Ecological Stressors and Taxonomic Inconsistencies in Indian Freshwater Game Fisheries: A National Review of Biodiversity and Anthropogenic Threats

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This study validates 277 game fish species, revealing widespread taxonomic inconsistencies and miscategorized conservation statuses in FishBase and Eschmeyer's Catalog of Fishes. Marine environments support the highest species richness (161 native taxa), whereas freshwater systems disproportionately harbor Endangered and Vulnerable species at risk of regional decline. Significant taxonomic discrepancies-outdated, incorrect, or unverified species names coincide with a high prevalence of Data Deficient and Not Evaluated IUCN statuses, particularly among 26 freshwater taxa, suggesting that many high-value native species, including members of Carangidae, Lutjanidae, and Cyprinidae, may be experiencing “invisible” declines that escape current conservation oversight. Ecological pressures are further amplified by an oxythermal habitat squeeze, where rising temperatures and benthic hypoxia constrain survival space for sensitive species such as mahseer, alongside technological overexploitation and invasive species–driven biotic homogenization (e.g., Clarias gariepinus and Oreochromis niloticus) . We advocate basin-scale governance and community-led stewardship to reconcile fragmented data, strengthen conservation frameworks, and safeguard India’s aquatic heritage from largely invisible declines, alongside enhanced data mobilization through platforms such as the Ocean Biodiversity Information System to improve transparency, accessibility, and long-term monitoring. Recreational Conservation Homogenization Heritage Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Highlights • Secondary data analysis compiled 277 game fish species from FishBase and Eschmeyer’s Catalog, providing a comprehensive reference. • Observed taxonomic gaps, IUCN status discrepancies and inconsistencies in the existing catalogues, highlighting the need for updated verification. • Native freshwater game fisheries were dominated by Cyprinidae and Schilbeidae, comprising 21 native, 3 introduced, and 2 endemic species, including 3 Endangered, 5 Vulnerable, and 2 Near Threatened taxa. • Rapid growth in digitized biodiversity records and citizen science contributions is reshaping baseline knowledge, but also introduces spatial and temporal biases that require standardized monitoring and integrated data frameworks. • Synergistic habitat squeezes and technological overexploitation in Indian game fisheries driven by climate-induced hypoxia, river fragmentation, and precision fishing gear are outpacing fragmented governance and masking “invisible” declines of iconic native species of India. Introduction Game fishing, often referred to as sport fishing, is a specialized pursuit in which the primary objective is the thrill of the catch rather than the harvest (Ditton & Stoll, 2003). Participants utilize various gear, including rods, reels, handlines, spears, bows, and nets, to engage with nature through catch-and-release practices or occasional consumption for nutritional and medicinal purposes (Cooke et al., 2018). This discipline typically targets species renowned for their fighting ability, such as billfish, tuna, and salmon, requiring anglers to master sophisticated equipment and techniques. As the sport evolved, it became deeply intertwined with environmental ethics, relying heavily on catch-and-release protocols to ensure the long-term health of aquatic ecosystems (Cooke and Suski, 2005). Furthermore, the pursuit of world records was governed by strict international standards regarding line strength and tackle, ensuring a standardized "man versus nature" challenge (Taylor et al., 2024). The historical roots of sport fishing in India date back to 1900 AD, when the British introduced exotic brown trout to promote this activity (Ayyappan et al., 2007). Today, Mahseer is globally recognized as India's premier game fish (Nautiyal, 2014). While recreational fishing creates opportunities for Indigenous communities and promotes economic growth through tourism (Ditton et al., 2002), it faced significant logistical hurdles, including the high cost of specialized equipment, fuel requirements, and vast distances to prime fishing grounds. The recent surge in recreational activities, particularly those targeting endangered species, had created complex allocation and management challenges for policymakers (Scheufele & Pascoe, 2022). Additionally, the conversion of commercial fisheries into recreational zones has led to escalating conflicts between local fishers and sports anglers (Boucquey, 2017). Global participation rates highlight significant regional disparities; Oceania leads with 17% of the population participating, followed by Europe (3.7%), North America (2%), Africa (0.3%), and Asia at the lowest (0.2%) (Montemayor & Sumaila, 2010). In India, a survey of 200 anglers across 25 states and union territories confirmed that Mahseer ( Tor spp. ) remains the primary target, with anglers preferring clean and natural river environments. However, these populations were threatened by overfishing, pollution, and illegal fishing techniques (Gupta et al., 2016). While commercial fishing, often viewed as the primary threat to sustainability, sport fishing also contributes to the exploitation of inland and marine waters. Inadequate resource management and a lack of quantified data on catch-and-release mortality had contributed to environmental degradation and ecosystem alteration (Cooke & Cowx, 2004). A study of 148 catch-and-release anglers in India revealed that while 65% reported a decline in fishing quality due to hydropower projects, deforestation, and water abstraction, there was a strong willingness among the angling community to contribute time and financial resources toward conservation (Gupta et al., 2015). The Southwestern coast of India contains many rivers, streams, and reservoirs suitable for angling, and it supports game fishing, including Mahseer, Barramundi, Trout Species, and it extended tourism sport fishing destination in the Cauvery river, Karnataka, Streams of Munnar, Kali River near the Karnataka–Goa border(Mushtaq et al., 2024). Freshwater systems are particularly vulnerable to pollution, overuse, and invasive species, all of which threaten inland sport fisheries and reduce biodiversity (Strayer & Dudgeon, 2010). Despite this support, a lack of basic scientific knowledge regarding the IUCN status and fish maturation, coupled with disorganized governmental administration and unregulated catching by various organizations, continues to drive the decline of major Sports fish species in India (Gupta et al., 2015). Materials and Methods Data on game fish species across marine and freshwater environments were compiled through a multi-step verification process. Initial records were extracted from FishBase (Froese, 2005) using a combination of manual searches and Python-based data scraping. These primary datasets, downloaded in CSV format, were then filtered specifically for the Indian context. To ensure taxonomic precision and conservation relevance, the list underwent a secondary validation phase. Each species' current taxonomic status was cross-referenced with Eschmeyer’s Catalog of Fishes (Fricke, Eschmeyer, & Van der Laan, 2026), and its conservation status was updated using the IUCN Red List. (Fig. 1 ). Occurrence data for 26 freshwater game fish species were extracted from the official Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) database and consolidated into a single Excel file. The dataset underwent rigorous cleaning, including the removal of duplicates, verification of taxonomic names, and validation of georeferenced records to ensure accuracy and reliability. Following data preparation, Python programming was employed to perform data analysis and generate final visualizations, providing clear insights into temporal and spatial patterns of species occurrence Results The analysis of game fish species in India, derived from FishBase and Eschmeyer’s Catalog, indicates a pronounced dominance of native taxa within the assemblage. Of the total recorded species, native species account for the majority (277 species)(Fig. 2 ), followed by comparatively lower representations of questionable (14 species) and introduced taxa (12 species). Endemic (2 species) and stray occurrences (1 species) contribute minimally to the overall composition(Fig. 3 ). Habitat-wise distribution demonstrates that marine environments (MR) support the highest species richness, largely dominated by native taxa (161 species). Transitional systems, including brackish–marine (BR/MR) and euryhaline (FR/BR/MR) habitats, also exhibit substantial diversity, underscoring their ecological significance as connectivity zones (Fig. 4 ). In contrast, freshwater (FR-26) systems support fewer species but show relatively higher representation of endemic (2) and introduced components, indicating both ecological uniqueness and anthropogenic influence (3) (Table 1). The conservation status profile showed that the majority of species fall under the Least Concern (LC) category, with a high proportion of native taxa (175 species). However, the Endangered (EN) and Vulnerable (VU) categories, though less represented, indicate the presence of conservation-sensitive species that require attention. A small proportion of species classified as Data Deficient (DD) and Not Evaluated/Not Found further highlights gaps in assessment. Family-level analysis shows that Carangidae (43 species), Lutjanidae (26 species), and Epinephelidae (21 species) are the most dominant groups, reflecting the prominence of marine taxa in game fisheries. Other notable families include Cyprinidae (20 species) and Scombridae (20 species). Across families, native species overwhelmingly dominate, with introduced elements primarily restricted to a few families such as Cyprinidae and Salmonidae. A focused assessment of freshwater game fish (FR; 26 species) indicates that the assemblage is largely composed of native species (21 species), with introduced (3 species) and endemic (2 species) components contributing to its structure. Taxonomically, freshwater systems are dominated by families such as Cyprinidae and Schilbeidae, which were key to inland recreational fisheries (Fig. 5 ). All freshwater species were associated with freshwater habitats (FR), although variation in occurrence patterns suggests differing levels of habitat specialization and adaptability. The conservation profile of freshwater species indicates that 13 species were classified as Least Concern (LC), while 5 species are Vulnerable (VU) and 3 species are Endangered (EN), reflecting a non-negligible proportion of taxa under conservation risk (Fig. 6 ). In which 21 were native, 3 introduced, and 2 endemic (Fig. 7 )(Table 1) 4.Temporal and Spatial Occurrence Data of Game Fishes from GBIF. A total of 26 species were recorded over the study period spanning 1826–2026, revealing pronounced temporal heterogeneity in occurrence data(Fig. 8 ). Records from the early 19th and much of the 20th century were sparsely represented, reflecting limited sampling effort, lack of systematic surveys, and the absence of digitized archival systems during those periods. A marked increase in records was observed beginning around 2009–2010, with a pronounced peak between 2013 and 2020(Fig. 9 ). This surge corresponds not to a sudden increase in fish populations, but rather to enhanced data availability driven by large-scale digitization initiatives, increased research activity, and the integration of citizen science platforms (e.g., iNaturalist) into global biodiversity databases such as GBIF. Museum collections, many of which had remained undigitized for decades, were increasingly catalogued during this period, substantially enriching accessible occurrence records. Taxon-specific trends further highlight this shift. Genera such as Tor (Mahseer) and Wallago (catfish) exhibited disproportionately high record counts in recent years. For instance, Tor accounted for 60 records in 2017 and 43 in 2019, indicating intensified research and conservation focus on these ecologically and economically important taxa. Such patterns suggest prioritization in fisheries research and biodiversity monitoring programs. A sharp decline in records is evident beginning in 2020, coinciding with the global disruptions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. This reduction can be attributed to multiple factors, including the suspension of field-based sampling due to travel restrictions, cancellation of scientific expeditions, and limited access to laboratory and museum facilities required for specimen processing and data digitization. Unlike terrestrial biodiversity monitoring (e.g., avian observations), which adapted to localized citizen science efforts, aquatic biodiversity assessments often requiring specialized equipment and coordinated field teams, experienced significant constraints. Despite the reduction in total reporting volume between 2021 and 2025, species richness remained relatively stable, averaging approximately 10 species per year. Even in years with lower reporting intensity, such as 2023 (8 species) and 2025 (9 species)(Fig. 9 ), the number of species recorded exceeded those documented in earlier decades. This indicates that contemporary monitoring frameworks, supported by digital infrastructure and broader participation, maintain a robust baseline for biodiversity assessment. 