Effectiveness of multidomain interventions for the elderly with mild cognitive impairment: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

Effectiveness of multidomain interventions for the elderly with mild cognitive impairment: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Effectiveness of multidomain interventions for the elderly with mild cognitive impairment: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials Meixian Li, Haiwei Fu, Zonghua Wang This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9170544/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 6 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is a high-risk and key transitional phase on the pathway to dementia. Multidomain interventions are increasingly used, but their cognitive benefits and the influence of intervention dose and component mix in MCI remain uncertain. Objective This study aimed to first compare the cognitive outcomes of single-domain and multidomain interventions in older adults with MCI, and second, to examine the influence of intervention parameters such as intensity, density, and component composition on cognitive improvements. Methods Six international databases, including PubMed, Embase, Cochrane CENTRAL, Web of Science, PsycINFO, and CINAHL, were searched from inception to November 2025. Two reviewers independently screened, extracted, and critically appraised the studies. Random-effects meta-analyses pooled standardized mean differences (Hedges' g) for post-intervention global cognition and cognitive domains. Meta-regression and subgroup analyses explored design and implementation factors. One-stage robust error meta-regression modeled the dose–response relationship between intervention intensity, sessions, intervention density, and component composition with cognitive outcomes. Results A total of 28 trials (3,377 participants) were included. Pooled analyses showed that multidomain interventions were associated with statistically significant improvements in global cognition, memory, executive function, verbal fluency, and attention (Hedges' g = 0.31–0.50). A larger but less precise benefit was observed for visuospatial ability (Hedges' g = 0.80), whereas the pooled estimate for processing speed did not reach statistical significance [Hedges' g = 0.48, 95% CI (-0.12, 1.08)]. Dose–response models suggested the optimal intervention density was found to be approximately 36.8 minutes/session, with greater cognitive benefits. Notably, the optimal percentage of the total intervention time for physical activity was approximately 43.6%, beyond which further increases offered no additional cognitive gains. Conclusions Multidomain interventions were linked to modest to moderate improvements in both global and domain-specific cognition in older adults with MCI. Multidomain programs may be more successful and feasible if session density is optimized and the proportionate contribution of physical activity is balanced. To maximize cognitive benefits, the ideal intervention intensity, density, and percentage of physical activity are essential. The creation of multidomain intervention protocols to stop cognitive decline and postpone the onset of dementia in older adults is supported by these findings. To improve their clinical applicability, future studies should investigate long-term effects and fine-tune these intervention parameters. Trial registration The protocol was registered on PROSPERO (registration number: CRD420261283039, date created: 13 January 2026). Mild Cognitive Impairment Multidomain Intervention Systematic Review Meta-Analysis Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 1. Introduction Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is an intermediate stage between normal aging and dementia, characterized by subjective cognitive complaints and objective cognitive deficits that do not significantly interfere with daily life(Petersen, 2004). Its prevalence increases with age, affecting approximately 6.7% to 25.2% of individuals over 60(Jongsiriyanyong and Limpawattana, 2018), with rates rising to 25.2% in those aged 80 to 84(Albert et al., 2013). Compared to the healthy population’s 1% to 2% dementia prevalence, individuals with MCI face a 5% to 17% annual progression rate to dementia, making them at significantly higher risk(Mitchell and Shiri-Feshki, 2009). Although many individuals progress to dementia within 4 to 6 years in the absence of effective intervention(Petersen et al., 2001), 30% to 40% may experience a reversal to normal cognitive function(Petersen et al., 1999), indicating that MCI is not invariably progressive and may represent a modifiable, time-sensitive window for prevention. Non-pharmacological strategies that target modifiable risk factors and multiple pathways implicated in cognitive decline have garnered increasing attention for their potential to preserve cognitive function and delay the onset of dementia(Gómez-Soria et al., 2022). There remains no established gold-standard treatment or intervention for MCI. The American Academy of Neurology guidelines similarly conclude that empirical evidence is insufficient to support pharmacological treatments for MCI in older adults(Petersen et al., 2018). By contrast, a growing body of research supports nonpharmacological interventions that target multiple biological and behavioral pathways, rendering these approaches both feasible and acceptable for clinical implementation(Rodakowski et al., 2015). These interventions encompass a range of strategies, including cognitive training, physical exercise, nutrition and dietary modification, social engagement, vascular risk management, and sleep interventions. Mechanistically, such interventions may influence neurobiological processes relevant to cognitive aging, such as the enhancement of norepinephrine signaling and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)—to support neuroplasticity, improve cerebral perfusion, and promote hippocampal network function, thereby fostering both cognitive outcomes in older adults with MCI(Ainslie et al., 2008; Vaynman et al., 2004). Large prevention trials conducted in cognitively healthy or at-risk older adults have reported cognitive benefits from multidomain interventions. The FINGER trial, for example, improved cognitive performance using a package that combined physical exercise, cognitive training, and vascular risk-factor management (Ngandu et al., 2015). Signals in the same direction have been observed in MAPT and PreDIVA, suggesting that multidomain approaches may slow cognitive decline in groups at higher vascular or dementia risk(Andrieu et al., 2017; Coley et al., 2019; van Charante et al., 2016). Whether comparable benefits are achievable in people with established mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is still uncertain. Uncertainty also remains regarding the dose required and the combination of components most strongly associated with benefit. Single-domain nonpharmacological interventions typically yield small-to-moderate, domain-specific effects(Salzman et al., 2022), whereas the multifactorial and cross-domain nature of cognitive impairment in MCI provides a rationale for multidomain programs that may confer additive or synergistic benefits when delivered with sufficient intensity and high-quality implementation(Vásquez-Carrasco et al., 2025). To reduce subjectivity in defining “multidomain” content and to enhance cross-trial comparability, we organized intervention components using the ABCDS framework (Activity, Blood pressure control, Connecting with others, Diet, Sleep)(Avan et al., 2025), a simplified, operational set of evidence-based, modifiable actions. Given the frequent inclusion of cognitive training in MCI trials, we additionally tracked cognitive training as a separate component alongside ABCDS. This component-based approach helps clarify how differences in selection and dosing of elements may contribute to heterogeneity in observed cognitive effects. Recent syntheses and network meta-analyses suggest that multidomain interventions can improve global and domain-specific cognition in MCI, but conclusions are tempered by study quality, substantial heterogeneity, and inconsistent findings across reviews(Gkotzamanis and Panagiotakos, 2020; Gómez-Soria et al., 2022; Ying et al., 2024). This heterogeneity reflects variation in component selection, dosing schedules, and implementation quality across trials(Gkotzamanis and Panagiotakos, 2020). Beyond design differences, multidomain intervention programs are often time- and resource-intensive, requiring repeated sessions of substantial duration delivered multiple times per week over several months, which may increase participant burden and undermine adherence in real-world settings. Across published multidomain trials, intervention delivery has ranged from 30 to 135 minutes per session, delivered 1 to 7 times per week over 8 to 52 weeks(Salzman et al., 2022). Such demands may increase the burden for implementers (eg, training, coordination, supervision, and monitoring), thereby challenging scalability. Importantly, implementation evidence indicates that protocol-specified intensity does not necessarily translate into exposure actually received; adherence and delivery fidelity jointly shape realized dose and may condition treatment effects(Soldevila-Domenech et al., 2025). In addition, prior reviews have often emphasized global cognition outcomes or focused on combinations of cognitive and physical training, with less representation of other potentially relevant components such as diet, sleep interventions, and psychosocial support, which may also contribute significantly to cognitive improvements(Gavelin et al., 2021). Collectively, these limitations underscore a key evidence gap: how core design features, including intervention intensity, session density, and component composition (operationalized using ABCDS, with CT coded separately), relate to cognitive outcomes in MCI and how multidomain interventions can be optimized for effectiveness and feasibility. To address these gaps, we intend to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis to compare the effects of single-domain versus multidomain interventions on cognitive outcomes in older adults with MCI. Specifically, this study aims to (1) compare the effect sizes between multidomain and single-domain interventions for global cognition and specific cognitive domains and (2) examine the relationship between intervention length, dose, and critical implementation factors (such as intensity, density, intervention format, and component composition) and cognitive outcomes. 