive investment of individuals in their roles; however, this perspective offers limited insight into how technology shapes motivational dynamics in digitally intensive sectors. Self-Determination Theory (Deci \u0026amp; Ryan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e) expands this by emphasising autonomy, competence, and relatedness as core requirements for sustained motivation. Empirical studies demonstrate that autonomy-supportive digital feedback systems strengthen perceived competence and intrinsic motivation, contributing to higher engagement (Munawir \u0026amp; Suseno, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Complementing this, Social Exchange Theory highlights reciprocal behavioural responses between organisational support and employee commitment (Cropanzano \u0026amp; Mitchell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e), while the Technology Acceptance Model clarifies how perceived usefulness and ease of use influence engagement with digital HR platforms. Together, these frameworks provide a behavioural foundation for examining engagement in digitally transforming industries such as energy and petrochemicals in Oman.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Engagement in High-Risk and Remote Sectors\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn high-risk environments like oil and gas, engagement has significant implications for safety, retention, and performance\u0026mdash;particularly for offshore or remote workforces operating under extended rotational schedules. Studies demonstrate that strong engagement reduces turnover intentions and enhances safety adherence (Fleming, Jones \u0026amp; Hart, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). These outcomes highlight the need to understand engagement as both a human-capital driver and a risk-mitigation mechanism in sectors where operational disruptions carry strategic consequences.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Digitalisation and Engagement\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDigital transformation initiatives\u0026mdash;including IoT monitoring, AR-based training, and data-driven dashboard systems\u0026mdash;are reshaping workforce interactions and enabling real-time performance assessment, transparency, and communication. These tools facilitate continuous feedback and enhanced decision-making, strengthening engagement when aligned with organisational readiness and supportive leadership cultures. Kapadia and Patel (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) emphasised that digital infrastructure investment increases satisfaction and perceived fairness when integrated into performance and feedback systems. Similarly, research from Egypt\u0026rsquo;s oil and gas sector found that digital tools mediate the relationship between organisational transformation and engagement only when institutional readiness and leadership endorsement are present (Bakry, Ragheb \u0026amp; Ragab, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Global comparative evidence confirms that a strong digital employee experience improves adaptability and performance when supported by usability and leadership support (Porkodi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). However, inconsistent outcomes persist among firms with weak digital infrastructure or resistance to technological change, underscoring that the success of digital engagement depends not only on the tools themselves but also on organisational culture, digital literacy, and change management maturity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4 ESG Imperatives and Workforce Motivation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eESG initiatives have emerged as a critical driver of organisational commitment and purpose-oriented engagement. PwC (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) reports that more than 40% of employees perceive ESG participation as strengthening commitment to their organisations. Evidence in GCC energy firms suggests that integrating ESG indicators into performance appraisal frameworks enhances alignment between individual values and organisational priorities (Al-Hajri et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Employee-led sustainability forums and ESG-linked KPI frameworks reinforce meaning, reciprocity, and identity\u0026mdash;key motivational mechanisms underpinning engagement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5 Identified Research Gaps\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough research highlights the importance of engagement, digitalisation, and ESG as individual fields, limited scholarship examines their integration or explores their combined impact in national policy and macroeconomic contexts. Existing studies are predominantly firm-level case analyses with limited generalisability, and findings across GCC countries remain inconsistent (Mansour et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Bakry et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). This creates a need for research that explains why digital and ESG investment does not consistently translate into engagement outcomes. Moreover, few studies investigate how engagement functions as a behavioural mechanism contributing to national transformation objectives\u0026mdash;an area particularly relevant for hydrocarbon economies such as Oman, where labour dynamics directly influence GDP stability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.6 National Development Priorities and Engagement in Oman\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOman\u0026rsquo;s Vision 2040 emphasises workforce competitiveness, digital readiness, and sustainable value creation (Oman Vision 2040 Committee, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). However, recent NCSI (2023) data report fragmented workforce outcomes and insufficient integration between digital transformation spending and measurable engagement results within the energy sector. The intersection between employee engagement and national development remains conceptually underdeveloped, especially concerning how technology-enabled engagement practices support macro-level transformation goals. This study addresses that gap by linking micro-level engagement mechanisms with Vision 2040 priorities using integrated perspectives from behavioural psychology, technology adoption, and ESG governance. By synthesising secondary data sources\u0026mdash;including ESG disclosures, IEA labour datasets, and national policy frameworks\u0026mdash;this study develops a conceptual bridge between firm-level practices and national objectives.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Research Objectives, Questions, and Hypotheses","content":"\u003ch2\u003e3.1 Objectives\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Examine workforce engagement patterns in the oil and gas sector using secondary evidence.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Explore behavioural relationships between digital transformation, ESG practices, and employee engagement outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Formulate practice-oriented recommendations aligned with Oman\u0026rsquo;s Vision 2040 workforce priorities.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e3.2 Research Questions\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cul type=\"disc\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eRQ1: What are the current engagement trends and behavioural outcomes among employees in leading oil and gas firms?\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eRQ2: How do digital platforms (e.g., AR/VR, mobile dashboards) influence employee engagement and autonomy?\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eRQ3: What roles do ESG policies play in shaping workforce motivation and commitment?\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.3 Analytical Propositions\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBased on thematic patterns derived from secondary sources, this study develops three interpretive propositions intended to guide future empirical validation rather than infer causal claims:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; P1: Investment in digital transformation aligns with stronger patterns of workforce engagement.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; P2: ESG-aligned practices contribute to enhanced employee motivation and organisational alignment.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; P3: Employment precarity corresponds with reduced engagement stability in high-risk operational settings.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study adopts a qualitative-descriptive methodology grounded in secondary data analysis. The objective is to synthesise employee engagement metrics, technology-enabled transformation indicators, and ESG alignment practices from publicly available and verifiable sources. The methodology aimed to ensure transparency and rigour while preventing ethical issues that can arise from primary data collection in industrial contexts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA reflexivity statement was included to acknowledge the researcher\u0026rsquo;s positionality and assumptions regarding workforce transformation in Oman\u0026rsquo;s energy sector.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo enhance analytical rigour, a reflexive thematic analysis approach was adopted, and coding was conducted manually using a structured codebook derived from TAM and SDT constructs. A peer-debriefing process involving two independent academic reviewers was used to examine coding interpretations and strengthen credibility. Coding consistency was strengthened through cross-review of 20% of the coded material, where interpretive alignment was confirmed between reviewers. To maintain transparency and reflexivity, the primary researcher recorded an audit trail that documented coding decisions, interpretive reflections, and adjustments across iterative coding cycles.