4.1 Spatial Distribution and Biogeographic Patterns The spatial distribution of 26 game fish species across India reveals distinct geographic clustering patterns associated with major river basins, biodiversity hotspots, and anthropogenic influences. Occurrence points are widely distributed but show higher densities in ecologically significant regions such as the Himalayan foothills, the Western Ghats, and the northeastern hill systems. 4.1.2 Spatial Clustering and Regional Patterns High concentrations of records are evident in the northern and northeastern regions, particularly along the Himalayan river systems. These areas support cold-water and hill-stream species, including genera such as Tor and Schizothorax, which are adapted to fast-flowing, oxygen-rich waters. Similarly, northeastern India exhibits dense clustering, reflecting both high biodiversity and increased sampling effort in recent years(Fig. 8 ). In peninsular India, especially along the Western Ghats, occurrence points were also abundant. This region is a recognized biodiversity hotspot and harbors several endemic taxa. River systems in central and eastern India show more scattered distributions, likely reflecting both ecological variability and uneven sampling intensity. 4.1.3 Native, Introduced, and Endemic Species Distribution Native species (Dominant pattern) : The majority of occurrence points correspond to native species, which are broadly distributed across river basins. These species follow natural hydrological connectivity, occurring along major drainage systems such as the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and peninsular rivers. Their widespread distribution indicates ecological adaptability and long-term evolutionary presence in these systems. Endemic species (localized distribution) : Endemic species were represented by more spatially restricted clusters, primarily concentrated in biodiversity hotspots such as the Western Ghats and certain Himalayan regions. Their limited distribution reflects habitat specialization, geographic isolation, and evolutionary uniqueness. These species are particularly vulnerable to habitat alteration due to their narrow ranges. Introduced species (patchy and human-driven distribution) : Introduced species exhibit a scattered and discontinuous spatial pattern. Unlike native taxa, their occurrence was not constrained by natural river connectivity but instead reflects human activities such as aquaculture, sport fishing, and accidental releases. These species often appear near urban centers, reservoirs, and managed water bodies, indicating anthropogenic pathways of dispersal. 3. Challenges of Game Fishing in India 3.1 Trophic Cascades: The Ecological Collapse of Apex Removal The unauthorized and continuous overexploitation of freshwater resources for human consumption had significantly destabilized aquatic ecosystems (Carpenter et al., 1985; Palkovacs et al., 2011). In areas with high-interest activities like wetland bird watching, local communities were often encouraged toward unsustainable fishing practices, where high market demand for large trophy fish leads to their permanent removal from the water (Allan et al., 2005). This selective overfishing of apex predators triggers a “top-down” ecological shift, resulting in an overabundance of smaller fish and a disrupted trophic hierarchy that threatens the population stability of endemic species in lakes and rivers (Hessen & Kaartvedt, 2014; Estes et al., 2011). 3.2Anthropogenic Stressors and Physiological Impairment in Catch-and-Release Many people and researchers believed that post release after being caught, animals will survive in the nature, but more often their chances of mortality were due to stress, air exhaustion, weak and vulnerable to predators (Raby et al.,2014). Improper handling and management practices in sport fishing causes significant physical injuries to fish, particularly from hooks, which damage the mouth, gills, or internal organs. These injuries can lead to infections and increase susceptibility to parasitic infestations. As a result, affected fish often exhibit reduced feeding efficiency, impaired growth, and weakened physiological condition, making them more vulnerable to larger predators after release (Cooke & Suski, 2005; Cooke et al., 2013;Danylchuk et al., 2007). 3.3 Fragmentation of Lotic Ecosystems: Barriers to Potamodromous Migration The human intervention and fragmentation of habitats of freshwater immense pressure due to the construction of dams and bundles causing to interrupt the migratory patterns and reproductive cycles(Nilsson et al., 2005; Arthington et al.,2016). recent research published in the Journal of Environmental Management (2025) shows that river restoration efforts aimed at improving connectivity, such as fish passes designed primarily for anadromous species also provide substantial benefits to potamodromous fishes. Specifically, restored connectivity enables long-distance spawning migrations and enhances ecological and evolutionary processes in freshwater-resident species (Błońska et al., 2025). 3.4 Eutrophication and Invasive Macrophytes: Drivers of Habitat Degradation Agricultural runoff and sewage discharge significantly elevated heavy metal toxicity in fish while degrading the aesthetic value of freshwater ecosystems. This nutrient enrichment fueled the rapid expansion of invasive plants like Water Hyacinth ( Eichhornia crassipes ) and Ipomoea , which obstructed waterways and disrupted the habitats of native game species (Vaughan & Russell, 2015). Pollution and the proliferation of water hyacinth significantly affected game fishing by degrading aquatic ecosystems and reducing fish availability. Dense mats of water hyacinth obstruct sunlight penetration and reduce dissolved oxygen levels, creating hypoxic conditions that are unsuitable for many game fish species, which ultimately lowered catch rates and fishing quality (Abba et al., 2024). Nutrient pollution accelerated eutrophication, further promoting hyacinth blooms and worsening oxygen depletion, while heavy metals and microplastics negatively impacted fish health, growth, and reproduction, posing risks to both fisheries and human consumers (Rezania et al., 2015; Sreenivasan & Soundari, 2024). These stressors led to shifts in fish community composition, where sensitive and economically important game fish declined and more tolerant species dominated. Additionally, dense hyacinth infestations physically obstructed fishing operations, limiting access to fishing grounds and reducing the efficiency of angling activities. Although control measures such as biological agents (e.g., fungi and weevils) and herbicides can reduce hyacinth spread, their ecological impacts had to be carefully evaluated (Admas et al., 2020; Center & Dray, 2010; Tewabe, 2015). Lead-based tackle used in sport fishing introduced toxic metals into aquatic systems, posing risks to fish health and higher trophic levels. Ingested lead sinkers and fragments can impair neurological and physiological functions in fish, reducing growth and survival, and may bioaccumulate through the food web, indirectly affecting game fish populations and anglers targeting them (Scheuhammer & Norris, 1996; Williamset al., 2017). Therefore, effective management of pollution and invasive species, along with the promotion of native vegetation, will be essential to sustain healthy fish populations and maintain the ecological and economic value of game fishing (Carnevali et al., 2026). 3.5 Biotic Homogenization: The Impact of Invasive Alien Species (IAS) Shifts in environmental conditions and fishing pressure transformed fisheries from native-dominated systems to those increasingly influenced by stocked or invasive species. This affected species composition targeted in sport fishing and may have reduced the ecological and recreational value of traditional game fisheries (Arlinghaus et al., 2021). The introduction of invasive alien species (IAS), most notably the African Sharptooth Catfish ( Clarias gariepinus ) and the Nile Tilapia ( Oreochromis niloticus ), posed a severe ecological threat to India’s prestigious game fish, such as the Mahseer ( Tor spp. ) and the Goonch ( Bagarius bagarius ). These invaders often outcompete native species for food and nesting sites, prey directly on the juveniles of game fish, and introduce novel pathogens into fragile riverine ecosystems. In the Western Ghats and Himalayan foothills regions, renowned for recreational angling, the proliferation of these hardy, prolific breeders led to a documented decline in native biodiversity and the homogenization of fish communities. This displacement not only disrupted the aquatic food web but also undermined the economic value of the recreational fishing industry, as the aggressive expansion of generalist invasives reduced the population density of specialized, high-value indigenous game species (Sandilyan, 2022). 3.6. Anthropogenic Pressures: Destructive Harvest and Illegal Exploitation Illegal practices, such as dynamite and cyanide fishing, destroyed essential habitats and killed non-target species, severely degrading the ecosystems that support sport fishing (Barber & Pratt, 1998). Similarly, illegal electric fishing stunned and killed fish indiscriminately, including juveniles, leading to a rapid depletion of stocks (Snyder, 2003). Furthermore, large-scale mass netting overexploited populations by removing the trophy-sized individuals most valued by the recreational sector (Lewin et al., 2019). Illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing accounted for an estimated 11 to 26 million tonnes of fish annually, representing a global economic loss between $ 10 billion and $ 23.5 billion (Agnew et al., 2009). This illegal exploitation undermined conservation efforts by removing top predators and disrupting the community structure of marine and freshwater systems, often leading to a "collapse" in endemic populations, as was seen in iconic game species like the mahseer (Pinder, 2020). The cumulative effect of these pressures, driven by rising global demand and a lack of effective governance, pushed many high-value game fish stocks toward the brink of extinction (Agnew et al., 2009; Pham et al., 2023). 3.7. Market-Driven Overexploitation and Habitat Degradation The illegal capture and trade of high-value game fish undermined conservation efforts and reduced stock availability for legal angling. This overexploitation, driven by black markets, threatened vulnerable species and disrupted sustainable management (Action, 2020). Additionally, habitat degradation from pollution, shoreline modification, and sedimentation reduced spawning and feeding grounds, leading to population declines (Allan et al., 2005). 3.8. Unregulated Mortality and Ecotoxicological Threats Lost or abandoned "ghost gear" continued to trap and kill sport species, contributing to stock depletion (Guzman, 2021). Simultaneously, sportfishing introduced microplastics into freshwater and marine ecosystems. Ingested by apex predators, these particles accumulated across trophic levels, posing a health risk to humans who consumed these contaminated fish (Wagner et al., 2019). Specifically, exposure to polyethylene microplastics (PE-MPs) induced severe physiological distress in the endemic Mahseer ( Tor putitora ), triggering oxidative stress and neurotoxic inhibition. These pollutants compromised fish survival through hormonal and immune disruption while facilitating the transition of toxins from freshwater to human food chains (Ullah et al., 2026). 