2. Methods This study was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) reporting guideline(Page et al., 2021) and was prospectively registered in PROSPERO (Registration number: CRD420261283039). 2.1. Search strategy The literature search was conducted from their inception to November 2025 using PubMed, Embase, Cochrane, Web of Science, PsycINFO, and CINAHL. The full search strategy combined medical subject heading terms and keywords encompassing 4 key concepts: mild cognitive impairment, old, multidomain intervention, and randomized controlled trial (details in Supplementary Table S1 ). In addition, references from relevant systematic reviews and meta-analyses were examined and manually searched as an additional source of literature. Relevant studies were independently screened by two reviewers following the same standard in 2 steps: (1) title and abstract, and (2) full text—using identical eligibility criteria. Relevant abstracts were retained for full-text assessment. The same reviewers extracted data on study and participant characteristics and outcome measures from included studies. Discrepancies at any stage were resolved by consensus; if consensus could not be reached, a third reviewer adjudicated. When full texts were not available in public databases, study authors were contacted to obtain them. 2.2. Eligibility criteria The eligibility criteria are conducted in accordance with the PICOS (population, intervention, comparison, outcome, and study design) framework (details in Supplementary Table S2). Randomized controlled trials were eligible if they enrolled adults aged 50 years or older with clinically diagnosed MCI and evaluated a multidomain intervention comprising at least 2 nonpharmacological components. Eligible comparators included usual care or any other intervention with the intervention type different from that of other groups. The primary outcome was the change in global cognition from baseline to the first post-intervention assessment; secondary outcomes were changes in domain-specific cognitive functions. Only RCTs were included in the review. Trials primarily targeting co-occurring neurologic or psychiatric disorders, and interventions that included an active pharmacologic component unique to the intervention arm, were excluded. 2.3. Data extraction, risk-of-bias, and certainty assessment Two reviewers independently extracted the study data for all eligible reports using a Excel form and compared to ensure no errors. Extracted items covered participant characteristics, attrition, diagnostic criteria, multidomain Intervention components and dosing (length, frequency, follow-up duration), comparator details, outcome measures, effect sizes for each outcome, and author-reported results. Outcomes were extracted as the mean and SDs for cognition outcome scores at baseline and post-intervention or change from baseline to post-intervention if any. For studies with multiple cognitive measures within a domain, variables and measures were identified and coded independently by both reviewers, then cross-checked to minimize errors. Baseline characteristics were compared between groups to evaluate any imbalances attributable to the randomization process. We assessed risk of bias using the updated Cochrane Collaboration tool for assessing risk of bias in randomized controlled trials (RoB 2)(Sterne et al., 2019). Two reviewers independently judged each study across 5 standard domains, with disagreements resolved by consensus. Studies with all domains as low risk were considered as overall low risk. Studies with at least one domain as high risk were considered as high risk; the remaining studies were considered as some concerns. The outcomes of the risk-of-bias evaluations were graphically represented using the web-based R package robvis(McGuinness and Higgins, 2021). The assessment results for 29 clinical trials are presented in the Supplementary Fig. S1 . In addition to the risk-of-bias assessment of individual studies, we assessed the certainty of the body of evidence for each prespecified outcome (global cognition, attention, executive function, memory, processing speed, verbal fluency, and visuospatial ability) using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) approach. Because the review included randomized controlled trials, certainty was initially rated as high and could be downgraded for risk of bias, inconsistency, indirectness, imprecision, and publication bias. Judgments were informed by the RoB 2 assessments, the magnitude of between-study heterogeneity (including I 2 and prediction intervals where applicable), the precision of pooled estimates, and the results of reporting-bias assessments. Final certainty ratings were categorized as high, moderate, low, or very low. 2.4. Data synthesis and analysis All analyses were performed in R (version 4.4.2) using metafor, meta, and esc packages; multilevel models were fitted with rma.mv where applicable. Additional computational details are provided in Supplementary Methods S1. Continuous outcomes were synthesized as standardized mean differences (Hedges’ g) with 95% CIs, with score directions harmonized so that positive values indicated better cognition (scales where higher scores indicated worse cognition were sign-reversed). We prioritized change-from-baseline data; when unavailable, postintervention scores were used. When required, SEs, CIs, p values, or test statistics were converted to Hedges’ g using standard methods (details in Supplementary Methods S1-3). Managing multiple outcomes and multi-arm studies To preserve independence of effect sizes, one prespecified measure per cognitive domain per study was selected according to an a priori hierarchy. For multi-arm trials, shared comparator groups were handled using standard unit-of-analysis approaches. Metrics for intervention dosage (intensity, density, and multidomain intervention component) The ratio of the anticipated dose to the intervention duration in months was used to estimate the intensity of multidomain interventions. The entire amount of intervention recommended in the trial protocol, usually expressed as the total number of sessions, was referred to as the dose. Meaningful comparisons between various multimodal lifestyle-based trials are made possible by the standardized indicator of intervention intensity provided by this combined metric of dose delivered and intervention length. By taking into account the amount of intervention time (minutes) per session, we evaluated intervention density. This measure complements frequency-based dose metrics by reflecting within-session time load (session duration). In order to examine each component's contribution to the overall effectiveness of the intervention, the composition of the intervention was also examined by classifying the proportion of each component within the overall intervention. The percentage of scheduled minutes per session allotted to each component (cognitive training and ABCDS framework) was measured as component density (min/session). The component composition percentage was calculated by dividing the total session minutes by the component minutes per session. Heterogeneity, subgroup analyses, and meta-regression Heterogeneity was assessed using τ² and I², with Cochran’s Q reported as applicable. Subgroup analyses were conducted when there was medium or large heterogeneity across studies. Prespecified subgroup analyses examined clinically relevant features (settings, intervention format, intervention composition, dose/sessions, and follow-up duration). When sufficient studies were available (≥ 10), random-effects meta-regression was conducted to evaluate continuous moderators. Small-study effects and sensitivity analyses Small-study effects were examined using funnel plots and Egger tests (p < 0.10) when at least 10 studies contributed to an outcome. Contour-enhanced funnel plots and trim-and-fill were used exploratorily. Robustness was evaluated through leave-one-out analyses, influence diagnostics, and sensitivity checks for scale direction and unit-of-analysis decisions (including multilevel models where appropriate). Nonlinear dose–response analysis Dose–response associations between intervention parameters (sessions, intensity, density, and component proportions) and cognitive outcomes were examined using one-stage robust error meta-regression (REMR) with restricted cubic splines, testing for nonlinearity using Wald-type tests. 