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1 Data Sources\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eData selection was based on the prominence of these companies within global oil and gas sectors, their transparent ESG reporting practices, and their relevance to Oman\u0026rsquo;s policy frameworks. Firms were shortlisted based on accessibility of multi-year ESG data, relevance to Oman\u0026rsquo;s policy context, and comparability across digital maturity indicators. A transparent document selection protocol was applied to ensure relevance, recency, and verifiable data integrity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe data utilised in this study were obtained from:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eCorporate ESG and Sustainability Reports\u003c/b\u003e: Reports from BP (2023\u0026ndash;2024), Murphy Oil (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), and Chevron (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;2024) were examined for digitally measured employee engagement rates, digital initiatives, and ESG strategies (International Energy Agency, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Oman Vision 2040 Committee, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eInternational Energy Agency (IEA)\u003c/b\u003e: The \u003cem\u003eWorld Energy Employment Report\u003c/em\u003e (2024) provided global employment figures in oil and gas, sector-specific labour trends, and technology-related workforce metrics (International Energy Agency, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Oman Vision 2040 Committee, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eIndustry Whitepapers and HR Surveys\u003c/b\u003e: PwC\u0026rsquo;s \u003cem\u003eGlobal Workforce Sustainability Study\u003c/em\u003e (2023) reports provided survey-based insights into employee perception and ESG engagement (PwC, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eAcademic Literature and Secondary Case Studies\u003c/b\u003e: Peer-reviewed studies from Scopus-indexed journals were used to validate observed engagement drivers and challenges (Kahn, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e; Deci \u0026amp; Ryan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Cropanzano \u0026amp; Mitchell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Fleming, Jones, \u0026amp; Hart, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Xiao, Wang, \u0026amp; Chen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Al-Hajri et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Bakry, Ragheb, \u0026amp; Ragab, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2 Analysis Method\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA thematic analysis was conducted to identify recurring patterns related to engagement outcomes, followed Braun and Clarke\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e) methodology.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eCodebook (constructs \u0026rarr; exemplar codes)\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eTAM \u0026ndash; perceived usefulness\u003c/b\u003e: mobile dashboards improve task completion; \u003cb\u003eease of use\u003c/b\u003e: low-friction survey apps.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eSDT \u0026ndash; autonomy\u003c/b\u003e: self-paced AR modules; \u003cb\u003ecompetence\u003c/b\u003e: simulation-based skills mastery; \u003cb\u003erelatedness\u003c/b\u003e: peer ESG forums.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eESG salience\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eKPI-linked appraisal components (safety \u0026amp; sustainability weighting).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eEmployment model\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003econtracting/outsourcing and perceived precarity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Coding artefacts summarized in \u003cb\u003eSupplementary Table S1\u003c/b\u003e.)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis followed Braun and Clarke\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e) six-phase reflexive method, commonly used for behavioural and organisational research. Data were coded manually to ensure consistency and transparency in identifying patterns aligned with the study\u0026rsquo;s objectives. Key engagement indicators such as participation rates, employee satisfaction trends, and internal communication practices were mapped against the companies\u0026rsquo; investment in technology-enabled transformation and ESG integration. Comparative analysis across firms and timeframes (\u003cb\u003e2022\u0026ndash;2024\u003c/b\u003e) was used to highlight industry-wide patterns.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e presents an interpretive comparative index summarising the relative prominence of key themes across sources; it is not a statistical measure but an indicative synthesis tool to compare relative influence across drivers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRepresentative \u003cb\u003everbatim excerpts\u003c/b\u003e underpin each theme and are cited in-text (see 5.2) and tabulated in \u003cb\u003eSupplementary Table S1\u003c/b\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.3 Validity and Limitations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe validity of this study is grounded in the triangulation of data sources and alignment with previous scholarly findings. Limitations include the study\u0026rsquo;s reliance on corporate self-reporting, which may carry inherent bias despite verification steps.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe use of corporate ESG reports introduces the possibility of positive reporting bias, as companies may frame engagement outcomes to reinforce stakeholder confidence. To mitigate this limitation, findings were systematically cross-checked against third-party labour datasets and independent global reports (IEA, WEF, ILO), and emphasis was placed on thematic convergence rather than accepting numerical outcomes at face value.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese limitations are acknowledged, and findings are interpreted cautiously, emphasising pattern identification rather than generalisation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe use of secondary data is further justified in this study by the restricted access to primary data in the oil and gas industry due to security, confidentiality, and geopolitical sensitivities. Leveraging publicly available corporate disclosures and reputable industry reports ensures the analysis remains grounded in verifiable, ethically sourced evidence while enabling cross-firm comparisons aligned with the study\u0026rsquo;s aims.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, to ensure objectivity, corporate data were triangulated with third-party reports from IEA, World Bank, and ILO. Data validity was reinforced by cross-verifying engagement metrics with industry-wide benchmarks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eReflexivity and rigour.\u003c/b\u003e A single coder conducted the initial coding; an audit trail (codebook versions, memos, decision logs) was maintained. Ambiguities were resolved by memoing and re-checking sources. Triangulation combined corporate documents with IEA/ILO materials to validate interpretations and reduce single-source bias.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5. Data and Analysis","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis section synthesises key findings from secondary data using descriptive analysis and thematic coding to assess evolving employee engagement trends in the oil and gas sector.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.1 Oman baseline metrics and benchmarks\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOman\u0026rsquo;s baseline metrics and international benchmarks establish to anchor the subsequent firm-level analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs shown in \u003cb\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;1\u003c/b\u003e, Oman\u0026rsquo;s current workforce performance reveals measurable gaps in retention, satisfaction, and ESG integration compared to Vision 2040 targets and global standards.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;1.