3.9 India – fragmented laws In India, fisheries governance was fragmented across states, leading to inconsistent regulations for sport fishing. This weak enforcement can resulted in overfishing, habitat damage, and poor conservation outcomes (Sathiadhas et al., 2014).Loss of wetlands, floodplains, and coastal ecosystems reduced essential habitats for breeding and feeding of game fish, leading to long-term declines in fishery productivity (Dudgeon et al., 2006). The fragmentation of fisheries governance in India stemmed from its decentralized institutional structure, where fisheries were largely managed at the state level, resulting in inconsistent regulatory frameworks and enforcement across regions. This lack of coordination created regulatory gaps that allowed unsustainable fishing practices to persist across administrative boundaries (Johnson, 2006; Food and Agriculture Organization, 2018). Migratory species such as hilsa ( Tenualosa ilisha ) and mahseer ( Tor spp.) were particularly vulnerable, as they traversed multiple jurisdictions with varying levels of protection, undermined conservation effectiveness (Myers & Worm, 2003). In addition, widespread floodplain modification and wetland reclamation disrupted lateral connectivity between rivers and their adjacent habitats, which are essential for spawning and juvenile recruitment (Palmer et al., 2008). Without integrated, basin-scale governance frameworks that recognize ecological connectivity, localized conservation initiatives remained insufficient to address large-scale declines in fish populations. 3.10. Technological Advancements and Targeted Exploitation Advanced technologies such as bathymetric mapping and underwater cameras (e.g., GoPro) enabled anglers and commercial operators to precisely locate fish habitats. While improving catch efficiency, these tools may increased fishing pressure on vulnerable species, particularly when used by large motorized vessels targeting apex game fish, which potentially led to localized population declines (Cooke & Cowx, 2004). Beyond traditional navigation, the integration of high-resolution side-scan sonar and real-time "LiveScope" technology has revolutionized the ability of anglers to target individual fish in complex structures that were previously inaccessible. These "live-imaging" systems allowed users to observe fish behavior and reactions to lures in real-time, significantly reducing the "search time" and increasing the catchability of larger, more fecund individuals that are critical for population recruitment (Venturelli et al., 2017). This shift toward data-driven, precision angling necessitated a re-evaluation of traditional harvest limits, as the increased efficiency of modern gear may outpaced the adaptive capacity of current fisheries management frameworks (Arlinghaus et al., 2019; Venturelli et al., 2017). 3.11 Climate-Driven Thermal Shifts and Habitat Contraction Climate change reshaped freshwater fisheries by altering lake temperature patterns, which directly affected game fish availability. Analysis of U.S. lakes (1980–2021) showed that cold-water game fish species (such as trout) were losing suitable temperature days faster than warm-water species (like bass) were gaining them. This imbalance was driven by warming and reduced thermal layering in lakes, which limited cold refuges. As a result, prized cold-water sport fish were likely to decline, and the rise of warm-water species did not fully offset these losses. These changes could significantly impact game fishing quality, species composition, and management strategies, highlighting the need for climate mitigation and adaptive fisheries management (Xu et al., 2024). In addition to thermal shifts within the water column, climate-driven habitat contraction was exacerbated by the reduction of dissolved oxygen (DO) levels, creating a "squeezing" effect on cold-water salmonids and percussion species. As surface temperatures rose, the aerobic habitat for game fish like lake trout ( Salvelinus namaycush ) and walleye ( Sander vitreus ) was restricted from above by lethal temperatures and from below by benthic hypoxia, effectively reducing the total volume of fishable water (Stefan et al., 2001). Consequently, even if a lake remains thermally viable on the surface, the loss of deep-water refugia could lead to localized extinctions of apex game fish, forcing a shift in recreational fishing towards smaller, more heat-tolerant species that may not hold the same economic or cultural value (Jacobson et al., 2010). 4. 1 Conservation Strategies In India, the protection of cultural traditions and increased awareness regarding game fish, such as the Mahseer, played a vital role in conserving these endangered species (Baruah, 2024). Beyond cultural awareness, the implementation of catch-and-release (C&R) protocols and the establishment of community-based fisheries management (CBFM) have emerged as key strategies for mahseer conservation. By transitioning from extractive harvest to recreational angling, local communities were incentivized to act as “river guardians,” as the economic value of a live mahseer through angling tourism can exceed its value as a harvested fish (Pinder et al., 2020). These community-led initiatives, often supported by NGOs and government agencies, include the establishment of no-take zones and protected river stretches, which provided refuges from overexploitation and illegal fishing (Gupta et al., 2015). Furthermore, integrating traditional ecological knowledge with scientific approaches such as telemetry enables the implementation of seasonal fishing restrictions aligned with spawning migrations and reproductive cycles (Everard & Kataria, 2011; Pinder et al., 2020). 4.2 Policy and management Promote sustainable sportfishing and accessible, affordable and generally highly sustainable food source, and provide a frame work for adapt a flexible approach for the policy and manage recreational activities through local, state, and central government (Cooke et al., 2018). Increase global recreational activities protection and strategies to enhance for game fishing. The prohibition of fishing during breeding and spawning seasons must be strictly regulated by the respective state fisheries departments in India to ensure the sustainability of sportfishing. Effective enforcement of these closed seasons protects vulnerable broodstock, allowing endemic game species to reproduce and maintain stable population levels (Arthington et al., 2016) Monitoring the population dynamics of endemic sport fish species is essential for understanding their abundance, distribution, and long-term sustainability under increasing anthropogenic pressures. Such population assessments provide critical data for conservation planning and sustainable fisheries management. At the same time, the identification, monitoring, and control of invasive species must be prioritized, as invasive fishes can outcompete native species, alter habitats, and reduce biodiversity in freshwater ecosystems. Effective management of invasive species requires coordinated efforts among government agencies, industrial stakeholders, local non-governmental organizations (NGOs), fishers, and local communities to ensure ecosystem stability and sustainable sport fisheries (Sorensen, 2021; Kadwalia, 2025; Merz et al., 2021). Discussion The present study provided a comprehensive evaluation of game fish diversity, ecological stressors, and management challenges in India, highlighting a system characterized by high native biodiversity but increasing anthropogenic pressure. The predominance of native taxa observed across marine and freshwater assemblages reflected the ecological richness of Indian aquatic systems, particularly within tropical and subtropical environments. However, the relatively low representation of endemic freshwater species, coupled with the presence of introduced taxa, indicated a gradual shift toward ecological homogenization, a pattern widely recognized as a major driver of biodiversity loss in inland waters (Dudgeon et al., 2006). A key ecological concern identified in this study was the destabilization of trophic structure due to selective exploitation of large-bodied game fish. The removal of apex and mesopredators can disrupt top-down regulatory mechanisms, resulting in trophic cascades that alter community composition and ecosystem functioning. This phenomenon had been extensively documented in aquatic ecosystems, where declines in predatory fish populations lead to the proliferation of lower trophic levels and reduced ecological stability (Myers &Worm, 2003). In Indian riverine systems, the decline of key taxa such as mahseer ( Tor spp. ) may therefore have far-reaching ecological consequences beyond species loss alone. Catch-and-release (C&R) angling was often promoted as a sustainable alternative to extractive fishing; however, its effectiveness remains context-dependent. Physiological studies indicate that post-release survival is influenced by multiple stressors, including air exposure, handling time, and hooking injury. Sub-lethal impacts such as metabolic exhaustion, impaired feeding, and increased susceptibility to predation can significantly affect long-term survival (Cooke & Suski, 2005). In tropical environments, where elevated water temperatures intensify physiological stress, these effects may be further amplified. Consequently, the absence of standardized handling protocols in Indian recreational fisheries will likely limit the conservation benefits of C&R practices. Habitat fragmentation represented another major constraint on the sustainability of freshwater game fish populations. The construction of dams and barrages disrupted longitudinal connectivity, impeding migratory pathways essential for reproduction and feeding. This was particularly critical for potamodromous species that rely on uninterrupted river corridors. At a broader scale, the loss of lateral connectivity through floodplain modification reduced the availability of nursery habitats necessary for juvenile recruitment. As highlighted by Palmer et al. (2008), maintaining hydrological connectivity will be fundamental to sustaining ecological processes in riverine systems, particularly under increasing environmental variability. In addition to physical habitat alteration, biological invasions contributed to the restructuring of fish communities. The introduction and proliferation of non-native species with high ecological plasticity led to competitive displacement, predation on native taxa, and the transmission of novel pathogens. This process of biotic homogenization reduces regional biodiversity and alters ecosystem functioning, ultimately diminishing the ecological and economic value of native game fisheries (Arlinghaus et al., 2019). The increasing dominance of generalist invasive species in Indian inland waters therefore will represent a significant threat to the persistence of specialized native taxa. Anthropogenic pollution further compounded these challenges by degrading habitat quality and affecting fish health. Nutrient enrichment from agricultural runoff and urban wastewater promoted eutrophication, leading to hypoxic conditions that were unsuitable for many game fish species. The proliferation of invasive macrophytes such as Eichhornia crassipes exacerbated oxygen depletion and restricted habitat accessibility. Moreover, emerging contaminants such as microplastics were increasingly recognized for their sub-lethal physiological impacts, including oxidative stress and endocrine disruption (Wagner et al., 2019). These stressors not only affected fish populations but will also pose potential risks to human consumers through trophic transfer. The study also highlighted significant governance challenges associated with fisheries management in India. The decentralized nature of regulatory frameworks resulted in inconsistent policies and enforcement across regions, creating gaps that allowed unsustainable practices to persist. Such fragmentation was particularly problematic for migratory species that traverse multiple administrative boundaries. Global frameworks emphasize the importance of integrated, ecosystem-based approaches to fisheries management, which account for ecological connectivity and cross-jurisdictional coordination (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2018). In the absence of such approaches, localized conservation efforts will be unlikely to achieve long-term sustainability. Technological advancements in fishing practices further intensified pressure on fish populations. The use of sonar imaging, GPS-based mapping, and real-time fish detection systems significantly increased catch efficiency, enabling anglers to target specific individuals and habitats with high precision. While these innovations enhance recreational experiences, they also increased exploitation rates, particularly for large, reproductively valuable individuals. As noted in recent fisheries research, increased catchability will undermine traditional management measures if not accounted for in future regulatory frameworks (Arlinghaus et al., 2019). Climate change represented an overarching driver that interacted with existing stressors to influence fish distribution and habitat suitability. Rising temperatures, altered flow regimes, and declining dissolved oxygen levels are expected to reduce the availability of suitable habitats, particularly for temperature-sensitive species. The resulting “habitat compression” will lead to shifts in species composition and localized population declines. These changes will have significant implications for the