3. Results 3.1. Study selection The initial search identified 7724 articles. After removing 2246 duplicates and 4 automation-ineligible records, 5475 titles and abstracts were screened; 76 full texts were assessed. Studies based on the same cohort were counted as a single study, including 2 studies by Arai et al.(Arai et al., 2023) and Sakurai et al.(Sakurai et al., 2024) and 3 studies by Montero-Odasso et al.(Montero-Odasso et al., 2023, 2022, 2018). Ultimately, 26 trials were identified through database searches. Manual citation searching from previous literature reviews(Chan et al., 2025; Gavelin et al., 2021; Gómez-Soria et al., 2022; Liang et al., 2019; Salzman et al., 2022; Xu et al., 2021; Ying et al., 2024) found 47 results that did not overlap with the primary database search. After abstract/title screening, 22 remained for full-text screening. According to the AMSTAR 2 guidelines(Shea et al., 2017), studies with a high risk of bias were excluded from the meta-analysis. A total of 28 studies from 29 articles published between 2017 and 2025, encompassing a total of 3377 participants, were eligible for the final meta-analyses. One report(Johari et al., 2014) was excluded due to the high risk of bias. A detailed description of the study selection is presented in Fig. 1 . 3.2. Study characteristics The 28 trials enrolled 3377 participants (sample size range, 16–531). Recruitment occurred in the community (15/28, 53.6%) and in clinic settings (13/28, 46.4%). Mean age ranged from 63.3 to 81.9 years, and 62.1% of participants were women overall. Attrition ranged from 0% to 32.5%, with 3 trials(Bae et al., 2019; Buele et al., 2024; Li et al., 2022) reporting > 20% dropout (details in Table 1 ). Table 1 Characteristics of multidomain intervention studies for patients with mild cognitive impairment Author, Year, Country Setting, Intervention format, Follow-ups Participants Interventions Control group Outcome measures Total (drop out), IG/CG Age (mean ± SD), Female (%) Diagnostic criteria* Components & Contents Session (times) & Duration (mo) Arai et al., 2023; Japan Clinic; Structured; Baseline, 6-, 12-, and 18-month follow-up 531 (81); 265/266 74.3 ± 5.0/74.4 ± 4.8; 52.0%/52.0% ①At least 1.0 SD below the reference threshold in any cognitive domain on NCGG-FAT ②MMSE ≥ 24 ①Cognitive training (9 months, with a minimum of 30 min/day, at least 4 days/week) ②Physical exercise (group-based, 1x/week, 120 min/session) Ÿ30 min of aerobic exercise Ÿ30 min of dual-task exercise Ÿ30 min of strength training Ÿ30 min of group meetings and discussion ③Management of vascular risk factors ④Nutritional counseling (12 phone and 3 in-person 60-min meetings) 231/18 ①Management of vascular risk factors ②Health-related information every 2 months MMSE, WMS-LM, TMT-A/B, DSST, FCSRT, WAIS-III, VFT, WFT, CGA, ADL Bae et al., 2019; Japan Community; Structured; Baseline, end of the intervention 83 (27); 41/42 75.5 ± 6.0/76.4 ± 5.1; 43.9%/52.4% ①Objective cognitive impairment ≥ 1.5 SD below norms in ≥ 1 NCGG-FAT domain ②MMSE ≥ 24 ③ADL > 60 ④No dementia KENKOJISEICHI program (2x/week) Ÿ15 min condition check and stretching Ÿ60 min of physical, cognitive, or social activities Ÿ15 min of report writing, and discussion of the next session’s schedule 48/6 2 health education classes (90 min) MMSE, TMT-A/B, CWM, SWM, NCGG-FAT tablet-based assessments, GDS Blumenthal et al., 2019; America Clinic; Mixed; Baseline, end of the intervention 79 (0); 40/39 64.9 ± 6.2/64.7 ± 6.6; 65.0%/68.4% ①MoCA: 19–25 ②SCD ③At least one additional CVDs risk factor ①Physical exercise (3x/week) Ÿ10 min of warm-up exercises Ÿ35 min of continuous walking or stationary cycling ②Diet ŸDASH Diet Ÿdietary counseling with a nutritionist (1x/week for 12 weeks, then 2x/week for 12 weeks, 30-min/session) 90/6 Health education: weekly 30-min educational phone calls on cardiovascular health. SCWT, TMT, DST, HVLT, COWA, and CDR Buele et al., 2024; Ecuador Community; Structured; Pre and post intervention 34 (8); 17/17 75.41 ± 5.76/77.35 ± 6.75); 58.8%/76.5% MoCA: 19–25 ①Cognitive training (2x/week, 20 min/session) Ÿindividual immersive VR-based cognitive training simulating IADLs using a head-mounted display ②Physical exercise (group-based, 2x/week, 20 min/session) Ÿaerobic, balance, resistance, and socially interactive exercises 12/1.5 ①Physical exercise ②Cognitive training: traditional paper-and-card cognitive training MoCA-S, GDS, IADL Castellote-Caballero et al., 2024; Spain Community; Structured; Baseline and end of intervention 95 (3); 48/47 71.85 ± 3.70/72.30 ± 4.78; 13.7%/14.7% MMSE < 25 ①Cognitive stimulation (group-based, ≤ 8 participants, 2x/week, 45–50 min/session) ②Psychomotor training (group-based, 2x/week) Ÿ5 min of activity introduction and explanation Ÿ30–40 min of psychomotor and cognitive skills activity Ÿ5 min of relaxation (cooling and relaxation exercises) 48/3 Cognitive stimulation: group-based sessions (≤ 8 participants), twice weekly, 45–50 min/session MMSE, MoCA, IST, TMT-A/B, the Tinetti scale, the arm curl test, the 30-s chair stand test, BST, TUG Falck et al., 2020; Canada Community; Mixed; Baseline, 12 weeks, and 24 weeks 96 (8); 48/48 72.0 ± 6.0/74.0 ± 5.0; 48%/67% ①MoCA < 26 ②MMSE ≥ 24 ①Physical activity promotion (individually tailored ) Ÿweek 5: development of an individualized physical activity plan Ÿweeks 5–24: phone calls (2×/week) for motivational interviewing and setting physical activity goals Ÿcontinuous activity tracking, regular bed/wake times ②Sleep hygiene education (week 1–4, 1×/week; 2 hours/session) Ÿsleep strategies and the role of BLT and physical activity in sleep regulation. ③Individually timed BLT Ÿphilips goLITE BLU device, with advice on maximizing natural daylight exposure, for 20 weeks. 1 hour of BLT twice daily, approximately 12 hours apart 299/6 ①Health lectures: group-based, general health/lifestyle (Weeks 1–4; 1/week) ②Usual activities: continue; assess health/QoL by 4 calls (Weeks 5–24) MMSE, MoCA, ADAS-Cog 13, TMT-A/B, CFT, PSQI Fan et al., 2024; China Community; Mixed; Baseline and end of the intervention 120 (4); 60/60 66.3 ± 4.4/67.8 ± 5.1; 61.0%/61.4% Peterson criteria(Petersen, 2004) ①In-person training course (group-based, 1×/week for 6 weeks) Ÿ25-min of cognitive training: memory and attention Ÿ15-min of physical exercise: finger exercises, elastic band, Tai Chi/Baduanjin Ÿ15-min of healthy lifestyle education: nutrition, sleep, stress, mood, and problem-solving ②Computerized cognitive training (3×/week for 6weeks) Ÿspatial cognition, left-right balance, clock imitation, ATM simulation ③Home-based physical exercise (5 days/week, ~ 30 min/day) ④Homework Ÿcalligraphy (2 days/week) and physical exercise (5 days/week) for 12 weeks 24/3 General health education: via booklets, home visits, or phone calls (30-min, once per week) MoCA, MMSE and sub-scores, AVLT, LMT, TMT-A, DSST, DSF, DSB, DST Griffiths et al., 2020; Thailand Community; Structured; Baseline and end of the intervention 70 (0); 35/35 NP; 68.57%/68.57% ①Thai version of MoCA-B 14, > 17, >22 for no schooling, elementary, and higher education respectively) ①Multifaceted cognitive training (2×/week, 60–90 min/session): Ÿ20 min of attention training Ÿ20 min of memory training Ÿ20–50 min of executive function training ②Physical exercise (2×/week) Ÿarm and leg movements, tapping sticks, and step changes with simultaneous control of steps, arm movements, and rhythm Ÿparticipants count aloud and follow therapist instructions, creating a motor-plus-attention/executive dual-task training 24/3 No intervention (offered one session after post-intervention assessment) MMSE, TMT-A/B, BDS, DSF, DSB, DSS, VFT, WLL, WAIS-IV Hagovska and Nagyova, 2017; Slovak Republic Clinic; Mixed; Baseline and end of the intervention 80 (2); 40/40 66.3 ± 4.4/67.8 ± 5.1; 61.0%/61.4% ①ICD-IX-CM Diagnosis Code 331.83 ②MMSE ≥ 24 ①Cognitive training (computer-based, 2×/week) Ÿalert: attention training by driving a virtual car (18 difficulty levels). Ÿn-back: working memory training with 2–3 pictures to recall Ÿnames: long-term memory training for associating names with faces Ÿpland: executive function training for planning daily activities under time pressure Ÿvismo: visual-motor training by following a spaceship within a circle ②Physical exercise (daily) Ÿ5-min of walking over obstacles: walking over 5 boxes, increasing pace while maintaining balance Ÿ6-min of walking with directional change: direction changes, 360° turns, backward walking, and speed changes Ÿ6-min of changing walking base: varying stride width, step length, and tandem walking Ÿ3-min of speed walking Ÿ5-min of walking with a load: carrying a load in one or both hands Ÿ5-min of walking up and down stairs: repeatedly ascending and descending ten steps 90/2.5 Daily 30-min physical training MMSE, AVLT, SCWT, TMT-A, DRT and NHPT, ADL Jeong et al., 2021; Korea Clinic; Structured; Baseline and end of the intervention 26 (0); 13/13 70.23 ± 7.47/71.77 ± 5.53; 69.2%/69.2% Petersen criteria(Petersen et al., 1999) ①Dual-task training (2×/week) Ÿ10-min of warm-up: shuttle walking and stretching Ÿ50-min of main