Cytotoxicity, Anti-microbial Activity, and Biochemical Alterations in Olive (Olea europaea L.) Extracts from Different Distances to the Yatağan Thermal Power Plant, Türkiye

Cytotoxicity, Anti-microbial Activity, and Biochemical Alterations in Olive (Olea europaea L.) Extracts from Different Distances to the Yatağan Thermal Power Plant, Türkiye | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Cytotoxicity, Anti-microbial Activity, and Biochemical Alterations in Olive (Olea europaea L.) Extracts from Different Distances to the Yatağan Thermal Power Plant, Türkiye Esra GÜRBÜZ, Emre AKSOY, Aytül SANDALLI, Funda BİLGİLİ TETİKOĞLU, and 7 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6827792/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 21 Oct, 2025 Read the published version in Scientific Reports → Version 1 posted 12 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Thermal power plants (TPPs) are essential for meeting increasing energy demands, but they also pose significant environmental and health risks. The Yatağan TPP in Türkiye is located near agricultural and residential areas, raising concerns about its impact on olive trees ( Olea europaea L.), a key component of the Mediterranean diet. However, the effects of TPP proximity on olive composition and their potential cytotoxicity in human cells remain unknown. This study investigated the biochemical, elemental, and biological responses of olives grown at varying distances (close, middle, and distant) from the Yatağan TPP. Our findings showed that 1) phenolic and flavonoid profiles, as well as fundamental biochemical properties, varied significantly across locations, 2) essential nutrients (Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn) were reduced considerably in olives near the TPP, while toxic metals (As, Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb) accumulated at concerning levels, 3) extracts from olives grown closest to the TPP exhibited cytotoxic effects on normal human cells derived from the breast, retina, vein, and bronchus, and 4) all olive extracts displayed the highest antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus , regardless of their distance from the TPP. These results indicate that industrial emissions disrupt nutrient uptake and elevate toxic metal accumulation in olive trees, potentially affecting food safety and human health. This study highlights the need for continuous environmental monitoring and regulatory measures to mitigate heavy metal contamination and ensure the sustainability of olive cultivation in regions surrounding TPPs. Biological sciences/Cell biology Biological sciences/Ecology Biological sciences/Molecular biology olive cytotoxicity phenolic compounds thermal power plant anti-microbial activity elemental concentrations Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 1. Introduction The olive tree ( Olea europaea L.) is central to the Mediterranean diet, with its fruits and olive oil being essential in gastronomy. Olive leaves have also been widely used in traditional medicine due to their rich bioactive compounds, particularly flavonoids and phenolic compounds, which exhibit anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, and cardioprotective effects (El and Karakaya 2009). Flavonoids like luteolin and luteolin-7-O-glucoside promote erythroid differentiation in stem cells, aiding blood disorder treatment, and facilitating tumor cell apoptosis, highlighting their role in cancer prevention (C. Zhang et al. 2022 ). Among phenolic compounds, oleuropein supports cardiovascular health, while oleocanthal, found in extra virgin olive oil, has anti-inflammatory properties comparable to ibuprofen, making it a promising agent for inflammatory diseases (Elhrech et al. 2024 ). Protocatechuic acid and gallic acid neutralize free radicals, offering protection against oxidative stress-related conditions. Ferulic acid further supports cardiovascular health through its antioxidant effects. These bioactive metabolites emphasize the therapeutic potential of olive leaves, strengthening their importance in disease prevention and traditional medicine. Heavy metal stress severely disrupts plant growth by inducing oxidative stress through the overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which damage cellular structures, inhibit photosynthesis, and impair essential metabolic processes. To counteract this toxicity, olive trees activate defense mechanisms that involve the increased production of secondary metabolites, particularly flavonoids and phenolic compounds (Mbadra et al. 2024 ; Cardoni and Mercado-Blanco 2023). These bioactive molecules act as potent antioxidants, scavenging ROS, stabilizing cellular membranes, and chelating heavy metals to reduce their bioavailability. Exposure to heavy metals triggers the upregulation of key enzymes such as phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) and tyrosine ammonia-lyase (TAL), which are central to the biosynthesis of phenolic compounds (Mbadra et al. 2024 ). This enzymatic response results in a significant accumulation of protective metabolites, strengthening the plant’s ability to tolerate metal-induced stress. By enhancing their antioxidant capacity and detoxification pathways, olive trees improve their resilience against metal toxicity, ensuring their survival in contaminated environments. Moreover, in arid regions with low rainfall, farmers use marginal water sources, such as treated wastewater, for irrigation, increasing the risk of soil contamination with heavy metals like lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), manganese (Mn), and copper (Cu) (Al-Habahbeh et al. 2021 ). Olive trees, recognized as bioaccumulators of Cu, Pb, and zinc (Zn) (Wilson and Pyatt 2007 ), absorb these metals, potentially introducing them into the food chain. Thus, reducing heavy metal contamination in water and soil is crucial for food safety and environmental sustainability. Thermal power plants (TPP) emit fly ash that contains heavy metals such as arsenic (As), mercury (Hg), Pb, Cd, chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), and zinc (Zn), which accumulate in the soil. Studies conducted on soil samples from TPPs in various parts of the world have shown significant to extremely high levels of heavy metal contamination (Özkul 2016 ; Turhan et al. 2020 ; A. Mandal and Sengupta 2006 ; Cicek and Koparal 2004 ; Vig, Ravindra, and Mor 2023 ; Pastrana-Corral et al. 2017 ). The leaching of these metals into groundwater further extends pollution to larger areas (Chen et al. 2024 ), impacting both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. For instance, exposure to heavy metals from TPP emissions induces numerous physiological and behavioral effects in organisms, including aquatic insects, amphibians, fish, and mammals (Petrović and Fiket 2022). In Türkiye, the Yatağan TPP serves as a major point source of heavy metal emissions, with Pb concentrations in lichens and mosses reaching 70.95 µg/g, far exceeding the background level of 22.05 µg/g (Uǧur et al. 2003 ). A recent study in the same area confirmed these findings, suggesting that heavy metal emissions from TPPs significantly alter terrestrial ecosystems (Mentese et al. 2021 ). Due to bioaccumulation and biomagnification, these pollutants pose severe risks to human health, contributing to increased rates of cancer, as well as heart, liver, and lung diseases (Le et al. 2024 ). Like other organisms, plants absorb heavy metals, which can lead to toxicity and physiological stress, ultimately reducing their quality and yield (Altunoğlu and Yemişçioğlu 2021). A study on scarlet firethorn ( Pyracantha coccinea Roem.) from the same region found a significant accumulation of Pb, Cu, Cd, Ni, and Fe in the leaves (Akgüç et al. 2010 ). Similarly, a long-term study on Turkish pine ( Pinus brutia ) trees around the Yatağan TPP revealed that annual ring widths decreased depending on their proximity to the power plant over a 21-year observation period (Tolunay 2003 ). Comparable results were observed in black pine ( Pinus nigra Arnold.) near another TPP in Türkiye, where ring sizes significantly declined 25 years after the plant’s establishment, particularly in trees closer to the facility (Makineci and Sevgi 2009). Further evidence of heavy metal accumulation comes from olive trees in the Yatağan region. A study analyzing olive leaves collected 4 km and 40 km from the TPP showed that Cr, Ni, and Pb accumulated at toxic levels in the closer location, despite soil concentrations of these metals, except for Ni, remaining within normal ranges (Yokaş et al. 2008). Another study in the same region confirmed that olive trees accumulated significantly higher levels of Pb and Cd (Haktanir et al. 2010 ). While the environmental and ecological risks of TPP emissions are well-documented, their potential impact on human health through olive consumption remains unexplored. Given the central role of olives in the Mediterranean diet, understanding the effects of heavy metal accumulation in olive trees near TPPs is critical. This study aims to bridge this knowledge gap by examining the physiological responses of olive trees ( O. europaea L.) to heavy metal exposure and assessing the accumulation of these metals in their leaves and fruits. We analyzed phenolic compound levels in olives grown at varying distances from the Yatağan TPP (close, middle, and distant locations) to determine whether pollution alters their bioactive properties. Furthermore, to assess potential health risks, we investigated the cytotoxic effects of olive leaf and fruit extracts on four types of normal human cells (breast, retina, vein, and bronchus). Additionally, we evaluated the antimicrobial properties of these extracts. By integrating plant physiology, food safety, and biomedical perspectives, this study provides crucial insights into the impact of industrial pollution on olive trees and its potential implications for human health. 2. Material and Methods 2.1. Plant sample collection morphophysiological properties and preparation of plant extracts Olive fruits and leaves were collected from orchards of Memecik cultivar located in Şahinler Village, Yatağan Center, and Deştin Village in the Yatağan district of Muğla province, Türkiye on October 15, 2022 ( Figure S1 A ). The sampling locations were situated at varying distances from the TPP: 0.8 km, 5.1 km, and 13 km away from the plant, respectively ( Figures S1 B, 1C, and 1D ). A minimum of fifty fruits and leaves were collected from different parts of the tree to four same-aged olive trees and mixed The abbreviations for the locations used throughout the study are as follows: D; Deştin (the furthest location), M (the middle location; Yatağan Center), -T (thermal location; Şahinler Village) and F (fruit), L (leaves). Olive fruits and leaves were dried at 25°C for 20 days, protected from direct sunlight. Then, fruit and leaf dry weights were determined by a precision analytical balance. Afterward, the dried samples were first coarsely ground using a ceramic grinder, then finely powdered with a ceramic mortar and pestle. To prevent heat buildup from friction, the grinding process was paused every 5 minutes. For extraction, 40 grams of each powdered sample was mixed with 150 mL of 100% methanol in an Erlenmeyer flask, which was then covered with aluminum foil. The samples were incubated in a shaker at 350 rpm for 6 hours at room temperature. After incubation, the extracts were filtered into evaporation flasks using Whatman filter paper. The remaining solid material was subjected to a second extraction with the same amount of solvent under the same conditions for another 6 hours. The collected filtrates were then concentrated by evaporating the solvent using a Rotary Evaporator at 40°C until a dense-liquid extract was obtained. These concentrated extracts were transferred to Eppendorf tubes and stored in the refrigerator ( Figure S2 ). Subsequently, the liquid extracts were freeze-dried using a lyophilizer, and the lyophilized samples were stored at + 4°C. For further use, the extracts were dissolved in 100% DMSO (mg/mL), aliquoted into 60–80 µL portions, and stored at − 20°C. 2.2. HPLC-DAD and HPLC-MS conditions for separation of phenolic compounds Extraction of phenolic compounds from samples : Dried extracts were dissolved in methanol and diluted with 50% water for suitable concentrations for HPLC-DAD analysis (DL: 10, DF: 50, ML: 20, MF: 100, TL: 10, and TF: 57 mg/mL). HPLC-DAD and HPLC-MS conditions for separation of phenolic compounds : The chromatographic analyses were performed using a Dionex (Thermo Scientific, Germering, Germany) Ultimate 3000 high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) system equipped with an Ultimate 3000 diode array detector (DAD). A Thermo acclaim C30 column (150mm. 3mm id. 3µm pd) was used with a Macherey Nagel (3mm id) guard column. Gradient elution was used with mobile phases; A: 2% acetic acid in water and B: 70% acetonitrile-30% water. The flow rate was 0.37 mL/min, and the injection volume was 10 µL. Column temperature was set at 25°C. Following 25 phenolic standards were used to calibrate and validate the HPLC-DAD analysis method: Gallic acid, protocatechuic acid, p-hydroxy benzoic acid (p-OH benzoic acid), chlorogenic acid, vanillic acid, caffeic acid, syringic acid, vanillin, epicatechin, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, rutin, luteolin-7-glycoside, naringin, hesperidin, apigenin-7-glycoside, rosmarinic acid, fisetin, eriodictyol, luteolin, quercetin, naringenin, hesperetin, apigenin, and kaempferol. These standards were diluted from their stock solutions into nine different concentrations at 0.625; 1.25; 5.0; 10.0; and 20.0 µg/L in a 1:1 methanol-water solution for the external calibration. Repeatability of the retention time (RT) and peak areas was measured as coefficient of variation (CV) which was under 0.61 for retention times and under 3.60 for areas of the peaks. The limit of detection (LOD) and quantification (LOQ) values of all standards were under 0.18 and 0.52 µg/mL (Table S2) . Chromatograms were processed at 254, 280, 315, and 370 nm with DAD, which operated at 200–400 nm. Dried extracts were dissolved in 1:1 methanol-water solution for suitable concentrations for HPLC-DAD analysis (DL: 10, DF: 50, ML: 20, MF: 100, TL: 10, and TF: 57 mg/mL). Extracts were centrifuged at 10,000 rpm for 15 min before HPLC-DAD analysis. The identification of the peaks was carried out by comparing the RT and UV spectra with those of standard phenolic compounds. Some peaks had the same or similar UV spectra as some standards, but with different retention times (RTs). They were defined as derivatives of standards with similar UV spectra and quantified as the equivalent of those standards. The peaks with different spectra from all standard compounds were characterized using the results of the reports studied to identify the compound of this plant species. For instance, the spectrum of oleuropein aglycone, nüzhenide 11-methyl oleoside, and oleocanthal was reported in olive extracts (Cecchi et al. 2023 ; Spagnuolo et al. 2023 ). Peaks with spectra similar to those of these three compounds were characterized as their derivatives and measured as the equivalent of protocatechuic acid using peak areas at 254 nm. The calibration and validation parameters of the HPLC-DAD method are presented in Table S2 . We collected samples at once so that HPLC was performed once for each extract; instead, method validation was used with repeatability values of the standard mixes. 2.3. Human cell culture, extract treatments, and MTT assay The healthy cell lines used in this study are commercial. The cells included MCF10A (ATCC, CRL-10317™) human mammary gland epithelial cells, ARPE-19 (ATCC, CRL-2302™) human eye retinal pigment epithelial cells, HUVEC (ATCC, CRL-1730™) primary human umbilical vein endothelial cells, and BEAS-2B (ATCC, CRL-3588™) epithelial cells isolated from normal human bronchial epithelium. Except for BEAS-2B cells, which were cultured in DMEM, other cells were cultured in RPMI media, including 10% fetal bovine serum and 1% penicillin-streptomycin. Cells were incubated at 37°C with 5% CO 2 until they reached full confluency, at which point they were transferred to 96-well plates for further treatment. Confluent cells were treated with fruit and leaf extracts at final concentrations of 500 µg/mL, 100 µg/mL, 20 µg/mL, 4 µg/mL, 0.8 µg/mL, 0.16 µg/mL, and 0.032 µg/mL for either 24 h or 48 h. Untreated control cells (0 µg/mL) were included for comparison. Following the treatment period, the culture media were removed, and 190 µl of fresh media along with 10 µl of 0.25 mg/mL MTT dye were added to each well. Next, the plates were incubated at 37 o C for 2 h. After incubation, MTT-containing media were removed, and 200 µl of DMSO was added to each well to facilitate color development. The plates were then placed in a shaker at 120 g for 1 hour at dark to dissolve the formazan crystals. Absorbance measurements were taken at 570 nm using a spectrophotometer (Demir et al. 2021 ; Kumar, Nagarajan, and Uchil 2018 ). The absorbance of untreated cells was considered 100% viability, and the viability of treated cells was calculated relative to the absorbance of the untreated control group. The most straightforward way to estimate IC50 is by plotting the x-y data and applying linear regression. The IC50 value is then determined from the fitted line by the formula Y = a * X + b, IC50 = (0.5 - b)/a. For statistical analyses, cell percentages were arcsine transformed using the formula = ASIN(SQRT(X/100))*180/PI() (X represents a value of cell percentage) to fit data for UNIANOVA statistical analyses. 2.4. Elemental analyses Olive leaf and fruit samples collected from the field were first ground into a fine powder using a grinder. Then, approximately 100 mg of the samples were placed in fresh 50 mL Falcon tubes. A total of 3 mL of 65% nitric acid (Sigma-Aldrich) and 2.15 mL of 35% hydrogen peroxide (Sigma-Aldrich) were added to each tube. The lids of the Falcon tubes were loosely closed, and the samples were incubated at 80°C for approximately 8 h until no visible particles remained. The liquid samples were then filtered, transferred into fresh Falcon tubes, and diluted 10 times to bring the final nitric acid concentration to 2%. The diluted samples were analyzed using Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) (Perkin Elmer DRC II). The mineral content was calculated by dividing the absorbance values by the dry weights. 2.5. Anti-microbial and antifungal activity of fruit and leaf extracts Collected and extracted six olive fruit and leaf samples (DL, DF, ML, MF, TL, TF) were assayed for their anti-microbial and antifungal activities. Common six pathogenic bacteria and yeast-like fungi were used for these tests. Pathogenic bacteria selected as gram-negative bacteria are Escherichia coli (ATCC 25922), Yersinia pseudotuberculosis (ATCC 911), and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC 17853). Other pathogenic bacteria selected as gram-positive bacteria are Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 25923), Enterococcus faecalis (ATCC 29212), and Bacillus subtilis (ATCC 10876). Another pathogenic microorganism that we studied was yeast-like fungi, Candida albicans (ATCC 10231). Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values (µg/mL) of extracts were determined by microtiter broth dilution method using rapid INT (iodonitrotetrazolium chloride) colorimetric assay based on the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) guidelines (Kuete et al. 2012 ). First, the maximum soluble concentrations of the 6 extracts were determined by dissolving them in DMSO. Stock concentrations were 50 mg/mL for DL, 50 mg/mL for TL, 55 mg/mL for ML, 50 mg/mL for MF, 40 mg/mL for TF and 60 mg/mL for DF. Stock concentrations were diluted 2-fold with Mueller–Hinton broth (MHB) and added to the 96-well plate as 100 µl/well. Then, bacteria were added as 5 × 10 − 5 CFU (colony-forming units)/mL for each well. Microplates were incubated at 37°C for 24 h. After that, 40 µl of 0.2 mg/mL INT was added to each well and incubated at 37°C for 30 mins. A representative microplate design is given in Figure S3 . The results were evaluated by whether the indicator resulted in a pink color. The pink color indicates bacterial growth. The colorless first dose gives the MIC value. To determine the MIC values, experiments were performed as three independent replicates and at least 2 replicates within the experiment. Ampicillin (50 mg/mL) was used to inhibit bacteria, and kanamycin (50 mg/mL) was used to inhibit yeast-like fungi as experimental positive control. An experiment was also designed to calculate MIC values ​​for these antibiotics. An experiment was designed to determine the MIC value of DMSO on microorganisms as a negative control (Figure S4) . The MIC values of all extracts were determined according to the non-toxic DMSO dose. Toxic doses of DMSO in dissolved extracts were neglected in experiments. 2.6. Statistical Analyses Cell viabilities (%) (arcsine transformed) were compared using the UNIANOVA test of the SPSS program (Version 13.0). Plant morphophysiological and metal concentration measurements were compared by Student’s t-test. p values less than 0.05 were considered significant in statistical analyses. Significance levels used for cytotoxicity analyses were as follows, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001, and **** p < 0.0001, and asterisks were indicated on the bar graphs. 3. Results 3.1. Effects of TPP proximity on the morphophysiological properties of olive leaves and fruits To assess the impact of proximity to the TPP on olive tree growth, we compared the size and dry weight of leaves and fruits collected from trees at varying distances. Samples from Şahinler, the closest site to the TPP, had notably smaller leaves and fruits, whereas the largest fruits were observed in those collected from Deştin, the farthest site ( Fig. S1 E ). The dry weights of both leaves and fruits were significantly higher in Deştin than in Şahinler ( Table S1 ), with leaf dry weight being 25% higher and fruit dry weight 17% higher. These differences in size and biomass suggest that the TPP's proximity negatively affected plant morphology and physiology, likely due to heavy metal-induced stress. 3.2. Effects of TPP proximity on mineral and heavy metal composition of olive leaves and fruits To further investigate the potential effects of heavy metal-induced stress on olive trees near the TPP, we analyzed the mineral and heavy metal composition of leaves and fruits. In general, leaves and fruits from Deştin accumulated significantly higher concentrations of several elements compared to Şahinler ( Table 1 ) . For example, Ca levels in leaves from Deştin were 13,832.93 mg/kg versus 1,708.34 mg/kg in Şahinler, an approximate 87.7% decrease in Şahinler. In fruits, Ca dropped even more dramatically, with a 91.7% lower concentration in Şahinler compared to Deştin. Mg concentration in the leaves collected from Şahinler was 596.51 mg/kg compared to 1,241.92 mg/kg in Deştin, representing a 52.0% reduction, while fruits in Şahinler were 62.4% lower than those in Deştin. Na concentrations were 36.5% lower in Şahinler leaves (34.55 mg/kg) compared to Deştin (54.42 mg/kg), and in fruits, Na was 41.4% lower in Şahinler than in Deştin. S in leaves from Şahinler was 16.8% lower than in Deştin, with fruit S levels showing a 39.7% decrease. Al was also noticeably reduced in Şahinler, with leaves showing an 85.9% lower concentration and fruits a 90.5% decrease relative to Deştin. Fe in leaves was 76.7% lower in Şahinler, though in fruits the concentrations were very similar, differing by only a minor margin. Mn in Şahinler leaves was 70.5% lower than in Deştin, and fruit Mn was 68.3% lower. Regarding Zn, although leaves from Şahinler had a 53.7% lower concentration compared to Deştin, the fruit Zn levels were nearly identical between the two locations (a difference of only about 2.2%). On the contrary, several elements were significantly higher in Şahinler. K levels in Şahinler leaves were 177.5% higher than in Deştin, and in fruits, K was 113.8% higher. Table 1 Elemental analysis of olive leaves and fruits collected from two locations depending on their distance to the power plant. Values are provided in mg/kg DW. Mean ± SEM (n = 3). Element Leaf Fruit Deştin (Distant) Şahinler (Near) Deştin (Distant) Şahinler (Near) Macronutrients Ca 13832.93 ± 1.43 1708.34 ± 2.94 * 4176.23 ± 0.41 349.45 ± 0.01 * K 6877.04 ± 0.74 19085.36 ± 35.09 * 1808.52 ± 0.73 3867.52 ± 1.92 * Mg 1241.92 ± 0.25 596.51 ± 1.12 * 382.18 ± 0.15 143.77 ± 0.10 * Na 54.42 ± 0.014 34.55 ± 0.028 * 14.29 ± 0.003 8.38 ± 0.004 * P 1019.00 ± 0.23 982.41 ± 1.66 240.06 ± 0.048 269.32 ± 0.074 * S 909.14 ± 0.07 756.55 ± 1.41 * 374.95 ± 0.03 226.24 ± 0.01 * Micronutrients Al 62.17 ± 0.039 8.76 ± 0.018 * 12.12 ± 0.007 1.16 ± 0.004 * B 25.88 ± 0.0003 25.23 ± 0.0275 6.84 ± 0.0016 4.88 ± 0.0001 Co 0.02 ± 3.18E-5 4.47 ± 3.18E-3 * 0.04 ± 2.47E-5 1.18 ± 2.47E-3 * Cu 8.17 ± 0.012 45.76 ± 0.038 * 1.67 ± 0.004 13.34 ± 0.006 * Fe 77.85 ± 0.049 18.11 ± 0.054 * 16.63 ± 0.001 14.75 ± 0.016 Mn 21.35 ± 0.004 6.29 ± 0.011 * 6.13 ± 0.003 1.94 ± 0.005 * Mo 0.39 ± 0.0004 0.88 ± 0.0011 * 0.08 ± 0.0003 0.10 ± 0.0003 Ni 1.26 ± 7.07E-4 26.38 ± 0.046 * 0.18 ± 6.01E-4 2.10 ± 0.024 * Zn 20.78 ± 0.077 9.62 ± 0.021 * 2.74 ± 8.88E-4 2.68 ± 2.8E-4 Toxic elements As 0.06 ± 3.88E-5 4.89 ± 1.41E-3 * 0.01 ± 5.30E-5 0.27 ± 3.88E-4 * Cd 0.02 ± 3.53E-5 3.71 ± 2.47E-3 * 0.04 ± 7.07E-5 0.83 ± 7.07E-4 * Cr 0.01 ± 7.07E-6 4.38 ± 6.7E-3 * 0.05 ± 7.07E-5 0.87 ± 1.44E-3 * Hg 38.28 ± 0.019 54.04 ± 0.023 * 7.93 ± 0.010 10.23 ± 0.072 Pb 0.28 ± 3.88E-4 16.80 ± 0.018 * 0.04 ± 3.53E-5 0.27 ± 3.18E-4 * * Indicates a significant difference between each location ( p < 0.05). For trace and potentially toxic elements, the differences were even more striking. In Şahinler leaves, Co levels were 223-fold higher than in Deştin, while in fruits, Co levels were 29.5-fold higher. Cu concentrations in Şahinler leaves were approximately 5.6-fold higher than in Deştin, and in fruits, Cu was about 8-fold higher. Ni also showed a dramatic increase, with Şahinler leaves having roughly 20.9-fold higher Ni levels compared to Deştin, and fruits exhibiting about 11.7-fold higher levels. Toxic elements further highlight the impact of proximity to the power plant. As in Şahinler leaves were 81.5-fold higher than in Deştin, with fruits showing a 27-fold increase. Cd in Şahinler leaves was about 185.5-fold higher than in Deştin, and in fruits, Cd levels were approximately 20.8-fold higher. Cr exhibited the most dramatic difference in leaves, with a 438-fold increase in Şahinler relative to Deştin, while in fruits, Cr was about 17.4-fold higher. Hg in Şahinler leaves was 41.2% higher than in Deştin, and fruit Hg concentrations were about 29% higher. Pb levels in Şahinler leaves were 59-fold higher compared to Deştin, while in fruits, Pb was 5.75-fold higher. For other nutrients, there was no significant difference in P and B concentrations in the leaves between the two locations. However, fruits from Şahinler had a 12.2% higher P concentration than those from Deştin. Mo levels in leaves were significantly higher in Şahinler (a 125.6% increase) compared to Deştin, while in fruits, the Mo concentrations were quite similar between the two locations (only about a 25% difference). Essential nutrients are tightly connected, indicating their levels tend to drop together while the toxic elements also show strong interconnections, meaning their levels tend to rise together ( Fig. 1 ) . Negative interactions highlight the competition or antagonistic effects between heavy metals and essential nutrients. Taken together, our results suggest that samples from Şahinler, located near the Yatağan Thermal Power Plant, show clear signs of heavy metal contamination, with significantly elevated levels of toxic elements such as As, Cd, Cr, Ni, and Pb. At the same time, essential nutrients such as Ca, Mg, Fe, and Mn are reduced, indicating a disruption in nutrient uptake. These results suggest that industrial pollution is altering plant chemistry, leading to both nutrient imbalances and potential toxicity risks. 