sustainability of game fisheries, necessitating adaptive management strategies that will incorporate climate projections into conservation planning. The management of India’s recreational fisheries was constrained by fragmented resource use, limited data, inadequate expert involvement, and insufficient molecular and peer-reviewed studies. Coupled with weak financial and institutional support, this resulted in a poor understanding of freshwater biodiversity and high-value native taxa. The ornamental fish trade and tourism further exacerbated these challenges by facilitating the introduction of non-native species, often through intentional release or environmental disturbances such as floods. At the same time, taxonomic uncertainties persisted, with several species remaining poorly studied or misidentified due to limited molecular evidence. The spatial and temporal patterns observed in this study across India indicate that the apparent increase in occurrence records after 2010 is primarily driven by improved data mobilization, digitization of museum collections, and the rise of citizen science platforms, rather than a true expansion in fish populations. The concentration of records in biodiversity-rich regions such as the Himalaya, northeastern India, and the Western Ghats reflects both ecological significance and uneven sampling intensity, highlighting persistent geographic biases in freshwater biodiversity data. At the same time, the widespread distribution of native species contrasts with the restricted ranges of endemic taxa and the patchy, human-mediated spread of introduced species, suggesting increasing anthropogenic influence on freshwater ecosystems. Despite a decline in total records during the COVID-19 period, species richness remained relatively stable, indicating that current monitoring frameworks are robust enough to capture diversity even under constrained sampling conditions. This shift suggests that modern datasets, although still incomplete, provide a stronger and more reliable baseline compared to historical records, where both sampling effort and taxonomic coverage were limited. Importantly, the continued detection of diverse taxa in recent low-reporting years emphasizes the resilience of monitoring systems but also underscores the need for sustained and systematic data collection. Given these trends, there is a clear need to prioritize not only well-known taxa such as mahseer ( Tor ) but also other underrepresented game fishes in conservation planning. An integrated, science-based management approach is essential, supported by strong policy frameworks and stakeholder participation, with key actions including habitat restoration, invasive species control, standardized catch-and-release practices, and basin-scale governance. Furthermore, expanding citizen engagement and encouraging researchers to deposit occurrence records in open-access platforms such as Ocean Biodiversity Information System (OBIS) will be critical for improving data completeness, reducing knowledge gaps, and strengthening long-term conservation and management of freshwater game fishes in India. Conclusion This study revealed that Indian game fisheries across India are dominated by native species (277 species), with marine ecosystems supporting the highest diversity (161 species), while freshwater systems showed lower richness but higher conservation concern, including five vulnerable and three endangered species. The results also indicate that families such as Carangidae, Lutjanidae, and Cyprinidae contribute significantly to species composition, highlighting the ecological importance of both marine and inland systems. However, increasing pressures such as habitat fragmentation, invasive species, pollution, and unregulated fishing practices are contributing to observable declines in freshwater game fish populations. Therefore, integrated management strategies that focus on habitat connectivity, the conservation of threatened species, and sustainable recreational fishing practices are essential to ensure the long-term sustainability of game fisheries in India.Additionally, strengthening long-term monitoring through standardized data collection and promoting open-access data sharing via platforms such as Ocean Biodiversity Information System will be crucial for improving knowledge gaps, supporting evidence-based decision-making, and enhancing adaptive conservation planning for game fish species. Declarations Authorship contribution statement: SS: Writing original draft, data curation, investigation, formal analysis, visualization; SM: formal analysis, review, and editing. Declaration of competing interest: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have influenced the work reported in this paper. Funding: The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. Author Contribution SS: Writing original draft, data curation, investigation, formal analysis, visualization; SM: formal analysis, review, and editing. Acknowledgment: SS would like to sincerely thank for providing the financial support and resources that made this research possible. SS would like to thank all the contributors to the FishBase and Catelogue for possible for this work possible. Data Availability All related data is available as supplementary files. References Abba, A., & Sankarannair, S. (2024). Global impact of water hyacinth (Eichhornia Crassipes) on rural communities and mitigation strategies: a systematic review. Environmental Science and Pollution Research , 31 (31), 43616–43632. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-33905-7 Action, S. I. (2020). World fisheries and aquaculture. Food and Agriculture Organization , 2020 , 1-244. 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Asymmetric impacts of climate change on thermal habitat suitability for inland lake fishes. Nature Communications , 15 (1), 10273. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-54533-2 Tables Table 1 is available in the Supplementary Files section. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files Table1...xlsx Table: Exclusively Freshwater Game Fishes of India with Occurrence Status (FishBase), IUCN Red List Category, and Updated Taxonomy Following Eschmeyer’s Catalog of Fishes. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-9341952","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":630217448,"identity":"84f720fc-7b8a-45cb-b8d9-1670bff6801e","order_by":0,"name":"SHAHIN 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2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":42038,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDistribution of the top 20 families of game fishes across combined marine and freshwater ecosystems.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure2...png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9341952/v1/3adbb50a39ab5991c093f221.png"},{"id":108013005,"identity":"c05728c7-b644-41a3-b02f-80dfacf34eb4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-28 13:17:05","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":22459,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDistribution of game fish species classified by their occurrence status\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure3...png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9341952/v1/ca8c464a8faab986ebc001e0.png"},{"id":108012978,"identity":"191a4a19-6ebb-48fb-bb5c-bbc18b08cc6f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-28 13:17:03","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":25345,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFrequency distribution of game fishes across various aquatic habitats\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure4...png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9341952/v1/76761726f1f7fd47d39b7a5e.png"},{"id":108012841,"identity":"5c9deec1-e80b-4c9f-a473-a434563af6df","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-28 13:16:35","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":34085,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eHeatmap showing the density of Freshwater gamefish species across major families (e.g., Cyprinidae) and their occurrence categories (endemic, introduced, native).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"figure5...png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9341952/v1/2eb6def2ec3b6b55442bf6c3.png"},{"id":108012930,"identity":"2ddfaf96-97f4-4a4b-83de-d5151d371cd1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-28 13:16:54","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":19823,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eConservation status of Freshwater game fishes by occurrence category.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure6...png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9341952/v1/05d8d356f60463b909f291cc.png"},{"id":108012839,"identity":"339f08d3-e3f9-4c9d-bc7c-efc9e980e94c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-28 13:16:35","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":15999,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eOccurrence distribution of freshwater game fishes\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"figure7..png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9341952/v1/455f880df8da98fa83eefcba.png"},{"id":108012882,"identity":"8f40330a-5149-48ac-9ef1-d4df21e50207","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-28 13:16:39","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1483097,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSpatial distribution of 26 freshwater game fish species in India based on GBIF occurrence records.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure8...png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9341952/v1/8af8ae2bc29fa8f9493838d9.png"},{"id":108012942,"identity":"4751fb87-996f-4db8-abc7-ed6b9b1251fa","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-28 13:16:58","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":107417,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eHistorical occurrence of 26 freshwater game fish species in India (1826–2026) based on GBIF records.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure9..png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9341952/v1/7fd57b82f9191fb742741d3f.png"},{"id":108494708,"identity":"6af4eaf6-df32-4208-8955-e992ac02c3b5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-05 10:06:44","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":7357242,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9341952/v1/34969b65-5b5f-4d74-87ba-63bcd2cd1692.pdf"},{"id":108490767,"identity":"606037f9-abe3-41f0-8834-5bc6fa6b1854","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-05 09:48:09","extension":"xlsx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":10242,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable: \u003c/strong\u003eExclusively Freshwater Game Fishes of India with Occurrence Status (FishBase), IUCN Red List Category, and Updated Taxonomy Following Eschmeyer’s Catalog of Fishes.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Table1...xlsx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9341952/v1/1d26193c4e43155fc09f339e.xlsx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Ecological Stressors and Taxonomic Inconsistencies in Indian Freshwater Game Fisheries: A National Review of Biodiversity and Anthropogenic Threats","fulltext":[{"header":"Highlights","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Secondary data analysis compiled 277 game fish species from FishBase and Eschmeyer\u0026rsquo;s Catalog, providing a comprehensive reference.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Observed taxonomic gaps, IUCN status discrepancies and inconsistencies in the existing catalogues, highlighting the need for updated verification.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Native freshwater game fisheries were dominated by Cyprinidae and Schilbeidae, comprising 21 native, 3 introduced, and 2 endemic species, including 3 Endangered, 5 Vulnerable, and 2 Near Threatened taxa.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Rapid growth in digitized biodiversity records and citizen science contributions is reshaping baseline knowledge, but also introduces spatial and temporal biases that require standardized monitoring and integrated data frameworks.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Synergistic habitat squeezes and technological overexploitation in Indian game fisheries driven by climate-induced hypoxia, river fragmentation, and precision fishing gear are outpacing fragmented governance and masking \u0026ldquo;invisible\u0026rdquo; declines of iconic native species of India.