\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eComparison of current Oman oil and gas sector engagement metrics against Oman\u0026rsquo;s Vision 2040 targets and international benchmarks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eNote\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eData adapted from National Centre for Statistics and Information (NCSI, 2023); World Economic Forum (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e); United Nations (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e); Chen, Liu \u0026amp; Singh (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e); International Labour Organization (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Taba\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndicator\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOman Oil \u0026amp; Gas (2024)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVision 2040 Target\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlobal Benchmark (WEF/UN)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmployee Retention Rate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80\u0026ndash;85%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEngagement Satisfaction Score\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80\u0026ndash;85%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlignment with ESG KPIs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePartial\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFull Integration\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFull Integration\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTraining and Digital Readiness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModerate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdvanced\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdvanced\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis comparative analysis in \u003cb\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;1\u003c/b\u003e highlights the clear gap between Oman\u0026rsquo;s current engagement metrics in the oil and gas sector and both its Vision 2040 aspirations and international best practices (World Economic Forum, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; United Nations, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The data illustrates that Oman\u0026rsquo;s energy companies continue to struggle particularly in employee retention, engagement satisfaction, and digital readiness, which are all central to achieving organizational performance standards and human capital competitiveness. A recent analysis by the International Labour Organization (ILO, 2023) indicates that ESG-led digital engagement models improve workforce retention by up to 25% in resource-intensive sectors when aligned with national productivity benchmarks. Addressing these disparities is essential for strengthening workforce strategy and advancing productivity-based policy implementation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese indicators provide a macro-level view of how energy-related performance continues to lag behind established policy goals, indirectly impacting workforce engagement and sector competitiveness.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.2 Engagement Levels Across Major Companies\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eEngagement trends among leading international firms offer a useful comparative reference.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on sustainability and ESG disclosures, the employee engagement rates for BP, Murphy Oil, and Chevron between 2022 and 2024 were reported as follows in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmployee engagement rates (%) for BP, Murphy Oil, and Chevron from 2022 to 2024, reflecting continued upward trends aligned with digital and ESG initiatives.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompany\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEngagement Rate (2022)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEngagement Rate (2023)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEngagement Rate (2024)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMurphy Oil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChevron\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e. Data compiled from International Energy Agency (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) and Oman Vision 2040 Committee (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere specified in corporate reports, \u003cb\u003eself-reported\u003c/b\u003e satisfaction gains of \u003cb\u003e5\u0026ndash;8%\u003c/b\u003e and retention improvements of \u003cb\u003eup to ~\u0026thinsp;10%\u003c/b\u003e were noted \u003cb\u003eby some firms\u003c/b\u003e after AR/VR, mobile dashboards and IoT deployments; figures are not directly comparable across firms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e suggests a positive association between investment in digital tools and reported improvements in engagement outcomes. While such progress is evident among international firms, secondary reporting from Oman\u0026rsquo;s State Budget and Energy Transition Reports highlights minimal references to workforce engagement indicators, despite the sector's strategic national role. The absence of workforce engagement reporting restricts assessment of alignment between organisational practices and national workforce objectives.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to the World Bank's Oman Labor Market Strategy Report, persistent mismatches between workforce skills and institutional productivity targets continue to impede public-private reform objectives\u0026mdash;an issue that correlates closely with low engagement levels in strategic sectors (World Bank, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSuch upward trends, if similarly observed in Oman\u0026rsquo;s energy sector, could support national efforts under Oman\u0026rsquo;s Vision 2040 to enhance human capital competitiveness and modernise institutional performance. These trends suggest the value of exploring structured approaches to better align workforce strategies with national transformation objectives.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo visually contextualise these findings, Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e summarise the comparative benchmarks referenced.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e visually highlights underperformance in retention, satisfaction, and ESG-linked engagement relative to national and global benchmarks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eComparative performance of Oman\u0026rsquo;s oil and gas sector (2024) against Oman\u0026rsquo;s Vision 2040 targets and international benchmarks for retention, satisfaction, digital readiness, and ESG engagement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eSource: Adapted from\u003c/em\u003e National Centre for Statistics and Information (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e\u003cem\u003e);\u003c/em\u003e World Bank (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e\u003cem\u003e);\u003c/em\u003e International Energy Agency (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e\u003cem\u003e); and\u003c/em\u003e United Nations (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e\u003cem\u003e).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e synthesises key workforce metrics, revealing a performance gap in digital readiness, satisfaction, and ESG engagement relative to Vision 2040 and global benchmarks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo support this analysis, the following Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e offers a comparative overview of key performance metrics of Oman\u0026rsquo;s energy sector performance compared to Vision 2040 targets across key national indicators.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eComparison of Oman\u0026rsquo;s current energy sector metrics with Vision 2040 targets.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eSource: Adapted from\u003c/em\u003e National Centre for Statistics and Information (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e\u003cem\u003e);\u003c/em\u003e Oman Vision 2040 Committee (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e\u003cem\u003e).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eNote\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e visualises \u003cb\u003eoutcome metrics\u003c/b\u003e for Oman against Vision 2040 and global benchmarks; the \u003cb\u003enumeric values\u003c/b\u003e are in \u003cb\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;1\u003c/b\u003e. By contrast, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e summarises the \u003cb\u003erelative effectiveness of engagement drivers\u003c/b\u003e (1\u0026ndash;5) derived from thematic coding.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.3 Thematic findings\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe themes below reflect interpretive patterns derived from secondary sources and do not represent causal claims. Drawing on coded excerpts from 2022\u0026ndash;2024 corporate and institutional sources, four cross-cutting themes (T1\u0026ndash;T4) emerged. Each theme is illustrated with a brief verbatim excerpt and interpreted through Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and Self-Determination Theory (SDT) mechanisms. A source-by-code matrix documenting where each construct/theme was evidenced is provided in \u003cb\u003eSupplementary Table S1\u003c/b\u003e (with page or section citations), supporting transparency and replicability of the coding.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eT1. Feedback loops via digital surveys and dashboards.\u003c/b\u003e Companies formalize real-time workforce voice (pulse surveys, issue reporting) and route it to board and committee oversight, strengthening responsiveness and action tracking. \u0026ldquo;The board reviewed an anonymized summary of Pulse employee survey reports and OpenTalk reports (bp\u0026rsquo;s whistleblowing service).\u0026rdquo; (BP p.l.c., 2025, p. 79).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eInterpretation\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eContinuous digital feedback increases perceived usefulness and ease-of-use (TAM) and supports relatedness (SDT) by signalling that employee input is seen and acted upon.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eT2. Skills mastery through AR/VR.\u003c/b\u003e Field teams receive just-in-time, on-the-job support via augmented-reality workflows, enabling safer execution and faster competence gains. \u0026ldquo;The mobile applications also provide remote troubleshooting assistance and just-in-time training for technicians in the field via Augmented Reality (AR) technology.\u0026rdquo; (Murphy Oil Corporation, 2024, p. 50).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eInterpretation\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eAR/VR elevates competence and autonomy (SDT) and perceived usefulness (TAM), which are associated with higher engagement in high-risk settings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eT3. Meaning and reciprocity via ESG-linked KPIs.