3.3. Biochemical composition of olive leaves and fruits collected from different distances from TPP To explore the impact of TPP proximity on the biochemical composition of olive leaves and fruits, we analyzed their metabolite profiles. Metabolites were extracted using methanol, as described in the experimental section, and their chemical composition was determined via HPLC-DAD analysis. Fruit extracts mostly contained key olive-derived compounds such as oleuropein aglycone, nüzhenide 11-methyl oleoside, and oleocanthal ( Fig. 2 A, Table S3) . Among the samples, the DF extract exhibited the highest diversity of compounds, whereas the TF extract had the lowest. Secondary metabolite accumulation in fruit extracts varied by location, with the highest levels generally observed in samples from Deştin, reinforcing the trend of greater metabolite accumulation at the site farthest from the TPP (Fig. 3 A, Table S3 ). Oleuropein aglycone D7, for instance, was 17.4 times more abundant in DF extracts compared to TF extracts, while nüzhenide 11-methyl oleoside D3 and D4 were 3.4 and 4.8 times higher, respectively. However, oleuropein aglycone D6 was an exception, accumulating 1.98 times less in DF extracts than in TF extracts ( Figs. S5-S7, Table S3 ). In contrast, MF extracts had the highest concentration of oleuropein aglycone D7, followed by nüzhenide 11-methyl oleoside D4 ( Fig. S6, Table S3 ). Interestingly, certain metabolites, such as protocatechuic acid, gallic acid, oleuropein aglycone D5, and apigenin, were exclusively detected in fruit samples from trees near the TPP (TF extracts) but were absent from the other two locations ( Table S3 ). Oleuropein aglycone D8 was the most abundant compound detected in the leaf extracts, whereas flavonoids were also found at significantly higher levels in leaf extracts compared to fruit extracts ( Figs. S8–S10, Table S4 ). Among the flavonoids, apigenin-7-glucoside was the predominant compound in the leaf extracts, while luteolin-7-glucoside was the most abundant in the fruit extracts (Fig. 2 B, Table S4 ). Notably, both leaf and fruit extracts obtained from Deştin, the farthest location from the TPP, contained the highest levels of these bioactive compounds, whereas extracts from Şahinler, the closest location to the TPP, had the lowest amounts. The most abundant compounds in the leaf extracts were oleuropein aglycone D7, apigenin-7-glycoside, and luteolin-7-glycoside, with DL extracts exhibiting the highest concentrations (Fig. 3 B, Table S4 ). Similarly, oleuropein aglycone D7 was found at its highest levels in both DF and DL extracts, particularly in those collected from Deştin. One of the key bioactive secoiridoids in olive leaves, oleuropein, can constitute 6–9% of the dry matter, along with related secoiridoids, flavonoids, and triterpenes (El and Karakaya 2009). Although secondary metabolites such as ferulic acid, luteolin, luteolin glycoside, and apigenin glycoside were also present in the leaves of trees near the TPP (Table S4), their concentrations were lower than those in trees from Deştin, suggesting that environmental factors associated with TPP proximity may influence the accumulation of these bioactive compounds. Taken together, these findings suggest that proximity to the TPP significantly influences the metabolic profiles of olive leaves and fruits, likely due to exposure to heavy metals. The lower accumulation of key bioactive compounds in samples from trees closest to the TPP indicates that these stressors may disrupt secondary metabolite biosynthesis, potentially affecting the nutritional and pharmacological properties of olives. 3.4. Cytotoxicity profiles of fruit and leaf extracts on human cells To further investigate the potential implications of these metabolic alterations, we evaluated whether the observed differences in secondary metabolite accumulation influence the biological effects of olive extracts on human cells. Olive fruit and leaf extracts collected from different locations were applied to healthy human cell lines at a range of doses (0 µg/mL, 0.032 µg/mL, 0.16 µg/mL, 0.8 µg/mL, 4 µg/mL, 20 µg/mL, 100 µg/mL, and 500 µg/mL) for 24 h or 48 h, and the cytotoxic effects of these samples were analyzed. In ARPE-19 ( Fig. 4 ) and MCF10A ( Fig. 5 ) cells, olive leaf extracts obtained from the closest location to the TPP showed more cytotoxic effects at 100 µg/mL for 48 h than fruit extracts at the conditions ( p < 0.05). IC50 values of ARPE-19 cells at 48h were 115,35 µg/mL, 126,3 µg/mL, and 237,28 µg/mL after treatments with leaf extracts collected from thermal, central, and Destin, respectively ( Table 2 ) . MCF10A cells were more resistant, compared to ARPE-19 cells, as IC50 values at 48h were 287,07 µg/mL, 239,1 µg/mL, and 486,14 µg/mL after treatments with leaf extracts collected from thermal, central, and Destin, respectively. Table 2 Average IC50 doses (µg/ml) at 24h and 48h for each cell after extracts collected from different locations Cell Incubation 24 hours 48 hours Location Extract Thermal Central Destin Thermal Central Destin ARPE-19 Fruit N.D N.D N.D N.D N.D N.D Leaf N.D N.D N.D 115,35 126,30 237,28 MCF10A Fruit N.D N.D N.D N.D N.D N.D Leaf N.D N.D N.D 287,07 239,10 486,14 BEAS-2B Fruit 555,18 311,85 370,17 179,11 171,68 176,10 Leaf 281,47 N.D N.D 127,18 215,07 248,20 HUVEC Fruit N.D 216,11 207,80 391,91 270,17 273,88 Leaf 406,40 N.D N.D 353,82 292,87 N.D N.D. not detectable The highest cytotoxicity (around 80% cell death) was shown in BEAS-2B cells after 500 µg/mL leaf extract from the thermal location for 48 h compared to other locations ( p < 0.05) ( Fig. 6 ) , and 100 µg/mL was also significantly cytotoxic if the extract from thermal. IC50 values for thermal, central, and Destin were 127,18µg/mL, 215,07µg/mL, and 248,20µg/mL, respectively ( Table 2 ) . Fruit extracts induced similar cytotoxicity at 48, and interestingly IC50 dose (555,18µg/mL) was the maximum for thermal fruits suggesting that thermal leaves were highly cytotoxic for BEAS-2B cells but thermal fruits were not. There was a similar cytotoxicity profile of HUVEC cells after the treatment with 500 µg/mL leaf extracts of collected forms from both in the center and near the TPP compared to the further Destin village ( Fig. 7 ) . Thermal leaves (500 µg/mL) were significantly cytotoxic at 24h ( p < 0.05) but not at 48h. However thermal fruits at 100 µg/mL and 500 µg/mL were less cytotoxic than samples from other locations ( Fig. 7 ) . IC50 values for thermal, central, and Destin after fruit extracts at 48h were 391,91 µg/mL, 270,17 µg/mL, and 273,88µg/mL, respectively ( Table 2 ) . Cell viability comparisons between the cells treated with 100µg/mL or 500µg/mL leaf or fruit extracts (48h) collected from the thermal region are summarized in Table S6. The cytotoxicity results suggest that the leaf extract is more cytotoxic in ARPE-19 and MCF10A cells, and the death rate is similar in all locations after the highest dose (500 µg/mL) of leaf extracts. In contrast, 100 µg/mL of leaf extracts from Şahinler, the location closest to the TPP, resulted in cytotoxicity of the cells compared to other locations. Unlike ARPE-19 and MCF10A2, fruit extracts showed more cytotoxic activity in BEAS-2B and HUVEC cells. Table S7 summarizes the comparison of cell viability after treatment with 100 µg/mL or 500 µg/mL leaf or fruit extracts for 48 h, specifically using samples collected from the closest location to the TPP. This selection was made to assess whether exposure to environmental stressors associated with TPP proximity, such as heavy metal accumulation and reduced secondary metabolite content, affects the cytotoxic potential of olive extracts. The cytotoxicity of BEAS-2B cells appears to be more sensitive to the leaf extracts at 100 µg/mL compared to other cells. All cells responded to the highest concentrations (500 µg/mL) of leaf extracts similarly, as no significant differences between the cells were observed. However, after treatment with the highest concentration (500 µg/mL) of fruit extracts for 48 h, statistically significant differences in cell viability were detected. These findings suggest that the increased cytotoxicity of olive extracts from trees closest to the TPP may be attributed to the combined effects of reduced bioactive metabolite accumulation and potential heavy metal contamination. The lower concentrations of key secondary metabolites, such as oleuropein aglycones and flavonoids, in samples from Şahinler could diminish their protective antioxidant properties, while elevated heavy metal exposure may enhance their cytotoxic effects. This interplay highlights the impact of environmental pollution on the biochemical and biological properties of olive-derived products, with potential implications for their nutritional and pharmacological value. 3.5. Antimicrobial and antifungal activities of fruit and leaf extracts against pathogenic bacteria and fungi To evaluate the potential antimicrobial properties of olive extracts, we assessed their antibacterial and antifungal activities against a range of pathogenic microorganisms. This study included three Gram-negative bacteria ( E. coli, Y. pseudotuberculosis , and P. aeruginosa ), three Gram-positive bacteria ( S. aureus, E. faecalis , and B. subtilis ), and one yeast-like fungus ( C. albicans ). The effects of the extracts on these microorganisms, along with their MIC values, are presented in Table S8 . While some extracts exhibited antimicrobial activity, others did not ( Fig. S4 ). Specifically, none of the olive fruit or leaf extracts demonstrated activity against B. subtilis, E. faecalis, P. aeruginosa, Y. pseudotuberculosis, E. coli , or C. albicans , and their MIC values could not be determined. However, antimicrobial activity against S. aureus was observed in all fruit and leaf extracts except MF. The MIC values for S. aureus were recorded as 13.73 mg/mL for ML, 12.5 mg/mL for TL, 20 mg/mL for TF, 12.5 mg/mL for DL, and 30 mg/mL for DF extract. These findings suggest that while olive extracts exhibit selective antimicrobial properties, their activity is primarily restricted to S. aureus , with no detectable effects on other tested bacteria and fungi. Moreover, the antimicrobial activity of olive leaf extracts was higher than that of olive fruit extracts, and the highest MIC value was observed in the DF extract, indicating that the fruit extracts from Deştin had the weakest antimicrobial activity, emphasizing the trend of lower antimicrobial effectiveness in samples from the site farthest from the TPP. 4. Discussion 4.1 Proximity to the TPP decreases leaf and fruit biomass and essential mineral concentrations while increasing toxic element accumulation Our findings indicate that proximity to the Yatağan TPP negatively impacts olive tree morphology and physiology, likely due to heavy metal-induced stress. Leaves and fruits from Şahinler (closest site) had significantly lower dry weights than those from Deştin (farthest site) (Fig. S1 A-E, Table S1 ). This aligns with previous studies showing that plants near TPPs accumulate heavy metals like Cd, Pb, and Cr, which disrupt growth and nutrient uptake (Pathak, Rawat, and Fulekar 2019 ). Nutrient uptake was significantly disrupted near the TPP, with Ca, Mg, Fe, and Mn concentrations drastically reduced in Şahinler. For instance, fruit Ca levels in Şahinler were 91.7% lower than in Deştin (Table 1 ), likely due to soil acidification and competition from toxic metals (Zaanouni et al. 2018 ). Similarly, Fe and Mn were 76.7% and 70.5% lower, respectively, suggesting inhibition by heavy metals like Pb and Ni. In contrast, K levels were 177.5% higher in leaves and 113.8% higher in fruits in Şahinler, potentially due to altered soil pH and atmospheric deposition (J. Li et al. 2024 ; K. lou Liu et al. 2020 ). Similarly, Na and S levels were reduced by 36.5–41.4% and 16.8–39.7%, respectively, in Şahinler samples (Table 1 ). A previous study conducted in the same region reported comparable reductions in S concentrations, supporting our findings (Haktanir et al. 2010 ). Lower Na may be associated with competition among cations in contaminated soils, whereas S concentration decreases, despite coal combustion being a common source of sulfur compounds, which could result from acidic deposition altering soil chemistry. These trends confirm observations in other Mediterranean olive plantations exposed to industrial pollutants (Şahan and Başoğlu 2009). For trace and potentially toxic elements, the differences were even more pronounced. In Şahinler leaves, As increased 81.5-fold, Cd 185.5-fold, and Cr 438-fold compared to Deştin (Table 1 ). Fruits showed similar trends, with 27-fold higher As, 20.8-fold higher Cd, and 17.4-fold higher Cr. Hg and Pb also increased substantially. These findings align with previous research showing that olive trees in proximity to power plants, industrial zones, and high-traffic areas can accumulate toxic metals to levels that pose potential food safety risks (Namuq 2022 ; Yücel and Kılıçoğlu 2020; Petrella et al. 2018 ; Zaanouni et al. 2018 ; Şahan and Başoğlu 2009). A prior study analyzing olive leaves collected 4 km and 40 km from Yatağan TPP found that Cr, Ni, and Pb accumulated at toxic levels in the closer location, despite soil concentrations of these metals, except for Ni, remaining within normal ranges (Yokaş et al. 2008). Another study from the same region reported that sesame and carrot plants accumulated the highest Pb, Cu, Cd, and Zn concentrations depending on their proximity to the TPP (Haktanir et al. 2010 ). In that study, olive trees were also found to accumulate significantly higher levels of Pb and Cd, with concentrations exceeding permitted limits for edible vegetables. Although long-term irrigation with treated municipal wastewater has been shown to exacerbate metal uptake, causing Fe, Mn, Pb, and Zn to accumulate preferentially in olive roots, fruits, and leaves (Al-Habahbeh et al. 2021 ), our results indicate that toxic metals such as As, Cd, Cr, Ni, and Pb accumulated significantly in olive leaves and fruits. Olive trees in other polluted regions, such as İzmir and Aydın, Türkiye, have exhibited similar contamination patterns, with Cd, Ni, and Cu transferring into fruits (Turan et al. 2011 ; Deliboran 2022 ). Heavy metal bioaccumulation poses significant health risks, especially for children, due to their toxicity and persistence in the food chain (Knezovic et al. 2014 ). High levels of metals like Pb and Cd pose health risks, making it crucial to monitor and control metal concentrations in olive oil (Rekik et al. 2019 ; Liang and Yang 2019). The significant elevation of toxic elements (As, Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb) alongside the reduction of essential nutrients (Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn) suggests that industrial emissions due to Yatağan TPP are altering soil and plant chemistry, leading to nutrient imbalances and potential toxicity. Similar patterns have been documented in studies from Tunisia and Türkiye, where heavy metal contamination from industrial activities has disrupted plant nutrient uptake and raised concerns for human health through the food chain (Zaanouni et al. 2018 ; Şahan and Başoğlu 2009). The increase in toxic heavy metals interferes with the uptake and mobility of essential nutrients in olive trees. This supports the hypothesis that heavy metal contamination disrupts plant nutrition, leading to micronutrient deficiencies. Fe and Zn seem particularly affected, which is consistent with research showing that heavy metals like Pb and Cd inhibit Fe and Zn absorption in plants by competing with Fe/Zn for transporters (e.g., ZIP, NRAMP families) (Morina and Küpper 2020; Bulut and Yıldırım Doğan 2018; Shen et al. 2020 ), and bioavailability (Y. Li et al. 2020 ; Yu et al. 2023 ), exacerbating essential micronutrient deficiency. While P and B remained stable, Mo levels were 125.6% higher in Şahinler leaves, indicating selective impacts of industrial pollution on different nutrients. 4.2 TPP has a negative effect on the nutritional value and quality of olive leaves and fruits Our study revealed that fruit extracts primarily contained major olive compounds such as oleuropein aglycone, nüzhenide 11-methyl oleoside, and oleocanthal ( Table S3 ), while leaf extracts were rich in oleuropein, hydroxytyrosol, luteolin-7-glucoside, apigenin-7-glucoside, and verbascoside (El and Karakaya 2009)(Silva et al. 2010 ). Leaves and fruits from Deştin (farthest site) exhibited the highest diversity and concentration of these bioactive compounds, whereas those from Şahinler (closest site) had the lowest. These results indicate that proximity to the TPP reduces the production of secondary metabolites, aligning with reports that environmental pollution suppresses bioactive compound synthesis in medicinal plants (Gurme et al. 2022 ). These metabolites are vital for plant defense against environmental stress and contribute to the nutritional and therapeutic quality of olive products. Our results showed that different forms of flavonoids accumulated in fruits and leaf extracts. Apigenin was the dominant flavonoid in fruit extracts from Şahinler, while apigenin glycoside was prevalent in the leaves ( Tables S3, and S4 ). Apigenin has well-documented anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-cancer, and anti-microbial properties (Naponelli, Rocchetti, and Mangieri 2024). It scavenges free radicals and reduces oxidative stress, enhances mitochondrial function, induces apoptosis in cancer cells while sparing healthy cells by inhibiting angiogenesis and cell proliferation, promotes neuronal survival and protects against neurodegenerative diseases, and disrupts bacterial cell walls and membranes, making bacteria more susceptible to damage. Interestingly, apigenin and its derivatives accumulated only in Şahinler samples, suggesting that heavy metal-induced oxidative stress triggered their synthesis as a protective response. This accumulation could be an adaptive mechanism to counteract oxidative stress led by heavy metal accumulation, as apigenin is known for its protective roles against environmental stress (Gaur and Siddique 2024). Similar stress-induced flavonoid accumulation, specifically apigenin, has been observed in chamomile flowers exposed to Cd toxicity (Zarinkamar, Moradi, and Davoodpour 2021). The selective accumulation in Şahinler samples may indicate that plants exposed to higher levels of heavy metals prioritize the production of specific flavonoids to enhance their resilience. In addition to apigenin and its derivatives, other secondary metabolites such as ferulic acid, luteloin, and luteloin glycoside were also detected in the leaves of trees close to the TPP. These flavonoids serve critical roles in plant metabolism, including protection against UV radiation, defense against pathogens, and regulation of metabolic processes (Salehi et al. 2019 ). Besides, chlorogenic acid and caffeic acid, which were not found in samples from other regions, were found in the leaf samples collected from Deştin, which is the farthest from the TPP. Oleocanthal phenolic compound was found in the fruit samples. Oleochantal is a monophenolic secoiridoid, a group of antioxidants in some plant-based foods. Since this compound could not be detected in the fruits of olives grown in two regions near the TPP, it can be thought that the proximity of the olive plant to the TPP has a negative effect on nutritional value and quality. Since olive fruit is used directly as food, these negative effects may also have adverse effects on the human body. Oleocanthal has strong anti-inflammatory activities (Pang and Chin 2018), and this was found only in the fruit extracts collected from the farthest location (Deştin village). TPPs may prevent the production of oleocanthal and therefore can lower the nutritional yield of olive fruits. On the other hand, leaf extracts collected from around the TPP have ferulic acid. Ferulic acid was not a main content of leaves, however such apigenin-7-glycoside, vanillic acid, and caffeic acid were abundant in the leaves of O. europea (Benavente-García et al. 2000 ). Caffeic and chlorogenic acids were only found in the leaf extracts collected from Deştin village, while oleocanthal was the component only found in fruit extracts from Deştin village. Xie et al. found that one of the common contents of leaves and fruit is apigenin-7-β-D-glucose (Xie et al. 2015 ). Unal et al. found that the concentrations of chromium, lead, zinc, and copper in the leaves of olive trees close to a factory in Izmir Kemalpaşa industrial zone (Türkiye) were higher than in the leaves of olive trees farther from the region (Ünal et al. 2011 ). The results of this study suggest that the closeness to the TPP affected the quantitative and qualitative features of leaves and fruits. Gallic acid (GA) was found high both in fruit and leaf extracts from the samples around TPP, and we have also detected a significant increase in cadmium in both extracts. A study examined the effect of seed pre-soaking with GA on sunflower seedlings exposed to cadmium stress suggesting that GA acts as a growth promoter under cadmium stress by strengthening the anti-oxidant defense system and protecting cellular integrity (Saidi et al. 2021 ). Gallic acid treatment has made Lepidium sativum seedlings tolerant to salt stress (Babaei, Shabani, and Hashemi-Shahraki 2022). Significant accumulation of gallic acid in the samples from Şahinler village suggests that olive plants may gain resistance to TPP-induced heavy-metal stress by gallic acid’s biological activity. Taken together, our findings showed that proximity to TPPs have negative impacts on olive plant metabolism due to heavy metal increase. These results raise critical questions about where and how TPPs should be established and demand immediate strategies to minimize their environmental and biological footprint. Future studies should investigate the molecular mechanisms behind these effects and explore ways to mitigate TPP-induced toxicity. 4.3. Leaf extracts of olives around TPP display the highest cytotoxicity in human cells Cell culture studies showed that extracts of leaves collected from Şahinler village were more cytotoxic in human cells compared to the extracts of counterpart fruits. Leaves and fruits of O. europea are reported to have anti-cancer effects on different cancer cell lines, and leaves also have an anti-hypertension and anti-microbial potential (Alesci et al. 2022 ). It was found that olive leaf extracts induced cytotoxicity in colon cancer cells, while these did not significantly affect normal human fibroblast cells (Öztürk, Çalık, and Ulusoy 2022). There are also many studies showed the cytotoxicity on breast cancer cells (Junkins, Rodgers, and Phelan 2023 ; Han et al. 2009 ), liver cancer cells (using commercial olive plants) (Bektay et al. 2021 ), but not in normal cells such as human gingival and neutrophil cells (Han et al. 2009 ), normal liver cells (Bektay et al. 2021 ) and human mesenchymal stem cells (Işik et al. 2012 ). Işık et al. collected samples from three different suburbs of Balikesir City; Ayvalık, Domat, and Uslu (Türkiye) which TPPs are not around these (Işik et al. 2012 ). Han et al. declared that they collected samples in Tunisia without any specific location (Han et al. 2009 ). Many of these studies did not mention the location of the sample collection. These all suggest that olive plants are not harmful to normal human cells. However, there is no study to assess the effects of TPP on olive composition and their treatment. A range of plants are contaminated with heavy metals from environmental factors. In this context, the detection of heavy metals in the extracts obtained especially from medicinal plants indicates that these plants may have a direct negative impact on human health. For instance, a high amount of copper was reported in the extracts of Artemisia herba-alba , a widely used medicinal plant for the digestive system and diabetes as well as against infection, collected from different locations in Jordan (Abu-Darwish et al. 2024 ). Cadmium was found high in the extracts obtained from Andrographis paniculata , Grona styracifolia , Houttuynia cordata Thunb., and Curcuma longa L. purchased from different Chinese herbal markets in China (Luo et al. 2021 ). Lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) exposure significantly reduced human bone osteoblast viability in a concentration- and time-dependent manner, with cytotoxic effects observed at 0.1 µM after 48 hours. Both heavy metals impair cellular bioenergetics, reducing ATP production, mitochondrial activity, and aerobic respiration while inducing oxidative stress through elevated reactive oxygen species (ROS), lipid peroxidation, and depletion of antioxidant defenses (Al-Ghafari et al. 2019 ). In vivo studies also showed that heavy metals were associated with oxidative stress in many organs in the human body (Mirkov et al. 2020 ). Thermal power plants are known to contaminate soils with heavy metals (S. Mandal, Bhattacharya, and Paul 2022). Maize cultivated near a coal-burning power plant in Bangladesh accumulated eight heavy metals (Ni, Cr, Cd, Mn, As, Cu, Zn, and Pb), with Zn and Cu being the most abundant in the soil (Islam et al. 2024 ). Olives grown around thermal power plants were also reported to accumulate heavy metals (Şahan and Başoğlu 2009). Ferrulic acid was only found in the leaf extracts of olives collected around the TPP (Table S4) . Ferulic acid is a biologically active compound in oxidative stress, inflammation, vascular endothelial injury, fibrosis, cell death, and even platelet aggregation (D. Li et al. 2021 ). Apigenin was also another component increased in the samples from TPP. It has a function in the cell cycle arrest during different phases of proliferation, such as G1/S or G2/M by promoting several cyclin-dependent kinases and other genes (Iizumi et al. 2013 ; Maggioni et al. 2013 ; Takagaki et al. 2005 ). This may result in cell death suggesting that it is therefore considered to have cytotoxic activity within the cells. However, olive is a well-known healthy food and is not supposed to be harmful to healthy human cells. Our study showed that environmental pollution by TPPs is associated with the cytotoxicity of olive leaves in healthy human cells. 4.4. Proximity to the TPP alters the antimicrobial activity of olive fruits but not leaves The in vitro antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of olive leaves and fruits against pathogenic bacteria and fungi have been demonstrated before (Juven and Henis 1970 ; Malhadas et al. 2017 ; Markín, Duek, and Berdícevsky 2003 ; Šimat et al. 2022 ; Borjan et al. 2020). Studies have shown that olive leaf extracts effectively inhibit pathogens such as Listeria monocytogenes , E. coli O157:H7, Salmonella enteritidis (Y. Liu, McKeever, and Malik 2017), and Candida species (Kinkela Devčić et al. 2024). Similarly, olive leaves from Muğla province, Türkiye, demonstrated broad-spectrum antimicrobial properties, with the highest activity against S. aureus (Baysal et al. 2021), similar to our findings. This suggests that olive genotype (Memecik cultivar) and environmental factors, including soil composition, climate, and irrigation, influence the production of antimicrobial phenolic compounds. Different olive cultivars exhibit variations in the concentration of phenolic compounds, such as oleuropein and hydroxytyrosol, which directly impact their ability to inhibit bacterial growth (Pereira et al. 2006 ). Moreover, soil fertility and nutrient availability can significantly alter the composition of phenolic compounds in olive leaves (Y. Zhang et al. 2022 ) while irrigation regimes alters the production of phenoplics, such as oleurope, in olive trees (Talhaoui et al. 2015), While TPP proximity did not affect the antimicrobial activity of leaf extracts, it significantly enhanced the activity of fruit extracts from Şahinler (the closest site) against S. aureus (Table S8). This may be due to increased phenolic compound accumulation or heavy metal exposure near the TPP. Similar findings were reported in olive trees near the Baniyas Oil Refinery, where Pb and Mn levels correlated with increased phenolic content (Mahfoud, Khalil, and Moustapha 2018). Furthermore, similar to our results, heavy metal exposure was shown to stimulate phenolic biosynthesis as a defense response to oxidative stress (Senekovič, Jelen, and Urbanek Krajnc 2025), which could explain the enhanced antimicrobial activity in fruits from the closest site to TPP. These results indicate the complex interplay between genetic and environmental factors in shaping the antimicrobial potential of olives. While olive leaf antimicrobial activity remains stable regardless of pollution exposure, TPP proximity appears to modulate fruit antimicrobial properties, potentially through stress-induced phenolic accumulation. Further research is needed to determine the precise mechanisms behind these changes and their implications for food safety and therapeutic applications. 