exercise: aerobic and cognitive dual-task training Ÿ10-min of cool-down: walking and stretching Ÿ20-min of education and feedback to promote habitual physical activity ②Monitoring Ÿparticipants wore an accelerometer (Lifecoder) to track weekly physical activity, with individualized feedback 24/3 ①Maintain their usual daily life ②Monthly health management classes ③Body composition checks and individual consultations were conducted every two weeks Korean version of MMSE, modified ADAS-Cog, TMT-A/B, DSST, SGDS-K Kim and Park, 2023; Korea Community; Structured; Baseline and end of intervention 42 (0); 21/21 73.33 ± 5.39/74.71 ± 5.55; 47.6%/57.1% Korean version of MoCA < 23 Cognitive-motor dual-task training (8 themed dual-tasks, 2×/week, 45 min/session) ①Cognitive training Ÿcounting numbers, simple calculations, naming pictures, naming backward, and finding common pictures ②Physical exercise Ÿrange-of-motion exercises (wrist, elbow, shoulder, ankle, knee, hip), Thera-Band resistance exercises (pulling/pushing), ball exercises (passing/throwing), and leg exercises 16/2 Cognitive single-task training: only the executive function domain EFPT-K, FAB, IADL Kooncumchoo et al., 2025; Thailand Community; Structured; Baseline and end of intervention 46 (9); 23/23 69.43 ± 3.65/68.26 ± 3.28 51.16%/43.84% MoCA: 17–24 Cognitive-motor dual-task training (3×/week, 60 min/session) ①Cognitive training Ÿnumber and color recall during movement ②Physical exercise Ÿ10 min of warm-up: upper- and lower-limb stretching; trunk stretching; breathing exercises Ÿ40 min of aerobic training: water-based aerobic movements (hip flexion/abduction, kicks, high knees, squats, step movements, dumbbell-assisted upper-limb exercises) Ÿ10 min of cool-down: walking and stretching 36/3 Water-based exercise alone MoCA, 2-MST, BaPWV Lee et al., 2023; Korea Clinic; Structured; Baseline, 8-, and 12-week follow-up 33 (2); 16/17 74.81 ± 5.74/75.77 ± 6.67; 62.5%/76.5% ①Albert criteria(Albert et al., 2013) ②MMSE: 17–27 ③CDR: 0.5-1 ④CDR-SB: 0.5-5 Cognitive-motor dual-task training (2×/week, 50 min/session) ①Cognitive training Ÿ10 min of welcome and homework review Ÿ5 min of wrap-up Ÿ20 min of memory task Ÿ10 min executive function/attention tasks Ÿ5 min of visuospatial or calculation task ②Physical exercise (supervised, small-group, n = 2) Ÿaerobic, strength, and balance training ③Metabolic/vascular risk management (every 4 weeks) Ÿindividualized education and monitoring (blood pressure, body weight, waist circumference, alcohol intake, smoking) ④Nutritional intervention (every 3 weeks, ≈ 3 sessions over 8 weeks) Ÿindividual dietary counseling by dietitian Ÿnutritional supplement: multinutrient drink (Memory Pack Plus); 150 mL/carton; 2 cartons/day for 8 weeks ⑤Motivational enhancement Ÿone in-person session at baseline; weekly motivational text messages 86/2 Dementia-prevention booklet; usual medical care MMSE, RBANS and subdomains, CDR-SB, IADL, GDS-15, ZBI, SPPB, NQ-E Li et al., 2023; America Community; Structured; Baseline, 16-, 24-, and 48-week follow-up 211 (2); 105/106 76.0 ± 5.1/76.0 ± 6.1; 71.4%/67.0% ①MMSE ≥ 24 ②CDR ≤ 0.5 Cognitive-motor dual-task training (2×/week) ①Cognitive training Ÿverbal repetition of movements, inhibition control, sequence recall, form-number association, cued/uncued performance, task switching, spelling during movement) ②Physical exercise Ÿ8-form Tai Ji Quan; postural control, coordinated upper- and lower-limb movements, multidirectional stepping, rotational weight shifting 48/6 Low-intensity stretching and relaxation program MoCA, CDR-SB, TMT-B, CFT, DSF, DSB, DTC, the 4-stage balance test, 30-second chair stands, TUG, GDS, PSQI, EQ-5D-3L Li et al., 2022; China Community; Structured; Baseline, 8-, 20-week follow-up 229 (66); 116/113 73.93 ± 7.40/74.83 ± 7.57; 86.2%/85.0% Albert criteria(Albert et al., 2013) BRAVE programme (3×/week, 60 min/session) ①Physical exercise ŸWarm-up, multicomponent exercises (aerobic, resistance, balance, functional tasks), and cool-down ②Peer-support (small groups, 2–3 peers) Ÿexercise demonstration, setup/monitoring, and motivational support ③Digital support ŸBRAVE app for education (brain health/exercise), exercise videos, scheduling/reminders, and social networking 24/2 The usual care offered by the non-governmental organisations, including social and leisure activities ADAS-Cog, CTT, DSF, DSB, QoL, SF-36 Liu et al., 2022; China Clinic; Structured; Baseline and end of intervention 36 (3); 18/18 74.6 ± 6.1/73.4 ± 6.5; 75.0%/64.71% Petersen criteria(Petersen, 2004) Cognitive-motor dual-task training (group-based,3–4 participants, 3/week, 50 min/session) ①Physical exercise (Kinect-based exergaming with virtual Tai Chi coach) ŸTai Chi training: modified Yang-style; stance width changes, weight shifting, squats, slow symmetrical and diagonal coordinated limb movements Ÿ10-min of warm-up Ÿ35-min of main training Ÿ5-min of cool-down ②Dual-task conditions Ÿcognitive dual-task: walking with serial-3 subtraction, starting from 90–100 Ÿmotor dual-task: walking while carrying a tray with glasses of water 36/3 Usual activity control: no structured Tai Chi, exercise, or cognitive training; asked to maintain usual physical activities and lifestyle MoCA, CVVLT verbal memory and delayed recall, SCWT number and seconds, TMT-A/B, 1-back test, 2-back test, DTC Maffei et al., 2017; Italy Clinic; Structured; Baseline, 7-, 12-month follow-up 113 (0) 55/58 74.0 ± 4.8/74.9 ± 4.4; 52.7%/44.8% European Consortium criteria(Portet et al., 2006) ①Cognitive training (3×/week, 2h/session) Ÿalternating paper-and-pencil tasks, social games, and computerized exercises; single-domain (memory, attention, executive function) and multidomain activities (8 cycles; every 3 weeks with 18 sessions) ②Physical exercise (3×/week, 60 min/session) Ÿcycle-ergometer aerobic training; strength, static/dynamic functional training; neuromuscular control; flexibility ③Social activities Ÿmusic therapy (60 min/week) Ÿmovie viewing with group discussion (monthly) 263/7 Usual care ADAS-Cog, MMSE, CDR, CDT, RPA-ProMem, CFT, VFT-letter, GDS Manser et al., 2023; Switzerland Clinic; Mixed; Baseline and end of intervention 16 (2); 10/6 79.9 ± 7.6/73.7 ± 12.9; 30.0%/66.7% ①ICD-IX-diagnosis code 5A52 ②QMCI: 45–62 ①Cognitive-motor dual-task training (exergame-based, ≥ 5 sessions/week, ≥ 21 min/session resulting in a weekly exercise volume of ≥ 105 min) Ÿcognitive training: learning and memory, executive function, complex attention, visuospatial tasks Ÿmotor training: stepping and weight shifting, multidirectional steps, rhythm and response, balance and coordination ②Breathing intervention Ÿresonance breathing: app-guided HRV-based breathing training 60/3 Usual care as provided by the (memory) clinics QMIC, WMS-LM IV, DSF, subtest “Alertness” of TAP, subtest “Go-NoGo” of TAP, subtest “Incompatibility” of TAP, HOTAP-A, MRT, QoL-AD, DASS-21, vm-HRV, SUS, BREQ-3, EEQ May et al., 2025; Australia Clinic; Mixed; Baseline and end of intervention 44 (2); 23/21 74.9 ± 6.66/76.29 ± 6.99; 61.9%/33.3% ①MMSE: 24–30 ②IQ > 80 (estimated by the TOPF) ①Cognitive training (group-based, face-to-face; ~6 participants/group; 3×/week for week 3–8; 2 h/session) Ÿ2 h of psychoeducation; internal memory strategies and external memory aids Ÿhomework to promote strategy ②Dietary intervention (250 mL/day;weeks 1–8) Ÿhigh-anthocyanin Queen Garnet plum juice 62/2 ①Dietary: Apricot juice 250 mL daily (no anthocyanins) ②Group-based memory program RAVLT, CFT, RPA-ProMem, CAPM, EMQ, DASS-21 Montero-Odasso et al., 2023; Canada Community; Structured; Pre and post intervention, 6 months after the intervention 68 (11); 34/34 73.1 ± 6.1/73.8 ± 6.2; 61.76%/50.00% ①MoCA: 13–24 ②Logical memory test below ADNI cut-offs ③CERAD word list recall < 6 SYNERGIC program (3×/week, 90 min/session) ①Cognitive training 30 min of training ②Physical exercise Ÿ60 min of aerobic-resistance ③Vitamin D supplementation ŸVitamin D3: 10 000 IU 80/5 ①Balance-toning exercise ②Sham cognitive training ③Placebo vitamin D ADAS-Cog-13 and the Plus variant, TMT-A/B, DSST, DSF, DSB, CFT, IADL Moon et al., 2025; Korea Clinic; Structured; Baseline and post-intervention 300 (23); 148/152 73.0 ± 5.5/72.8 ± 5.6; 64.1%/74.8% ①MMSE Z ≥ -1.5 ②A performance score ≤ 1.0 SD below the age- and education-adjusted normative means for one or more of the delayed recall, naming, visuoconstruction, attention, and executive function tests ①Cognitive training Ÿfacility sessions (group-based, every 1–2 weeks, 50 min/session) Ÿself-administered training (home-based; 1–2 sessions/week, 30–40 min/session) ŸOnline cognitive homework sessions via Zoom; 1–2 sessions/week ②Physical exercise (3×/week; 50 min/session) Ÿmixed facility-based group sessions (every 1–2 weeks) Ÿonline sessions (home-based, 2–3/week) Ÿprogressive intensity every 8 weeks ③Vascular risk management (6 individual, face-to-face sessions) ④Nutrition (group-based, 12 face-to-face sessions) Ÿnutritional education ŸDASH diet guidance ⑤Motivational support Ÿ4 face-to-face group sessions Ÿtablet-based self-assessment: behavior change, family support, goal setting (1×/week) 72/6 ①Met a study doctor ②Received educational booklets ③Received standard care for cognitive impairment and vascular risk factors during the study period RBANS, MMSE, CDR-SB, PRMQ, GDS-15, ADL, QoL-AD, SPPB, NQ-E, SDI, PSQI Murukesu et al., 2024; Malaysia Community; Mixed; Baseline, 12-, 