\u003c/b\u003e Safety and sustainability outcomes are embedded in performance scorecards, signalling purpose alignment and reciprocity between employee effort and organisational priorities. \u0026ldquo;The 2024 annual bonus was based on a scorecard of performance measures across three categories: safety and sustainability (30% weight), operations (20% weight) and financials (50% weight).\u0026rdquo; (BP p.l.c., 2025, p. 1). \u003cem\u003eInterpretation\u003c/em\u003e: Linking rewards to ESG salience supports relatedness/meaning (SDT) and reciprocity (Social Exchange Theory), reinforcing engagement with sustainability goals.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eT4. Employment precarity appears to weaken sustained engagement.\u003c/b\u003e Growing dependence on contract-based labour during transition periods is linked to weaker organisational attachment and increased risks of workforce exclusion. As noted by Saha, Walls, Waskow, and Lazer (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), contract workers often experience reduced job security and limited participation in transition-related decision-making.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eInterpretation\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmployment precarity weakens relatedness and autonomy (SDT), limiting the ability to sustain engagement even in digitally supported environments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSee \u003cb\u003eSupplementary Table S1\u003c/b\u003e for a source \u0026times; code matrix showing where each construct/theme (\u003cb\u003eT1\u0026ndash;T4\u003c/b\u003e) is evidenced by the quoted excerpts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.4 Global Employment and Workforce Trends\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlobal workforce mobility and sector employment trends were reviewed to contextualise Oman\u0026rsquo;s position. This context informs interpretation of workforce engagement challenges in Oman\u0026rsquo;s domestic sector. According to the International Energy Agency (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), global oil and gas employment reached approximately 12.4\u0026nbsp;million in 2023 and remained stable through early 2024, with growth driven by new upstream and liquefied natural gas (LNG) projects. However, the sector also saw rising turnover among technical staff in offshore operations and contract-based labour roles.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.5 Digital and ESG Integration in HR Practices\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompanies such as BP and Murphy Oil reported the rollout of AR/VR-based training tools, mobile engagement dashboards, and ESG-linked performance evaluation schemes. Reports and consultancy reviews describe perceived improvements in engagement outcomes following digital and ESG initiatives (PwC, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA consolidated view of these drivers and their observed effects is presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.6 Comparative Summary of Drivers\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, the relative influence of drivers varies across sources, with digital tools showing the strongest observed association with engagement. Thematic analysis identified four dominant engagement drivers across firms, classified by their reported effectiveness and alignment with engagement outcomes. The observed effectiveness of these drivers, based on secondary data analysis and industry reports, is summarised in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e below:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eComparative summary of employee engagement drivers.\u003c/b\u003e \u003cem\u003eRatings derived from thematic coding (1\u0026ndash;5); qualitative synthesis\u0026mdash;not effect sizes\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEngagement Driver\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eObserved Effectiveness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDigital tools (AR/IoT)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eESG communication campaigns\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModerate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eContract-based employment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNegative\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInternal recognition programs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModerate to High\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe analysis in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e indicates that digital tools and ESG alignment are more frequently associated with positive engagement outcomes, while contract staffing is commonly associated with lower stability and reduced long-term commitment. This observation aligns with wider organisational psychology literature on the detrimental effects of employment precarity on motivation, loyalty, and workplace safety adherence.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA visual representation of these findings is provided in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, illustrating the observed effectiveness of key employee engagement drivers based on the analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eObserved effectiveness (on a 1\u0026ndash;5 scale) of key employee engagement drivers as reported in company data and literature (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Negative impact, 5\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Strong positive impact).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eSource: Created by the authors using data synthesized from BP (2023\u0026ndash;2024)\u003c/em\u003e, Murphy Oil (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e\u003cem\u003e)\u003c/em\u003e, Chevron (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ndash;2024), and\u003c/em\u003e PwC (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e\u003cem\u003e).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDigital tools and recognition programmes appear to exert stronger positive influence on engagement, whereas contract staffing is frequently linked to reduced stability and commitment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"6. Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe analysis reveals clear behavioural patterns in employee engagement aligned with the thematic propositions developed from secondary data synthesis. Thematic patterns (\u003cb\u003eT1\u0026ndash;T4\u003c/b\u003e) were constructed from coded excerpts across 2022\u0026ndash;2024 sources and then \u003cb\u003emapped to TAM/SDT mechanisms\u003c/b\u003e to interpret behavioural pathways. One of the most striking outcomes is the consistent improvement in reported engagement scores across major companies such as BP and Murphy Oil. These improvements are frequently attributed to increased adoption of digital communication tools, expanded training opportunities, and better feedback mechanisms supported by ESG-linked initiatives (BP, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Murphy Oil, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Recent evidence demonstrates that strengthening organisational support systems and prioritising employee well-being significantly enhances engagement and contributes to higher performance levels in public-sector environments (Awashreh \u0026amp; AlGhunaimi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs the engagement metrics are derived from self-reported corporate datasets, the findings should be interpreted as indicative associations rather than causal conclusions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo visually illustrate these engagement trends across key industry players, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e presents engagement data for BP, Murphy Oil, and Chevron over the 2022\u0026ndash;2024 period.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmployee engagement trends (self-reported or HR-reported) in BP, Murphy Oil, and Chevron (2022\u0026ndash;2024). Data does not differentiate between digital or in-person engagement channels.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eSource: Compiled from corporate ESG reports\u0026mdash;BP (2022\u0026ndash;2024)\u003c/em\u003e, Murphy Oil (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e\u003cem\u003e), and Chevron (2022\u0026ndash;2024).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere specified in corporate disclosures, these increases were captured through digital HR information systems, mobile engagement surveys, and employee feedback applications, indicating that the measurement processes themselves are digitally mediated. This pattern aligns with broader strategic investment in technology-enabled transformation and ESG initiatives across the reviewed firms. The thematic patterns observed are consistent with \u003cb\u003eProposition 1 (P1)\u003c/b\u003e, which suggests that companies investing more heavily in digital transformation tend to demonstrate stronger engagement outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mechanisms supporting P1 align with TAM constructs and SDT motivational dimensions: AR/VR training tools and real-time dashboards enhance perceived usefulness and ease-of-use (TAM), while simultaneously supporting competence and autonomy (SDT), reinforcing engagement behaviours. For example, BP\u0026rsquo;s adoption of real-time human\u0026ndash;technology systems and mobile training interfaces coincides with a five-percentage-point rise in self-reported employee engagement between 2022 and 2024. Murphy Oil reports similar outcomes, with AR-supported field training associated with a three-point increase in engagement ratings over the same period.