5. Conclusion This study provides the first comprehensive evaluation of how proximity to thermal power plants affects the biochemical composition of olive fruits and leaves, as well as the antimicrobial activity and cytotoxic effects of their extracts on healthy human cells. Our results indicate that industrial emissions disrupt nutrient uptake in olive trees, markedly reducing essential elements like Ca, Mg, Fe, and Mn while increasing toxic metals such as As, Cd, Cr, Ni, and Pb. This elemental imbalance compromises the nutritional quality of olives and raises potential food safety concerns. In addition, our findings demonstrate that distance from the TPP plays a critical role in determining the secondary metabolite profiles of olive plants. Samples collected farther from the TPP exhibited a richer diversity and higher concentrations of key bioactive compounds. In contrast, plants closer to the TPP showed a selective accumulation of flavonoids, such as apigenin and its derivatives, which may represent an adaptive defense mechanism against heavy metal stress and pollutant exposure. Although this response helps counteract oxidative stress, it appears to come at the expense of reducing compounds that are nutritionally and pharmacologically important. Furthermore, olive leaf extracts from areas near the TPP exhibited significant cytotoxicity on human bronchial cells, suggesting that increased heavy metal accumulation may pose health risks. These observations highlight the importance of considering the distance from industrial sources when assessing the quality and safety of olive-derived products. Critically, olive leaf extracts from areas near the TPP exhibited strong cytotoxicity, particularly on BEAS-2B bronchial cells, indicating potential human health risks associated with consumption or exposure. The alarming accumulation of heavy metals in olives, combined with their cytotoxic effects, highlights the urgent need for stringent environmental monitoring and regulation of industrial emissions. Without intervention, these disruptions to plant and soil chemistry could have cascading effects on agricultural sustainability, public health, and ecosystem stability. Declarations Acknowledgments The authors thank Prof. Nurettin YAYLI and Mrs. Gözde BOZDAL (Karadeniz Technical University) for assisting with leaf/fruit extractions, topographical engineer Mrs. Zeliha BAYRAM (İstanbul Municipality) for assisting with the use of Google Maps for finding locations, Prof. Zülal ATLI ŞEKEROĞLU (Ordu University), Assoc. Prof. Hatice SEVİM NALKIRAN (Recep Tayyip Erdogan University), Dr. Cihan INAN (Karadeniz Technical University) for providing batches of BEAS-2B, ARPE-19, and MCF10A cells, respectively, Prof. Kadriye INAN BEKTAS (Karadeniz Technical University) for assisting anti-microbial experiments, Mr. Ali GÜRBÜZ for collecting fruit and leaves, and METU Central Laboratory for ICP-MS analyses. HUVEC cells were purchased from ATCC (CRL-1730™). Data availability statement Data is provided within the manuscript or supplementary information files. Declaration of interest The authors declare that no conflict of interest exists. Funding This study was supported by a 2209-A grant fromTUBITAK (Project ID: 1919B012306896) and by Karadeniz Technical University (Project IDs: FLÖ-2024-11149, FLÖ-2024-11176 and FHD-2024-16036). Declaration of generative AI in scientific writing During the preparation of this work the authors used ChatGPT (OpenAI) to improve the readability and language of the manuscript. After using this tool, the authors reviewed and edited the content as needed and took full responsibility for the content of the published article. References Abu-Darwish, M. S., Mohammad, M. Y., Abu-Darwish, D. & Efferth, T. and Ziad Hamdan Abu-Dieyeh. Heavy Metal Contents in Water Extracts of Selected Medicinal Plants Used in the Folk Medicine of Jordan. Phytomedicine Plus 4 (4). Elsevier: 100634. (2024). 10.1016/J.PHYPLU.2024.100634 Akgüç, N., Özyiğit, İ. İ., Yaşar, Ü., Leblebici, Z. & Yarcı, C. Use of Pyracantha Coccinea Roem. as a Possible Biomonitor for the Selected Heavy Metals. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Tech. 7 (3), 427–434 (2010). http://acikerisim.nevsehir.edu.tr/xmlui/handle/20.500.11787/4786 Al-Ghafari, A., Elmorsy, E., Fikry, E. & Alrowaili, M. and Wayne G. Carter. The Heavy Metals Lead and Cadmium Are Cytotoxic to Human Bone Osteoblasts via Induction of Redox Stress. PLoS ONE 14 (11). Public Library of Science: e0225341. (2019). 10.1371/JOURNAL.PONE.0225341 Al-Habahbeh, K. A. et al. Long-Term Irrigation with Treated Municipal Wastewater from the Wadi-Musa Region: Soil Heavy Metal Accumulation, Uptake and Partitioning in Olive Trees. Horticulturae 2021, Vol. 7, Page 152 7 (6). Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute: 152. (2021). 10.3390/HORTICULTURAE7060152 Alesci, A., Miller, A., Tardugno, R. & Simona Pergolizzi Chemical Analysis, Biological and Therapeutic Activities of Olea Europaea L. Extracts. Natural Product Research . Nat. Prod. Res. 10.1080/14786419.2021.1922404 (2022). Altunoğlu, Y. and Fahri Yemişçioğlu. Determination of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Olives Exposed to Three Different Industrial Sources and in Their Respective Oils. Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A 38 (3). Taylor & Francis: 439–451. (2021). 10.1080/19440049.2020.1861340 Babaei, M. & Shabani, L. and Shahla Hashemi-Shahraki. Improving the Effects of Salt Stress by β-Carotene and Gallic Acid Using Increasing Antioxidant Activity and Regulating Ion Uptake in Lepidium Sativum L. Botanical Studies 63 (1). Springer Science and Business Media Deutschland GmbH: 1–10. (2022). 10.1186/S40529-022-00352-X/FIGURES/8 Baysal, Gülay, E. E. & Kasapbaşı Nurgül Yavuz, Zühre Hür, Kübra Genç, and Musa Genç. 2021. Determination of Theoretical Calculations by DFT Method and Investigation of Antioxidant, Antimicrobial Properties of Olive Leaf Extracts from Different Regions. Journal of Food Science and Technology 58 (5). J Food Sci Technol: 1909–1917. 10.1007/S13197-020-04702-0 Bektay, M., Yunus, E. M., Güler, M., Gökçe & Mustafa Volkan, K. Investigation of the Genotoxic, Cytotoxic, Apoptotic, and Oxidant Effects of Olive Leaf Extracts on Liver Cancer Cell Lines. Turkish Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 18 (6). Turkish Pharmacists Association: 781–789. (2021). 10.4274/TJPS.GALENOS.2021.03271 Benavente-García, O., Castillo, J., Lorente, J., Ortuño, A. & Del Rio, J. A. Antioxidant Activity of Phenolics Extracted from Olea Europaea L. Leaves. Food Chemistry 68 (4). Elsevier: 457–462. (2000). 10.1016/S0308-8146(99)00221-6 Borjan, D. & Leitgeb, M. Željko Knez, and Maša Knez Hrnčič. 2020. Microbiological and Antioxidant Activity of Phenolic Compounds in Olive Leaf Extract. Molecules (Basel, Switzerland) 25 (24). Molecules. 10.3390/MOLECULES25245946 Bulut, H. & Nalan Yıldırım, D. Determination by Molecular Methods of Genetic and Epigenetic Changes Caused by Heavy Metals Released from Thermal Power Plants. Applied Biological Chemistry 61 (2). Springer Science and Business Media B.V.: 189–196. (2018). 10.1007/s13765-018-0346-8 Cardoni, M. & Jesús, M. B. Confronting Stresses Affecting Olive Cultivation from the Holobiont Perspective. Frontiers in Plant Science 14 (November). Frontiers Media SA: 1261754. (2023). 10.3389/FPLS.2023.1261754/PDF Cecchi, L., Ghizzani, G., Bellumori, M., Lammi, C. & Zanoni, B. and Nadia Mulinacci. Virgin Olive Oil By-Product Valorization: An Insight into the Phenolic Composition of Olive Seed Extracts from Three Cultivars as Sources of Bioactive Molecules. Molecules 2023, Vol. 28, Page 2776 28 (6). Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute: 2776. (2023). 10.3390/MOLECULES28062776 Chen, Y., Huang, Y. F. Y., Liao, X., Xu, W. & Zhang, T. A Comprehensive Review of Toxicity of Coal Fly Ash and Its Leachate in the Ecosystem. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 269 (January). Academic Press: 115905. (2024). 10.1016/J.ECOENV.2023.115905 Cicek, A. & Koparal, A. S. Accumulation of Sulfur and Heavy Metals in Soil and Tree Leaves Sampled from the Surroundings of Tunçbilek Thermal Power Plant. Chemosphere 57 (8). Pergamon: 1031–1036. (2004). 10.1016/J.CHEMOSPHERE.2004.07.038 Deliboran, A. Environmental, Ecological, and Health Risks Assessment of Olive Orchard Soils in Izmir Province of Turkey. July 10.21203/RS.3.RS-1764874/V2 (2022). Demir, E., Ayazoglu, A., Colak, S., Celik Uzuner & Bekircan, O. Cytotoxic Effect of a 3-(4-Chlorophenyl)-5-(4-Methoxybenzyl)-4H-1,2,4-Triazole Derivative Compound in Human Melanoma Cells. Int. J. Biology Chem. 14 (1), 139–148. 10.26577/IJBCH.2021.V14.I1.015 (2021). al-Farabi Kazakh National University. El, S. N. & Sibel Karakaya Olive Tree (Olea Europaea) Leaves: Potential Beneficial Effects on Human Health. Nutrition Reviews Nutr. Rev. 10.1111/j.1753-4887.2009.00248.x (2009). Elhrech, H. et al. and Abdelhakim Bouyahya. Comprehensive Review of Olea Europaea: A Holistic Exploration into Its Botanical Marvels, Phytochemical Riches, Therapeutic Potentials, and Safety Profile. Biomolecules 2024, Vol. 14, Page 722 14 (6). Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute: 722. (2024). 10.3390/BIOM14060722 Gaur, K. and Yasir Hasan Siddique. The Role of Apigenin in Alleviating the Impact of Environmental Pollutants. Current Bioactive Compounds 20 (1). Bentham Science Publishers Ltd.: E050324227673. (2024). 10.2174/0115734072296125240221061200/CITE/REFWORKS Gurme, S. T., Mahendra, L., Ahire, Jaykumar, J., Chavan & Mundada, P. S. The Influence of Environmental Pollution on Secondary Metabolite Production in Medicinal Plants. Environmental Pollution and Medicinal Plants, January. CRC, 165–176. doi: 10.1201/9781003178866-9 /INFLUENCE-ENVIRONMENTAL-POLLUTION-SECONDARY-METABOLITE-PRODUCTION-MEDICINAL-PLANTS-SWATI-GURME-MAHENDRA-AHIRE-JAYKUMAR-CHAVAN-PANKAJ-MUNDADA . (2022). Haktanir, K., Ok, S. S. & Karaca, A. Sevinç Arcak, Funda Çimen, Bülent Topçuoğlu, Cafer Türkmen, and Hakan Yildiz. Muğla-Yatağan Termik Santrali Emisyonlarının Etkisinde Kalan Tarım ve Orman Topraklarının Kirlilik Veri Tabanının Oluşturulması ve Emisyonların Vejetasyona Etkilerinin Araştırılması * Generating Pollution Database of the Agricultural and Forest Soils Affe. Ankara Üniversitesi Çevrebilimleri Dergisi 2 (1): 13–30. (2010). Han, J., Terence, P. N., Talorete, P. & Yamada and Hiroko Isoda. Anti-Proliferative and Apoptotic Effects of Oleuropein and Hydroxytyrosol on Human Breast Cancer MCF-7 Cells. Cytotechnology 59 (1). Springer: 45–53. (2009). 10.1007/S10616-009-9191-2/FIGURES/6 Iizumi, Y., Oishi, M., Taniguchi, T., Goi, W. & Sowa, Y. and Toshiyuki Sakai. The Flavonoid Apigenin Downregulates CDK1 by Directly Targeting Ribosomal Protein S9. PLOS ONE 8 (8). Public Library of Science: e73219. (2013). 10.1371/JOURNAL.PONE.0073219 Işik, S., Karagöz, A. & Karaman, Ş. and Cevdet Nergiz. Proliferative and Apoptotic Effects of Olive Extracts on Cell Lines and Healthy Human Cells. Food Chemistry 134 (1). Elsevier: 29–36. (2012). 10.1016/J.FOODCHEM.2012.02.020 Islam, M. et al. Uttam Biswas Antu, Md Sadik Mahmud Saikat, Ruma Akter,. Toxicity Assessment of Heavy Metals Translocation in Maize Grown in the Ganges Delta Floodplain Soils around the Payra Power Plant in Bangladesh. Food and Chemical Toxicology 193 (November). Pergamon: 115005. (2024). 10.1016/j.fct.2024.115005 Junkins, K., Rodgers, M. & Phelan, S. A. Oleuropein Induces Cytotoxicity and Peroxiredoxin Over-Expression in MCF-7 Human Breast Cancer Cells. Anticancer Research 43 (10). International Institute of Anticancer Research: 4333–4339. (2023). 10.21873/ANTICANRES.16628 Juven, B. & Henis, Y. Studies on the Antimicrobial Activity of Olive Phenolic Compounds. The Journal of Applied Bacteriology 33 (4). J Appl Bacteriol: 721–732. (1970). 10.1111/J.1365-2672.1970.TB02255.X Kinkela Devčić, Maja, I., Pasković, Z. & Kovač Petra Tariba Knežević, Luka Morelato, Irena Glažar, and Sunčana Simonić-Kocijan. 2024. Antimicrobial Activity of Olive Leaf Extract to Oral Candida Isolates. Microorganisms 2024, Vol. 12, Page 1726 12 (8). Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute: 1726. 10.3390/MICROORGANISMS12081726 Knezovic, Z., Trgo, M. & Stipisic, A. and Davorka Sutlovic. Impact of Metals from the Environment on Chemical Changes in Olive Oil. In International Scientific and Professional Conference 15th Ružička Days , 103–112. Vukovar, Croatia. (2014). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274374417_Impact_of_metals_from_the_environment_on_chemical_changes_in_olive_oil Kuete, V. et al. and Namrita Lall. Antibacterial Activities of the Extracts, Fractions and Compounds from Dioscorea Bulbifera. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine 12 (November). BMC Complement Altern Med. (2012). 10.1186/1472-6882-12-228 Kumar, P., Nagarajan, A. & Uchil, P. D. Analysis of Cell Viability by the MTT Assay. Cold Spring Harbor Protocols 2018 (6). Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press: pdb.prot095505. (2018). 10.1101/PDB.PROT095505 Le, L. T. et al. Environmental and Health Impacts of Air Pollution: A Mini-Review. Vietnam Journal of Science, Technology and Engineering 66 (1). Ministry of Science and Technology, Vietnam (VMOST): 120–128. (2024). 10.31276/VJSTE.66(1) .120-128. Li, D., Rui, Y., Guo, F., Luan, R. & Liu Shi duo and Nan Zeng. Ferulic Acid: A Review of Its Pharmacology, Pharmacokinetics and Derivatives. Life Sciences 284 (November). Pergamon: 119921. (2021). 10.1016/J.LFS.2021.119921 Li, J. et al. and Huimin Zhang. Optimizing Potassium and Nitrogen Fertilizer Strategies to Mitigate Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Global Agroecosystems. Science of The Total Environment 916 (March). Elsevier: 170270. (2024). 10.1016/J.SCITOTENV.2024.170270 Li, Y. et al. Effects of Adsorption Characteristics of Different Amendments on Heavy Metals (Pb, Zn, and Cd). Journal of Soils and Sediments 20 (7). Springer: 2868–2876. (2020). 10.1007/S11368-020-02620-4/FIGURES/4 Liang, J. and Weifei Yang. Effects of Zinc and Copper Stress on Antioxidant System of Olive Leaves. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 300 (5). Institute of Physics Publishing. (2019). 10.1088/1755-1315/300/5/052058 Liu, K. et al. Da ming Li, Xi chu Yu, Qing hai Huang,. Links between Potassium of Soil Aggregates and PH Levels in Acidic Soils under Long-Term Fertilization Regimes. Soil and Tillage Research 197 (March). Elsevier: 104480. (2020). 10.1016/J.STILL.2019.104480 Liu, Y., McKeever, L. C., Nasir, S. A. & Malik Assessment of the Antimicrobial Activity of Olive Leaf Extract against Foodborne Bacterial Pathogens. Frontiers in Microbiology 8 (FEB). Frontiers Research Foundation: 113. (2017). 10.3389/FMICB.2017.00113/FULL Luo, L. et al. Heavy Metal Contaminations in Herbal Medicines: Determination, Comprehensive Risk Assessments, and Solutions. Frontiers in Pharmacology 11 (January). Frontiers Media S.A.: 595335. (2021). 10.3389/FPHAR.2020.595335/FULL Maggioni, D., Garavello, W., Rigolio, R., Pignataro, L., Gaini, R. & Gabriella Nicolini Apigenin Impairs Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma Growth in Vitro Inducing Cell Cycle Arrest and Apoptosis. Int. J. Oncol. 43 (5), 1675–1682. 10.3892/ijo.2013.2072 (2013). Mahfoud, A., Khalil, K. & Chahid Moustapha An Assessment Study of Usefulness of Using Olive (Olea Europaea L.) Leaves in Biomonitoring the Air Pollution near Baniyas Oil Refinery, Syria: Estimating of Total Phenolic Compounds and Lead, Copper and Manganese in Olive Leaves. Am. J. Plant. Sci. 9 , 2514–2531. 10.4236/ajps.2018.912182 (2018). Makineci, E. and Orhan Sevgi. SEYİTÖMER TERMİK SANTRALININ KURUMA ALANLARINDAKİ KARAÇAM (Pinus Nigra Arnold.) YILLIK HALKALARINA ETKİSİNİN ARAŞTIRILMASI. Türkiye Ormancılık Dergisi 6 (2). Isparta Uygulamalı Bilimler Üniversitesi: 11–22. (2009). 10.18182/TJF.42742 Malhadas, C., Malheiro, R. & Pereira, J. A. Paula Guedes de Pinho, and Paula Baptista. Antimicrobial Activity of Endophytic Fungi from Olive Tree Leaves. World Journal of Microbiology & Biotechnology 33 (3). World J Microbiol Biotechnol. (2017). 10.1007/S11274-017-2216-7 Mandal, A. & Sengupta, D. An Assessment of Soil Contamination Due to Heavy Metals around a Coal-Fired Thermal Power Plant in India. Environmental Geology 51 (3). Springer: 409–420. (2006). 10.1007/S00254-006-0336-8/FIGURES/5 Mandal, S. & Bhattacharya, S. and Suman Paul. Assessing the Level of Contamination of Metals in Surface Soils at Thermal Power Area: Evidence from Developing Country (India). Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology 4 (January). Elsevier: 37–49. (2022). 10.1016/j.enceco.2021.11.003 Markín, D., Duek, L. & Berdícevsky, I. In Vitro Antimicrobial Activity of Olive Leaves. Mycoses 46 (3–4). Mycoses: 132–136. (2003). 10.1046/J.1439-0507.2003.00859.X Mbadra, C. et al. Heavy Metals Transfer in Leaves, Stem and Roots of Olive Tree near Roads in the Region of Sfax (Tunisia) and Their Impact on Physiological Characteristics. February 10.21203/RS.3.RS-3941162/V1 (2024). Mentese, S., Yayintas, Ö. T., Bas, B. & İrkin, L. C. and Selehattin Yilmaz. Heavy Metal and Mineral Composition of Soil, Atmospheric Deposition, and Mosses with Regard to Integrated Pollution Assessment Approach. Environmental Management 67 (5). Springer: 833–851. (2021). 10.1007/S00267-021-01453-2/FIGURES/4 Mirkov, I. et al. and Marina Soković. Plant Extracts and Isolated Compounds Reduce Parameters of Oxidative Stress Induced by Heavy Metals: An up-to-Date Review on Animal Studies. Current Pharmaceutical Design 26 (16). Curr Pharm Des: 1799–1815. (2020). 10.2174/1381612826666200407163408 Morina, F. and Hendrik Küpper. Direct Inhibition of Photosynthesis by Cd Dominates over Inhibition Caused by Micronutrient Deficiency in the Cd/Zn Hyperaccumulator Arabidopsis Halleri. Plant Physiology and Biochemistry 155 (October). Elsevier Masson: 252–261. (2020). 10.1016/J.PLAPHY.2020.07.018 Namuq, M. A. Effect of Some Heavy Metals on Carbohydrates, Proteins and Phenolic Compounds Content in Olive and Oleander Leaves at Three Intersection of Tikrit Streets. Rafidain J. Sci. 31 (2), 10–21. 10.33899/rjs.2022.174270 (2022). Naponelli, V. & Rocchetti, M. T. and Domenica Mangieri. Apigenin: Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Potential against Cancer Spreading. International Journal of Molecular Sciences 25 (10). Int J Mol Sci. (2024). 10.3390/IJMS25105569 Özkul, C. Heavy Metal Contamination in Soils around the Tunçbilek Thermal Power Plant (Kütahya, Turkey). Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 188 (5). Environ Monit Assess. (2016). 10.1007/S10661-016-5295-2 Öztürk, E., Çalık, F. & Derya Ulusoy Investigation of Cytotoxic and Genotoxic Effects of Olive Leaf Extract on Colon Cancer Cells and Normal Cell Lines. Eurasian J. Mol. Biochem. Sci. 1 (2), 26–31 (2022). https://dergi.erzurum.edu.tr/index.php/ejmbs/article/view/100 Pang, K. L. and Kok Yong Chin. The Biological Activities of Oleocanthal from a Molecular Perspective. Nutrients 2018, Vol. 10, Page 570 10 (5). Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute: 570. (2018). 10.3390/NU10050570 Pastrana-Corral, M. A. et al. Heavy Metal Pollution in the Soil Surrounding a Thermal Power Plant in Playas de Rosarito, Mexico. Environmental Earth Sciences 76 (16). Springer Verlag: 1–9. (2017). 10.1007/S12665-017-6928-7/FIGURES/3 Pathak, B., Rawat, K. & Fulekar, M. H. Heavy Metal Accumulation by Plant Species at Fly-Ash Dumpsites: Thermal Power Plant, Gandhinagar, Gujarat. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PLANT AND ENVIRONMENT 5 (02). International Society of Environmental Botanists: 111–116. (2019). 10.18811/IJPEN.V5I02.7 Pereira, J. et al. Rosa Seabra, Letícia Estevinho, and Albino Bento. Table Olives from Portugal: Phenolic Compounds, Antioxidant Potential, and Antimicrobial Activity. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 54 (22). American Chemical Society: 8425–8431. (2006). 10.1021/JF061769J Petrella, A. et al. and Domenico Petruzzelli. Heavy Metals Retention (Pb(II), Cd(II), Ni(II)) from Single and Multimetal Solutions by Natural Biosorbents from the Olive Oil Milling Operations. Process Safety and Environmental Protection 114 (February). Elsevier: 79–90. (2018). 10.1016/J.PSEP.2017.12.010 Petrović, M. and Željka Fiket. Environmental Damage Caused by Coal Combustion Residue Disposal: A Critical Review of Risk Assessment Methodologies. Chemosphere 299 (July). Pergamon: 134410. (2022). 10.1016/J.CHEMOSPHERE.2022.134410 Rekik, O., Mansour, A. B., Jabeur, H., Gutierrez, G. R. & Bouaziz, M. Effect of Pollution on the Quality of Olive Oils from Trees Grown Near a Phosphoric Acid Factory. European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology 121 (8). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd: 1800490. (2019). 10.1002/EJLT.201800490 Şahan, Y. & Fikri Başoğlu Heavy Metal Pollution in Olives Grown in Bursa, Turkey. Asian J. Chem. 21 (4), 3023–3029 (2009). Saidi, I., Guesmi, F., Kharbech, O. & Hfaiedh, N. and Wahbi Djebali. Gallic Acid Improves the Antioxidant Ability against Cadmium Toxicity: Impact on Leaf Lipid Composition of Sunflower (Helianthus Annuus) Seedlings. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 210 (March). Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. (2021). 10.1016/J.ECOENV.2021.111906 Salehi, B. et al. The Therapeutic Potential of Apigenin. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 20 , 1305. 10.3390/IJMS20061305 (2019). (6). Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI). Senekovič, J. & Jelen Špela and Andreja Urbanek Krajnc. Copper Sulfate Elicitation Effect on Biomass Production, Phenolic Compounds Accumulation, and Antioxidant Activity of Morus Nigra L. Stem Node Culture. Plants (Basel, Switzerland) 14 (5). Plants (Basel). (2025). 10.3390/PLANTS14050766 Shen, Z., Chen, Y., Xu, D. & Li, L. and Yong Zhu. Interactions between Heavy Metals and Other Mineral Elements from Soil to Medicinal Plant Fengdan (Paeonia Ostii) in a Copper Mining Area, China. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 27 (27). Springer: 33743–33752. (2020). 10.1007/S11356-020-09358-Z/TABLES/7 Silva, S. et al. Secoiridoids in Olive Seed: Characterization of Nüzhenide and 11-Methyl Oleosides by Liquid Chromatography with Diode Array and Mass Spectrometry. Grasas y Aceites . 61 (2), 157–164. 10.3989/gya.087309 (2010). Šimat, V. et al. Ana María Gómez-Caravaca, Carmen Fernández-Fernández,. Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Activity of Hydroethanolic Leaf Extracts from Six Mediterranean Olive Cultivars. Antioxidants (Basel, Switzerland) 11 (9). Antioxidants (Basel). (2022). 10.3390/ANTIOX11091656 Spagnuolo, C. et al. and Gian Luigi Russo. Phenolic Extract from Extra Virgin Olive Oil Induces Different Anti-Proliferative Pathways in Human Bladder Cancer Cell Lines. Nutrients 15 (1). MDPI. (2023). 10.3390/NU15010182/S1 Sukhdeve, D., Shitalkumar, R. & Sukhdeve, S. S. Google Colaboratory. Google Cloud Platform for Data Science. A, Berkeley, CA, 11–34. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4842-9688-2_2 . (2023). Takagaki, N., Sowa, Y., Oki, T., Nakanishi, R. & Yogosawa, S. and Toshiyuki Sakai. Apigenin Induces Cell Cycle Arrest and P21/WAF1 Expression in a P53-Independent Pathway. International Journal of Oncology 26 (1). Spandidos Publications: 185–189. (2005). 10.3892/IJO.26.1.185/HTML Talhaoui, N. & Taamalli, A. Ana María Gómez-Caravaca, Alberto Fernández-Gutiérrez, and Antonio Segura-Carretero. Phenolic Compounds in Olive Leaves: Analytical Determination, Biotic and Abiotic Influence, and Health Benefits. Food Research International 77 (November). Elsevier: 92–108. (2015). 10.1016/J.FOODRES.2015.09.011 Tolunay, D. Dendroclimatological Investigation of the Effects of Air Pollution Caused by Yatagan Thermal Power Plant (Mugla-Turkey) on Annual Ring Widths of Pinus Brutia Trees. Fresenius Environmental Bulletin 12 (9): 1006–1014. (2003). https://eurekamag.com/research/003/702/003702654.php?srsltid=AfmBOopm68-3_FxMb21ZfdwwE9tSCqErSVot7dG_6XwdDOCMGObjz6-c Turan, D. et al. and Sait C. Sofuoglu. The Use of Olive Tree (Olea Europaea L.) Leaves as a Bioindicator for Environmental Pollution in the Province of Aydın, Turkey. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 18 (3). Springer Verlag: 355–364. (2011). 10.1007/S11356-010-0378-Z/FIGURES/4 Turhan, A. M. K. et al. Ecological Assessment of Heavy Metals in Soil around a Coal-Fired Thermal Power Plant in Turkey. Environmental Earth Sciences 79 (6). Springer: 1–15. (2020). 10.1007/S12665-020-8864-1/TABLES/9 Uǧur, A., Özden, B., Saç, M. M. & Yener, G. Biomonitoring of 210Po and 210Pb Using Lichens and Mosses around a Uraniferous Coal-Fired Power Plant in Western Turkey. Atmospheric Environment 37 (16). Pergamon: 2237–2245. (2003). 10.1016/S1352-2310(03)00147-X Ünal, D., Sert, Ş., Işık, N. O., Ünal & Kaya İzmir-Kemalpaşa Sanayi Bölgesinde Ağır Metal Kirliliğinin Biyoindikatör Olarak Zeytin (Olea Europaea) Bitkisi Kullanılarak Belirlenmesi. Zeytin Bilimi . 2 , 59–64 (2011). Vig, N., Ravindra, K. & Mor, S. Heavy Metal Pollution Assessment of Groundwater and Associated Health Risks around Coal Thermal Power Plant, Punjab, India. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology 20 (6). Institute for Ionics: 6259–6274. (2023). 10.1007/S13762-022-04284-8/FIGURES/5 Wilson, B. & Pyatt, F. B. Heavy Metal Bioaccumulation by the Important Food Plant, Olea Europaea L., in an Ancient Metalliferous Polluted Area of Cyprus. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 78 (5). Bull Environ Contam Toxicol: 390–394. (2007). 10.1007/S00128-007-9162-2 Xie, P., Huang, L., Zhang, C. & Yao lei Zhang Phenolic Compositions, and Antioxidant Performance of Olive Leaf and Fruit (Olea Europaea L.) Extracts and Their Structure-Activity Relationships. Journal of Functional Foods 16 (June). Elsevier: 460–471. (2015). 10.1016/j.jff.2015.05.005 Yokaş, İ. & Tuna, A. L. Betül Bürün, Bülent Yamur, Hüseyin Hakerlerler, and Rafet Kılınç. 2008. Research on Pollution Caused by Thermal Power Plants in Mula. International Meeting Soil. Fertility Land. Manage. Agroclimatology Turkey , 997–1005 . Yu, F., Ji, Y., Li, Z. & Li, Y. and Yue Meng. Adsorption-Desorption Characteristics of Typical Heavy Metal Pollutants in Submerged Zone Sediments: A Case Study of the Jialu Section in Zhengzhou, China. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 30 (42). Springer Science and Business Media Deutschland GmbH: 96055–96074. (2023). 10.1007/S11356-023-29059-7/TABLES/9 Yücel, Y. & Abdullah Lütfi, K. Determination of Heavy Metals in Olive Fruits as an Indicator of Environmental Pollution. International Journal of Environmental Analytical Chemistry 100 (8). Taylor & Francis: 922–934. (2020). 10.1080/03067319.2019.1645841 Zaanouni, N., Gharssallaoui, M. & Eloussaief, M. and Slimane Gabsi. Heavy Metals Transfer in the Olive Tree and Assessment of Food Contamination Risk. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 25 (19). Springer Verlag: 18320–18331. (2018). 10.1007/S11356-018-1474-8/FIGURES/6 Zarinkamar, F. & Moradi, A. and Maryam Davoodpour. Ecophysiological, Anatomical, and Apigenin Changes Due to Uptake and Accumulation of Cadmium in Matricaria Chamomilla L. Flowers in Hydroponics. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 28 (39). Springer Science and Business Media Deutschland GmbH: 55154–55165. (2021). 10.1007/S11356-021-14000-7/FIGURES/8 Zhang, C. et al. and Daqun Liu. Changes in Phytochemical Profiles and Biological Activity of Olive Leaves Treated by Two Drying Methods. Frontiers in Nutrition 9 (April). Front Nutr. (2022). 10.3389/FNUT.2022.854680 Zhang, Y. et al. and Lixin Huang. Effect of Geographical Location and Soil Fertility on Main Phenolic Compounds and Fatty Acids Compositions of Virgin Olive Oil from Leccino Cultivar in China. Food Research International 157 (July). Elsevier: 111207. (2022). 10.1016/J.FOODRES.2022.111207 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files SupplemetaryFinaltablesfixed.