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eGame fishing, often referred to as sport fishing, is a specialized pursuit in which the primary objective is the thrill of the catch rather than the harvest (Ditton \u0026amp; Stoll, 2003). Participants utilize various gear, including rods, reels, handlines, spears, bows, and nets, to engage with nature through catch-and-release practices or occasional consumption for nutritional and medicinal purposes (Cooke et al., 2018). This discipline typically targets species renowned for their fighting ability, such as billfish, tuna, and salmon, requiring anglers to master sophisticated equipment and techniques. As the sport evolved, it became deeply intertwined with environmental ethics, relying heavily on catch-and-release protocols to ensure the long-term health of aquatic ecosystems (Cooke and Suski, 2005). Furthermore, the pursuit of world records was governed by strict international standards regarding line strength and tackle, ensuring a standardized \"man versus nature\" challenge (Taylor et al., 2024).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe historical roots of sport fishing in India date back to 1900 AD, when the British introduced exotic brown trout to promote this activity (Ayyappan et al., 2007). Today, Mahseer is globally recognized as India's premier game fish (Nautiyal, 2014). While recreational fishing creates opportunities for Indigenous communities and promotes economic growth through tourism (Ditton et al., 2002), it faced significant logistical hurdles, including the high cost of specialized equipment, fuel requirements, and vast distances to prime fishing grounds. The recent surge in recreational activities, particularly those targeting endangered species, had created complex allocation and management challenges for policymakers (Scheufele \u0026amp; Pascoe, 2022). Additionally, the conversion of commercial fisheries into recreational zones has led to escalating conflicts between local fishers and sports anglers (Boucquey, 2017).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlobal participation rates highlight significant regional disparities; Oceania leads with 17% of the population participating, followed by Europe (3.7%), North America (2%), Africa (0.3%), and Asia at the lowest (0.2%) (Montemayor \u0026amp; Sumaila, 2010). In India, a survey of 200 anglers across 25 states and union territories confirmed that Mahseer (\u003cem\u003eTor spp.\u003c/em\u003e) remains the primary target, with anglers preferring clean and natural river environments. However, these populations were threatened by overfishing, pollution, and illegal fishing techniques (Gupta et al., 2016).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile commercial fishing, often viewed as the primary threat to sustainability, sport fishing also contributes to the exploitation of inland and marine waters. Inadequate resource management and a lack of quantified data on catch-and-release mortality had contributed to environmental degradation and ecosystem alteration (Cooke \u0026amp; Cowx, 2004). A study of 148 catch-and-release anglers in India revealed that while 65% reported a decline in fishing quality due to hydropower projects, deforestation, and water abstraction, there was a strong willingness among the angling community to contribute time and financial resources toward conservation (Gupta et al., 2015). The Southwestern coast of India contains many rivers, streams, and reservoirs suitable for angling, and it supports game fishing, including Mahseer, Barramundi, Trout Species, and it extended tourism sport fishing destination in the Cauvery river, Karnataka, Streams of Munnar, Kali River near the Karnataka\u0026ndash;Goa border(Mushtaq et al., 2024). Freshwater systems are particularly vulnerable to pollution, overuse, and invasive species, all of which threaten inland sport fisheries and reduce biodiversity (Strayer \u0026amp; Dudgeon, 2010).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite this support, a lack of basic scientific knowledge regarding the IUCN status and fish maturation, coupled with disorganized governmental administration and unregulated catching by various organizations, continues to drive the decline of major Sports fish species in India (Gupta et al., 2015).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eData on game fish species across marine and freshwater environments were compiled through a multi-step verification process. Initial records were extracted from FishBase (Froese, 2005) using a combination of manual searches and Python-based data scraping. These primary datasets, downloaded in CSV format, were then filtered specifically for the Indian context.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo ensure taxonomic precision and conservation relevance, the list underwent a secondary validation phase. Each species' current taxonomic status was cross-referenced with Eschmeyer’s Catalog of Fishes (Fricke, Eschmeyer, \u0026amp; Van der Laan, 2026), and its conservation status was updated using the IUCN Red List. (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOccurrence data for 26 freshwater game fish species were extracted from the official Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) database and consolidated into a single Excel file. The dataset underwent rigorous cleaning, including the removal of duplicates, verification of taxonomic names, and validation of georeferenced records to ensure accuracy and reliability. Following data preparation, Python programming was employed to perform data analysis and generate final visualizations, providing clear insights into temporal and spatial patterns of species occurrence\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe analysis of game fish species in India, derived from FishBase and Eschmeyer\u0026rsquo;s Catalog, indicates a pronounced dominance of native taxa within the assemblage. Of the total recorded species, native species account for the majority (277 species)(Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e), followed by comparatively lower representations of questionable (14 species) and introduced taxa (12 species). Endemic (2 species) and stray occurrences (1 species) contribute minimally to the overall composition(Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHabitat-wise distribution demonstrates that marine environments (MR) support the highest species richness, largely dominated by native taxa (161 species). Transitional systems, including brackish\u0026ndash;marine (BR/MR) and euryhaline (FR/BR/MR) habitats, also exhibit substantial diversity, underscoring their ecological significance as connectivity zones (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, freshwater (FR-26) systems support fewer species but show relatively higher representation of endemic (2) and introduced components, indicating both ecological uniqueness and anthropogenic influence (3) (Table\u0026nbsp;1).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe conservation status profile showed that the majority of species fall under the Least Concern (LC) category, with a high proportion of native taxa (175 species). However, the Endangered (EN) and Vulnerable (VU) categories, though less represented, indicate the presence of conservation-sensitive species that require attention. A small proportion of species classified as Data Deficient (DD) and Not Evaluated/Not Found further highlights gaps in assessment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFamily-level analysis shows that Carangidae (43 species), Lutjanidae (26 species), and Epinephelidae (21 species) are the most dominant groups, reflecting the prominence of marine taxa in game fisheries. Other notable families include Cyprinidae (20 species) and Scombridae (20 species). Across families, native species overwhelmingly dominate, with introduced elements primarily restricted to a few families such as Cyprinidae and Salmonidae.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA focused assessment of freshwater game fish (FR; 26 species) indicates that the assemblage is largely composed of native species (21 species), with introduced (3 species) and endemic (2 species) components contributing to its structure. Taxonomically, freshwater systems are dominated by families such as Cyprinidae and Schilbeidae, which were key to inland recreational fisheries (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll freshwater species were associated with freshwater habitats (FR), although variation in occurrence patterns suggests differing levels of habitat specialization and adaptability. The conservation profile of freshwater species indicates that 13 species were classified as Least Concern (LC), while 5 species are Vulnerable (VU) and 3 species are Endangered (EN), reflecting a non-negligible proportion of taxa under conservation risk (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). In which 21 were native, 3 introduced, and 2 endemic (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e)(Table\u0026nbsp;1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e4.Temporal and Spatial Occurrence Data of Game Fishes from GBIF.\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA total of 26 species were recorded over the study period spanning 1826\u0026ndash;2026, revealing pronounced temporal heterogeneity in occurrence data(Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). Records from the early 19th and much of the 20th century were sparsely represented, reflecting limited sampling effort, lack of systematic surveys, and the absence of digitized archival systems during those periods.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA marked increase in records was observed beginning around 2009\u0026ndash;2010, with a pronounced peak between 2013 and 2020(Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e). This surge corresponds not to a sudden increase in fish populations, but rather to enhanced data availability driven by large-scale digitization initiatives, increased research activity, and the integration of citizen science platforms (e.g., iNaturalist) into global biodiversity databases such as GBIF. Museum collections, many of which had remained undigitized for decades, were increasingly catalogued during this period, substantially enriching accessible occurrence records.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTaxon-specific trends further highlight this shift. Genera such as \u003cem\u003eTor\u003c/em\u003e (Mahseer) and \u003cem\u003eWallago\u003c/em\u003e (catfish) exhibited disproportionately high record counts in recent years. For instance, \u003cem\u003eTor\u003c/em\u003e accounted for 60 records in 2017 and 43 in 2019, indicating intensified research and conservation focus on these ecologically and economically important taxa. Such patterns suggest prioritization in fisheries research and biodiversity monitoring programs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA sharp decline in records is evident beginning in 2020, coinciding with the global disruptions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. This reduction can be attributed to multiple factors, including the suspension of field-based sampling due to travel restrictions, cancellation of scientific expeditions, and limited access to laboratory and museum facilities required for specimen processing and data digitization. Unlike terrestrial biodiversity monitoring (e.g., avian observations), which adapted to localized citizen science efforts, aquatic biodiversity assessments often requiring specialized equipment and coordinated field teams, experienced significant constraints.