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe thematic evidence also aligns with \u003cb\u003eProposition 2 (P2)\u003c/b\u003e, which posits that stronger ESG integration is associated with higher levels of motivation and organisational commitment. ESG-linked appraisal mechanisms\u0026mdash;such as Chevron\u0026rsquo;s sustainability-weighted performance scorecards\u0026mdash;appear to strengthen internal alignment and morale by reinforcing meaning, reciprocity, and purpose. These findings echo recent evidence from the Omani public sector, where organisational commitment mediates the relationship between transformational leadership and employee engagement (Sallem et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Effective leadership strategies and transparent communication structures have been shown to positively influence job satisfaction and organisational commitment among employees in Oman (Awashreh, Al-Ghunaimi, Saleh, \u0026amp; Al-Bahri, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn contrast, \u003cb\u003eProposition 3 (P3)\u003c/b\u003e identifies contract-based employment models as being associated with lower engagement stability. This aligns with case-based literature and global workforce reports highlighting that workers in temporary or outsourced arrangements express lower trust in management, reduced safety compliance, and higher attrition intentions. These outcomes correspond with the broader \u0026ldquo;intention\u0026ndash;behaviour gap\u0026rdquo; perspective, where constraints limit the translation of positive attitudes into sustained engagement (Sheeran \u0026amp; Webb, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). The relationship is also consistent with evidence linking emotional exhaustion and depersonalisation to declines in commitment and performance during organisational transitions (Agarwal \u0026amp; Gupta, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo further contextualize these findings, engagement trends over the period from 2022 to 2024 offer a visual representation of how major firms are progressing in this regard.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConceptual framework illustrating how enhanced employee engagement strategies align with Oman\u0026rsquo;s Vision 2040 pillars to drive national competitiveness and institutional excellence. \u003cem\u003eSource: Adapted by the authors from Oman Vision 2040 (2020) and\u003c/em\u003e International Energy Agency (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e\u003cem\u003e).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese strategic connections presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e reflect how workforce engagement advances Oman\u0026rsquo;s Vision 2040 policy objectives. Building on the previous trends, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e provides a clear comparison of engagement rates across these leading companies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eComparative employee engagement rates (%) across BP, Murphy Oil, and Chevron between 2022 and 2024, based on corporate ESG reports.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eSource: Adapted from BP (2022\u0026ndash;2024)\u003c/em\u003e, Murphy Oil (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e\u003cem\u003e), and Chevron (2022\u0026ndash;2024) corporate ESG reports.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe data in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e illustrate a consistent upward trend in engagement across the three companies, which is attributed to sustained investments in digital tools, enhanced communication strategies, and ESG-linked initiatives aimed at improving employee morale and operational performance. This upward trend aligns with improved internal practices, particularly those combining digital enablement and employee-centred ESG reporting.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile international firms provide structured documentation of engagement trends, comparable transparency is limited within Oman. Therefore, the study draws cautiously from global benchmarks to build a conceptual reference point for analysing Oman\u0026rsquo;s policy-linked engagement context. This interpretive positioning strengthens rather than replaces the need for firm-level Omani data, which future empirical research should pursue.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSuch progress not only reflects internal organisational advancements but also signals potential for alignment with Oman\u0026rsquo;s Vision 2040 labour market KPIs if these strategies are strategically sustained. To visualise the projected impact more concretely, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e offers a hypothetical projection of future trends demonstrating how sustained improvements in employee engagement could impact the achievement of Vision 2040 labour market objectives. This projection assumes that firms maintain current levels of investment in digital and ESG practices without significant policy disruptions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConceptual projection of engagement trends and potential alignment with Vision 2040 labour market objectives. \u003cem\u003eIllustrative; no statistical forecasting was conducted.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe projection in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e highlights how continuous improvements in employee engagement could contribute to achieving Vision 2040\u0026rsquo;s objectives, particularly in areas of retention, innovation, and human capital development. It shows a positive correlation between strategic engagement initiatives and national workforce performance metrics, reinforcing the broader argument for integrating these practices into Oman\u0026rsquo;s transformation agenda.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis projected alignment underscores the broader argument that employee engagement serves not only as an internal performance driver but also as a critical enabler of national transformation strategies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, the discussion affirms that employee engagement in the oil and gas industry is not only a reflection of HR policy but a broader strategic indicator of organisational alignment during transformation. Companies that strategically embed engagement within digital and ESG frameworks stand to benefit from better operational performance, talent retention, and reputational strength. Evidence from the higher-education sector in Oman confirms that higher engagement levels are strongly associated with increased productivity, motivation, and operational performance (Al Ghunaimi \u0026amp; AlGhenaimi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). In Oman\u0026rsquo;s case, these benefits are doubly significant as the Sultanate aims to become a regional model for economic diversification. Disengagement among oil and gas employees\u0026mdash;whether due to contract instability, poor digital infrastructure, or ESG policy ambiguity\u0026mdash;could slow the implementation of Vision 2040 mandates. Thus, institutionalising engagement metrics across Omani oil and gas enterprises could serve as both a governance mechanism and a productivity enhancer.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis finding supports the extension of engagement theories into the governance literature, suggesting that engagement metrics should not solely inform HR strategies but also public accountability frameworks, offering a novel lens for evaluating institutional agility within national visions like Oman 2040.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor Omani policymakers and regulators, integrating employee engagement metrics into national monitoring frameworks (e.g., Vision 2040 progress dashboards) could serve as a lever to identify at-risk institutions and foster alignment with national transformation goals. Moreover, global policy frameworks reinforce this approach. This reporting gap complicates sector-wide benchmarking and reduces transparency regarding the alignment between firm-level workforce strategies and Vision 2040 expectations. The World Economic Forum (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) emphasizes that aligning workforce engagement with digital reskilling and sustainability initiatives is critical for resilience in energy sectors. Similarly, the United Nations (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) underscores that employee engagement strategies, when integrated with ESG frameworks, contribute not only to organisational performance but also to national goals aligned with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly Goals 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth) and 9 (Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure). Engagement should not be viewed as an HR metric alone but as a predictive indicator of institutional agility and sectoral sustainability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo illustrate this alignment more concretely, \u003cb\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;4\u003c/b\u003e summarises the relationship between key employee engagement drivers and the strategic pillars outlined in Oman\u0026rsquo;s Vision 2040.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;4.\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlignment of Engagement Drivers with Vision 2040 Strategic Pillars\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eAdapted by the author based on Oman\u0026rsquo;s Vision 2040 priorities and cross-sectoral HR literature (\u003c/em\u003eOman Vision 2040 Committee, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e\u003cem\u003e).