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 21 Oct, 2025 Read the published version in Scientific Reports → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 20 Jul, 2025 Reviews received at journal 20 Jul, 2025 Reviews received at journal 19 Jul, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 12 Jul, 2025 Reviews received at journal 12 Jul, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 09 Jul, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 08 Jul, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 07 Jul, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 07 Jul, 2025 Editor invited by journal 17 Jun, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 14 Jun, 2025 First submitted to journal 05 Jun, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6827792","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":482181413,"identity":"225f1467-ca4c-4cac-9f0c-50c2b61fe40b","order_by":0,"name":"Esra GÜRBÜZ","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Karadeniz Technical University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Esra","middleName":"","lastName":"GÜRBÜZ","suffix":""},{"id":482181417,"identity":"98b16999-757c-4fdd-be4c-8f8adfbc39ba","order_by":1,"name":"Emre AKSOY","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Middle East Technical University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Emre","middleName":"","lastName":"AKSOY","suffix":""},{"id":482181418,"identity":"8223d943-00fb-45ac-9476-10908316cf99","order_by":2,"name":"Aytül SANDALLI","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Karadeniz Technical University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Aytül","middleName":"","lastName":"SANDALLI","suffix":""},{"id":482181419,"identity":"22e0953b-8660-4606-9885-3d1689afae8e","order_by":3,"name":"Funda BİLGİLİ TETİKOĞLU","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Karadeniz Technical University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Funda","middleName":"BİLGİLİ","lastName":"TETİKOĞLU","suffix":""},{"id":482181420,"identity":"56c3581b-3236-4cad-aeb0-45c1b95c430d","order_by":4,"name":"Enes ŞEKER","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Karadeniz Technical University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Enes","middleName":"","lastName":"ŞEKER","suffix":""},{"id":482181421,"identity":"a02725d4-2efc-4740-b1d8-c761e01fda02","order_by":5,"name":"Naciye Nisa KIRAN","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Karadeniz Technical University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Naciye","middleName":"Nisa","lastName":"KIRAN","suffix":""},{"id":482181425,"identity":"b1bd1bf6-986b-48b3-bb68-31c560d3d46b","order_by":6,"name":"Sinan TETİKOĞLU","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Karadeniz Technical University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sinan","middleName":"","lastName":"TETİKOĞLU","suffix":""},{"id":482181426,"identity":"0cf8dc78-dff3-46e3-8c27-5dd7e9dcf1cc","order_by":7,"name":"Hacer MURATOĞLU","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Karadeniz Technical University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Hacer","middleName":"","lastName":"MURATOĞLU","suffix":""},{"id":482181427,"identity":"be83a07e-53e9-41dd-9e26-b698a9fd076f","order_by":8,"name":"Muhammed Fatih KAYA","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Middle East Technical University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Muhammed","middleName":"Fatih","lastName":"KAYA","suffix":""},{"id":482181429,"identity":"849bb478-d392-4b7f-a7d2-06b5aa86dbae","order_by":9,"name":"Emine AKYÜZ TURUMTAY","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Recep Tayyip Erdogan University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Emine","middleName":"AKYÜZ","lastName":"TURUMTAY","suffix":""},{"id":482181430,"identity":"e2c3a75a-018a-4d82-9452-eb74cc2193d2","order_by":10,"name":"Selcen ÇELİK UZUNER","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA/ElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFAC5gYwxcfMxvjwQwUDgwFhLYwQLWzMbMzGEmdI0sLAxibB20aEFvn2xsYPH3fYybGxsyUbSM47LG/O3nyA4UfFNpxaDM4cbJaceSbZGOiwgw8Ktx023NlzLIGx58xt3FokEtuYedsOAEn2ZgPJbYcZN9zIMWBmbMOtRX7+wzbmv20H6oFa2iR45xy2J6iF4QZjG1DBgQSgw45J8DYcTiSoxeBMYrNkb1uyYRszW7KxxLH05A1njiUcxOcX+fbDBz/8bLOT5+c/ZvjwQ4217YbjzQcf/KjA4zA00AwmDxCtHgjqSFE8CkbBKBgFIwQAAGFyV9mLhYZnAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Karadeniz Technical University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Selcen","middleName":"ÇELİK","lastName":"UZUNER","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-06-05 09:53:03","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6827792/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6827792/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-18066-y","type":"published","date":"2025-10-21T16:16:38+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":86256637,"identity":"121111dd-ca24-48f8-ad91-4b83106ad2c1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-08 13:51:19","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":251618,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCorrelation network of elemental changes in olive trees.\u003c/strong\u003e Blue nodes represent downregulated essential nutrients while the red nodes visualize upregulated toxic metals. Edges within each cluster represent positive correlations and edges between clusters (nutrients vs. toxic elements) represent negative correlations. Generated in Google Colab via Phyton (Sukhdeve and Sukhdeve 2023).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6827792/v1/1235b583ff901b45d62d1e4e.png"},{"id":86256635,"identity":"c57ec845-0ddd-4492-82a6-a2af8f553fd7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-08 13:51:19","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":160955,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eChemical composition of (A) the fruit and (B) leaf extracts of the olive samples.\u003c/strong\u003e Values are presented as mg/100 g extract. D; Deştin (the furthest location), M (the middle location; Yatağan Center), -T (thermal location; Şahinler Village) and F (fruit), L (leaves)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6827792/v1/393d2ac0d93fb1e50f436d2d.png"},{"id":86257891,"identity":"0441d796-d4a8-4c46-b855-6d0f23b730f3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-08 13:59:19","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":719143,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eChanging the chemical composition of (A) fruit and (B) leaf extracts based on their region. \u003c/strong\u003eD; Deştin (the furthest location), M (the middle location; Yatağan Center), -T (thermal location; Şahinler Village) and F (fruit), L (leaves)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6827792/v1/6f1c6e0c169b31874d9e3991.png"},{"id":86257892,"identity":"95e7c39e-fab5-422a-9a82-263824955746","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-08 13:59:19","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":433397,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe cell viability of ARPE-19 human retinal epithelial cells treated with fruit (up panel) and leaf (down panel) extracts at varying concentrations for 24 h and 48 h.\u003c/strong\u003e Extracts were obtained from olives grown at different distances from the Yatağan TPP, Deştin Village (farthest location), Central (middle location), and Thermal (Şahinler Village - closest location). Values represent mean ± SEM (n=3). * \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.05, ** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.01, *** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.001, and **** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6827792/v1/5b1145dec3a6aa5aa781d24e.png"},{"id":86257890,"identity":"3639ec50-6ba0-44b3-a5a4-63df4157524e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-08 13:59:19","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":379892,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe cell viability of MCF10A human breast epithelial cells treated with fruit (up panel) and leaf (down panel) extracts at varying concentrations for 24 h and 48 h.\u003c/strong\u003e Extracts were obtained from olives grown at different distances from the Yatağan TPP, Deştin Village (farthest location), Central (middle location), and Thermal (Şahinler Village - closest location). Values represent mean ± SEM (n=3). * \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.05, ** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.01, *** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.001, and **** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6827792/v1/2140d2fe8011ba9fbbadebff.png"},{"id":86256658,"identity":"11f41d81-c453-4bc7-b991-43bc143f257e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-08 13:51:19","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":761898,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe cell viability of BEAS-2B human bronchial epithelial cells treated with fruit (up panel) and leaf (down panel) extracts at varying concentrations for 24 h and 48 h.\u003c/strong\u003e Extracts were obtained from olives grown at different distances from the Yatağan TPP, Deştin Village (farthest location), Central (middle location), and Thermal (Şahinler Village - closest location). Representative cells after the MTT assay are given after leaf extracts for 48h (images taken by 5x objective of Zeiss AxioVert inverted microscope). Values represent mean ± SEM (n=3). * \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.05, ** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.01, *** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.001, and **** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6827792/v1/19ba241e60ac33094ac31e14.png"},{"id":86256642,"identity":"f27353d2-453f-4110-b172-d105e3b8f5df","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-08 13:51:19","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":525668,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe cell viability of HUVEC human umbilical vein endothelial cells treated with fruit (up panel) and leaf (down panel) extracts at varying concentrations for 24 h and 48 h.\u003c/strong\u003e Extracts were obtained from olives grown at different distances from the Yatağan TPP, Deştin Village (farthest location), Central (middle location), and Thermal (Şahinler Village - closest location). Values represent mean ± SEM (n=3). * \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.05, ** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.01, *** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.001, and **** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6827792/v1/aefbc5dd9d13d96d110ebf33.png"},{"id":94490256,"identity":"1f22ab43-789b-4a5a-b1f5-54dc5bda905c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-27 17:08:41","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":5179078,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6827792/v1/55d74c4c-92d2-4c5a-9388-0eba2ccc4ec4.pdf"},{"id":86256641,"identity":"63034860-35a4-4857-88d5-ea64dd57e5da","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-08 13:51:19","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":5122142,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"SupplemetaryFinaltablesfixed.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6827792/v1/9910e235fdd3bb9a2881f58d.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Cytotoxicity, Anti-microbial Activity, and Biochemical Alterations in Olive (Olea europaea L.) Extracts from Different Distances to the Yatağan Thermal Power Plant, Türkiye","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe olive tree (\u003cem\u003eOlea europaea\u003c/em\u003e L.) is central to the Mediterranean diet, with its fruits and olive oil being essential in gastronomy. Olive leaves have also been widely used in traditional medicine due to their rich bioactive compounds, particularly flavonoids and phenolic compounds, which exhibit anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, and cardioprotective effects (El and Karakaya 2009). Flavonoids like luteolin and luteolin-7-O-glucoside promote erythroid differentiation in stem cells, aiding blood disorder treatment, and facilitating tumor cell apoptosis, highlighting their role in cancer prevention (C. Zhang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR88\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Among phenolic compounds, oleuropein supports cardiovascular health, while oleocanthal, found in extra virgin olive oil, has anti-inflammatory properties comparable to ibuprofen, making it a promising agent for inflammatory diseases (Elhrech et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Protocatechuic acid and gallic acid neutralize free radicals, offering protection against oxidative stress-related conditions. Ferulic acid further supports cardiovascular health through its antioxidant effects. These bioactive metabolites emphasize the therapeutic potential of olive leaves, strengthening their importance in disease prevention and traditional medicine.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHeavy metal stress severely disrupts plant growth by inducing oxidative stress through the overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which damage cellular structures, inhibit photosynthesis, and impair essential metabolic processes. To counteract this toxicity, olive trees activate defense mechanisms that involve the increased production of secondary metabolites, particularly flavonoids and phenolic compounds (Mbadra et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Cardoni and Mercado-Blanco 2023). These bioactive molecules act as potent antioxidants, scavenging ROS, stabilizing cellular membranes, and chelating heavy metals to reduce their bioavailability. Exposure to heavy metals triggers the upregulation of key enzymes such as phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) and tyrosine ammonia-lyase (TAL), which are central to the biosynthesis of phenolic compounds (Mbadra et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). This enzymatic response results in a significant accumulation of protective metabolites, strengthening the plant\u0026rsquo;s ability to tolerate metal-induced stress. By enhancing their antioxidant capacity and detoxification pathways, olive trees improve their resilience against metal toxicity, ensuring their survival in contaminated environments. Moreover, in arid regions with low rainfall, farmers use marginal water sources, such as treated wastewater, for irrigation, increasing the risk of soil contamination with heavy metals like lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), manganese (Mn), and copper (Cu) (Al-Habahbeh et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Olive trees, recognized as bioaccumulators of Cu, Pb, and zinc (Zn) (Wilson and Pyatt \u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e), absorb these metals, potentially introducing them into the food chain. Thus, reducing heavy metal contamination in water and soil is crucial for food safety and environmental sustainability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThermal power plants (TPP) emit fly ash that contains heavy metals such as arsenic (As), mercury (Hg), Pb, Cd, chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), and zinc (Zn), which accumulate in the soil. Studies conducted on soil samples from TPPs in various parts of the world have shown significant to extremely high levels of heavy metal contamination (\u0026Ouml;zkul \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Turhan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; A. Mandal and Sengupta \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Cicek and Koparal \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Vig, Ravindra, and Mor \u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Pastrana-Corral et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). The leaching of these metals into groundwater further extends pollution to larger areas (Chen et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), impacting both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. For instance, exposure to heavy metals from TPP emissions induces numerous physiological and behavioral effects in organisms, including aquatic insects, amphibians, fish, and mammals (Petrović and Fiket 2022). In T\u0026uuml;rkiye, the Yatağan TPP serves as a major point source of heavy metal emissions, with Pb concentrations in lichens and mosses reaching 70.95 \u0026micro;g/g, far exceeding the background level of 22.05 \u0026micro;g/g (Uǧur et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). A recent study in the same area confirmed these findings, suggesting that heavy metal emissions from TPPs significantly alter terrestrial ecosystems (Mentese et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Due to bioaccumulation and biomagnification, these pollutants pose severe risks to human health, contributing to increased rates of cancer, as well as heart, liver, and lung diseases (Le et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLike other organisms, plants absorb heavy metals, which can lead to toxicity and physiological stress, ultimately reducing their quality and yield (Altunoğlu and Yemiş\u0026ccedil;ioğlu 2021). A study on scarlet firethorn (\u003cem\u003ePyracantha coccinea\u003c/em\u003e Roem.) from the same region found a significant accumulation of Pb, Cu, Cd, Ni, and Fe in the leaves (Akg\u0026uuml;\u0026ccedil; et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, a long-term study on Turkish pine (\u003cem\u003ePinus brutia\u003c/em\u003e) trees around the Yatağan TPP revealed that annual ring widths decreased depending on their proximity to the power plant over a 21-year observation period (Tolunay \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). Comparable results were observed in black pine (\u003cem\u003ePinus nigra\u003c/em\u003e Arnold.) near another TPP in T\u0026uuml;rkiye, where ring sizes significantly declined 25 years after the plant\u0026rsquo;s establishment, particularly in trees closer to the facility (Makineci and Sevgi 2009). Further evidence of heavy metal accumulation comes from olive trees in the Yatağan region. A study analyzing olive leaves collected 4 km and 40 km from the TPP showed that Cr, Ni, and Pb accumulated at toxic levels in the closer location, despite soil concentrations of these metals, except for Ni, remaining within normal ranges (Yokaş et al. 2008). Another study in the same region confirmed that olive trees accumulated significantly higher levels of Pb and Cd (Haktanir et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhile the environmental and ecological risks of TPP emissions are well-documented, their potential impact on human health through olive consumption remains unexplored. Given the central role of olives in the Mediterranean diet, understanding the effects of heavy metal accumulation in olive trees near TPPs is critical. This study aims to bridge this knowledge gap by examining the physiological responses of olive trees (\u003cem\u003eO. europaea\u003c/em\u003e L.) to heavy metal exposure and assessing the accumulation of these metals in their leaves and fruits. We analyzed phenolic compound levels in olives grown at varying distances from the Yatağan TPP (close, middle, and distant locations) to determine whether pollution alters their bioactive properties. Furthermore, to assess potential health risks, we investigated the cytotoxic effects of olive leaf and fruit extracts on four types of normal human cells (breast, retina, vein, and bronchus). Additionally, we evaluated the antimicrobial properties of these extracts. By integrating plant physiology, food safety, and biomedical perspectives, this study provides crucial insights into the impact of industrial pollution on olive trees and its potential implications for human health.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Material and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1. Plant sample collection morphophysiological properties and preparation of plant extracts\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eOlive fruits and leaves were collected from orchards of Memecik cultivar located in Şahinler Village, Yatağan Center, and Deştin Village in the Yatağan district of Muğla province, T\u0026uuml;rkiye on October 15, 2022 (\u003cb\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003eA\u003c/b\u003e). The sampling locations were situated at varying distances from the TPP: 0.8 km, 5.1 km, and 13 km away from the plant, respectively (\u003cb\u003eFigures \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003eB, 1C, and 1D\u003c/b\u003e). A minimum of fifty fruits and leaves were collected from different parts of the tree to four same-aged olive trees and mixed The abbreviations for the locations used throughout the study are as follows: D; Deştin (the furthest location), M (the middle location; Yatağan Center), -T (thermal location; Şahinler Village) and F (fruit), L (leaves).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOlive fruits and leaves were dried at 25\u0026deg;C for 20 days, protected from direct sunlight. Then, fruit and leaf dry weights were determined by a precision analytical balance. Afterward, the dried samples were first coarsely ground using a ceramic grinder, then finely powdered with a ceramic mortar and pestle. To prevent heat buildup from friction, the grinding process was paused every 5 minutes. For extraction, 40 grams of each powdered sample was mixed with 150 mL of 100% methanol in an Erlenmeyer flask, which was then covered with aluminum foil. The samples were incubated in a shaker at 350 rpm for 6 hours at room temperature. After incubation, the extracts were filtered into evaporation flasks using Whatman filter paper. The remaining solid material was subjected to a second extraction with the same amount of solvent under the same conditions for another 6 hours. The collected filtrates were then concentrated by evaporating the solvent using a Rotary Evaporator at 40\u0026deg;C until a dense-liquid extract was obtained. These concentrated extracts were transferred to Eppendorf tubes and stored in the refrigerator (\u003cb\u003eFigure S2\u003c/b\u003e). Subsequently, the liquid extracts were freeze-dried using a lyophilizer, and the lyophilized samples were stored at +\u0026thinsp;4\u0026deg;C. For further use, the extracts were dissolved in 100% DMSO (mg/mL), aliquoted into 60\u0026ndash;80 \u0026micro;L portions, and stored at \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;20\u0026deg;C.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2. HPLC-DAD and HPLC-MS conditions for separation of phenolic compounds\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eExtraction of phenolic compounds from samples\u003c/b\u003e: Dried extracts were dissolved in methanol and diluted with 50% water for suitable concentrations for HPLC-DAD analysis (DL: 10, DF: 50, ML: 20, MF: 100, TL: 10, and TF: 57 mg/mL).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHPLC-DAD and HPLC-MS conditions for separation of phenolic compounds\u003c/b\u003e: The chromatographic analyses were performed using a Dionex (Thermo Scientific, Germering, Germany) Ultimate 3000 high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) system equipped with an Ultimate 3000 diode array detector (DAD). A Thermo acclaim C30 column (150mm. 3mm id. 3\u0026micro;m pd) was used with a Macherey Nagel (3mm id) guard column. Gradient elution was used with mobile phases; A: 2% acetic acid in water and B: 70% acetonitrile-30% water. The flow rate was 0.37 mL/min, and the injection volume was 10 \u0026micro;L. Column temperature was set at 25\u0026deg;C. Following 25 phenolic standards were used to calibrate and validate the HPLC-DAD analysis method: Gallic acid, protocatechuic acid, p-hydroxy benzoic acid (p-OH benzoic acid), chlorogenic acid, vanillic acid, caffeic acid, syringic acid, vanillin, epicatechin, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, rutin, luteolin-7-glycoside, naringin, hesperidin, apigenin-7-glycoside, rosmarinic acid, fisetin, eriodictyol, luteolin, quercetin, naringenin, hesperetin, apigenin, and kaempferol. These standards were diluted from their stock solutions into nine different concentrations at 0.625; 1.25; 5.0; 10.0; and 20.0 \u0026micro;g/L in a 1:1 methanol-water solution for the external calibration. Repeatability of the retention time (RT) and peak areas was measured as coefficient of variation (CV) which was under 0.61 for retention times and under 3.60 for areas of the peaks. The limit of detection (LOD) and quantification (LOQ) values of all standards were under 0.18 and 0.52 \u0026micro;g/mL \u003cb\u003e(Table S2)\u003c/b\u003e. Chromatograms were processed at 254, 280, 315, and 370 nm with DAD, which operated at 200\u0026ndash;400 nm. Dried extracts were dissolved in 1:1 methanol-water solution for suitable concentrations for HPLC-DAD analysis (DL: 10, DF: 50, ML: 20, MF: 100, TL: 10, and TF: 57 mg/mL). Extracts were centrifuged at 10,000 rpm for 15 min before HPLC-DAD analysis. The identification of the peaks was carried out by comparing the RT and UV spectra with those of standard phenolic compounds. Some peaks had the same or similar UV spectra as some standards, but with different retention times (RTs). They were defined as derivatives of standards with similar UV spectra and quantified as the equivalent of those standards. The peaks with different spectra from all standard compounds were characterized using the results of the reports studied to identify the compound of this plant species. For instance, the spectrum of oleuropein aglycone, n\u0026uuml;zhenide 11-methyl oleoside, and oleocanthal was reported in olive extracts (Cecchi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Spagnuolo et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Peaks with spectra similar to those of these three compounds were characterized as their derivatives and measured as the equivalent of protocatechuic acid using peak areas at 254 nm. The calibration and validation parameters of the HPLC-DAD method are presented in \u003cb\u003eTable S2\u003c/b\u003e. We collected samples at once so that HPLC was performed once for each extract; instead, method validation was used with repeatability values of the standard mixes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3. Human cell culture, extract treatments, and MTT assay\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe healthy cell lines used in this study are commercial. The cells included MCF10A (ATCC, CRL-10317\u0026trade;) human mammary gland epithelial cells, ARPE-19 (ATCC, CRL-2302\u0026trade;) human eye retinal pigment epithelial cells, HUVEC (ATCC, CRL-1730\u0026trade;) primary human umbilical vein endothelial cells, and BEAS-2B (ATCC, CRL-3588\u0026trade;) epithelial cells isolated from normal human bronchial epithelium. Except for BEAS-2B cells, which were cultured in DMEM, other cells were cultured in RPMI media, including 10% fetal bovine serum and 1% penicillin-streptomycin. Cells were incubated at 37\u0026deg;C with 5% CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e until they reached full confluency, at which point they were transferred to 96-well plates for further treatment. Confluent cells were treated with fruit and leaf extracts at final concentrations of 500 \u0026micro;g/mL, 100 \u0026micro;g/mL, 20 \u0026micro;g/mL, 4 \u0026micro;g/mL, 0.8 \u0026micro;g/mL, 0.16 \u0026micro;g/mL, and 0.032 \u0026micro;g/mL for either 24 h or 48 h. Untreated control cells (0 \u0026micro;g/mL) were included for comparison. Following the treatment period, the culture media were removed, and 190 \u0026micro;l of fresh media along with 10 \u0026micro;l of 0.25 mg/mL MTT dye were added to each well. Next, the plates were incubated at 37\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC for 2 h. After incubation, MTT-containing media were removed, and 200 \u0026micro;l of DMSO was added to each well to facilitate color development. The plates were then placed in a shaker at 120 g for 1 hour at dark to dissolve the formazan crystals. Absorbance measurements were taken at 570 nm using a spectrophotometer (Demir et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Kumar, Nagarajan, and Uchil \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). The absorbance of untreated cells was considered 100% viability, and the viability of treated cells was calculated relative to the absorbance of the untreated control group. The most straightforward way to estimate IC50 is by plotting the x-y data and applying linear regression. The IC50 value is then determined from the fitted line by the formula Y\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;a * X\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;b, IC50\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;(0.5 - b)/a. For statistical analyses, cell percentages were arcsine transformed using the formula\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;ASIN(SQRT(X/100))*180/PI() (X represents a value of cell percentage) to fit data for UNIANOVA statistical analyses.