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite the reduction in total reporting volume between 2021 and 2025, species richness remained relatively stable, averaging approximately 10 species per year. Even in years with lower reporting intensity, such as 2023 (8 species) and 2025 (9 species)(Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e), the number of species recorded exceeded those documented in earlier decades. This indicates that contemporary monitoring frameworks, supported by digital infrastructure and broader participation, maintain a robust baseline for biodiversity assessment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1 Spatial Distribution and Biogeographic Patterns\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe spatial distribution of 26 game fish species across India reveals distinct geographic clustering patterns associated with major river basins, biodiversity hotspots, and anthropogenic influences. Occurrence points are widely distributed but show higher densities in ecologically significant regions such as the Himalayan foothills, the Western Ghats, and the northeastern hill systems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1.2 Spatial Clustering and Regional Patterns\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh concentrations of records are evident in the northern and northeastern regions, particularly along the Himalayan river systems. These areas support cold-water and hill-stream species, including genera such as Tor and Schizothorax, which are adapted to fast-flowing, oxygen-rich waters. Similarly, northeastern India exhibits dense clustering, reflecting both high biodiversity and increased sampling effort in recent years(Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn peninsular India, especially along the Western Ghats, occurrence points were also abundant. This region is a recognized biodiversity hotspot and harbors several endemic taxa. River systems in central and eastern India show more scattered distributions, likely reflecting both ecological variability and uneven sampling intensity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1.3 Native, Introduced, and Endemic Species Distribution\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eNative species (Dominant pattern)\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe majority of occurrence points correspond to native species, which are broadly distributed across river basins. These species follow natural hydrological connectivity, occurring along major drainage systems such as the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and peninsular rivers. Their widespread distribution indicates ecological adaptability and long-term evolutionary presence in these systems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eEndemic species (localized distribution)\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eEndemic species were represented by more spatially restricted clusters, primarily concentrated in biodiversity hotspots such as the Western Ghats and certain Himalayan regions. Their limited distribution reflects habitat specialization, geographic isolation, and evolutionary uniqueness. These species are particularly vulnerable to habitat alteration due to their narrow ranges.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eIntroduced species (patchy and human-driven distribution)\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntroduced species exhibit a scattered and discontinuous spatial pattern. Unlike native taxa, their occurrence was not constrained by natural river connectivity but instead reflects human activities such as aquaculture, sport fishing, and accidental releases. These species often appear near urban centers, reservoirs, and managed water bodies, indicating anthropogenic pathways of dispersal.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e3. Challenges of Game Fishing in India\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Trophic Cascades: The Ecological Collapse of Apex Removal\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe unauthorized and continuous overexploitation of freshwater resources for human consumption had significantly destabilized aquatic ecosystems (Carpenter et al., 1985; Palkovacs et al., 2011). In areas with high-interest activities like wetland bird watching, local communities were often encouraged toward unsustainable fishing practices, where high market demand for large trophy fish leads to their permanent removal from the water (Allan et al., 2005). This selective overfishing of apex predators triggers a \u0026ldquo;top-down\u0026rdquo; ecological shift, resulting in an overabundance of smaller fish and a disrupted trophic hierarchy that threatens the population stability of endemic species in lakes and rivers (Hessen \u0026amp; Kaartvedt, 2014; Estes et al., 2011).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2Anthropogenic Stressors and Physiological Impairment in Catch-and-Release\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMany people and researchers believed that post release after being caught, animals will survive in the nature, but more often their chances of mortality were due to stress, air exhaustion, weak and vulnerable to predators (Raby et al.,2014). Improper handling and management practices in sport fishing causes significant physical injuries to fish, particularly from hooks, which damage the mouth, gills, or internal organs. These injuries can lead to infections and increase susceptibility to parasitic infestations. As a result, affected fish often exhibit reduced feeding efficiency, impaired growth, and weakened physiological condition, making them more vulnerable to larger predators after release (Cooke \u0026amp; Suski, 2005; Cooke et al., 2013;Danylchuk et al., 2007).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3 Fragmentation of Lotic Ecosystems: Barriers to Potamodromous Migration\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe human intervention and fragmentation of habitats of freshwater immense pressure due to the construction of dams and bundles causing to interrupt the migratory patterns and reproductive cycles(Nilsson et al., 2005; Arthington et al.,2016). recent research published in the \u003cem\u003eJournal of Environmental Management\u003c/em\u003e (2025) shows that river restoration efforts aimed at improving connectivity, such as fish passes designed primarily for anadromous species also provide substantial benefits to potamodromous fishes. Specifically, restored connectivity enables long-distance spawning migrations and enhances ecological and evolutionary processes in freshwater-resident species (Błońska et al., 2025).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4 Eutrophication and Invasive Macrophytes: Drivers of Habitat Degradation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgricultural runoff and sewage discharge significantly elevated heavy metal toxicity in fish while degrading the aesthetic value of freshwater ecosystems. This nutrient enrichment fueled the rapid expansion of invasive plants like Water Hyacinth (\u003cem\u003eEichhornia crassipes\u003c/em\u003e) and \u003cem\u003eIpomoea\u003c/em\u003e, which obstructed waterways and disrupted the habitats of native game species (Vaughan \u0026amp; Russell, 2015). Pollution and the proliferation of water hyacinth significantly affected game fishing by degrading aquatic ecosystems and reducing fish availability. Dense mats of water hyacinth obstruct sunlight penetration and reduce dissolved oxygen levels, creating hypoxic conditions that are unsuitable for many game fish species, which ultimately lowered catch rates and fishing quality (Abba et al., 2024).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNutrient pollution accelerated eutrophication, further promoting hyacinth blooms and worsening oxygen depletion, while heavy metals and microplastics negatively impacted fish health, growth, and reproduction, posing risks to both fisheries and human consumers (Rezania et al., 2015; Sreenivasan \u0026amp; Soundari, 2024). These stressors led to shifts in fish community composition, where sensitive and economically important game fish declined and more tolerant species dominated.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, dense hyacinth infestations physically obstructed fishing operations, limiting access to fishing grounds and reducing the efficiency of angling activities. Although control measures such as biological agents (e.g., fungi and weevils) and herbicides can reduce hyacinth spread, their ecological impacts had to be carefully evaluated (Admas et al., 2020; Center \u0026amp; Dray, 2010; Tewabe, 2015).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLead-based tackle used in sport fishing introduced toxic metals into aquatic systems, posing risks to fish health and higher trophic levels. Ingested lead sinkers and fragments can impair neurological and physiological functions in fish, reducing growth and survival, and may bioaccumulate through the food web, indirectly affecting game fish populations and anglers targeting them (Scheuhammer \u0026amp; Norris, 1996; Williamset al., 2017).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTherefore, effective management of pollution and invasive species, along with the promotion of native vegetation, will be essential to sustain healthy fish populations and maintain the ecological and economic value of game fishing (Carnevali et al., 2026).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.5 Biotic Homogenization: The Impact of Invasive Alien Species (IAS)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eShifts in environmental conditions and fishing pressure transformed fisheries from native-dominated systems to those increasingly influenced by stocked or invasive species. This affected species composition targeted in sport fishing and may have reduced the ecological and recreational value of traditional game fisheries (Arlinghaus et al., 2021). The introduction of invasive alien species (IAS), most notably the African Sharptooth Catfish (\u003cem\u003eClarias gariepinus\u003c/em\u003e) and the Nile Tilapia (\u003cem\u003eOreochromis niloticus\u003c/em\u003e), posed a severe ecological threat to India\u0026rsquo;s prestigious game fish, such as the Mahseer (\u003cem\u003eTor spp.\u003c/em\u003e) and the Goonch (\u003cem\u003eBagarius bagarius\u003c/em\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese invaders often outcompete native species for food and nesting sites, prey directly on the juveniles of game fish, and introduce novel pathogens into fragile riverine ecosystems. In the Western Ghats and Himalayan foothills regions, renowned for recreational angling, the proliferation of these hardy, prolific breeders led to a documented decline in native biodiversity and the homogenization of fish communities. This displacement not only disrupted the aquatic food web but also undermined the economic value of the recreational fishing industry, as the aggressive expansion of generalist invasives reduced the population density of specialized, high-value indigenous game species (Sandilyan, 2022).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.6. Anthropogenic Pressures: Destructive Harvest and Illegal Exploitation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIllegal practices, such as dynamite and cyanide fishing, destroyed essential habitats and killed non-target species, severely degrading the ecosystems that support sport fishing (Barber \u0026amp; Pratt, 1998). Similarly, illegal electric fishing stunned and killed fish indiscriminately, including juveniles, leading to a rapid depletion of stocks (Snyder, 2003). Furthermore, large-scale mass netting overexploited populations by removing the trophy-sized individuals most valued by the recreational sector (Lewin et al., 2019).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIllegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing accounted for an estimated 11 to 26\u0026nbsp;million tonnes of fish annually, representing a global economic loss between \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e10\u0026nbsp;billion and \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e23.5\u0026nbsp;billion (Agnew et al., 2009). This illegal exploitation undermined conservation efforts by removing top predators and disrupting the community structure of marine and freshwater systems, often leading to a \"collapse\" in endemic populations, as was seen in iconic game species like the mahseer (Pinder, 2020). The cumulative effect of these pressures, driven by rising global demand and a lack of effective governance, pushed many high-value game fish stocks toward the brink of extinction (Agnew et al., 2009; Pham et al., 2023).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.7. Market-Driven Overexploitation and Habitat Degradation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe illegal capture and trade of high-value game fish undermined conservation efforts and reduced stock availability for legal angling. This overexploitation, driven by black markets, threatened vulnerable species and disrupted sustainable management (Action, 2020). Additionally, habitat degradation from pollution, shoreline modification, and sedimentation reduced spawning and feeding grounds, leading to population declines (Allan et al., 2005).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.8. Unregulated Mortality and Ecotoxicological Threats\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eLost or abandoned \"ghost gear\" continued to trap and kill sport species, contributing to stock depletion (Guzman, 2021). Simultaneously, sportfishing introduced microplastics into freshwater and marine ecosystems. Ingested by apex predators, these particles accumulated across trophic levels, posing a health risk to humans who consumed these contaminated fish (Wagner et al., 2019).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecifically, exposure to polyethylene microplastics (PE-MPs) induced severe physiological distress in the endemic Mahseer (\u003cem\u003eTor putitora\u003c/em\u003e), triggering oxidative stress and neurotoxic inhibition. These pollutants compromised fish survival through hormonal and immune disruption while facilitating the transition of toxins from freshwater to human food chains (Ullah et al., 2026).