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Tabb\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEngagement Driver\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVision 2040 Pillar Aligned\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpected Impact\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDigital Tools (AR/IoT)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInnovation \u0026amp; Institutional Excellence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnhanced communication, faster upskilling\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eESG Integration\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSustainability \u0026amp; Human Capital\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMorale, trust, and stakeholder alignment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStable Employment Models\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLabour Market Modernisation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReduced turnover, talent retention\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecognition \u0026amp; Feedback\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrivate Sector Competitiveness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigher motivation and productivity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs shown in \u003cb\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;4\u003c/b\u003e, these engagement drivers align directly with Oman Vision 2040\u0026rsquo;s strategic pillars, reinforcing the argument that effective engagement strategies contribute to national development goals. Moreover, the findings suggest that employee engagement serves as both a firm-level performance catalyst and a mechanism for advancing broader national strategies. For Oman, high engagement supports Vision 2040 by improving talent retention, increasing ESG compliance, and strengthening organisational readiness for technology-enabled transformation. By contrast, workforce disengagement resulting from unstable contracts, ineffective leadership, or poor communication undermines morale, accelerates turnover, and hampers reform efforts. These risks directly disrupt Vision 2040's human capital and institutional excellence pillars. This paper argues that without deliberate integration of engagement metrics into national policy dashboards, the Vision\u0026rsquo;s implementation may be weakened by a misalignment between national aspirations and organisational realities.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e6.0.1 Limitations in Cross-National Application of the OGEAM Model\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhile the OGEAM model is well-suited to Oman\u0026rsquo;s centralized policy structure, its transferability to decentralized or privatized sectors (e.g., U.S., EU energy firms) may be limited due to differences in policy feedback loops, ESG enforcement, and employment legislation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e6.1 Strategic Implications for Oman\u0026rsquo;s Vision 2040\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAs a key oil-producing nation, Oman\u0026rsquo;s ability to realize Vision 2040\u0026mdash;anchored in human capital development, institutional excellence, and digital innovation\u0026mdash;is closely tied to how effectively it engages and retains its workforce. Disengagement in strategic sectors like oil and gas risks derailing national productivity targets, slowing diversification efforts, and weakening institutional reform.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study suggest that structured engagement practices\u0026mdash;particularly those supported by ESG communication strategies and digital tools\u0026mdash;can enhance talent retention, boost innovation adoption, and increase organisational agility. International energy firms such as BP and Murphy Oil illustrate how transparent feedback channels, digital training, and ESG-linked KPIs are correlated with rising engagement and operational efficiency. These practices offer replicable models for Oman\u0026rsquo;s public-private energy sector.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTo mitigate these risks, the study recommends that sector leaders and policymakers:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e1. Align employee engagement KPIs with digital and sustainability goals.\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e2. Promote transparency and participatory feedback in ESG communication.\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e3. Invest in digital tools that empower frontline workers and monitor satisfaction.\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e4. Transition from short-term staffing to stable, full-time employment models.\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e5. Utilize engagement data in workforce planning and national policy reviews.\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e6. Integrate engagement metrics into Vision 2040 monitoring dashboards.\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThese recommendations align with Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) 8 (Decent Work) and SDG 9 (Industry and Innovation), reinforcing the global relevance of Oman\u0026rsquo;s Vision 2040 strategy. As the sector evolves amid energy transition pressures, embedding employee engagement within the strategic core of institutional transformation remains vital. The link between employee behaviour and sustainability objectives is reinforced by empirical findings showing that environmental knowledge and intention significantly influence responsible organisational behaviour and performance (Hamid et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFuture research may build on these findings using mixed-method approaches, including longitudinal case studies and international comparisons. Exploring frameworks such as HESG within broader HSDG contexts (Hammouch et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) could further deepen understanding of ESG-behavioural alignment in national development strategies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec26\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e6.2 Novel Contribution to National Policy Alignment\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThis paper contributes new theoretical and policy insights by positioning employee engagement as a macro-strategic lever, directly tied to national transformation metrics such as retention, innovation, and institutional performance under Vision 2040. In Oman, the ability to align institutional engagement practices with Vision 2040 targets represents an untapped lever for accelerating public-private performance synergies. For instance, the inclusion of employee engagement KPIs in Vision 2040\u0026rsquo;s labour and institutional dashboards could allow the government to better monitor alignment between workforce practices and national development indicators.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFurther, the paper argues that disengagement\u0026mdash;often perceived as an internal HR concern\u0026mdash;should be seen as a systemic national risk. In highly centralised sectors like oil and gas, where employment trends and morale ripple into macroeconomic performance, poor \u003cstrong\u003edigital engagement\u003c/strong\u003e could compromise institutional agility \u003cstrong\u003ewithin evolving human\u0026ndash;technology systems\u003c/strong\u003e, reform capacity, and citizen trust in strategic transitions. These findings directly address RQ1\u0026ndash;RQ3 and support Propositions P1\u0026ndash;P3 concerning the associations between digital transformation, ESG integration, and employee engagement.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"7. Proposed Engagement Alignment Model for Oman’s Oil and Gas Sector","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec28\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e7.1 Model Overview\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on the study\u0026rsquo;s thematic insights and aligned with the strategic priorities of Oman\u0026rsquo;s Vision 2040, the Oman Oil and Gas Engagement Alignment Model (OGEAM) is proposed to structure and strengthen engagement in the sector. A recent case analysis highlights how structured engagement practices contributed to resilience and performance success in Ooredoo Oman, demonstrating the strategic value of engagement frameworks that are embedded within organisational transformation agendas (Al Ghunaimi \u0026amp; Kassim, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe model serves as a structured framework to enhance employee engagement, strengthen organisational resilience, and ensure alignment with national transformation objectives. The model responds to persistent gaps between organisational workforce strategies and Vision 2040 transformation requirements.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec29\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e7.2 Model Components\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOGEAM integrates four interrelated components as core drivers of employee engagement, directly aligning organisational strategies with Oman Vision 2040\u0026rsquo;s objectives. These components are intended to foster resilience, innovation, and workforce satisfaction across Oman\u0026rsquo;s oil and gas sector.