24-week follow-up 56 (0); 28/28 67.74 ± 4.43/69.54 ± 6.06; 52.1%/47.9% CDR: 0.5 WE-RISE™ (2×/week; center-based phase: weeks 1–12; 90 min/session; home-based phase: weeks 13–24, biweekly phone supervision) ①Cognitive stimulation ②Physical exercise Ÿaerobic endurance, progressive resistance, balance/coordination, flexibility, walking ability) ③Psychosocial support Ÿmotivation and self-efficacy enhancement ④Nutrition Ÿindividualized dietary counseling by dietitian; educational materials 48/6 The usual activities include arts and craft, cooking activities, health screening every three months, and religious studies. CDR, MMSE, DST, RAVLT, TMT, 30-CST, BST, CSR, 2-MST, TUG, 6MGST, IADL, BIA, DHQ, WHODAS 2.0, 15D Questionnaire, SEE, GDS Parial et al., 2023; Philippines Community; Structured; Baseline, 12-, 18-week follow-up 60 (0); 30/30 63.33 ± 4.54/64.27 ± 5.91; 80.0%/73.3% Petersen criteria(Petersen, 2004) Dual-task Zumba Gold (2×/week, 60 min/session) ①Cognitive training Ÿ60 min of embedded dual-task activities targeting executive function, memory, and attention (serial counting, arm-clock positions, memory recall, complex spelling) Ÿ10 min of cool-down ②Physical exercise Ÿ60 min of aerobic dance 36/3 Health education on dementia risk reduction, which highlighted the importance of physical activities and lifestyle factors MoCA, TMT-A/B, DSB, DSF, GDS-SF, PWB, SPPB Sale et al., 2023; Italy Clinic; Structured; Baseline, 7-, 14-month follow-up 113 (0); 55/58 74.0 ± 4.8/74.9 ± 4.4; 52.7%/44.8% Train the Brain Consortium criteria(Train the Brain Consortium, 2017) Cognitive-motor dual-task training (group-based, 3×/week, 60 min/session) ①Cognitive training (8 cycles; each cycle = 18 sessions over 3 weeks) Ÿcognitive stimulation: paper-and-pencil tasks, social games, Ÿcomputerized exercises ②Physical training (3×/week) Ÿsupervised, small-group aerobic exercise on cycle ergometer; progressive intensity ③Music therapy (1×/week, 60 min/session) Ÿlistening, singing, instrument playing, rhythmic movement 256/7 Usual care MMSE, ADAS-Cog, CDR, CDT, GDS Shimada et al., 2018; Japan Community; Mixed; Baseline and end of intervention 308 (42); 154/154 71.6 ± 5.0/71.6 ± 4.9; 50.0%/50.0% Petersen criteria(Petersen, 2004) Cognitive-motor dual-task training (group based, 1×/week, 90 min/session) ①Cognitive training Ÿdual-task training integrated with movement (e.g., word games during stepping) ②Physical training Ÿ10-min of warm-up/stretching Ÿ20-min of strength and postural balance Ÿ25-min of dual-task training Ÿ25-min of aerobic exercise Ÿ5-min of rest Ÿ5-min of cool-down ③Education Ÿgroup lectures on cognitive health, dementia risk, and exercise effects ④Self-monitoring Ÿhome-based muscle strengthening and walking Ÿbooklet- and pedometer-based monitoring 40/10 Group-based education: health promotion classes focusing on aging, nutrition, oral care, frailty, and urinary incontinence. MMSE, WMS-LM II, RAVLT, VFT-letter, VFT-category, TMT Xu et al., 2025; China Clinic; Mixed; Baseline, 6-, 12-, 15-month follow-up 304 (25); 152/152 70.8 ± 4.8/69.8 ± 4.8; 68%/73% Hong Kong version of MoCA: 19–21 ①Medical assessment (baseline and 6 month) Ÿ10 min of clinician interviews; physical examination (blood pressure, weight, BMI, waist and hip circumference) ②Cognitive training (3×/week, 12 weeks, 60 min/session) Ÿreading, computer use/internet, board/card games (e.g., mahjong), group discussion, arts and crafts, music-related activities ③Physical exercise (3×/week, 12 weeks, 30 min/session) ŸTai Chi (24-form simplified), encouraged continuation via video/audio thereafter ④Nutrition and risk-factor modification Ÿindividualized dietary plan Ÿmotivational interviewing for lifestyle change and energy restriction (as needed) 75/6 ①Interviewed by the study clinician at screening only for a detailed medical history ②Received health advice from a nurse in the form of booklets at baseline ADAS-Cog, CDR-SB, DAD, EQ-VAS, GDS-15, GAS-20, PASE, AUDIT-C Yang et al., 2022; China Community; Structured; Baseline, 1-, 3-, 6-month follow-up 122 (10); 61/61 70.68 ± 5.38/70.45 ± 6.54; 50.91%/54.39% Petersen criteria(Petersen et al., 1997) ①Physical exercise (first month: 1×/week; remaining months: 2×/week) Ÿindividualized progressive resistance training and aerobic exercise ②Cognitive training (1×/week) Ÿ60–90 min of memory-focused training plus attention, executive function, visuospatial ability, language, abstraction, calculation, and orientation Ÿ20 min of braek time ③Diet Ÿindividualized dietary counseling (once every 3–4 weeks, 10-30min/session) Ÿ3-day food records, nutrient intake, metabolic indicators, and vascular risk factors; follow-up and adjustment 74/6 Usual care: health education classes (45 min each) during the 6-month study period MoCA, SPPB, TUG, GDS-15, QoL-AD Yu et al., 2025; China Clinic; Structured; Baseline, 12-, 24-month follow-up 72 (10); 36/36 81.86 ± 5.31/80.75 ± 5.27; 52.9%/47.1% Petersen criteria(Petersen, 2004) Cognitive-motor dual-task training (4–6×/week, 20–30 min/session, totaling at least 120 min/week) ①Cognitive training Ÿcounting and repeating sentences, data segments, or tongue twisters, simple math operations) ②Physical exercise (6×/week, 20–30 min/session, ≥ 120 min/week) Ÿwalking 48/3 Usual care MoCA, AVLT, DSF, DSB, BNT, CDT, TMT Notes: *A diagnosis of MCI requires that each study meet all of the specified diagnostic criteria.; ↑greater improvement in the intervention group; ↓greater improvement in the control group. 2-MST, 2-min Step Test; 30-CST, 30-second Chair Stand Test; 6MGST, 6-Meter Gait Speed Test; ADAS-Cog, Alzheimer Disease Assessment Scale-Cognitive Subscale; ADL, Activities of Daily Living; ADNI, Alzheimer’ s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative; AUDIT-C, Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test-Concise; AVLT, Auditory Verbal Learning Test; BaPWV, Brachial Pulse Wave Velocity; DS, Block Design Scale; BIA, Body Impedance Analysis; BLT, Bright Light Therapy; BNT, Boston Naming Test; BREQ-3, Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire; BST, Back Scratch Test; CAPM, Comprehensive Assessment of Prospective Memory; CDR, Clinical Dementia Rating; CDR-SB, Clinical Dementia Rating Scale Sum of Boxes; CDT, Clock Drawing Test; CERAD, Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer’ s Disease; CFT, Complex Figure Test; CG: Control Group; CGA, Comprehensive Geriatric Assessments; COWA, Controlled Oral Word Association Test; CSR, Chair Sit and Reach Test; CTT, Color Trails Test; VDs, Cardiovascular Diseases; CVVLT, Chinese Version of California Verbal Learning Test; CWM, Composite Word Memory; DAD, Disability Assessment for Dementia; DASH, Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension; DASS, Depression Anxiety Stress Scale; DASS, Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale; DHQ, Dietary History Questionnaire; DRT, Disjunctive Reaction Time; SB, Digit Span Backwards; DSF, Digit Span Forwards; DSM-V, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition; DSS, Digit Span Sequence; DSST, Digit Symbol Substitution Test; DST, Digit Span Test; DTC, Dual-Task Cost; EEQ, Eexergame Enjoyment Questionnaire; FPT-K, Executive Function Performance Test-Korean Version; EMQ, Everyday Memory Questionnaire; EQ-5D-3L, The 3-Level Version of European Quality of Life 5-Dimension Scale; Q-VAS, European Quality of Life 5-Dimension Scale, the Visual Analogue Scale; FAB, Frontal Assessment Battery; FCSRT, Free and Cued Selective Reminding Test; GAS, Geriatric Anxiety Scale; GDS, Geriatric Depression Scale; HOTAP-A, Handlungsorganisation und Tagesplanung Picture-Sorting Test Part A; HVLT, Hopkins Verbal Learning Test; IADL, Instrumental Activities of Daily Living; ICD, International Classification of Diseases; IG: Intervention Group; IQ, Intelligence Quotient; IST, Isaacs Set Test; LBM, Lean Body Mass; LMT, Logic Memory Test; MCI, Mild cognitive impairment; MICFSI, Mail-in Cognitive Function Screening Instrument; MMSE, Mini-Mental State Examination; MoCA, Montreal Cognitive Assessment; MoCA-B, Montreal Cognitive Assessment-Basic; MRT, Mental Rotation Task; MSET, Mental Status Examination Thai; NCGG-FAT, National Center for Geriatrics and Gerontology Functional Assessment Tool; NHPT, Nine Hole Peg Test; NP, Not Reported; NQ-E, Nutrition Quotient for Elderly; PASE, Physical Activity Scale for the Elderly; PEBL, Psychology Experiment Building Language; PRMQ, Prospective Retrospective Memory Questionnaire; PSQI, Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index; PWB, Perceived Well-Being; QMCI, Quick Mild Cognitive Impairment Screen; QoL-AD, Quality of Life-Alzheimer's Disease; RAVLT, Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test; RBANS, Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status; RPA-ProMem, Royal Prince Alfred-Prospective Memory Test; SCD, Subjective Cognitive Decline; SCWT, Stroop Color and Word Test; SD, Standard Deviation; SDI, Self-Determination Index; SEE, Self-Efficacy for Exercise Scale; SF-36, Short Form-36 Health Survey; SGDS-K, Korean Short-Form Geriatric Depression Scale; SPPB, Short Physical Performance battery; SUS, System Usability Scale; SWM, Spatial Working Memory; TAP, Test of Attentional Performance; MT, Trail Making Test; TOPF, Test of Premorbid Functioning; TUG, Timed Up and Go; VFT, Verbal Fluency Test; vm-HRV, Vagally Mediated Heart Rate Variability; WAIS, Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale; WASO, Wake After Sleep Onset; WFT, Word Fluency Test; WHODAS 2.0, World Health Organization Disability Assessment Schedule; WLL, Word-List Learning; WMS, Wechsler Memory Scale; WMS-LM, Subtest “Logical Memory” of the Wechsler Memory Scale; ZBI, Zarit Burden Interview. 