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.4. Elemental analyses\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eOlive leaf and fruit samples collected from the field were first ground into a fine powder using a grinder. Then, approximately 100 mg of the samples were placed in fresh 50 mL Falcon tubes. A total of 3 mL of 65% nitric acid (Sigma-Aldrich) and 2.15 mL of 35% hydrogen peroxide (Sigma-Aldrich) were added to each tube. The lids of the Falcon tubes were loosely closed, and the samples were incubated at 80\u0026deg;C for approximately 8 h until no visible particles remained. The liquid samples were then filtered, transferred into fresh Falcon tubes, and diluted 10 times to bring the final nitric acid concentration to 2%. The diluted samples were analyzed using Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) (Perkin Elmer DRC II). The mineral content was calculated by dividing the absorbance values by the dry weights.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.5. Anti-microbial and antifungal activity of fruit and leaf extracts\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eCollected and extracted six olive fruit and leaf samples (DL, DF, ML, MF, TL, TF) were assayed for their anti-microbial and antifungal activities. Common six pathogenic bacteria and yeast-like fungi were used for these tests. Pathogenic bacteria selected as gram-negative bacteria are \u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e (ATCC 25922), \u003cem\u003eYersinia pseudotuberculosis\u003c/em\u003e (ATCC 911), and \u003cem\u003ePseudomonas aeruginosa\u003c/em\u003e (ATCC 17853). Other pathogenic bacteria selected as gram-positive bacteria are \u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus aureus\u003c/em\u003e (ATCC 25923), \u003cem\u003eEnterococcus faecalis\u003c/em\u003e (ATCC 29212), and \u003cem\u003eBacillus subtilis\u003c/em\u003e (ATCC 10876). Another pathogenic microorganism that we studied was yeast-like fungi, \u003cem\u003eCandida albicans\u003c/em\u003e (ATCC 10231). Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values (\u0026micro;g/mL) of extracts were determined by microtiter broth dilution method using rapid INT (iodonitrotetrazolium chloride) colorimetric assay based on the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) guidelines (Kuete et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). First, the maximum soluble concentrations of the 6 extracts were determined by dissolving them in DMSO. Stock concentrations were 50 mg/mL for DL, 50 mg/mL for TL, 55 mg/mL for ML, 50 mg/mL for MF, 40 mg/mL for TF and 60 mg/mL for DF. Stock concentrations were diluted 2-fold with Mueller\u0026ndash;Hinton broth (MHB) and added to the 96-well plate as 100 \u0026micro;l/well. Then, bacteria were added as 5 \u0026times; 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;5\u003c/sup\u003e CFU (colony-forming units)/mL for each well. Microplates were incubated at 37\u0026deg;C for 24 h. After that, 40 \u0026micro;l of 0.2 mg/mL INT was added to each well and incubated at 37\u0026deg;C for 30 mins. A representative microplate design is given in \u003cb\u003eFigure S3\u003c/b\u003e. The results were evaluated by whether the indicator resulted in a pink color. The pink color indicates bacterial growth. The colorless first dose gives the MIC value. To determine the MIC values, experiments were performed as three independent replicates and at least 2 replicates within the experiment. Ampicillin (50 mg/mL) was used to inhibit bacteria, and kanamycin (50 mg/mL) was used to inhibit yeast-like fungi as experimental positive control. An experiment was also designed to calculate MIC values ​​for these antibiotics. An experiment was designed to determine the MIC value of DMSO on microorganisms as a negative control \u003cb\u003e(Figure S4)\u003c/b\u003e. The MIC values of all extracts were determined according to the non-toxic DMSO dose. Toxic doses of DMSO in dissolved extracts were neglected in experiments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.6. Statistical Analyses\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eCell viabilities (%) (arcsine transformed) were compared using the UNIANOVA test of the SPSS program (Version 13.0). Plant morphophysiological and metal concentration measurements were compared by Student\u0026rsquo;s t-test. \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e values less than 0.05 were considered significant in statistical analyses. Significance levels used for cytotoxicity analyses were as follows, * \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05, ** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01, *** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, and **** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001, and asterisks were indicated on the bar graphs.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1. Effects of TPP proximity on the morphophysiological properties of olive leaves and fruits\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo assess the impact of proximity to the TPP on olive tree growth, we compared the size and dry weight of leaves and fruits collected from trees at varying distances. Samples from Şahinler, the closest site to the TPP, had notably smaller leaves and fruits, whereas the largest fruits were observed in those collected from Deştin, the farthest site (\u003cb\u003eFig. \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003eE\u003c/b\u003e). The dry weights of both leaves and fruits were significantly higher in Deştin than in Şahinler (\u003cb\u003eTable \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/b\u003e), with leaf dry weight being 25% higher and fruit dry weight 17% higher. These differences in size and biomass suggest that the TPP's proximity negatively affected plant morphology and physiology, likely due to heavy metal-induced stress.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2. Effects of TPP proximity on mineral and heavy metal composition of olive leaves and fruits\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo further investigate the potential effects of heavy metal-induced stress on olive trees near the TPP, we analyzed the mineral and heavy metal composition of leaves and fruits. In general, leaves and fruits from Deştin accumulated significantly higher concentrations of several elements compared to Şahinler \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e. For example, Ca levels in leaves from Deştin were 13,832.93 mg/kg versus 1,708.34 mg/kg in Şahinler, an approximate 87.7% decrease in Şahinler. In fruits, Ca dropped even more dramatically, with a 91.7% lower concentration in Şahinler compared to Deştin. Mg concentration in the leaves collected from Şahinler was 596.51 mg/kg compared to 1,241.92 mg/kg in Deştin, representing a 52.0% reduction, while fruits in Şahinler were 62.4% lower than those in Deştin. Na concentrations were 36.5% lower in Şahinler leaves (34.55 mg/kg) compared to Deştin (54.42 mg/kg), and in fruits, Na was 41.4% lower in Şahinler than in Deştin. S in leaves from Şahinler was 16.8% lower than in Deştin, with fruit S levels showing a 39.7% decrease. Al was also noticeably reduced in Şahinler, with leaves showing an 85.9% lower concentration and fruits a 90.5% decrease relative to Deştin. Fe in leaves was 76.7% lower in Şahinler, though in fruits the concentrations were very similar, differing by only a minor margin. Mn in Şahinler leaves was 70.5% lower than in Deştin, and fruit Mn was 68.3% lower. Regarding Zn, although leaves from Şahinler had a 53.7% lower concentration compared to Deştin, the fruit Zn levels were nearly identical between the two locations (a difference of only about 2.2%). On the contrary, several elements were significantly higher in Şahinler. K levels in Şahinler leaves were 177.5% higher than in Deştin, and in fruits, K was 113.8% higher.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eElemental analysis of olive leaves and fruits collected from two locations depending on their distance to the power plant.\u003c/b\u003e Values are provided in mg/kg DW. Mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SEM (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eElement\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeaf\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDeştin (Distant)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eŞahinler (Near)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDeştin (Distant)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eŞahinler (Near)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMacronutrients\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13832.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1708.34\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.94 *\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4176.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e349.45\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01 *\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eK\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6877.04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.74\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19085.36\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;35.09 *\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1808.52\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.73\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3867.52\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.92 *\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1241.92\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e596.51\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.12 *\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e382.18\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e143.77\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10 *\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e54.42\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.014\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34.55\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.028 *\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.29\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.003\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.38\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.004 *\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1019.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e982.41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e240.06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.048\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e269.32\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.074 *\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e909.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e756.55\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.41 *\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e374.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e226.24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01 *\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMicronutrients\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAl\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e62.17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.039\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.76\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.018 *\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.12\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.007\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.004 *\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25.88\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0003\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0275\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.84\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0016\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.88\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.18E-5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.18E-3 *\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.47E-5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.18\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.47E-3 *\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCu\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.012\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45.76\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.038 *\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.004\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.34\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.006 *\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e77.85\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.049\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.11\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.054 *\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.63\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.016\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMn\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.35\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.004\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.29\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.011 *\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.003\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.94\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.005 *\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.39\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0004\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.88\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0011 *\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.08\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0003\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0003\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNi\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.26\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.07E-4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26.38\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.046 *\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.18\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.01E-4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.024 *\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eZn\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.78\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.077\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.62\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.021 *\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.74\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.88E-4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.68\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.8E-4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eToxic elements\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.88E-5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.89\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.41E-3 *\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.30E-5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.88E-4 *\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCd\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.53E-5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.71\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.47E-3 *\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.07E-5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.07E-4 *\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCr\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.07E-6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.38\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.7E-3 *\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.07E-5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.87\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.44E-3 *\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e38.28\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.019\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e54.04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.023 *\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.010\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.072\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePb\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.28\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.88E-4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.80\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.018 *\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.53E-5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.18E-4 *\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003e* Indicates a significant difference between each location (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05).\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor trace and potentially toxic elements, the differences were even more striking. In Şahinler leaves, Co levels were 223-fold higher than in Deştin, while in fruits, Co levels were 29.5-fold higher. Cu concentrations in Şahinler leaves were approximately 5.6-fold higher than in Deştin, and in fruits, Cu was about 8-fold higher. Ni also showed a dramatic increase, with Şahinler leaves having roughly 20.9-fold higher Ni levels compared to Deştin, and fruits exhibiting about 11.7-fold higher levels. Toxic elements further highlight the impact of proximity to the power plant. As in Şahinler leaves were 81.5-fold higher than in Deştin, with fruits showing a 27-fold increase. Cd in Şahinler leaves was about 185.5-fold higher than in Deştin, and in fruits, Cd levels were approximately 20.8-fold higher. Cr exhibited the most dramatic difference in leaves, with a 438-fold increase in Şahinler relative to Deştin, while in fruits, Cr was about 17.4-fold higher. Hg in Şahinler leaves was 41.2% higher than in Deştin, and fruit Hg concentrations were about 29% higher. Pb levels in Şahinler leaves were 59-fold higher compared to Deştin, while in fruits, Pb was 5.75-fold higher.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor other nutrients, there was no significant difference in P and B concentrations in the leaves between the two locations. However, fruits from Şahinler had a 12.2% higher P concentration than those from Deştin. Mo levels in leaves were significantly higher in Şahinler (a 125.6% increase) compared to Deştin, while in fruits, the Mo concentrations were quite similar between the two locations (only about a 25% difference).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEssential nutrients are tightly connected, indicating their levels tend to drop together while the toxic elements also show strong interconnections, meaning their levels tend to rise together \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eFig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e. Negative interactions highlight the competition or antagonistic effects between heavy metals and essential nutrients. Taken together, our results suggest that samples from Şahinler, located near the Yatağan Thermal Power Plant, show clear signs of heavy metal contamination, with significantly elevated levels of toxic elements such as As, Cd, Cr, Ni, and Pb. At the same time, essential nutrients such as Ca, Mg, Fe, and Mn are reduced, indicating a disruption in nutrient uptake. These results suggest that industrial pollution is altering plant chemistry, leading to both nutrient imbalances and potential toxicity risks.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3. Biochemical composition of olive leaves and fruits collected from different distances from TPP\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo explore the impact of TPP proximity on the biochemical composition of olive leaves and fruits, we analyzed their metabolite profiles. Metabolites were extracted using methanol, as described in the experimental section, and their chemical composition was determined via HPLC-DAD analysis. Fruit extracts mostly contained key olive-derived compounds such as oleuropein aglycone, n\u0026uuml;zhenide 11-methyl oleoside, and oleocanthal \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eFig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eA, \u003cb\u003eTable S3)\u003c/b\u003e. Among the samples, the DF extract exhibited the highest diversity of compounds, whereas the TF extract had the lowest. Secondary metabolite accumulation in fruit extracts varied by location, with the highest levels generally observed in samples from Deştin, reinforcing the trend of greater metabolite accumulation at the site farthest from the TPP (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eA, \u003cb\u003eTable S3\u003c/b\u003e). Oleuropein aglycone D7, for instance, was 17.4 times more abundant in DF extracts compared to TF extracts, while n\u0026uuml;zhenide 11-methyl oleoside D3 and D4 were 3.4 and 4.8 times higher, respectively. However, oleuropein aglycone D6 was an exception, accumulating 1.98 times less in DF extracts than in TF extracts (\u003cb\u003eFigs. S5-S7, Table S3\u003c/b\u003e). In contrast, MF extracts had the highest concentration of oleuropein aglycone D7, followed by n\u0026uuml;zhenide 11-methyl oleoside D4 (\u003cb\u003eFig. S6, Table S3\u003c/b\u003e). Interestingly, certain metabolites, such as protocatechuic acid, gallic acid, oleuropein aglycone D5, and apigenin, were exclusively detected in fruit samples from trees near the TPP (TF extracts) but were absent from the other two locations (\u003cb\u003eTable S3\u003c/b\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOleuropein aglycone D8 was the most abundant compound detected in the leaf extracts, whereas flavonoids were also found at significantly higher levels in leaf extracts compared to fruit extracts (\u003cb\u003eFigs. S8\u0026ndash;S10, Table S4\u003c/b\u003e). Among the flavonoids, apigenin-7-glucoside was the predominant compound in the leaf extracts, while luteolin-7-glucoside was the most abundant in the fruit extracts (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eB, \u003cb\u003eTable S4\u003c/b\u003e). Notably, both leaf and fruit extracts obtained from Deştin, the farthest location from the TPP, contained the highest levels of these bioactive compounds, whereas extracts from Şahinler, the closest location to the TPP, had the lowest amounts. The most abundant compounds in the leaf extracts were oleuropein aglycone D7, apigenin-7-glycoside, and luteolin-7-glycoside, with DL extracts exhibiting the highest concentrations (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eB, \u003cb\u003eTable S4\u003c/b\u003e). Similarly, oleuropein aglycone D7 was found at its highest levels in both DF and DL extracts, particularly in those collected from Deştin. One of the key bioactive secoiridoids in olive leaves, oleuropein, can constitute 6\u0026ndash;9% of the dry matter, along with related secoiridoids, flavonoids, and triterpenes (El and Karakaya 2009). Although secondary metabolites such as ferulic acid, luteolin, luteolin glycoside, and apigenin glycoside were also present in the leaves of trees near the TPP (Table S4), their concentrations were lower than those in trees from Deştin, suggesting that environmental factors associated with TPP proximity may influence the accumulation of these bioactive compounds. Taken together, these findings suggest that proximity to the TPP significantly influences the metabolic profiles of olive leaves and fruits, likely due to exposure to heavy metals. The lower accumulation of key bioactive compounds in samples from trees closest to the TPP indicates that these stressors may disrupt secondary metabolite biosynthesis, potentially affecting the nutritional and pharmacological properties of olives.