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e outlines OGEAM\u0026rsquo;s core components and their alignment with Vision 2040 priorities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKey Components of the Oman Oil and Gas Engagement Alignment Model (OGEAM)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComponent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStrategic Focus\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlignment with Vision 2040\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDigital Tools\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAR/VR training, IoT dashboards, AI-based feedback\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInstitutional Excellence, Innovation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eESG Integration\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLinking engagement KPIs to sustainability goals\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSustainability, Social Responsibility\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmployment Models\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTransitioning from contract to stable employment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLabour Market Modernisation, Job Security\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecognition Practices\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStructured recognition, transparent promotions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHuman Capital Competitiveness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eThe distinct value of OGEAM lies in positioning engagement metrics as national transformation levers rather than isolated organisational HR instruments\u003c/b\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec30\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e7.3 Implementation Roadmap\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor Oil and Gas Firms:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntegrate OGEAM components into existing HR strategies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eReport engagement KPIs linked to digital tools and ESG outcomes on a quarterly basis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTransition contract-heavy departments toward more stable, permanent employment models.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor Policymakers (Vision 2040 Committees / Ministries):\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmbed employee engagement KPIs (e.g., retention, innovation participation, satisfaction rates) within Vision 2040 performance monitoring dashboards.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eRequire annual reporting from state-owned energy firms on engagement progress linked to Vision 2040 objectives.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eProvide policy incentives for organisations demonstrating effective adoption of OGEAM-aligned practices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSuccessful adoption depends on coordinated efforts between corporate leadership and policy stakeholders. Potential barriers include centralized governance structures, cultural resistance to change, and policy inertia. Mitigation strategies could involve stakeholder engagement programs, leadership training, and policy alignment mechanisms. These barriers may delay implementation unless addressed through cross-sectoral coordination and digital leadership mandates embedded in regulatory frameworks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.4 Expected Outcomes\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eImproved workforce stability, morale, and operational productivity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnhanced sector competitiveness contributing to Oman\u0026rsquo;s Vision 2040 economic diversification objectives.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eStronger alignment between private-sector HR practices and public-sector KPIs for sustainable development.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo consolidate these findings into a practical framework, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e visualises the OGEAM model\u0026rsquo;s alignment pathways. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e should be interpreted as a conceptual model, requiring empirical validation through sector-specific implementation studies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec31\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e7.5 Conceptual Visualisation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe following model in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e demonstrates how enhanced engagement strategies at the organisational level can advance to Oman\u0026rsquo;s Vision 2040 strategic objectives by linking human capital initiatives with broader institutional outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConceptual map linking coded themes (T1\u0026ndash;T4) to TAM/SDT mechanisms, proximal outcomes (retention, satisfaction), and Vision 2040 pillars. \u003cem\u003eConceptual; associations are based on coded themes.\u003c/em\u003e Source: Developed by the authors based on study findings aligned with Oman Vision 2040 (2020) and ESG engagement literature.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec32\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e7.6 Adaptability of the OGEAM Model\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough OGEAM is optimised for Oman\u0026rsquo;s centralised governance and hydrocarbon sector, adaptation may be required in contexts with different labour models, decentralised policy systems, or lower ESG maturity. Sectors like mining, logistics, and renewable energy with similar high-risk workforces and national reform agendas can leverage the framework to align behavioural engagement with national policy goals.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"8. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study demonstrates how technology-enabled transformation and ESG integration influence employee motivation, retention, and work engagement in the oil and gas sector. The evidence indicates that digital platforms\u0026mdash;such as AR/VR training tools and mobile engagement dashboards\u0026mdash;are consistently associated with improved communication quality, faster feedback loops, and modest increases in self-reported satisfaction and retention. Their impact, however, is most effective when complemented by transparent and participatory ESG practices that reinforce purpose, reciprocity, and organisational alignment. Conversely, reliance on contract-based employment appears to weaken trust and long-term commitment, reducing the effectiveness of digital and ESG initiatives and limiting the sector\u0026rsquo;s capacity for sustained transformation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmployee engagement emerges as a strategic organisational lever rather than a routine HR metric, directly influencing resilience, operational continuity, and institutional performance. Companies that embed engagement within integrated digital and ESG strategies demonstrate stronger capability in navigating transition pressures and strengthening workforce stability. Framed through the Technology Acceptance Model and Social Exchange Theory (Davis, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1989\u003c/span\u003e; Cropanzano \u0026amp; Mitchell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e), the findings reinforce the behavioural mechanisms through which digital adoption translates into engagement outcomes shaped by perceived usefulness, ease of use, and reciprocal support.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Oman Oil and Gas Engagement Alignment Model (OGEAM) proposed in this study offers a structured framework for translating engagement practices into measurable actions aligned with Vision 2040\u0026rsquo;s priorities for human capital development, institutional excellence, and sustainable growth. A key insight is that national transformation strategies risk underperformance if frontline workforce behaviours and employment conditions are overlooked. Aligning digital, ESG, and employment policies represents a critical opportunity to enhance talent retention and workforce competitiveness.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis research positions employee engagement as a behavioural pathway that connects organisational strategy to national development objectives. The alignment of human capital metrics with ESG-driven digital transformation provides a replicable foundation for other resource-dependent economies pursuing similar transition agendas.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"9. Implications for Future Research, Public Policy, and Behavioural Technology","content":"\u003cp\u003eA practical output of this research is the OGEAM model, offering a structured and actionable pathway for aligning engagement practices in Oman\u0026rsquo;s oil and gas sector with Vision 2040\u0026rsquo;s goals on human capital, innovation, and operational effectiveness.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFuture studies should examine how digital engagement influences competitiveness in resource-based economies and shapes sector-wide talent strategies. Embedding engagement metrics in national dashboards can guide institutional reform and workforce resilience.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFuture research should also explore leadership, culture, and digital maturity as mediators of engagement impact. Such research would contribute to a more nuanced understanding of workforce strategies within multidisciplinary contexts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, future studies could extend this model beyond Oman, exploring its applicability to other resource-dependent economies undergoing transitions driven by digital innovation and sustainability imperatives.