3.2.1. Multidomain intervention characteristics All trials evaluated multidomain nonpharmacological interventions, incorporating combinations of components aligned with the ABCDS framework(Avan et al., 2025) (including cognitive training, physical activities, blood pressure control, connecting with others, diet intervention, and sleep intervention). Comparators included usual care, health education, waitlist, usual care, or single-domain interventions. Detailed intervention combinations and dosing characteristics are presented in Tables 1 & 2 (and trends by year in Fig. 2 ). Table 2 Multidomain intervention components Studies Cognitive training Cognitive stimulation Activity (physical) Blood pressure control Connecting with others Diet Sleep Others CT1 CT2 CT3 CT4 CT5 CT6 CT7 CT8 CS1 CS2 CS3 A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 A11 A12 B1 C1 C2 C3 D1 D2 D3 S1 S2 S3 O1 O2 Arai et al., 2023 √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ Bae et al., 2019 √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ Blumenthal et al., 2019 √ √ Buele et al., 2024 √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ Castellote-Caballero et al., 2024 √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ Falck et al., 2020 √ √ √ √ √ Fan et al., 2024 √ √ √ √ √ √ Griffiths et al., 2020 √ √ √ √ √ √ Hagovska and Nagyova, 2017 √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ Jeong et al., 2021 √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ Kim and Park, 2023 √ √ √ √ √ √ Kooncumchoo et al., 2025 √ √ √ √ Lee et al., 2023 √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ Li et al., 2023 √ √ √ √ √ √ √ Li et al., 2022 √ √ √ √ √ Liu et al., 2022 √ √ √ Maffei et al., 2017 √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ Manser et al., 2023 √ √ √ √ √ √ May et al., 2025 √ √ √ √ √ Montero-Odasso et al., 2023 √ √ √ √ √ √ √ Moon et al., 2025 √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ Murukesu et al., 2024 √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ Parial et al., 2023 √ √ √ √ √ Sale et al., 2023 √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ Shimada et al., 2018 √ √ √ √ √ √ Xu et al., 2025 √ √ √ √ √ √ Yang et al., 2022 √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ Yu et al., 2025 √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ Notes: A1, Aerobic exercise; A2, Resistance exercise; A3, Muscle strength training; A4, Dual-task training combining exercise and cognitive tasks; A5, Postural balance; A6, Flexibility exercise; A7, Physical function promotion; A8, Behavior modification; A9, Psychomotor exercise; A10, Mind–body exercise (Taichi); A11, Unspecified motor training; B1, Management of vascular risk factors; C1, Social interaction exercise; C2, Attending events; C3, Visiting activities; CS1, Mentally demanding leisure activities/games; CS2, Multimedia-computer exercises; CS3, Metacognition/cognitive self-efficacy; CT1, Attention; CT2, Processing speed; CT3, Memory; CT4, Mental flexibility; CT5, Visuospatial ability; CT6, Executive function; CT7, Language; CT8, Calculations; D1, Nutritional counseling; D2, Dietary behavior (dietary timing, frequency, and regularity); D3, Nutritional Supplement; O1, Music therapy; O2, Psychotherapy; S1, Improvement of lifestyle (sleep); S2, Sleep hygiene classes; S3, Bright light therapy. Table 3 Summary of key findings across cognitive domain and other outcomes Studies Global cognition Attention Executive function Memory Processing speed Verbal fluency Visuospatial ability Mental flexibility Key findings Arai et al., 2023 =MMSE =TMT-A =TMT-B ↓DSST subset of the WAIS-III ↑VFT-letter =WMS-LM =FCSRT =TMT-A ↑DSST =WAIS-III =WFT-letter NA NA ↑ diet diversity/social participation/handicap from hearing loss, body mass index, fat-free mass, and systolic blood pressure values Bae et al., 2019 =MMSE =TMT-A =TMT-B ↑SWM =CWM =DSST =TMT-A NA NA NA = grip strength, /walking speed/GDS/frequency of going outdoors/conversation time Blumenthal et al., 2019 =MoCA ↑CDR NA =TMT =SCWT =DSB and DSF subtest from the WAIS NA NA =HVLT =CFT =COWA NA NA ↑ DASH adherence, ↑ consumption of potassium/magnesium/calcium/sodium Buele et al., 2024 =MoCA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA ↓ GDS, =ADL Castellote-Caballero et al., 2024 ↑MMSE ↑MoCA NA =TMT-B NA NA ↑IST NA NA ↑ balance/gait speed/upper or lower limb strength/flexibility/ TUG Falck et al., 2020 =MMSE ↑MoCA =ADAS-Cog-13 =TMT-A =TMT-B NA NA =CFT NA NA =sleep efficiency Fan et al., 2024 ↑MMSE ↑MoCA ↑DST =TMT-A ↑DSST ↑DSF =DSB ↑AVLT =LMT ↑DSST =TMT-A ↑AVLT =LMT NA NA NP Griffiths et al., 2020 NA =TMT-A =BDS =TMT-B =DSF =DSB =DSS ↑WLL =TMT-A ↑VFT-letter =VFT-category NA NA NP Hagovska and Nagyova, 2017 ↑MMSE ↑SCWT ↑TMT-A =DRT NA ↑AVLT NA NA ↑NHPT NA ↑ ADL Jeong et al., 2021 =MMSE =modified ADAS-Cog ↑TMT-A ↑TMT-B NA ↑DSST ↑TMT-A NA NA NA ↑ IADL/LBM/muscle mass/lower limb muscle mass/step count/hip circumference Kim and Park, 2023 NA NA ↑EFPT-K ↑FAB NA NA NA NA NA ↑ IADL Kooncumchoo et al., 2025 =MoCA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA = 2-MST Lee et al., 2023 ↑RBANS ↑MMSE =CDR-SB ↑RBANS NA =RBANS NA ↑RBANS ↑RBANS NA ↑ SPPB/sit-to-stand time Li et al., 2023 ↑MocA ↑CDR-SB ↑DSF ↑TMT-B ↑DSB ↑DSF NA ↑CFT NA NA ↑ dual-task walking Li et al., 2022 =ADAS-Cog ↑CTT1 ↑CTT2 ↑DSB =DSF ↑CTT1 NA NA ↑CTT2 = SF-36/QoL Liu et al., 2022 =MoCA =SCWT =TMT-A ↑TMT-B ↑N-back task NA =CVVLT NA NA ↑ gait speed, ↓ cognitive dual-task cost, =motor dual-task cost Maffei et al., 2017 =MMSE ↑ADAS-Cog NA NA =RPA-ProMem NA =VFT-letter NA NA ↑ parahippocampal parahippocampal cerebral blood flow, =gray matter volume loss Manser et al., 2023 =QMCI =TAP =DSF =HOTAP-A =WMS-LM =DSF NA NA =MRT NA ↑ DASS/QoL/exergame enjoyment over time/stride duration, =walking speed and stride length May et al., 2025 NA NA NA =RAVLT =CFT-recall =RPA-ProMem =CAPM =EMQ NA NA NA NA ↑ gait quality, =DASS Montero-Odasso et al., 2023 ↑ADAS-Cog-13 =CDR ↑TMT-A =DSB =DSF =ADAS =TMT-B ↑ADAS =DSF =DSB =DSS ↑TMT-A =ADAS =CFT NA NA =vitamin D supplementation Moon et al., 2025 ↑RBANS ↑MMSE =RBANS NA =RBANS =PRMQ NA =RBANS ↑RBANS NA ↑ GDS-15/QoL/NQ-E/SPPB/2-MST/30-CST, =dementia conversion Murukesu et al., 2024 ↑MMSE =TMT-A =TMT-B ↑RAVLT ↑DST NA NA NA NA ↑ physical physical function/QoL/ body composition/disability/self-perceived exercise self-efficacy Parial et al., 2023 ↑MoCA =ADAS-Cog NA =TMT-B =DSF =DSB NA NA NA NA ↑ QoL, ↑ mobility, =GDS-SF/BP/BMI/waist Sale et al., 2023 =MoCA ↑ADAS-Cog NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NP Shimada et al., 2018 =MMSE NA =TMT ↑WMS-LM II =RAVLT NA ↑VFT-letter ↑VFT-category =RAVLT NA NA NP Xu et al., 2025 =ADAS-Cog =MoCA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA ↑ dietary adherence/compliance with physical activity and cognitive training, ↑ PASE/GDS Yang et al., 2022 ↑MoCA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA ↑ SPPB/TUG/QoL/GDS-15 Yu et al., 2025 ↑MoCA =TMT-A =DSF =TMT-B =DSF ↑DSB ↑AVLT NA =BNT ↑CDT NA NP Notes: =, no difference; ↑, greater improvement in intervention group; ↓, greater improvement in control group; 2-MST, 2-Minute Step Test; 30-CST, 30-second Chair Stand Test; ADAS-Cog, Alzheimer Disease Assessment Scale-Cognitive Subscale; AVLT, Auditory Verbal Learning Test; BDS, Block Design Scale; BNT, Boston Naming Test; CAPM, Comprehensive Assessment of Prospective Memory; CDR, Clinical Dementia Rating; CDR-SB, Clinical Dementia Rating Scale Sum of Boxes; CDT, Clock Drawing Test; CFT, Complex Figure Test; COWA, Controlled Oral Word Association Test; CTT, Color Trails Test; CWM, Composite Word Memory; CVVLT, Chinese Version of California Verbal Learning Test; DRT, Disjunctive Reaction Time; DSB, Digit Span Backwards; DSF, Digit Span Forwards; DSS, Digit Span Sequence; DSST, Digit Symbol Substitution Test; DST, Digit Span Test; EFPT-K, Executive Function Performance Test-Korean Version; EMQ, Everyday Memory Questionnaire; FAB, Frontal Assessment Battery; FCSRT, Free and Cued Selective Reminding Test; HOTAP-A, Handlungsorganisation und Tagesplanung Picture-Sorting Test Part A; HVLT, Hopkins Verbal Learning Test; IST, Isaacs Set Test; LBM, Lean Body Mass; LMT, Logic Memory Test; MMSE, Mini-Mental State Examination; MoCA, Montreal Cognitive Assessment; MoCA-B, Montreal Cognitive Assessment-Basic; MRT, Mental Rotation Task; NA, not applicable; NHPT, Nine Hole Peg Test; NP, NP, Not Reported; PRMQ, Prospective Retrospective Memory Questionnaire; QMCI, Quick Mild Cognitive Impairment Screen; QoL, Quality of Life; RAVLT, Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test; RBANS, Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status; RPA-ProMem, Royal Prince Alfred-Prospective Memory Test; SCWT, Stroop Color and Word Test; SWM, Spatial Working Memory; TAP, Test of Attentional Performance; TMT, Trail Making Test; TUG, Timed Up and Go; VFT, Verbal Fluency Test; WAIS, Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale; WFT, Word Fluency Test; WLL, Word-List Learning; WMS, Wechsler Memory Scale; WMS-LM, Subtest “Logical Memory” of the Wechsler Memory Scale. 