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.9 India \u0026ndash; fragmented laws\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn India, fisheries governance was fragmented across states, leading to inconsistent regulations for sport fishing. This weak enforcement can resulted in overfishing, habitat damage, and poor conservation outcomes (Sathiadhas et al., 2014).Loss of wetlands, floodplains, and coastal ecosystems reduced essential habitats for breeding and feeding of game fish, leading to long-term declines in fishery productivity (Dudgeon et al., 2006).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe fragmentation of fisheries governance in India stemmed from its decentralized institutional structure, where fisheries were largely managed at the state level, resulting in inconsistent regulatory frameworks and enforcement across regions. This lack of coordination created regulatory gaps that allowed unsustainable fishing practices to persist across administrative boundaries (Johnson, 2006; Food and Agriculture Organization, 2018). Migratory species such as hilsa (\u003cem\u003eTenualosa ilisha\u003c/em\u003e) and mahseer (\u003cem\u003eTor\u003c/em\u003e spp.) were particularly vulnerable, as they traversed multiple jurisdictions with varying levels of protection, undermined conservation effectiveness (Myers \u0026amp; Worm, 2003). In addition, widespread floodplain modification and wetland reclamation disrupted lateral connectivity between rivers and their adjacent habitats, which are essential for spawning and juvenile recruitment (Palmer et al., 2008). Without integrated, basin-scale governance frameworks that recognize ecological connectivity, localized conservation initiatives remained insufficient to address large-scale declines in fish populations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.10. Technological Advancements and Targeted Exploitation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdvanced technologies such as bathymetric mapping and underwater cameras (e.g., GoPro) enabled anglers and commercial operators to precisely locate fish habitats. While improving catch efficiency, these tools may increased fishing pressure on vulnerable species, particularly when used by large motorized vessels targeting apex game fish, which potentially led to localized population declines (Cooke \u0026amp; Cowx, 2004).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBeyond traditional navigation, the integration of high-resolution side-scan sonar and real-time \"LiveScope\" technology has revolutionized the ability of anglers to target individual fish in complex structures that were previously inaccessible. These \"live-imaging\" systems allowed users to observe fish behavior and reactions to lures in real-time, significantly reducing the \"search time\" and increasing the catchability of larger, more fecund individuals that are critical for population recruitment (Venturelli et al., 2017). This shift toward data-driven, precision angling necessitated a re-evaluation of traditional harvest limits, as the increased efficiency of modern gear may outpaced the adaptive capacity of current fisheries management frameworks (Arlinghaus et al., 2019; Venturelli et al., 2017).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.11 Climate-Driven Thermal Shifts and Habitat Contraction\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eClimate change reshaped freshwater fisheries by altering lake temperature patterns, which directly affected game fish availability. Analysis of U.S. lakes (1980\u0026ndash;2021) showed that cold-water game fish species (such as trout) were losing suitable temperature days faster than warm-water species (like bass) were gaining them. This imbalance was driven by warming and reduced thermal layering in lakes, which limited cold refuges. As a result, prized cold-water sport fish were likely to decline, and the rise of warm-water species did not fully offset these losses. These changes could significantly impact game fishing quality, species composition, and management strategies, highlighting the need for climate mitigation and adaptive fisheries management (Xu et al., 2024).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition to thermal shifts within the water column, climate-driven habitat contraction was exacerbated by the reduction of dissolved oxygen (DO) levels, creating a \"squeezing\" effect on cold-water salmonids and percussion species. As surface temperatures rose, the aerobic habitat for game fish like lake trout (\u003cem\u003eSalvelinus namaycush\u003c/em\u003e) and walleye (\u003cem\u003eSander vitreus\u003c/em\u003e) was restricted from above by lethal temperatures and from below by benthic hypoxia, effectively reducing the total volume of fishable water (Stefan et al., 2001). Consequently, even if a lake remains thermally viable on the surface, the loss of deep-water refugia could lead to localized extinctions of apex game fish, forcing a shift in recreational fishing towards smaller, more heat-tolerant species that may not hold the same economic or cultural value (Jacobson et al., 2010).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e4. 1 Conservation Strategies\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn India, the protection of cultural traditions and increased awareness regarding game fish, such as the Mahseer, played a vital role in conserving these endangered species (Baruah, 2024). Beyond cultural awareness, the implementation of catch-and-release (C\u0026amp;R) protocols and the establishment of community-based fisheries management (CBFM) have emerged as key strategies for mahseer conservation. By transitioning from extractive harvest to recreational angling, local communities were incentivized to act as \u0026ldquo;river guardians,\u0026rdquo; as the economic value of a live mahseer through angling tourism can exceed its value as a harvested fish (Pinder et al., 2020). These community-led initiatives, often supported by NGOs and government agencies, include the establishment of no-take zones and protected river stretches, which provided refuges from overexploitation and illegal fishing (Gupta et al., 2015). Furthermore, integrating traditional ecological knowledge with scientific approaches such as telemetry enables the implementation of seasonal fishing restrictions aligned with spawning migrations and reproductive cycles (Everard \u0026amp; Kataria, 2011; Pinder et al., 2020).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2 Policy and management\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePromote sustainable sportfishing and accessible, affordable and generally highly sustainable food source, and provide a frame work for adapt a flexible approach for the policy and manage recreational activities through local, state, and central government (Cooke et al., 2018). Increase global recreational activities protection and strategies to enhance for game fishing. The prohibition of fishing during breeding and spawning seasons must be strictly regulated by the respective state fisheries departments in India to ensure the sustainability of sportfishing. Effective enforcement of these closed seasons protects vulnerable broodstock, allowing endemic game species to reproduce and maintain stable population levels (Arthington et al., 2016) Monitoring the population dynamics of endemic sport fish species is essential for understanding their abundance, distribution, and long-term sustainability under increasing anthropogenic pressures. Such population assessments provide critical data for conservation planning and sustainable fisheries management. At the same time, the identification, monitoring, and control of invasive species must be prioritized, as invasive fishes can outcompete native species, alter habitats, and reduce biodiversity in freshwater ecosystems. Effective management of invasive species requires coordinated efforts among government agencies, industrial stakeholders, local non-governmental organizations (NGOs), fishers, and local communities to ensure ecosystem stability and sustainable sport fisheries (Sorensen, 2021; Kadwalia, 2025; Merz et al., 2021).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe present study provided a comprehensive evaluation of game fish diversity, ecological stressors, and management challenges in India, highlighting a system characterized by high native biodiversity but increasing anthropogenic pressure. The predominance of native taxa observed across marine and freshwater assemblages reflected the ecological richness of Indian aquatic systems, particularly within tropical and subtropical environments. However, the relatively low representation of endemic freshwater species, coupled with the presence of introduced taxa, indicated a gradual shift toward ecological homogenization, a pattern widely recognized as a major driver of biodiversity loss in inland waters (Dudgeon et al., 2006).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA key ecological concern identified in this study was the destabilization of trophic structure due to selective exploitation of large-bodied game fish. The removal of apex and mesopredators can disrupt top-down regulatory mechanisms, resulting in trophic cascades that alter community composition and ecosystem functioning. This phenomenon had been extensively documented in aquatic ecosystems, where declines in predatory fish populations lead to the proliferation of lower trophic levels and reduced ecological stability (Myers \u0026amp;Worm, 2003). In Indian riverine systems, the decline of key taxa such as mahseer (\u003cem\u003eTor spp.\u003c/em\u003e) may therefore have far-reaching ecological consequences beyond species loss alone.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCatch-and-release (C\u0026amp;R) angling was often promoted as a sustainable alternative to extractive fishing; however, its effectiveness remains context-dependent. Physiological studies indicate that post-release survival is influenced by multiple stressors, including air exposure, handling time, and hooking injury. Sub-lethal impacts such as metabolic exhaustion, impaired feeding, and increased susceptibility to predation can significantly affect long-term survival (Cooke \u0026amp; Suski, 2005). In tropical environments, where elevated water temperatures intensify physiological stress, these effects may be further amplified. Consequently, the absence of standardized handling protocols in Indian recreational fisheries will likely limit the conservation benefits of C\u0026amp;R practices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHabitat fragmentation represented another major constraint on the sustainability of freshwater game fish populations. The construction of dams and barrages disrupted longitudinal connectivity, impeding migratory pathways essential for reproduction and feeding. This was particularly critical for potamodromous species that rely on uninterrupted river corridors. At a broader scale, the loss of lateral connectivity through floodplain modification reduced the availability of nursery habitats necessary for juvenile recruitment. As highlighted by Palmer et al. (2008), maintaining hydrological connectivity will be fundamental to sustaining ecological processes in riverine systems, particularly under increasing environmental variability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition to physical habitat alteration, biological invasions contributed to the restructuring of fish communities. The introduction and proliferation of non-native species with high ecological plasticity led to competitive displacement, predation on native taxa, and the transmission of novel pathogens. This process of biotic homogenization reduces regional biodiversity and alters ecosystem functioning, ultimately diminishing the ecological and economic value of native game fisheries (Arlinghaus et al., 2019). The increasing dominance of generalist invasive species in Indian inland waters therefore will represent a significant threat to the persistence of specialized native taxa.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnthropogenic pollution further compounded these challenges by degrading habitat quality and affecting fish health. Nutrient enrichment from agricultural runoff and urban wastewater promoted eutrophication, leading to hypoxic conditions that were unsuitable for many game fish species. The proliferation of invasive macrophytes such as \u003cem\u003eEichhornia crassipes\u003c/em\u003e exacerbated oxygen depletion and restricted habitat accessibility. Moreover, emerging contaminants such as microplastics were increasingly recognized for their sub-lethal physiological impacts, including oxidative stress and endocrine disruption (Wagner et al., 2019). These stressors not only affected fish populations but will also pose potential risks to human consumers through trophic transfer.