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4. Cytotoxicity profiles of fruit and leaf extracts on human cells\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo further investigate the potential implications of these metabolic alterations, we evaluated whether the observed differences in secondary metabolite accumulation influence the biological effects of olive extracts on human cells. Olive fruit and leaf extracts collected from different locations were applied to healthy human cell lines at a range of doses (0 \u0026micro;g/mL, 0.032 \u0026micro;g/mL, 0.16 \u0026micro;g/mL, 0.8 \u0026micro;g/mL, 4 \u0026micro;g/mL, 20 \u0026micro;g/mL, 100 \u0026micro;g/mL, and 500 \u0026micro;g/mL) for 24 h or 48 h, and the cytotoxic effects of these samples were analyzed. In ARPE-19 \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eFig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e and MCF10A \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eFig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e cells, olive leaf extracts obtained from the closest location to the TPP showed more cytotoxic effects at 100 \u0026micro;g/mL for 48 h than fruit extracts at the conditions (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). IC50 values of ARPE-19 cells at 48h were 115,35 \u0026micro;g/mL, 126,3 \u0026micro;g/mL, and 237,28 \u0026micro;g/mL after treatments with leaf extracts collected from thermal, central, and Destin, respectively \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e. MCF10A cells were more resistant, compared to ARPE-19 cells, as IC50 values at 48h were 287,07 \u0026micro;g/mL, 239,1 \u0026micro;g/mL, and 486,14 \u0026micro;g/mL after treatments with leaf extracts collected from thermal, central, and Destin, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAverage IC50 doses (\u0026micro;g/ml) at 24h and 48h for each cell after extracts collected from different locations\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCell\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIncubation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24 hours\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48 hours\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLocation\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eExtract\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThermal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCentral\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDestin\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThermal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCentral\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDestin\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eARPE-19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN.D\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN.D\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN.D\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN.D\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN.D\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN.D\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeaf\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN.D\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN.D\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN.D\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e115,35\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e126,30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e237,28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMCF10A\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN.D\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN.D\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN.D\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN.D\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN.D\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN.D\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeaf\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN.D\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN.D\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN.D\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e287,07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e239,10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e486,14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBEAS-2B\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e555,18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e311,85\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e370,17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e179,11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e171,68\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e176,10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeaf\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e281,47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN.D\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN.D\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e127,18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e215,07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e248,20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHUVEC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN.D\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e216,11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e207,80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e391,91\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e270,17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e273,88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeaf\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e406,40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN.D\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN.D\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e353,82\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e292,87\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN.D\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"8\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN.D. not detectable\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe highest cytotoxicity (around 80% cell death) was shown in BEAS-2B cells after 500 \u0026micro;g/mL leaf extract from the thermal location for 48 h compared to other locations (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eFig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e, and 100 \u0026micro;g/mL was also significantly cytotoxic if the extract from thermal. IC50 values for thermal, central, and Destin were 127,18\u0026micro;g/mL, 215,07\u0026micro;g/mL, and 248,20\u0026micro;g/mL, respectively \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e. Fruit extracts induced similar cytotoxicity at 48, and interestingly IC50 dose (555,18\u0026micro;g/mL) was the maximum for thermal fruits suggesting that thermal leaves were highly cytotoxic for BEAS-2B cells but thermal fruits were not. There was a similar cytotoxicity profile of HUVEC cells after the treatment with 500 \u0026micro;g/mL leaf extracts of collected forms from both in the center and near the TPP compared to the further Destin village \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eFig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e. Thermal leaves (500 \u0026micro;g/mL) were significantly cytotoxic at 24h (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) but not at 48h. However thermal fruits at 100 \u0026micro;g/mL and 500 \u0026micro;g/mL were less cytotoxic than samples from other locations \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eFig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e. IC50 values for thermal, central, and Destin after fruit extracts at 48h were 391,91 \u0026micro;g/mL, 270,17 \u0026micro;g/mL, and 273,88\u0026micro;g/mL, respectively \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCell viability comparisons between the cells treated with 100\u0026micro;g/mL or 500\u0026micro;g/mL leaf or fruit extracts (48h) collected from the thermal region are summarized in \u003cb\u003eTable S6.\u003c/b\u003e The cytotoxicity results suggest that the leaf extract is more cytotoxic in ARPE-19 and MCF10A cells, and the death rate is similar in all locations after the highest dose (500 \u0026micro;g/mL) of leaf extracts. In contrast, 100 \u0026micro;g/mL of leaf extracts from Şahinler, the location closest to the TPP, resulted in cytotoxicity of the cells compared to other locations. Unlike ARPE-19 and MCF10A2, fruit extracts showed more cytotoxic activity in BEAS-2B and HUVEC cells. \u003cb\u003eTable S7\u003c/b\u003e summarizes the comparison of cell viability after treatment with 100 \u0026micro;g/mL or 500 \u0026micro;g/mL leaf or fruit extracts for 48 h, specifically using samples collected from the closest location to the TPP. This selection was made to assess whether exposure to environmental stressors associated with TPP proximity, such as heavy metal accumulation and reduced secondary metabolite content, affects the cytotoxic potential of olive extracts. The cytotoxicity of BEAS-2B cells appears to be more sensitive to the leaf extracts at 100 \u0026micro;g/mL compared to other cells. All cells responded to the highest concentrations (500 \u0026micro;g/mL) of leaf extracts similarly, as no significant differences between the cells were observed. However, after treatment with the highest concentration (500 \u0026micro;g/mL) of fruit extracts for 48 h, statistically significant differences in cell viability were detected. These findings suggest that the increased cytotoxicity of olive extracts from trees closest to the TPP may be attributed to the combined effects of reduced bioactive metabolite accumulation and potential heavy metal contamination. The lower concentrations of key secondary metabolites, such as oleuropein aglycones and flavonoids, in samples from Şahinler could diminish their protective antioxidant properties, while elevated heavy metal exposure may enhance their cytotoxic effects. This interplay highlights the impact of environmental pollution on the biochemical and biological properties of olive-derived products, with potential implications for their nutritional and pharmacological value.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.5. Antimicrobial and antifungal activities of fruit and leaf extracts against pathogenic bacteria and fungi\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo evaluate the potential antimicrobial properties of olive extracts, we assessed their antibacterial and antifungal activities against a range of pathogenic microorganisms. This study included three Gram-negative bacteria (\u003cem\u003eE. coli, Y. pseudotuberculosis\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eP. aeruginosa\u003c/em\u003e), three Gram-positive bacteria (\u003cem\u003eS. aureus, E. faecalis\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eB. subtilis\u003c/em\u003e), and one yeast-like fungus (\u003cem\u003eC. albicans\u003c/em\u003e). The effects of the extracts on these microorganisms, along with their MIC values, are presented in \u003cb\u003eTable S8\u003c/b\u003e. While some extracts exhibited antimicrobial activity, others did not (\u003cb\u003eFig. S4\u003c/b\u003e). Specifically, none of the olive fruit or leaf extracts demonstrated activity against \u003cem\u003eB. subtilis, E. faecalis, P. aeruginosa, Y. pseudotuberculosis, E. coli\u003c/em\u003e, or \u003cem\u003eC. albicans\u003c/em\u003e, and their MIC values could not be determined. However, antimicrobial activity against \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e was observed in all fruit and leaf extracts except MF. The MIC values for \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e were recorded as 13.73 mg/mL for ML, 12.5 mg/mL for TL, 20 mg/mL for TF, 12.5 mg/mL for DL, and 30 mg/mL for DF extract. These findings suggest that while olive extracts exhibit selective antimicrobial properties, their activity is primarily restricted to \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e, with no detectable effects on other tested bacteria and fungi. Moreover, the antimicrobial activity of olive leaf extracts was higher than that of olive fruit extracts, and the highest MIC value was observed in the DF extract, indicating that the fruit extracts from Deştin had the weakest antimicrobial activity, emphasizing the trend of lower antimicrobial effectiveness in samples from the site farthest from the TPP.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.1 Proximity to the TPP decreases leaf and fruit biomass and essential mineral concentrations while increasing toxic element accumulation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur findings indicate that proximity to the Yatağan TPP negatively impacts olive tree morphology and physiology, likely due to heavy metal-induced stress. Leaves and fruits from Şahinler (closest site) had significantly lower dry weights than those from Deştin (farthest site) \u003cstrong\u003e(Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003eA-E, Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e). This aligns with previous studies showing that plants near TPPs accumulate heavy metals like Cd, Pb, and Cr, which disrupt growth and nutrient uptake (Pathak, Rawat, and Fulekar \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNutrient uptake was significantly disrupted near the TPP, with Ca, Mg, Fe, and Mn concentrations drastically reduced in Şahinler. For instance, fruit Ca levels in Şahinler were 91.7% lower than in Deştin (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e), likely due to soil acidification and competition from toxic metals (Zaanouni et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, Fe and Mn were 76.7% and 70.5% lower, respectively, suggesting inhibition by heavy metals like Pb and Ni. In contrast, K levels were 177.5% higher in leaves and 113.8% higher in fruits in Şahinler, potentially due to altered soil pH and atmospheric deposition (J. Li et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; K. lou Liu et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, Na and S levels were reduced by 36.5\u0026ndash;41.4% and 16.8\u0026ndash;39.7%, respectively, in Şahinler samples (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). A previous study conducted in the same region reported comparable reductions in S concentrations, supporting our findings (Haktanir et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Lower Na may be associated with competition among cations in contaminated soils, whereas S concentration decreases, despite coal combustion being a common source of sulfur compounds, which could result from acidic deposition altering soil chemistry. These trends confirm observations in other Mediterranean olive plantations exposed to industrial pollutants (Şahan and Başoğlu 2009).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor trace and potentially toxic elements, the differences were even more pronounced. In Şahinler leaves, As increased 81.5-fold, Cd 185.5-fold, and Cr 438-fold compared to Deştin (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Fruits showed similar trends, with 27-fold higher As, 20.8-fold higher Cd, and 17.4-fold higher Cr. Hg and Pb also increased substantially. These findings align with previous research showing that olive trees in proximity to power plants, industrial zones, and high-traffic areas can accumulate toxic metals to levels that pose potential food safety risks (Namuq \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Y\u0026uuml;cel and Kılı\u0026ccedil;oğlu 2020; Petrella et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Zaanouni et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Şahan and Başoğlu 2009). A prior study analyzing olive leaves collected 4 km and 40 km from Yatağan TPP found that Cr, Ni, and Pb accumulated at toxic levels in the closer location, despite soil concentrations of these metals, except for Ni, remaining within normal ranges (Yokaş et al. 2008). Another study from the same region reported that sesame and carrot plants accumulated the highest Pb, Cu, Cd, and Zn concentrations depending on their proximity to the TPP (Haktanir et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). In that study, olive trees were also found to accumulate significantly higher levels of Pb and Cd, with concentrations exceeding permitted limits for edible vegetables. Although long-term irrigation with treated municipal wastewater has been shown to exacerbate metal uptake, causing Fe, Mn, Pb, and Zn to accumulate preferentially in olive roots, fruits, and leaves (Al-Habahbeh et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), our results indicate that toxic metals such as As, Cd, Cr, Ni, and Pb accumulated significantly in olive leaves and fruits. Olive trees in other polluted regions, such as İzmir and Aydın, T\u0026uuml;rkiye, have exhibited similar contamination patterns, with Cd, Ni, and Cu transferring into fruits (Turan et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Deliboran \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHeavy metal bioaccumulation poses significant health risks, especially for children, due to their toxicity and persistence in the food chain (Knezovic et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). High levels of metals like Pb and Cd pose health risks, making it crucial to monitor and control metal concentrations in olive oil (Rekik et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Liang and Yang 2019). The significant elevation of toxic elements (As, Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb) alongside the reduction of essential nutrients (Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn) suggests that industrial emissions due to Yatağan TPP are altering soil and plant chemistry, leading to nutrient imbalances and potential toxicity. Similar patterns have been documented in studies from Tunisia and T\u0026uuml;rkiye, where heavy metal contamination from industrial activities has disrupted plant nutrient uptake and raised concerns for human health through the food chain (Zaanouni et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Şahan and Başoğlu 2009). The increase in toxic heavy metals interferes with the uptake and mobility of essential nutrients in olive trees. This supports the hypothesis that heavy metal contamination disrupts plant nutrition, leading to micronutrient deficiencies. Fe and Zn seem particularly affected, which is consistent with research showing that heavy metals like Pb and Cd inhibit Fe and Zn absorption in plants by competing with Fe/Zn for transporters (e.g., ZIP, NRAMP families) (Morina and K\u0026uuml;pper 2020; Bulut and Yıldırım Doğan 2018; Shen et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), and bioavailability (Y. Li et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Yu et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), exacerbating essential micronutrient deficiency. While P and B remained stable, Mo levels were 125.6% higher in Şahinler leaves, indicating selective impacts of industrial pollution on different nutrients.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.2 TPP has a negative effect on the nutritional value and quality of olive leaves and fruits\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur study revealed that fruit extracts primarily contained major olive compounds such as oleuropein aglycone, n\u0026uuml;zhenide 11-methyl oleoside, and oleocanthal (\u003cstrong\u003eTable S3\u003c/strong\u003e), while leaf extracts were rich in oleuropein, hydroxytyrosol, luteolin-7-glucoside, apigenin-7-glucoside, and verbascoside (El and Karakaya 2009)(Silva et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Leaves and fruits from Deştin (farthest site) exhibited the highest diversity and concentration of these bioactive compounds, whereas those from Şahinler (closest site) had the lowest. These results indicate that proximity to the TPP reduces the production of secondary metabolites, aligning with reports that environmental pollution suppresses bioactive compound synthesis in medicinal plants (Gurme et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). These metabolites are vital for plant defense against environmental stress and contribute to the nutritional and therapeutic quality of olive products.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur results showed that different forms of flavonoids accumulated in fruits and leaf extracts. Apigenin was the dominant flavonoid in fruit extracts from Şahinler, while apigenin glycoside was prevalent in the leaves (\u003cstrong\u003eTables S3, and S4\u003c/strong\u003e). Apigenin has well-documented anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-cancer, and anti-microbial properties (Naponelli, Rocchetti, and Mangieri 2024). It scavenges free radicals and reduces oxidative stress, enhances mitochondrial function, induces apoptosis in cancer cells while sparing healthy cells by inhibiting angiogenesis and cell proliferation, promotes neuronal survival and protects against neurodegenerative diseases, and disrupts bacterial cell walls and membranes, making bacteria more susceptible to damage. Interestingly, apigenin and its derivatives accumulated only in Şahinler samples, suggesting that heavy metal-induced oxidative stress triggered their synthesis as a protective response. This accumulation could be an adaptive mechanism to counteract oxidative stress led by heavy metal accumulation, as apigenin is known for its protective roles against environmental stress (Gaur and Siddique 2024). Similar stress-induced flavonoid accumulation, specifically apigenin, has been observed in chamomile flowers exposed to Cd toxicity (Zarinkamar, Moradi, and Davoodpour 2021). The selective accumulation in Şahinler samples may indicate that plants exposed to higher levels of heavy metals prioritize the production of specific flavonoids to enhance their resilience. In addition to apigenin and its derivatives, other secondary metabolites such as ferulic acid, luteloin, and luteloin glycoside were also detected in the leaves of trees close to the TPP. These flavonoids serve critical roles in plant metabolism, including protection against UV radiation, defense against pathogens, and regulation of metabolic processes (Salehi et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBesides, chlorogenic acid and caffeic acid, which were not found in samples from other regions, were found in the leaf samples collected from Deştin, which is the farthest from the TPP. Oleocanthal phenolic compound was found in the fruit samples. Oleochantal is a monophenolic secoiridoid, a group of antioxidants in some plant-based foods. Since this compound could not be detected in the fruits of olives grown in two regions near the TPP, it can be thought that the proximity of the olive plant to the TPP has a negative effect on nutritional value and quality. Since olive fruit is used directly as food, these negative effects may also have adverse effects on the human body. Oleocanthal has strong anti-inflammatory activities (Pang and Chin 2018), and this was found only in the fruit extracts collected from the farthest location (Deştin village). TPPs may prevent the production of oleocanthal and therefore can lower the nutritional yield of olive fruits. On the other hand, leaf extracts collected from around the TPP have ferulic acid. Ferulic acid was not a main content of leaves, however such apigenin-7-glycoside, vanillic acid, and caffeic acid were abundant in the leaves of \u003cem\u003eO. europea\u003c/em\u003e (Benavente-Garc\u0026iacute;a et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). Caffeic and chlorogenic acids were only found in the leaf extracts collected from Deştin village, while oleocanthal was the component only found in fruit extracts from Deştin village. Xie \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e found that one of the common contents of leaves and fruit is apigenin-7-\u0026beta;-D-glucose (Xie et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Unal \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e found that the concentrations of chromium, lead, zinc, and copper in the leaves of olive trees close to a factory in Izmir Kemalpaşa industrial zone (T\u0026uuml;rkiye) were higher than in the leaves of olive trees farther from the region (\u0026Uuml;nal et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). The results of this study suggest that the closeness to the TPP affected the quantitative and qualitative features of leaves and fruits.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGallic acid (GA) was found high both in fruit and leaf extracts from the samples around TPP, and we have also detected a significant increase in cadmium in both extracts. A study examined the effect of seed pre-soaking with GA on sunflower seedlings exposed to cadmium stress suggesting that GA acts as a growth promoter under cadmium stress by strengthening the anti-oxidant defense system and protecting cellular integrity (Saidi et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Gallic acid treatment has made \u003cem\u003eLepidium sativum\u003c/em\u003e seedlings tolerant to salt stress (Babaei, Shabani, and Hashemi-Shahraki 2022). Significant accumulation of gallic acid in the samples from Şahinler village suggests that olive plants may gain resistance to TPP-induced heavy-metal stress by gallic acid\u0026rsquo;s biological activity. Taken together, our findings showed that proximity to TPPs have negative impacts on olive plant metabolism due to heavy metal increase. These results raise critical questions about where and how TPPs should be established and demand immediate strategies to minimize their environmental and biological footprint. Future studies should investigate the molecular mechanisms behind these effects and explore ways to mitigate TPP-induced toxicity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e4.3. Leaf extracts of olives around TPP display the highest cytotoxicity in human cells\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCell culture studies showed that extracts of leaves collected from Şahinler village were more cytotoxic in human cells compared to the extracts of counterpart fruits. Leaves and fruits of \u003cem\u003eO. europea\u003c/em\u003e are reported to have anti-cancer effects on different cancer cell lines, and leaves also have an anti-hypertension and anti-microbial potential (Alesci et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). It was found that olive leaf extracts induced cytotoxicity in colon cancer cells, while these did not significantly affect normal human fibroblast cells (\u0026Ouml;zt\u0026uuml;rk, \u0026Ccedil;alık, and Ulusoy 2022). There are also many studies showed the cytotoxicity on breast cancer cells (Junkins, Rodgers, and Phelan \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Han et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e), liver cancer cells (using commercial olive plants) (Bektay et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), but not in normal cells such as human gingival and neutrophil cells (Han et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e), normal liver cells (Bektay et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) and human mesenchymal stem cells (Işik et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Işık \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e collected samples from three different suburbs of Balikesir City; Ayvalık, Domat, and Uslu (T\u0026uuml;rkiye) which TPPs are not around these (Işik et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Han \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e declared that they collected samples in Tunisia without any specific location (Han et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Many of these studies did not mention the location of the sample collection. These all suggest that olive plants are not harmful to normal human cells. However, there is no study to assess the effects of TPP on olive composition and their treatment.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA range of plants are contaminated with heavy metals from environmental factors. In this context, the detection of heavy metals in the extracts obtained especially from medicinal plants indicates that these plants may have a direct negative impact on human health. For instance, a high amount of copper was reported in the extracts of \u003cem\u003eArtemisia herba-alba\u003c/em\u003e, a widely used medicinal plant for the digestive system and diabetes as well as against infection, collected from different locations in Jordan (Abu-Darwish et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Cadmium was found high in the extracts obtained from \u003cem\u003eAndrographis paniculata\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eGrona styracifolia\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eHouttuynia cordata\u003c/em\u003e Thunb., and \u003cem\u003eCurcuma longa\u003c/em\u003e L. purchased from different Chinese herbal markets in China (Luo et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) exposure significantly reduced human bone osteoblast viability in a concentration- and time-dependent manner, with cytotoxic effects observed at 0.1 \u0026micro;M after 48 hours. Both heavy metals impair cellular bioenergetics, reducing ATP production, mitochondrial activity, and aerobic respiration while inducing oxidative stress through elevated reactive oxygen species (ROS), lipid peroxidation, and depletion of antioxidant defenses (Al-Ghafari et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). In vivo studies also showed that heavy metals were associated with oxidative stress in many organs in the human body (Mirkov et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Thermal power plants are known to contaminate soils with heavy metals (S. Mandal, Bhattacharya, and Paul 2022). Maize cultivated near a coal-burning power plant in Bangladesh accumulated eight heavy metals (Ni, Cr, Cd, Mn, As, Cu, Zn, and Pb), with Zn and Cu being the most abundant in the soil (Islam et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Olives grown around thermal power plants were also reported to accumulate heavy metals (Şahan and Başoğlu 2009).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFerrulic acid was only found in the leaf extracts of olives collected around the TPP \u003cstrong\u003e(Table S4)\u003c/strong\u003e. Ferulic acid is a biologically active compound in oxidative stress, inflammation, vascular endothelial injury, fibrosis, cell death, and even platelet aggregation (D. Li et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Apigenin was also another component increased in the samples from TPP. It has a function in the cell cycle arrest during different phases of proliferation, such as G1/S or G2/M by promoting several cyclin-dependent kinases and other genes (Iizumi et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Maggioni et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Takagaki et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). This may result in cell death suggesting that it is therefore considered to have cytotoxic activity within the cells. However, olive is a well-known healthy food and is not supposed to be harmful to healthy human cells. Our study showed that environmental pollution by TPPs is associated with the cytotoxicity of olive leaves in healthy human cells.