3.2.2. Summary of cognitive outcomes Overall, cognitive outcomes ranged from no cognitive benefits to improvements in global cognition. Four studies reported no cognitive benefits(Falck et al., 2020; Kooncumchoo et al., 2025; Manser et al., 2023; Xu et al., 2025). Global cognition benefits were observed in 6 studies(Buele et al., 2024; Li et al., 2023; Liu et al., 2022; Moon et al., 2025; Sale et al., 2023; Yang et al., 2022). Single-domain improvements were reported in 7 trials(Arai et al., 2023; Bae et al., 2019; Blumenthal et al., 2019; Kim and Park, 2023; Lee et al., 2023; Li et al., 2022; May et al., 2025). Multi-domain benefits (≥ 2 cognitive domains) were most common, demonstrated in 11 trials(Castellote-Caballero et al., 2024; Fan et al., 2024; Griffiths et al., 2020; Hagovska and Nagyova, 2017; Jeong et al., 2021; Maffei et al., 2017; Montero-Odasso et al., 2023; Murukesu et al., 2024; Parial et al., 2023; Shimada et al., 2018; Yu et al., 2025) (Table 1 ). Given heterogeneity in measures and program content, these categories reflect author-reported statistical significance rather than a harmonized effect size. Cognitive outcomes converged global cognition and 8 domains: attention, temporal and spatial orientation, executive function, memory, processing speed, verbal fluency, visuospatial ability, and mental flexibility (Table 3 ). Global cognition (n = 13) showed the most frequent positive outcomes, followed by memory (n = 9) and attention (n = 6), with fewer on executive function, processing speed, verbal fluency, and mental flexibility. Heterogeneity in instruments, program composition/dose, and design factors (sample size, controls, follow-up length) likely contributed to variability in effects. Measures within a given domain varied across trials, and several studies reported only global or composite indices. Comprehensive outcomes, measurement tools, and targeted cognitive domains of the included studies are summarized in Tables 1 & 3 . 3.3. Associations of multidomain intervention intensity with cognitive outcomes Intervention exposure varied substantially across trials. Median intervention length was 12 weeks (range 6–72), with a median total dose of 48 sessions (range 12–299). Most trials delivered structured programs (20/28, 71.4%), while the remainder used mixed structured plus self-management formats (8/28, 28.6%). The median intensity index (total sessions divided by intervention duration in months) was 12.4 points (IQR 8.0–23.8). The percentage of trials reporting cognitive benefit was comparable across settings, despite the fact that clinic-based trials were more intense than community-based trials (median 20.0 vs. 8.0). Similarly, both structured and mixed delivery demonstrated similar levels of intensity; however, mixed formats might be more vulnerable to variations in implementation and adherence. These patterns highlight the potential significance of delivery quality and adherence in converting protocol-specified exposure into observed effects and imply that expected dose alone may not be adequate to explain outcome variability (Fig. 3 ). The present intensity metric reflects expected intensity rather than adherence-adjusted observed dose; thus, true intensity may fall short of design specifications when adherence or implementation fidelity is suboptimal, particularly in mixed programs. Moreover, equal weighting of components may under-represent high-frequency elements (e.g., cognitive/physical training) relative to low-frequency elements (e.g., nutrition or vascular risk monitoring). Heterogeneity in outcome measures, assessment time points, and analytic choices (change scores versus posttest) may further introduce residual confounding. Accordingly, these comparisons should be interpreted as implementation-oriented, descriptive evidence that informs subsequent subgroup and dose–response investigations. 3.4. Cognitive domain effects and subgroup analyses Across cognitive domains, multidomain interventions were associated with small-to-moderate improvements in global cognition (Hedges’ g = 0.51, 95% CI 0.36–0.67; I² = 58.4%), memory (Hedges’ g = 0.43, 95% CI 0.25–0.61; I² = 70.7%), executive function (Hedges’ g = 0.39, 95% CI 0.21–0.57; I² = 68.3%), and verbal fluency (Hedges’ g = 0.47, 95% CI 0.28–0.66; I² = 69.3%). Attention showed a smaller but consistent benefit with low heterogeneity (Hedges’ g = 0.31, 95% CI 0.18–0.43; I² = 21.6%). A larger but imprecise effect was observed for visuospatial ability (Hedges’ g = 0.80, 95% CI 0.16–1.44; I² = 69.9%), whereas processing speed did not reach statistical significance and showed substantial heterogeneity (Hedges’ g = 0.48, 95% CI − 0.12 to 1.08; I² = 77.7%) (Fig. 4 .) In subgroup analyses, settings did not significantly modify effects for global cognition, attention, or executive function (all p for subgroup difference > 0.05), whereas memory and verbal fluency showed larger pooled effects in community-recruited trials than clinic-recruited trials (p = 0.00028 and p = 0.00235, respectively). Lower intensity (≤ 10 points) was associated with larger pooled effects for global cognition, executive function, memory, and verbal fluency (p = 0.0019, 0.043, 0.00014, and 0.00203, respectively); intensity-related differences for attention and processing speed were not statistically significant (p = 0.47 and p = 0.066). Subgroup analyses for visuospatial ability were limited because all contributing studies were clinic-recruited and > 10 points, and other subgroup comparisons for processing speed and visuospatial ability were constrained by small numbers within strata. Details are provided in Supplementary Material (Supplementary Results S4–S5; Tables S3–S7). Figure 4 . a-g. Forest plot effect of multidomain intervention targeting on (a) global cognition, (b) attention, (c) executive function, (d) memory, (e) processing speed, (f) verbal fluency, and (g) visuospatial ability. MI, multidomain intervention. Figure 4 . (continued). 3.5. Nonlinear dose-response meta-analyses We conducted dose–response meta-analyses to examine how multiple dimensions of multidomain intervention relate to changes in global cognitive function, expressed as Hedges’ g. Across all prespecified dose metrics, the overall dose–response trend was statistically significant (all p for dose response < 0.001) (Fig. 5 a–f). For total intervention total length, number of sessions, average session length, intervention intensity, and number of components, there was no evidence of nonlinearity ( p for nonlinearity = 0.607, 0.649, 0.765, 0.888, and 0.378, respectively) (Fig. 5 a–d, and f). In contrast, intervention density (minutes/session) showed a nonlinear association ( p for nonlinearity = 0.005), with an estimated optimal density of approximately 36.8 min/session and attenuation of gains at lower and higher densities (Fig. 5 e). We further performed a nonlinear dose–response analysis to examine the association between specific components of multidomain interventions (cognitive training, physical activities, blood pressure control, connecting with others, diet, and sleep intervention) and changes in global cognitive function. Significant dose–response trends were across all components ( p for dose response < 0.001) (Fig. 5 g–j). These findings indicate that both the density and relative proportion of specific components within multidomain interventions were generally associated with greater improvements in cognitive function, although the dose–response relationship varied across individual components. For intervention density (minutes/session), there was no evidence of nonlinearity for cognitive training (CT) or physical activity (A) (P for nonlinearity = 0.413 and 0.485, respectively; Fig. 5 g and 5 i). Likewise, the percentage of total intervention time allocated to CT showed no evidence of nonlinearity (P for nonlinearity = 0.076; Fig. 5 h). In contrast, the percentage allocated to A showed evidence of nonlinearity (P for nonlinearity = 0.034), with an estimated plateau at approximately 43.6% of total intervention time, beyond which additional increases were not associated with further cognitive benefit (Fig. 5 j). Dose–response analyses were not performed for components B (blood pressure control), C (connecting with others), D (diet), and S (sleep) because dose variation was insufficient for reliable meta-regression. These components were absent in most studies or delivered as a binary, fixed-dose exposure (present/absent), resulting in fewer than three informative dose levels and limited identifiability for spline models. In addition, the number of studies with non-zero exposure was below a commonly used minimum (n < 10), limiting statistical power. Accordingly, dose–response modelling was restricted to A and CT, where dose distributions supported nonlinear analyses; alternative specifications in sensitivity analyses produced unstable estimates with wide confidence intervals. 