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs global economies navigate concurrent digital and ESG transitions, models such as OGEAM offer a scalable framework for aligning human capital development with sustainability objectives. The OGEAM model may be adapted to sectors beyond oil and gas where similar digital and sustainability transitions are underway. Its modular structure allows customisation for emerging economies pursuing digital and ESG integration under varied policy environments.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;The authors gratefully acknowledge the institutional support and resources provided by their home organisations. No external technical assistance, consultancy input, or third-party sponsorship was involved.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical Approval\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;This study did not involve human participants, animals, or identifiable personal data. In line with institutional guidelines, formal ethics committee approval and informed consent were therefore not required.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflicts of Interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;The authors declare that they have no known competing financial or non-financial interests that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability Statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003eAll data underpinning this study are publicly accessible from the sources cited in the reference list (corporate ESG and sustainability reports, and publications by organisations such as the IEA, ILO, WEF, and Vision 2040 bodies). The coding artefacts generated and analysed in this study are summarised in the Supplementary Material (\u003cstrong\u003eTable S1\u003c/strong\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contributions (CRediT Taxonomy)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFirst Author:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Conceptualisation; Methodology; Validation; Formal analysis; Data curation; Writing \u0026ndash; original draft; Writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing; Visualisation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSecond Author:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Methodology; Validation; Formal analysis; Data curation; Writing \u0026ndash; original draft; Writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing; Supervision.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThird Author:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Conceptualisation; Validation; Writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFourth Author:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Validation; Visualisation; Writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing; Supervision.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFifth Author:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e Data curation; Writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing; Project administration.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAgarwal UA, Gupta V (2021) Relationships between job characteristics, work engagement, burnout, and performance: A moderated mediation model. 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Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11:35. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02418-y\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1057/s41599-023-02418-y\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"humanities-and-social-sciences-communications","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"palcomms","sideBox":"Learn more about [Humanities \u0026 Social Sciences Communications](http://www.nature.com/palcomms/)","snPcode":"41599","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/41599/3","title":"Humanities and Social Sciences Communications","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Nature AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Digital engagement, Environmental-Social Governance integration, AR/VR, Technology Acceptance Model, Self-Determination Theory, Oman Vision 2040","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8260370/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8260370/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003ePurpose\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study examines how Environmental-Social Governance (ESG)-aligned digital technologies\u0026mdash;such as Augmented Reality (AR)\u0026amp; Virtual Reality (VR) training tools, mobile engagement dashboards, and IoT-enabled workforce platforms\u0026mdash;shape employee motivation, retention, and behavioural engagement in Oman\u0026rsquo;s oil and gas sector, and how these developments support the workforce objectives of Vision 2040.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eDesign/methodology/approach\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA qualitative secondary-data synthesis was undertaken using ESG and sustainability reports (2022\u0026ndash;2024) from BP, Chevron, and Murphy Oil, supported by sector datasets and Vision 2040 policy documentation. A reflexive thematic approach guided the analysis, conceptually informed by the Technology Acceptance Model and Self-Determination Theory.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFindings\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFour themes emerged: (1) real-time digital feedback mechanisms; (2) capability building through Augmented Reality (AR)/ Virtual Reality (VR) simulation; (3) meaning and reciprocity via ESG-linked KPIs; and (4) reduced engagement associated with employment precarity. Reported figures from the analysed firms indicate modest increases in satisfaction (5\u0026ndash;8%) and retention (up to ~\u0026thinsp;10%) following digital engagement rollouts, viewed as indicative associations rather than causal effects. The study proposes the Oman Oil and Gas Engagement Alignment Model (OGEAM) to connect firm-level engagement practices with national transformation objectives.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResearch limitations/implications\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFindings draw on organisational self-reported datasets and may reflect institutional bias; further validation using mixed methods within Oman\u0026rsquo;s sector is recommended.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003ePractical and social implications\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAligning digital engagement practices with transparent ESG communication and more stable employment structures may strengthen workforce resilience and support Vision 2040 productivity targets.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eOriginality/value\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study offers the first integrated framework linking employee engagement, ESG alignment, and digital transformation to national development goals in Oman, advancing HRM theory by positioning engagement as a behavioural mechanism tied to macro-level transformation.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Digital Engagement and Environmental-Social Governance Innovation in the Oil and Gas Sector: Behavioural Insights from Oman and Vision 2040","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-01-16 14:08:11","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8260370/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-03-26T07:23:00+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-02-17T11:37:21+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-01-30T23:44:46+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"69031683651930187280964146771618052651","date":"2026-01-18T10:02:43+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"328427694668797043040967719669794858843","date":"2026-01-18T09:56:19+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"265965798090147160038869003045531298228","date":"2026-01-17T10:08:24+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"214507138295165524641807554622793382000","date":"2026-01-15T19:54:22+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"289787859487095172322567735336070527534","date":"2026-01-14T02:44:37+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-01-13T09:53:32+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-12-17T10:32:46+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-12-12T05:59:56+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-12-05T10:29:57+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Humanities and Social Sciences Communications","date":"2025-12-02T12:00:13+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"humanities-and-social-sciences-communications","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"palcomms","sideBox":"Learn more about [Humanities \u0026 Social Sciences Communications](http://www.nature.com/palcomms/)","snPcode":"41599","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/41599/3","title":"Humanities and Social Sciences Communications","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Nature AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"b39a6a46-1049-4cef-997c-2ea83ee46d10","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 16th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[{"id":61209320,"name":"Business and commerce/Business and management"},{"id":61209321,"name":"Social science/Business and management"},{"id":61209322,"name":"Business and commerce/Information systems and information technology"},{"id":61209323,"name":"Social science/Science technology and society"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-30T16:38:16+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-01-16 14:08:11","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8260370","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8260370","identity":"rs-8260370","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}