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study also highlighted significant governance challenges associated with fisheries management in India. The decentralized nature of regulatory frameworks resulted in inconsistent policies and enforcement across regions, creating gaps that allowed unsustainable practices to persist. Such fragmentation was particularly problematic for migratory species that traverse multiple administrative boundaries. Global frameworks emphasize the importance of integrated, ecosystem-based approaches to fisheries management, which account for ecological connectivity and cross-jurisdictional coordination (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2018). In the absence of such approaches, localized conservation efforts will be unlikely to achieve long-term sustainability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTechnological advancements in fishing practices further intensified pressure on fish populations. The use of sonar imaging, GPS-based mapping, and real-time fish detection systems significantly increased catch efficiency, enabling anglers to target specific individuals and habitats with high precision. While these innovations enhance recreational experiences, they also increased exploitation rates, particularly for large, reproductively valuable individuals. As noted in recent fisheries research, increased catchability will undermine traditional management measures if not accounted for in future regulatory frameworks (Arlinghaus et al., 2019).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eClimate change represented an overarching driver that interacted with existing stressors to influence fish distribution and habitat suitability. Rising temperatures, altered flow regimes, and declining dissolved oxygen levels are expected to reduce the availability of suitable habitats, particularly for temperature-sensitive species. The resulting \u0026ldquo;habitat compression\u0026rdquo; will lead to shifts in species composition and localized population declines. These changes will have significant implications for the sustainability of game fisheries, necessitating adaptive management strategies that will incorporate climate projections into conservation planning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe management of India\u0026rsquo;s recreational fisheries was constrained by fragmented resource use, limited data, inadequate expert involvement, and insufficient molecular and peer-reviewed studies. Coupled with weak financial and institutional support, this resulted in a poor understanding of freshwater biodiversity and high-value native taxa. The ornamental fish trade and tourism further exacerbated these challenges by facilitating the introduction of non-native species, often through intentional release or environmental disturbances such as floods. At the same time, taxonomic uncertainties persisted, with several species remaining poorly studied or misidentified due to limited molecular evidence.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe spatial and temporal patterns observed in this study across India indicate that the apparent increase in occurrence records after 2010 is primarily driven by improved data mobilization, digitization of museum collections, and the rise of citizen science platforms, rather than a true expansion in fish populations. The concentration of records in biodiversity-rich regions such as the Himalaya, northeastern India, and the Western Ghats reflects both ecological significance and uneven sampling intensity, highlighting persistent geographic biases in freshwater biodiversity data. At the same time, the widespread distribution of native species contrasts with the restricted ranges of endemic taxa and the patchy, human-mediated spread of introduced species, suggesting increasing anthropogenic influence on freshwater ecosystems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite a decline in total records during the COVID-19 period, species richness remained relatively stable, indicating that current monitoring frameworks are robust enough to capture diversity even under constrained sampling conditions. This shift suggests that modern datasets, although still incomplete, provide a stronger and more reliable baseline compared to historical records, where both sampling effort and taxonomic coverage were limited. Importantly, the continued detection of diverse taxa in recent low-reporting years emphasizes the resilience of monitoring systems but also underscores the need for sustained and systematic data collection.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGiven these trends, there is a clear need to prioritize not only well-known taxa such as mahseer (\u003cem\u003eTor\u003c/em\u003e) but also other underrepresented game fishes in conservation planning. An integrated, science-based management approach is essential, supported by strong policy frameworks and stakeholder participation, with key actions including habitat restoration, invasive species control, standardized catch-and-release practices, and basin-scale governance. Furthermore, expanding citizen engagement and encouraging researchers to deposit occurrence records in open-access platforms such as Ocean Biodiversity Information System (OBIS) will be critical for improving data completeness, reducing knowledge gaps, and strengthening long-term conservation and management of freshwater game fishes in India.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study revealed that Indian game fisheries across India are dominated by native species (277 species), with marine ecosystems supporting the highest diversity (161 species), while freshwater systems showed lower richness but higher conservation concern, including five vulnerable and three endangered species. The results also indicate that families such as Carangidae, Lutjanidae, and Cyprinidae contribute significantly to species composition, highlighting the ecological importance of both marine and inland systems. However, increasing pressures such as habitat fragmentation, invasive species, pollution, and unregulated fishing practices are contributing to observable declines in freshwater game fish populations. Therefore, integrated management strategies that focus on habitat connectivity, the conservation of threatened species, and sustainable recreational fishing practices are essential to ensure the long-term sustainability of game fisheries in India.Additionally, strengthening long-term monitoring through standardized data collection and promoting open-access data sharing via platforms such as Ocean Biodiversity Information System will be crucial for improving knowledge gaps, supporting evidence-based decision-making, and enhancing adaptive conservation planning for game fish species.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAuthorship contribution statement:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSS: Writing original draft, data curation, investigation, formal analysis, visualization; SM: formal analysis, review, and editing.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDeclaration of competing interest:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have influenced the work reported in this paper.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSS: Writing original draft, data curation, investigation, formal analysis, visualization; SM: formal analysis, review, and editing.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgment:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSS would like to sincerely thank for providing the financial support and resources that made this research possible. SS would like to thank all the contributors to the FishBase and Catelogue for possible for this work possible.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll related data is available as supplementary files.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbba, A., \u0026amp; Sankarannair, S. (2024). Global impact of water hyacinth (Eichhornia Crassipes) on rural communities and mitigation strategies: a systematic review.\u003cem\u003eEnvironmental Science and Pollution Research\u003c/em\u003e,\u003cem\u003e31\u003c/em\u003e(31), 43616\u0026ndash;43632. \u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-33905-7\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAction, S. I. (2020). 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Invited overview: conclusions from a review of electrofishing and its harmful effects on fish.\u003cem\u003eReviews in fish biology and fisheries\u003c/em\u003e,\u003cem\u003e13\u003c/em\u003e(4), 445\u0026ndash;453.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11160-004-1095-9\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTaylor, A. T., Bellapigna, Z. L., \u0026amp; Pohlot, B. G. (2024). Updating angling records to advance sport fish conservation: a case study of IGFA's black bass world records.\u003cem\u003eFisheries\u003c/em\u003e,\u003cem\u003e49\u003c/em\u003e(5), 221\u0026ndash;232. \u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1002/fsh.11051\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTewabe, D. (2015). 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(2017). Environmental lead and wild birds: a review.\u003cem\u003eReviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology Volume 245\u003c/em\u003e, 157\u0026ndash;180. https://doi.org/10.1007/398_2017_9\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eXu, L., Feiner, Z. S., Frater, P., Hansen, G. J., Ladwig, R., Paukert, C. P., ... \u0026amp; Jensen, O. P. (2024). Asymmetric impacts of climate change on thermal habitat suitability for inland lake fishes.\u003cem\u003eNature Communications\u003c/em\u003e,\u003cem\u003e15\u003c/em\u003e(1), 10273.\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-54533-2\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003eTable 1 is available in the Supplementary Files section.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Recreational, Conservation, Homogenization Heritage","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9341952/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9341952/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eDespite India\u0026rsquo;s status as a global aquatic biodiversity hotspot, its recreational fisheries remain obscured by fragmented governance and systemic data deficiencies. This study validates 277 game fish species, revealing widespread taxonomic inconsistencies and miscategorized conservation statuses in FishBase and Eschmeyer's Catalog of Fishes. Marine environments support the highest species richness (161 native taxa), whereas freshwater systems disproportionately harbor Endangered and Vulnerable species at risk of regional decline. Significant taxonomic discrepancies-outdated, incorrect, or unverified species names coincide with a high prevalence of Data Deficient and Not Evaluated IUCN statuses, particularly among 26 freshwater taxa, suggesting that many high-value native species, including members of Carangidae, Lutjanidae, and Cyprinidae, may be experiencing \u0026ldquo;invisible\u0026rdquo; declines that escape current conservation oversight. Ecological pressures are further amplified by an oxythermal habitat squeeze, where rising temperatures and benthic hypoxia constrain survival space for sensitive species such as mahseer, alongside technological overexploitation and invasive species\u0026ndash;driven biotic homogenization (e.g., \u003cem\u003eClarias gariepinus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eOreochromis niloticus)\u003c/em\u003e. We advocate basin-scale governance and community-led stewardship to reconcile fragmented data, strengthen conservation frameworks, and safeguard India\u0026rsquo;s aquatic heritage from largely invisible declines, alongside enhanced data mobilization through platforms such as the Ocean Biodiversity Information System to improve transparency, accessibility, and long-term monitoring.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Ecological Stressors and Taxonomic Inconsistencies in Indian Freshwater Game Fisheries: A National Review of Biodiversity and Anthropogenic Threats","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-04-28 13:14:55","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9341952/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"63be5af0-bc3c-4222-bd85-e31b6f1f79e6","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 28th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-28T13:14:55+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-04-28 13:14:55","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9341952","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9341952","identity":"rs-9341952","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}