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e4.4. Proximity to the TPP alters the antimicrobial activity of olive fruits but not leaves\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe \u003cem\u003ein vitro\u003c/em\u003e antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of olive leaves and fruits against pathogenic bacteria and fungi have been demonstrated before (Juven and Henis \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1970\u003c/span\u003e; Malhadas et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Mark\u0026iacute;n, Duek, and Berd\u0026iacute;cevsky \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; \u0026Scaron;imat et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Borjan et al. 2020). Studies have shown that olive leaf extracts effectively inhibit pathogens such as \u003cem\u003eListeria monocytogenes\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e O157:H7, \u003cem\u003eSalmonella enteritidis\u003c/em\u003e (Y. Liu, McKeever, and Malik 2017), and \u003cem\u003eCandida\u003c/em\u003e species (Kinkela Devčić et al. 2024). Similarly, olive leaves from Muğla province, T\u0026uuml;rkiye, demonstrated broad-spectrum antimicrobial properties, with the highest activity against \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e (Baysal et al. 2021), similar to our findings. This suggests that olive genotype (Memecik cultivar) and environmental factors, including soil composition, climate, and irrigation, influence the production of antimicrobial phenolic compounds. Different olive cultivars exhibit variations in the concentration of phenolic compounds, such as oleuropein and hydroxytyrosol, which directly impact their ability to inhibit bacterial growth (Pereira et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, soil fertility and nutrient availability can significantly alter the composition of phenolic compounds in olive leaves (Y. Zhang et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) while irrigation regimes alters the production of phenoplics, such as oleurope, in olive trees (Talhaoui et al. 2015),\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWhile TPP proximity did not affect the antimicrobial activity of leaf extracts, it significantly enhanced the activity of fruit extracts from Şahinler (the closest site) against \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e (Table S8). This may be due to increased phenolic compound accumulation or heavy metal exposure near the TPP. Similar findings were reported in olive trees near the Baniyas Oil Refinery, where Pb and Mn levels correlated with increased phenolic content (Mahfoud, Khalil, and Moustapha 2018). Furthermore, similar to our results, heavy metal exposure was shown to stimulate phenolic biosynthesis as a defense response to oxidative stress (Senekovič, Jelen, and Urbanek Krajnc 2025), which could explain the enhanced antimicrobial activity in fruits from the closest site to TPP. These results indicate the complex interplay between genetic and environmental factors in shaping the antimicrobial potential of olives. While olive leaf antimicrobial activity remains stable regardless of pollution exposure, TPP proximity appears to modulate fruit antimicrobial properties, potentially through stress-induced phenolic accumulation. Further research is needed to determine the precise mechanisms behind these changes and their implications for food safety and therapeutic applications.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study provides the first comprehensive evaluation of how proximity to thermal power plants affects the biochemical composition of olive fruits and leaves, as well as the antimicrobial activity and cytotoxic effects of their extracts on healthy human cells. Our results indicate that industrial emissions disrupt nutrient uptake in olive trees, markedly reducing essential elements like Ca, Mg, Fe, and Mn while increasing toxic metals such as As, Cd, Cr, Ni, and Pb. This elemental imbalance compromises the nutritional quality of olives and raises potential food safety concerns. In addition, our findings demonstrate that distance from the TPP plays a critical role in determining the secondary metabolite profiles of olive plants. Samples collected farther from the TPP exhibited a richer diversity and higher concentrations of key bioactive compounds. In contrast, plants closer to the TPP showed a selective accumulation of flavonoids, such as apigenin and its derivatives, which may represent an adaptive defense mechanism against heavy metal stress and pollutant exposure. Although this response helps counteract oxidative stress, it appears to come at the expense of reducing compounds that are nutritionally and pharmacologically important. Furthermore, olive leaf extracts from areas near the TPP exhibited significant cytotoxicity on human bronchial cells, suggesting that increased heavy metal accumulation may pose health risks. These observations highlight the importance of considering the distance from industrial sources when assessing the quality and safety of olive-derived products.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCritically, olive leaf extracts from areas near the TPP exhibited strong cytotoxicity, particularly on BEAS-2B bronchial cells, indicating potential human health risks associated with consumption or exposure. The alarming accumulation of heavy metals in olives, combined with their cytotoxic effects, highlights the urgent need for stringent environmental monitoring and regulation of industrial emissions. Without intervention, these disruptions to plant and soil chemistry could have cascading effects on agricultural sustainability, public health, and ecosystem stability.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors thank Prof. Nurettin YAYLI and Mrs. Gözde BOZDAL (Karadeniz Technical University) for assisting with leaf/fruit extractions, topographical engineer Mrs. Zeliha BAYRAM (İstanbul Municipality) for assisting with the use of Google Maps for finding locations, Prof. Zülal ATLI ŞEKEROĞLU (Ordu University), Assoc. Prof. Hatice SEVİM NALKIRAN (Recep Tayyip Erdogan University), Dr. Cihan INAN (Karadeniz Technical University) for providing batches of BEAS-2B, ARPE-19, and MCF10A cells, respectively, Prof. Kadriye INAN BEKTAS (Karadeniz Technical University) for assisting anti-microbial experiments, Mr. Ali GÜRBÜZ for collecting fruit and leaves, and METU Central Laboratory for ICP-MS analyses. HUVEC cells \u0026nbsp;were purchased from ATCC (CRL-1730™).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData is provided within the manuscript or supplementary information files.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclaration of interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that no conflict of interest exists.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was supported by a 2209-A grant fromTUBITAK (Project ID:\u0026nbsp;1919B012306896) and by \u0026nbsp; Karadeniz Technical University (Project IDs: FLÖ-2024-11149, FLÖ-2024-11176 and FHD-2024-16036).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclaration of generative AI in scientific writing\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDuring the preparation of this work the authors used ChatGPT (OpenAI) to improve the readability and language of the manuscript. After using this tool, the authors reviewed and edited the content as needed and took full responsibility for the content of the published article.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbu-Darwish, M. S., Mohammad, M. Y., Abu-Darwish, D. \u0026amp; Efferth, T. and Ziad Hamdan Abu-Dieyeh. Heavy Metal Contents in Water Extracts of Selected Medicinal Plants Used in the Folk Medicine of Jordan. \u003cem\u003ePhytomedicine Plus\u003c/em\u003e 4 (4). Elsevier: 100634. (2024). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1016/J.PHYPLU.2024.100634\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/J.PHYPLU.2024.100634\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAkg\u0026uuml;\u0026ccedil;, N., \u0026Ouml;zyiğit, İ. İ., Yaşar, \u0026Uuml;., Leblebici, Z. \u0026amp; Yarcı, C. Use of Pyracantha Coccinea Roem. as a Possible Biomonitor for the Selected Heavy Metals. \u003cem\u003eInt. J. Environ. Sci. Tech.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e7\u003c/b\u003e (3), 427\u0026ndash;434 (2010). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttp://acikerisim.nevsehir.edu.tr/xmlui/handle/20.500.11787/4786\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"http://acikerisim.nevsehir.edu.tr/xmlui/handle/20.500.11787/4786\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAl-Ghafari, A., Elmorsy, E., Fikry, E. \u0026amp; Alrowaili, M. and Wayne G. Carter. The Heavy Metals Lead and Cadmium Are Cytotoxic to Human Bone Osteoblasts via Induction of Redox Stress. \u003cem\u003ePLoS ONE\u003c/em\u003e 14 (11). Public Library of Science: e0225341. (2019). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1371/JOURNAL.PONE.0225341\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1371/JOURNAL.PONE.0225341\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAl-Habahbeh, K. A. et al. Long-Term Irrigation with Treated Municipal Wastewater from the Wadi-Musa Region: Soil Heavy Metal Accumulation, Uptake and Partitioning in Olive Trees. \u003cem\u003eHorticulturae 2021, Vol. 7, Page 152\u003c/em\u003e 7 (6). Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute: 152. (2021). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.3390/HORTICULTURAE7060152\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/HORTICULTURAE7060152\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAlesci, A., Miller, A., Tardugno, R. \u0026amp; Simona Pergolizzi Chemical Analysis, Biological and Therapeutic Activities of Olea Europaea L. Extracts. \u003cem\u003eNatural Product Research\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eNat. Prod. Res.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1080/14786419.2021.1922404\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1080/14786419.2021.1922404\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (2022).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAltunoğlu, Y. and Fahri Yemiş\u0026ccedil;ioğlu. Determination of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Olives Exposed to Three Different Industrial Sources and in Their Respective Oils. \u003cem\u003eFood Additives \u0026amp; Contaminants: Part A\u003c/em\u003e 38 (3). Taylor \u0026amp; Francis: 439\u0026ndash;451. (2021). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1080/19440049.2020.1861340\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1080/19440049.2020.1861340\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBabaei, M. \u0026amp; Shabani, L. and Shahla Hashemi-Shahraki. Improving the Effects of Salt Stress by β-Carotene and Gallic Acid Using Increasing Antioxidant Activity and Regulating Ion Uptake in Lepidium Sativum L. \u003cem\u003eBotanical Studies\u003c/em\u003e 63 (1). Springer Science and Business Media Deutschland GmbH: 1\u0026ndash;10. (2022). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1186/S40529-022-00352-X/FIGURES/8\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1186/S40529-022-00352-X/FIGURES/8\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBaysal, G\u0026uuml;lay, E. E. \u0026amp; Kasapbaşı Nurg\u0026uuml;l Yavuz, Z\u0026uuml;hre H\u0026uuml;r, K\u0026uuml;bra Gen\u0026ccedil;, and Musa Gen\u0026ccedil;. 2021. Determination of Theoretical Calculations by DFT Method and Investigation of Antioxidant, Antimicrobial Properties of Olive Leaf Extracts from Different Regions. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Food Science and Technology\u003c/em\u003e 58 (5). J Food Sci Technol: 1909\u0026ndash;1917. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1007/S13197-020-04702-0\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/S13197-020-04702-0\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBektay, M., Yunus, E. M., G\u0026uuml;ler, M., G\u0026ouml;k\u0026ccedil;e \u0026amp; Mustafa Volkan, K. Investigation of the Genotoxic, Cytotoxic, Apoptotic, and Oxidant Effects of Olive Leaf Extracts on Liver Cancer Cell Lines. \u003cem\u003eTurkish Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences\u003c/em\u003e 18 (6). Turkish Pharmacists Association: 781\u0026ndash;789. (2021). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.4274/TJPS.GALENOS.2021.03271\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.4274/TJPS.GALENOS.2021.03271\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBenavente-Garc\u0026iacute;a, O., Castillo, J., Lorente, J., Ortu\u0026ntilde;o, A. \u0026amp; Del Rio, J. A. Antioxidant Activity of Phenolics Extracted from Olea Europaea L. Leaves. \u003cem\u003eFood Chemistry\u003c/em\u003e 68 (4). Elsevier: 457\u0026ndash;462. (2000). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1016/S0308-8146(99)00221-6\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/S0308-8146(99)00221-6\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBorjan, D. \u0026amp; Leitgeb, M. Željko Knez, and Maša Knez Hrnčič. 2020. Microbiological and Antioxidant Activity of Phenolic Compounds in Olive Leaf Extract. \u003cem\u003eMolecules (Basel, Switzerland)\u003c/em\u003e 25 (24). Molecules. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.3390/MOLECULES25245946\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/MOLECULES25245946\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBulut, H. \u0026amp; Nalan Yıldırım, D. Determination by Molecular Methods of Genetic and Epigenetic Changes Caused by Heavy Metals Released from Thermal Power Plants. \u003cem\u003eApplied Biological Chemistry\u003c/em\u003e 61 (2). Springer Science and Business Media B.V.: 189\u0026ndash;196. (2018). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1007/s13765-018-0346-8\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s13765-018-0346-8\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCardoni, M. \u0026amp; Jes\u0026uacute;s, M. B. Confronting Stresses Affecting Olive Cultivation from the Holobiont Perspective. \u003cem\u003eFrontiers in Plant Science\u003c/em\u003e 14 (November). Frontiers Media SA: 1261754. (2023). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.3389/FPLS.2023.1261754/PDF\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3389/FPLS.2023.1261754/PDF\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCecchi, L., Ghizzani, G., Bellumori, M., Lammi, C. \u0026amp; Zanoni, B. and Nadia Mulinacci. Virgin Olive Oil By-Product Valorization: An Insight into the Phenolic Composition of Olive Seed Extracts from Three Cultivars as Sources of Bioactive Molecules. \u003cem\u003eMolecules 2023, Vol. 28, Page 2776\u003c/em\u003e 28 (6). Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute: 2776. (2023). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.3390/MOLECULES28062776\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/MOLECULES28062776\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eChen, Y., Huang, Y. F. Y., Liao, X., Xu, W. \u0026amp; Zhang, T. A Comprehensive Review of Toxicity of Coal Fly Ash and Its Leachate in the Ecosystem. \u003cem\u003eEcotoxicology and Environmental Safety\u003c/em\u003e 269 (January). Academic Press: 115905. (2024). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1016/J.ECOENV.2023.115905\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/J.ECOENV.2023.115905\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCicek, A. \u0026amp; Koparal, A. S. Accumulation of Sulfur and Heavy Metals in Soil and Tree Leaves Sampled from the Surroundings of Tun\u0026ccedil;bilek Thermal Power Plant. \u003cem\u003eChemosphere\u003c/em\u003e 57 (8). Pergamon: 1031\u0026ndash;1036. (2004). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1016/J.CHEMOSPHERE.2004.07.038\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/J.CHEMOSPHERE.2004.07.038\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDeliboran, A. Environmental, Ecological, and Health Risks Assessment of Olive Orchard Soils in Izmir Province of Turkey. \u003cem\u003eJuly\u003c/em\u003e \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.21203/RS.3.RS-1764874/V2\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.21203/RS.3.RS-1764874/V2\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (2022).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDemir, E., Ayazoglu, A., Colak, S., Celik Uzuner \u0026amp; Bekircan, O. Cytotoxic Effect of a 3-(4-Chlorophenyl)-5-(4-Methoxybenzyl)-4H-1,2,4-Triazole Derivative Compound in Human Melanoma Cells. \u003cem\u003eInt. J. Biology Chem.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e14\u003c/b\u003e (1), 139\u0026ndash;148. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.26577/IJBCH.2021.V14.I1.015\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.26577/IJBCH.2021.V14.I1.015\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (2021). al-Farabi Kazakh National University.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEl, S. N. \u0026amp; Sibel Karakaya Olive Tree (Olea Europaea) Leaves: Potential Beneficial Effects on Human Health. \u003cem\u003eNutrition Reviews Nutr. Rev.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1111/j.1753-4887.2009.00248.x\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1111/j.1753-4887.2009.00248.x\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (2009).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eElhrech, H. et al. and Abdelhakim Bouyahya. Comprehensive Review of Olea Europaea: A Holistic Exploration into Its Botanical Marvels, Phytochemical Riches, Therapeutic Potentials, and Safety Profile. \u003cem\u003eBiomolecules 2024, Vol. 14, Page 722\u003c/em\u003e 14 (6). Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute: 722. (2024). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.3390/BIOM14060722\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/BIOM14060722\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGaur, K. and Yasir Hasan Siddique. The Role of Apigenin in Alleviating the Impact of Environmental Pollutants. \u003cem\u003eCurrent Bioactive Compounds\u003c/em\u003e 20 (1). Bentham Science Publishers Ltd.: E050324227673. (2024). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.2174/0115734072296125240221061200/CITE/REFWORKS\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.2174/0115734072296125240221061200/CITE/REFWORKS\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGurme, S. T., Mahendra, L., Ahire, Jaykumar, J., Chavan \u0026amp; Mundada, P. S. The Influence of Environmental Pollution on Secondary Metabolite Production in Medicinal Plants. Environmental Pollution and Medicinal Plants, January. CRC, 165\u0026ndash;176. doi:\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1201/9781003178866-9\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1201/9781003178866-9\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e/INFLUENCE-ENVIRONMENTAL-POLLUTION-SECONDARY-METABOLITE-PRODUCTION-MEDICINAL-PLANTS-SWATI-GURME-MAHENDRA-AHIRE-JAYKUMAR-CHAVAN-PANKAJ-MUNDADA\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"http:///INFLUENCE-ENVIRONMENTAL-POLLUTION-SECONDARY-METABOLITE-PRODUCTION-MEDICINAL-PLANTS-SWATI-GURME-MAHENDRA-AHIRE-JAYKUMAR-CHAVAN-PANKAJ-MUNDADA\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e. (2022).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHaktanir, K., Ok, S. S. \u0026amp; Karaca, A. Sevin\u0026ccedil; Arcak, Funda \u0026Ccedil;imen, B\u0026uuml;lent Top\u0026ccedil;uoğlu, Cafer T\u0026uuml;rkmen, and Hakan Yildiz. Muğla-Yatağan Termik Santrali Emisyonlarının Etkisinde Kalan Tarım ve Orman Topraklarının Kirlilik Veri Tabanının Oluşturulması ve Emisyonların Vejetasyona Etkilerinin Araştırılması * Generating Pollution Database of the Agricultural and Forest Soils Affe. \u003cem\u003eAnkara \u0026Uuml;niversitesi \u0026Ccedil;evrebilimleri Dergisi\u003c/em\u003e 2 (1): 13\u0026ndash;30. (2010).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHan, J., Terence, P. N., Talorete, P. \u0026amp; Yamada and Hiroko Isoda. Anti-Proliferative and Apoptotic Effects of Oleuropein and Hydroxytyrosol on Human Breast Cancer MCF-7 Cells. \u003cem\u003eCytotechnology\u003c/em\u003e 59 (1). Springer: 45\u0026ndash;53. (2009). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1007/S10616-009-9191-2/FIGURES/6\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/S10616-009-9191-2/FIGURES/6\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eIizumi, Y., Oishi, M., Taniguchi, T., Goi, W. \u0026amp; Sowa, Y. and Toshiyuki Sakai. The Flavonoid Apigenin Downregulates CDK1 by Directly Targeting Ribosomal Protein S9. \u003cem\u003ePLOS ONE\u003c/em\u003e 8 (8). Public Library of Science: e73219. (2013). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1371/JOURNAL.PONE.0073219\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1371/JOURNAL.PONE.0073219\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eIşik, S., Karag\u0026ouml;z, A. \u0026amp; Karaman, Ş. and Cevdet Nergiz. Proliferative and Apoptotic Effects of Olive Extracts on Cell Lines and Healthy Human Cells. \u003cem\u003eFood Chemistry\u003c/em\u003e 134 (1). Elsevier: 29\u0026ndash;36. (2012). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1016/J.FOODCHEM.2012.02.020\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/J.FOODCHEM.2012.02.020\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eIslam, M. et al. Uttam Biswas Antu, Md Sadik Mahmud Saikat, Ruma Akter,. Toxicity Assessment of Heavy Metals Translocation in Maize Grown in the Ganges Delta Floodplain Soils around the Payra Power Plant in Bangladesh. \u003cem\u003eFood and Chemical Toxicology\u003c/em\u003e 193 (November). Pergamon: 115005. (2024). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1016/j.fct.2024.115005\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.fct.2024.115005\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJunkins, K., Rodgers, M. \u0026amp; Phelan, S. A. Oleuropein Induces Cytotoxicity and Peroxiredoxin Over-Expression in MCF-7 Human Breast Cancer Cells. \u003cem\u003eAnticancer Research\u003c/em\u003e 43 (10). International Institute of Anticancer Research: 4333\u0026ndash;4339. (2023). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.21873/ANTICANRES.16628\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.21873/ANTICANRES.16628\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJuven, B. \u0026amp; Henis, Y. Studies on the Antimicrobial Activity of Olive Phenolic Compounds. \u003cem\u003eThe Journal of Applied Bacteriology\u003c/em\u003e 33 (4). J Appl Bacteriol: 721\u0026ndash;732. (1970). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1111/J.1365-2672.1970.TB02255.X\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1111/J.1365-2672.1970.TB02255.X\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKinkela Devčić, Maja, I., Pasković, Z. \u0026amp; Kovač Petra Tariba Knežević, Luka Morelato, Irena Glažar, and Sunčana Simonić-Kocijan. 2024. Antimicrobial Activity of Olive Leaf Extract to Oral Candida Isolates. \u003cem\u003eMicroorganisms 2024, Vol. 12, Page 1726\u003c/em\u003e 12 (8). Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute: 1726. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.3390/MICROORGANISMS12081726\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/MICROORGANISMS12081726\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKnezovic, Z., Trgo, M. \u0026amp; Stipisic, A. and Davorka Sutlovic. Impact of Metals from the Environment on Chemical Changes in Olive Oil. In \u003cem\u003eInternational Scientific and Professional Conference 15th Ružička Days\u003c/em\u003e, 103\u0026ndash;112. Vukovar, Croatia. (2014). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/274374417_Impact_of_metals_from_the_environment_on_chemical_changes_in_olive_oil\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274374417_Impact_of_metals_from_the_environment_on_chemical_changes_in_olive_oil\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKuete, V. et al. and Namrita Lall. Antibacterial Activities of the Extracts, Fractions and Compounds from Dioscorea Bulbifera. \u003cem\u003eBMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine\u003c/em\u003e 12 (November). BMC Complement Altern Med. (2012). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1186/1472-6882-12-228\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1186/1472-6882-12-228\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKumar, P., Nagarajan, A. \u0026amp; Uchil, P. D. Analysis of Cell Viability by the MTT Assay. \u003cem\u003eCold Spring Harbor Protocols\u003c/em\u003e 2018 (6). Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press: pdb.prot095505. (2018). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1101/PDB.PROT095505\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1101/PDB.PROT095505\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLe, L. T. et al. Environmental and Health Impacts of Air Pollution: A Mini-Review. \u003cem\u003eVietnam Journal of Science, Technology and Engineering\u003c/em\u003e 66 (1). Ministry of Science and Technology, Vietnam (VMOST): 120\u0026ndash;128. (2024). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.31276/VJSTE.66(1)\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.31276/VJSTE.66(1)\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.120-128.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLi, D., Rui, Y., Guo, F., Luan, R. \u0026amp; Liu Shi duo and Nan Zeng. Ferulic Acid: A Review of Its Pharmacology, Pharmacokinetics and Derivatives. \u003cem\u003eLife Sciences\u003c/em\u003e 284 (November). Pergamon: 119921. (2021). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1016/J.LFS.2021.119921\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/J.LFS.2021.119921\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLi, J. et al. and Huimin Zhang. Optimizing Potassium and Nitrogen Fertilizer Strategies to Mitigate Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Global Agroecosystems. \u003cem\u003eScience of The Total Environment\u003c/em\u003e 916 (March). Elsevier: 170270. (2024). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1016/J.SCITOTENV.2024.170270\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/J.SCITOTENV.2024.170270\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLi, Y. et al. Effects of Adsorption Characteristics of Different Amendments on Heavy Metals (Pb, Zn, and Cd). \u003cem\u003eJournal of Soils and Sediments\u003c/em\u003e 20 (7). Springer: 2868\u0026ndash;2876. (2020). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1007/S11368-020-02620-4/FIGURES/4\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/S11368-020-02620-4/FIGURES/4\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLiang, J. and Weifei Yang. Effects of Zinc and Copper Stress on Antioxidant System of Olive Leaves. \u003cem\u003eIOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science\u003c/em\u003e 300 (5). Institute of Physics Publishing. (2019). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1088/1755-1315/300/5/052058\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1088/1755-1315/300/5/052058\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLiu, K. et al. Da ming Li, Xi chu Yu, Qing hai Huang,. Links between Potassium of Soil Aggregates and PH Levels in Acidic Soils under Long-Term Fertilization Regimes. \u003cem\u003eSoil and Tillage Research\u003c/em\u003e 197 (March). Elsevier: 104480. (2020). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1016/J.STILL.2019.104480\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/J.STILL.2019.104480\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLiu, Y., McKeever, L. C., Nasir, S. A. \u0026amp; Malik Assessment of the Antimicrobial Activity of Olive Leaf Extract against Foodborne Bacterial Pathogens. \u003cem\u003eFrontiers in Microbiology\u003c/em\u003e 8 (FEB). Frontiers Research Foundation: 113. (2017). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.3389/FMICB.2017.00113/FULL\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3389/FMICB.2017.00113/FULL\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLuo, L. et al. Heavy Metal Contaminations in Herbal Medicines: Determination, Comprehensive Risk Assessments, and Solutions. \u003cem\u003eFrontiers in Pharmacology\u003c/em\u003e 11 (January). Frontiers Media S.A.: 595335. (2021). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.3389/FPHAR.2020.595335/FULL\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3389/FPHAR.2020.595335/FULL\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMaggioni, D., Garavello, W., Rigolio, R., Pignataro, L., Gaini, R. \u0026amp; Gabriella Nicolini Apigenin Impairs Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma Growth in Vitro Inducing Cell Cycle Arrest and Apoptosis. \u003cem\u003eInt. J. Oncol.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e43\u003c/b\u003e (5), 1675\u0026ndash;1682. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.3892/ijo.2013.2072\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3892/ijo.2013.2072\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (2013).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMahfoud, A., Khalil, K. \u0026amp; Chahid Moustapha An Assessment Study of Usefulness of Using Olive (Olea Europaea L.) Leaves in Biomonitoring the Air Pollution near Baniyas Oil Refinery, Syria: Estimating of Total Phenolic Compounds and Lead, Copper and Manganese in Olive Leaves. \u003cem\u003eAm. J. Plant. Sci.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e9\u003c/b\u003e, 2514\u0026ndash;2531. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.4236/ajps.2018.912182\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.4236/ajps.2018.912182\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (2018).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMakineci, E. and Orhan Sevgi. SEYİT\u0026Ouml;MER TERMİK SANTRALININ KURUMA ALANLARINDAKİ KARA\u0026Ccedil;AM (Pinus Nigra Arnold.) YILLIK HALKALARINA ETKİSİNİN ARAŞTIRILMASI. \u003cem\u003eT\u0026uuml;rkiye Ormancılık Dergisi\u003c/em\u003e 6 (2). Isparta Uygulamalı Bilimler \u0026Uuml;niversitesi: 11\u0026ndash;22. (2009). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.18182/TJF.42742\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.18182/TJF.42742\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMalhadas, C., Malheiro, R. \u0026amp; Pereira, J. A. Paula Guedes de Pinho, and Paula Baptista. Antimicrobial Activity of Endophytic Fungi from Olive Tree Leaves. \u003cem\u003eWorld Journal of Microbiology \u0026amp; Biotechnology\u003c/em\u003e 33 (3). World J Microbiol Biotechnol. (2017). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1007/S11274-017-2216-7\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/S11274-017-2216-7\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMandal, A. \u0026amp; Sengupta, D. An Assessment of Soil Contamination Due to Heavy Metals around a Coal-Fired Thermal Power Plant in India. \u003cem\u003eEnvironmental Geology\u003c/em\u003e 51 (3). Springer: 409\u0026ndash;420. (2006). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1007/S00254-006-0336-8/FIGURES/5\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/S00254-006-0336-8/FIGURES/5\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMandal, S. \u0026amp; Bhattacharya, S. and Suman Paul. Assessing the Level of Contamination of Metals in Surface Soils at Thermal Power Area: Evidence from Developing Country (India). \u003cem\u003eEnvironmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology\u003c/em\u003e 4 (January). Elsevier: 37\u0026ndash;49. (2022). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1016/j.enceco.2021.11.003\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.enceco.2021.11.003\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMark\u0026iacute;n, D., Duek, L. \u0026amp; Berd\u0026iacute;cevsky, I. In Vitro Antimicrobial Activity of Olive Leaves. \u003cem\u003eMycoses\u003c/em\u003e 46 (3\u0026ndash;4). Mycoses: 132\u0026ndash;136. (2003). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1046/J.1439-0507.2003.00859.X\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1046/J.1439-0507.2003.00859.X\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMbadra, C. et al. Heavy Metals Transfer in Leaves, Stem and Roots of Olive Tree near Roads in the Region of Sfax (Tunisia) and Their Impact on Physiological Characteristics. \u003cem\u003eFebruary\u003c/em\u003e \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.21203/RS.3.RS-3941162/V1\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.21203/RS.3.RS-3941162/V1\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (2024).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMentese, S., Yayintas, \u0026Ouml;. T., Bas, B. \u0026amp; İrkin, L. C. and Selehattin Yilmaz. Heavy Metal and Mineral Composition of Soil, Atmospheric Deposition, and Mosses with Regard to Integrated Pollution Assessment Approach. \u003cem\u003eEnvironmental Management\u003c/em\u003e 67 (5). Springer: 833\u0026ndash;851. (2021). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1007/S00267-021-01453-2/FIGURES/4\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/S00267-021-01453-2/FIGURES/4\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMirkov, I. et al. and Marina Soković. Plant Extracts and Isolated Compounds Reduce Parameters of Oxidative Stress Induced by Heavy Metals: An up-to-Date Review on Animal Studies. \u003cem\u003eCurrent Pharmaceutical Design\u003c/em\u003e 26 (16). Curr Pharm Des: 1799\u0026ndash;1815. (2020). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.2174/1381612826666200407163408\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.2174/1381612826666200407163408\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMorina, F. and Hendrik K\u0026uuml;pper. Direct Inhibition of Photosynthesis by Cd Dominates over Inhibition Caused by Micronutrient Deficiency in the Cd/Zn Hyperaccumulator Arabidopsis Halleri. \u003cem\u003ePlant Physiology and Biochemistry\u003c/em\u003e 155 (October). Elsevier Masson: 252\u0026ndash;261. (2020). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1016/J.PLAPHY.2020.07.018\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/J.PLAPHY.2020.07.018\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNamuq, M. A. Effect of Some Heavy Metals on Carbohydrates, Proteins and Phenolic Compounds Content in Olive and Oleander Leaves at Three Intersection of Tikrit Streets. \u003cem\u003eRafidain J. Sci.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e31\u003c/b\u003e (2), 10\u0026ndash;21. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.33899/rjs.2022.174270\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.33899/rjs.2022.174270\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (2022).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNaponelli, V. \u0026amp; Rocchetti, M. T. and Domenica Mangieri. Apigenin: Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Potential against Cancer Spreading. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Molecular Sciences\u003c/em\u003e 25 (10). Int J Mol Sci. (2024). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.3390/IJMS25105569\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/IJMS25105569\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u0026Ouml;zkul, C. Heavy Metal Contamination in Soils around the Tun\u0026ccedil;bilek Thermal Power Plant (K\u0026uuml;tahya, Turkey). \u003cem\u003eEnvironmental Monitoring and Assessment\u003c/em\u003e 188 (5). Environ Monit Assess. (2016). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1007/S10661-016-5295-2\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/S10661-016-5295-2\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u0026Ouml;zt\u0026uuml;rk, E., \u0026Ccedil;alık, F. \u0026amp; Derya Ulusoy Investigation of Cytotoxic and Genotoxic Effects of Olive Leaf Extract on Colon Cancer Cells and Normal Cell Lines. \u003cem\u003eEurasian J. Mol. Biochem. Sci.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e1\u003c/b\u003e (2), 26\u0026ndash;31 (2022). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://dergi.erzurum.edu.tr/index.php/ejmbs/article/view/100\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://dergi.erzurum.edu.tr/index.php/ejmbs/article/view/100\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePang, K. L. and Kok Yong Chin. The Biological Activities of Oleocanthal from a Molecular Perspective. \u003cem\u003eNutrients 2018, Vol. 10, Page 570\u003c/em\u003e 10 (5). Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute: 570. (2018). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.3390/NU10050570\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/NU10050570\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePastrana-Corral, M. A. et al. Heavy Metal Pollution in the Soil Surrounding a Thermal Power Plant in Playas de Rosarito, Mexico. \u003cem\u003eEnvironmental Earth Sciences\u003c/em\u003e 76 (16). Springer Verlag: 1\u0026ndash;9. (2017). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1007/S12665-017-6928-7/FIGURES/3\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/S12665-017-6928-7/FIGURES/3\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePathak, B., Rawat, K. \u0026amp; Fulekar, M. H. Heavy Metal Accumulation by Plant Species at Fly-Ash Dumpsites: Thermal Power Plant, Gandhinagar, Gujarat. \u003cem\u003eINTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PLANT AND ENVIRONMENT\u003c/em\u003e 5 (02). International Society of Environmental Botanists: 111\u0026ndash;116. (2019). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.18811/IJPEN.V5I02.7\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.18811/IJPEN.V5I02.7\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePereira, J. et al. Rosa Seabra, Let\u0026iacute;cia Estevinho, and Albino Bento. Table Olives from Portugal: Phenolic Compounds, Antioxidant Potential, and Antimicrobial Activity. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry\u003c/em\u003e 54 (22). American Chemical Society: 8425\u0026ndash;8431. (2006). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1021/JF061769J\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1021/JF061769J\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePetrella, A. et al. and Domenico Petruzzelli. Heavy Metals Retention (Pb(II), Cd(II), Ni(II)) from Single and Multimetal Solutions by Natural Biosorbents from the Olive Oil Milling Operations. \u003cem\u003eProcess Safety and Environmental Protection\u003c/em\u003e 114 (February). Elsevier: 79\u0026ndash;90. (2018). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1016/J.PSEP.2017.12.010\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/J.PSEP.2017.12.010\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePetrović, M. and Željka Fiket. Environmental Damage Caused by Coal Combustion Residue Disposal: A Critical Review of Risk Assessment Methodologies. \u003cem\u003eChemosphere\u003c/em\u003e 299 (July). Pergamon: 134410. (2022). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1016/J.CHEMOSPHERE.2022.134410\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/J.CHEMOSPHERE.2022.134410\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRekik, O., Mansour, A. B., Jabeur, H., Gutierrez, G. R. \u0026amp; Bouaziz, M. Effect of Pollution on the Quality of Olive Oils from Trees Grown Near a Phosphoric Acid Factory. \u003cem\u003eEuropean Journal of Lipid Science and Technology\u003c/em\u003e 121 (8). John Wiley \u0026amp; Sons, Ltd: 1800490. (2019). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1002/EJLT.201800490\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1002/EJLT.201800490\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eŞahan, Y. \u0026amp; Fikri Başoğlu Heavy Metal Pollution in Olives Grown in Bursa, Turkey. \u003cem\u003eAsian J. Chem.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e21\u003c/b\u003e (4), 3023\u0026ndash;3029 (2009).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSaidi, I., Guesmi, F., Kharbech, O. \u0026amp; Hfaiedh, N. and Wahbi Djebali. Gallic Acid Improves the Antioxidant Ability against Cadmium Toxicity: Impact on Leaf Lipid Composition of Sunflower (Helianthus Annuus) Seedlings. \u003cem\u003eEcotoxicology and Environmental Safety\u003c/em\u003e 210 (March). Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. (2021). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1016/J.ECOENV.2021.111906\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/J.ECOENV.2021.111906\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSalehi, B. et al. The Therapeutic Potential of Apigenin. \u003cem\u003eInt. J. Mol. Sci.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e20\u003c/b\u003e, 1305. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.3390/IJMS20061305\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/IJMS20061305\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (2019). (6). Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSenekovič, J. \u0026amp; Jelen Špela and Andreja Urbanek Krajnc. Copper Sulfate Elicitation Effect on Biomass Production, Phenolic Compounds Accumulation, and Antioxidant Activity of Morus Nigra L. Stem Node Culture. \u003cem\u003ePlants (Basel, Switzerland)\u003c/em\u003e 14 (5). Plants (Basel). (2025). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.3390/PLANTS14050766\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/PLANTS14050766\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eShen, Z., Chen, Y., Xu, D. \u0026amp; Li, L. and Yong Zhu. Interactions between Heavy Metals and Other Mineral Elements from Soil to Medicinal Plant Fengdan (Paeonia Ostii) in a Copper Mining Area, China. \u003cem\u003eEnvironmental Science and Pollution Research\u003c/em\u003e 27 (27). Springer: 33743\u0026ndash;33752. (2020). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1007/S11356-020-09358-Z/TABLES/7\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/S11356-020-09358-Z/TABLES/7\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSilva, S. et al. Secoiridoids in Olive Seed: Characterization of N\u0026uuml;zhenide and 11-Methyl Oleosides by Liquid Chromatography with Diode Array and Mass Spectrometry. \u003cem\u003eGrasas y Aceites\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cb\u003e61\u003c/b\u003e (2), 157\u0026ndash;164. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.3989/gya.087309\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3989/gya.087309\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (2010).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eŠimat, V. et al. Ana Mar\u0026iacute;a G\u0026oacute;mez-Caravaca, Carmen Fern\u0026aacute;ndez-Fern\u0026aacute;ndez,. Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Activity of Hydroethanolic Leaf Extracts from Six Mediterranean Olive Cultivars. \u003cem\u003eAntioxidants (Basel, Switzerland)\u003c/em\u003e 11 (9). Antioxidants (Basel). (2022). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.3390/ANTIOX11091656\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/ANTIOX11091656\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSpagnuolo, C. et al. and Gian Luigi Russo. Phenolic Extract from Extra Virgin Olive Oil Induces Different Anti-Proliferative Pathways in Human Bladder Cancer Cell Lines. \u003cem\u003eNutrients\u003c/em\u003e 15 (1). MDPI. (2023). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.3390/NU15010182/S1\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/NU15010182/S1\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSukhdeve, D., Shitalkumar, R. \u0026amp; Sukhdeve, S. S. Google Colaboratory. Google Cloud Platform for Data Science. A, Berkeley, CA, 11\u0026ndash;34. doi:\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1007/978-1-4842-9688-2_2\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/978-1-4842-9688-2_2\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e. (2023).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTakagaki, N., Sowa, Y., Oki, T., Nakanishi, R. \u0026amp; Yogosawa, S. and Toshiyuki Sakai. Apigenin Induces Cell Cycle Arrest and P21/WAF1 Expression in a P53-Independent Pathway. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Oncology\u003c/em\u003e 26 (1). Spandidos Publications: 185\u0026ndash;189. (2005). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.3892/IJO.26.1.185/HTML\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3892/IJO.26.1.185/HTML\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTalhaoui, N. \u0026amp; Taamalli, A. Ana Mar\u0026iacute;a G\u0026oacute;mez-Caravaca, Alberto Fern\u0026aacute;ndez-Guti\u0026eacute;rrez, and Antonio Segura-Carretero. Phenolic Compounds in Olive Leaves: Analytical Determination, Biotic and Abiotic Influence, and Health Benefits. \u003cem\u003eFood Research International\u003c/em\u003e 77 (November). Elsevier: 92\u0026ndash;108. (2015). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1016/J.FOODRES.2015.09.011\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/J.FOODRES.2015.09.011\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTolunay, D. Dendroclimatological Investigation of the Effects of Air Pollution Caused by Yatagan Thermal Power Plant (Mugla-Turkey) on Annual Ring Widths of Pinus Brutia Trees. \u003cem\u003eFresenius Environmental Bulletin\u003c/em\u003e 12 (9): 1006\u0026ndash;1014. (2003). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://eurekamag.com/research/003/702/003702654.php?srsltid=AfmBOopm68-3_FxMb21ZfdwwE9tSCqErSVot7dG_6XwdDOCMGObjz6-c\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://eurekamag.com/research/003/702/003702654.php?srsltid=AfmBOopm68-3_FxMb21ZfdwwE9tSCqErSVot7dG_6XwdDOCMGObjz6-c\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTuran, D. et al. and Sait C. Sofuoglu. The Use of Olive Tree (Olea Europaea L.) Leaves as a Bioindicator for Environmental Pollution in the Province of Aydın, Turkey. \u003cem\u003eEnvironmental Science and Pollution Research\u003c/em\u003e 18 (3). Springer Verlag: 355\u0026ndash;364. (2011). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1007/S11356-010-0378-Z/FIGURES/4\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/S11356-010-0378-Z/FIGURES/4\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTurhan, A. M. K. et al. Ecological Assessment of Heavy Metals in Soil around a Coal-Fired Thermal Power Plant in Turkey. \u003cem\u003eEnvironmental Earth Sciences\u003c/em\u003e 79 (6). Springer: 1\u0026ndash;15. (2020). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1007/S12665-020-8864-1/TABLES/9\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/S12665-020-8864-1/TABLES/9\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eUǧur, A., \u0026Ouml;zden, B., Sa\u0026ccedil;, M. M. \u0026amp; Yener, G. Biomonitoring of 210Po and 210Pb Using Lichens and Mosses around a Uraniferous Coal-Fired Power Plant in Western Turkey. \u003cem\u003eAtmospheric Environment\u003c/em\u003e 37 (16). Pergamon: 2237\u0026ndash;2245. (2003). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1016/S1352-2310(03)00147-X\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/S1352-2310(03)00147-X\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u0026Uuml;nal, D., Sert, Ş., Işık, N. O., \u0026Uuml;nal \u0026amp; Kaya İzmir-Kemalpaşa Sanayi B\u0026ouml;lgesinde Ağır Metal Kirliliğinin Biyoindikat\u0026ouml;r Olarak Zeytin (Olea Europaea) Bitkisi Kullanılarak Belirlenmesi. \u003cem\u003eZeytin Bilimi\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e, 59\u0026ndash;64 (2011).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eVig, N., Ravindra, K. \u0026amp; Mor, S. Heavy Metal Pollution Assessment of Groundwater and Associated Health Risks around Coal Thermal Power Plant, Punjab, India. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Environmental Science and Technology\u003c/em\u003e 20 (6). Institute for Ionics: 6259\u0026ndash;6274. (2023). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1007/S13762-022-04284-8/FIGURES/5\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/S13762-022-04284-8/FIGURES/5\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWilson, B. \u0026amp; Pyatt, F. B. Heavy Metal Bioaccumulation by the Important Food Plant, Olea Europaea L., in an Ancient Metalliferous Polluted Area of Cyprus. \u003cem\u003eBulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology\u003c/em\u003e 78 (5). Bull Environ Contam Toxicol: 390\u0026ndash;394. (2007). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1007/S00128-007-9162-2\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/S00128-007-9162-2\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eXie, P., Huang, L., Zhang, C. \u0026amp; Yao lei Zhang Phenolic Compositions, and Antioxidant Performance of Olive Leaf and Fruit (Olea Europaea L.) Extracts and Their Structure-Activity Relationships. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Functional Foods\u003c/em\u003e 16 (June). Elsevier: 460\u0026ndash;471. (2015). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1016/j.jff.2015.05.005\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.jff.2015.05.005\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYokaş, İ. \u0026amp; Tuna, A. L. Bet\u0026uuml;l B\u0026uuml;r\u0026uuml;n, B\u0026uuml;lent Yamur, H\u0026uuml;seyin Hakerlerler, and Rafet Kılın\u0026ccedil;. 2008. Research on Pollution Caused by Thermal Power Plants in Mula. \u003cem\u003eInternational Meeting Soil. Fertility Land. Manage. Agroclimatology Turkey\u003c/em\u003e, 997\u0026ndash;1005 .\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYu, F., Ji, Y., Li, Z. \u0026amp; Li, Y. and Yue Meng. Adsorption-Desorption Characteristics of Typical Heavy Metal Pollutants in Submerged Zone Sediments: A Case Study of the Jialu Section in Zhengzhou, China. \u003cem\u003eEnvironmental Science and Pollution Research\u003c/em\u003e 30 (42). Springer Science and Business Media Deutschland GmbH: 96055\u0026ndash;96074. (2023). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1007/S11356-023-29059-7/TABLES/9\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/S11356-023-29059-7/TABLES/9\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eY\u0026uuml;cel, Y. \u0026amp; Abdullah L\u0026uuml;tfi, K. Determination of Heavy Metals in Olive Fruits as an Indicator of Environmental Pollution. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Environmental Analytical Chemistry\u003c/em\u003e 100 (8). Taylor \u0026amp; Francis: 922\u0026ndash;934. (2020). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1080/03067319.2019.1645841\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1080/03067319.2019.1645841\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZaanouni, N., Gharssallaoui, M. \u0026amp; Eloussaief, M. and Slimane Gabsi. Heavy Metals Transfer in the Olive Tree and Assessment of Food Contamination Risk. \u003cem\u003eEnvironmental Science and Pollution Research\u003c/em\u003e 25 (19). Springer Verlag: 18320\u0026ndash;18331. (2018). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1007/S11356-018-1474-8/FIGURES/6\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/S11356-018-1474-8/FIGURES/6\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZarinkamar, F. \u0026amp; Moradi, A. and Maryam Davoodpour. Ecophysiological, Anatomical, and Apigenin Changes Due to Uptake and Accumulation of Cadmium in Matricaria Chamomilla L. Flowers in Hydroponics. \u003cem\u003eEnvironmental Science and Pollution Research\u003c/em\u003e 28 (39). Springer Science and Business Media Deutschland GmbH: 55154\u0026ndash;55165. (2021). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1007/S11356-021-14000-7/FIGURES/8\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/S11356-021-14000-7/FIGURES/8\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZhang, C. et al. and Daqun Liu. Changes in Phytochemical Profiles and Biological Activity of Olive Leaves Treated by Two Drying Methods. \u003cem\u003eFrontiers in Nutrition\u003c/em\u003e 9 (April). Front Nutr. (2022). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.3389/FNUT.2022.854680\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3389/FNUT.2022.854680\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZhang, Y. et al. and Lixin Huang. Effect of Geographical Location and Soil Fertility on Main Phenolic Compounds and Fatty Acids Compositions of Virgin Olive Oil from Leccino Cultivar in China. \u003cem\u003eFood Research International\u003c/em\u003e 157 (July). Elsevier: 111207. (2022). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1016/J.FOODRES.2022.111207\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/J.FOODRES.2022.111207\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"olive, cytotoxicity, phenolic compounds, thermal power plant, anti-microbial activity, elemental concentrations","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6827792/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6827792/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThermal power plants (TPPs) are essential for meeting increasing energy demands, but they also pose significant environmental and health risks. The Yatağan TPP in T\u0026uuml;rkiye is located near agricultural and residential areas, raising concerns about its impact on olive trees (\u003cem\u003eOlea europaea\u003c/em\u003e L.), a key component of the Mediterranean diet. However, the effects of TPP proximity on olive composition and their potential cytotoxicity in human cells remain unknown. This study investigated the biochemical, elemental, and biological responses of olives grown at varying distances (close, middle, and distant) from the Yatağan TPP. Our findings showed that 1) phenolic and flavonoid profiles, as well as fundamental biochemical properties, varied significantly across locations, 2) essential nutrients (Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn) were reduced considerably in olives near the TPP, while toxic metals (As, Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb) accumulated at concerning levels, 3) extracts from olives grown closest to the TPP exhibited cytotoxic effects on normal human cells derived from the breast, retina, vein, and bronchus, and 4) all olive extracts displayed the highest antimicrobial activity against \u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus aureus\u003c/em\u003e, regardless of their distance from the TPP. These results indicate that industrial emissions disrupt nutrient uptake and elevate toxic metal accumulation in olive trees, potentially affecting food safety and human health. This study highlights the need for continuous environmental monitoring and regulatory measures to mitigate heavy metal contamination and ensure the sustainability of olive cultivation in regions surrounding TPPs.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Cytotoxicity, Anti-microbial Activity, and Biochemical Alterations in Olive (Olea europaea L.) Extracts from Different Distances to the Yatağan Thermal Power Plant, Türkiye","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-07-08 13:51:14","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6827792/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-07-21T03:57:55+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-07-20T21:45:17+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-07-19T07:30:50+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"165109037393160427642977328590848467632","date":"2025-07-12T19:58:34+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-07-12T18:41:08+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"173664533259470626557388981457184158466","date":"2025-07-09T17:45:31+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"111257170374427957115242194382191632764","date":"2025-07-08T04:52:48+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-07-07T05:20:39+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-07-07T04:25:26+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-06-17T07:38:42+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-06-14T10:21:38+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Scientific Reports","date":"2025-06-05T09:37:11+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"563c3b0d-32b0-43cf-8883-3bc9faff2b26","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 8th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[{"id":51196282,"name":"Biological sciences/Cell biology"},{"id":51196283,"name":"Biological sciences/Ecology"},{"id":51196284,"name":"Biological sciences/Molecular biology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-10-27T16:26:28+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-6827792","link":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-18066-y","journal":{"identity":"scientific-reports","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Scientific Reports"},"publishedOn":"2025-10-21 16:16:38","publishedOnDateReadable":"October 21st, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-07-08 13:51:14","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1038/s41598-025-18066-y","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-18066-y","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6827792","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6827792","identity":"rs-6827792","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}