3.5. Certainty of evidence The certainty of evidence was judged as moderate for global cognition and attention, low for executive function, memory, and verbal fluency, and very low for processing speed and visuospatial ability. Evidence for global cognition was downgraded mainly for inconsistency because of moderate heterogeneity (I 2 = 58.4%), while the certainty for attention was downgraded by one level because some contributing studies had risk-of-bias concerns despite relatively low heterogeneity (I 2 = 21.6%). Executive function, memory, and verbal fluency were downgraded primarily for inconsistency, given substantial heterogeneity (I 2 = 68.3%, 70.7%, and 69.3%, respectively), with additional concerns related to study limitations and/or variation across trials. Processing speed was downgraded for serious inconsistency and serious imprecision because the pooled estimate was not statistically significant, the confidence interval crossed the null, and only seven studies contributed to the synthesis. Visuospatial ability was also judged to have very low-certainty evidence because only five studies contributed, heterogeneity was substantial, and the confidence interval was wide despite the pooled estimate favoring multidomain interventions. 3.7. Publication bias Funnel plots were visually inspected for each cognitive domain and formally evaluated using Egger’s regression test. Egger’s tests did not provide strong evidence of funnel plot asymmetry for attention [t(14) = 1.76, p = 0.101], executive function [t(15) = 0.78, p = 0.446], memory [t(17) = 0.54, p = 0.596], processing speed [t(5) = 1.87, p = 0.120], verbal fluency [t(11) = 1.38, p = 0.195], or visuospatial ability [t(3) = 1.10, p = 0.352]. Global cognition showed borderline evidence of asymmetry [t(24) = 2.06, p = 0.050]. Trim-and-fill analyses imputed seven potentially missing studies for attention (k0 = 7), whereas no missing studies were imputed for most other domains (k0 = 0); the adjusted pooled effects remained similar to the primary estimates (details in Supplementary Fig. S2). 4. Discussion This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to investigate how multidomain interventions affect cognitive outcomes in older adults with MCI. This study examined the impact of intervention intensity, session frequency, and component composition on cognitive improvements by combining data from 28 RCTs. Our results demonstrate the potential of multidomain interventions to enhance both general cognition and particular cognitive domains, including memory, executive function, and attention, while also pointing out the crucial elements that affect their efficacy. Significantly, the findings show that MCI populations can benefit cognitively from structured interventions with suitable intensity and density. Our results are consistent with previous studies that have demonstrated that multidomain interventions can improve older adults' cognitive function, especially in those with MCI. Combining cognitive training, physical exercise, and other lifestyle interventions can significantly lower the risk of dementia and improve cognition in at-risk populations, according to earlier studies like the FINGER and MAPT trials. Multidomain programs yielded small-to-moderate improvements in verbal fluency, memory, and executive function as well as strong gains in global cognition, which is consistent with our meta-analytic findings. A moderate pooled effect for cognition was reported(Ying et al., 2024), which is consistent with our synthesis and reflects timing and instrument sensitivity. There have been conflicting findings in MCI populations; some studies have found no discernible effects, while others have reported cognitive gains(Xu et al., 2021). Few studies, nevertheless, have looked at how each component of multidomain interventions contributes proportionately. By offering more nuanced insights into how particular factors, like the number of sessions, intervention intensity, and adherence, affect outcomes, our study contributes to this corpus of literature. Additionally, by including a broader range of multidomain components—such as dietary and sleep interventions, which have frequently been underrepresented in earlier studies—we expand on previous research(Salzman et al., 2022). One of the more interesting findings of this study was the significant role of intervention density (the amount of intervention time per session) in determining cognitive outcomes. Our dose-response analysis revealed an optimal density of approximately 36.8 minutes per session, with attenuation of cognitive benefits at both lower and higher densities. This result suggests that while the overall intensity of an intervention is important, the distribution of intervention time may be equally critical in achieving optimal cognitive outcomes(He et al., 2025). This finding is particularly noteworthy, as previous studies have primarily focused on the total intervention length or session frequency, with less attention given to session density(Li et al., 2011; Reijnders et al., 2013). Further investigation into this aspect could help refine intervention designs and enhance the effectiveness of multidomain programs for MCI. The substantial nonlinearity found in the dose-response relationship for physical activity was one of our study's main conclusions. In particular, we discovered that in multidomain interventions, the ideal intervention time percentage of physical activity was roughly 43.6%. Increasing the percentage of physical activity after this point had no further positive effects on cognition. This finding emphasizes how important exercise is for improving cognitive outcomes, but it also shows that there may be a limit to the benefits of increasing physical activity. The duration or intensity of physical activity is the primary focus of the current research(Barreto et al., 2018; Kane et al., 2017; Salzman et al., 2022). According to our findings, optimizing the efficacy of multidomain interventions requires a well-balanced combination of components; an overemphasis on any one component, like physical activity, may not always improve cognitive outcomes. This equilibrium is essential because it avoids cognitive overload from an overemphasis on one area, which could result in decreased efficacy. The concept of diminishing returns with higher levels of physical activity aligns with broader theories of neuroplasticity and cognitive reserve, which suggest that cognitive benefits may plateau after a certain point(Falck et al., 2019). The brain's plastic response to physical activity, such as neurogenesis and synaptic plasticity, tends to plateau after reaching a certain threshold. In other words, prior to reaching this threshold, more physical exercise can lead to greater neural changes; however, once this threshold is reached, additional exercise may only maintain the status quo without yielding further benefits(Nishijima et al., 2017; Rhodes et al., 2003). This finding also supports previous research, which indicates that physical exercise promotes BDNF and enhances hippocampal function(Gavelin et al., 2021; Liang et al., 2019), but the optimal dose of physical activity within a multidomain intervention needs to be carefully calibrated to maximize its effects. Our research advances our knowledge of neuroplasticity and cognitive aging. We contribute to the increasing amount of evidence that comprehensive, multiaspect approaches that involve multiple lifestyle interventions are the most effective way to address cognitive decline in MCI by determining the ideal time proportion of physical activity within multidomain interventions. Further supporting the significance of a comprehensive strategy for managing cognitive decline in MCI, our findings indicate that the combination of elements—such as cognitive training, physical activity, and social engagement—appears to have a synergistic effect on cognition. These results add to the increasing amount of data demonstrating the necessity of integrative models of intervention that take into account a variety of lifestyle and cognitive factors. Our findings add to the literature on multidomain interventions in MCI by highlighting the potential relevance of how programme time is allocated across components. Rather than focusing solely on total exercise volume or overall intervention dose, our results suggest that the relative weighting of components (e.g., cognitive training, physical activity and social engagement) may be associated with cognitive outcomes. This supports integrative intervention models that address multiple behavioural and cognitive targets, while avoiding assumptions that increasing any single component will necessarily yield proportional gains. From an implementation perspective, the observed plateau around 43.6% of total intervention time allocated to physical activity may help inform programme design for MCI(Castro et al., 2023). The results suggest that increasing the physical-activity share beyond this level may offer limited added benefit and may increase participant burden, potentially affecting adherence—particularly in community settings where sustained engagement can be challenging(Salzman et al., 2022). Future programmes may therefore prioritise a balanced time allocation that preserves adequate exposure to other active ingredients (e.g., cognitive training and social components) alongside physical activity, with feasibility and uptake considered as core design constraints. While this study provides valuable insights, several limitations must be acknowledged. First, heterogeneity in intervention content, comparators, participant characteristics, and outcome measures limited inference about an optimal multidomain configuration for MCI; some subgroup and meta-regression estimates were imprecise because of small numbers of trials. Second, our exposure metrics (eg, sessions and duration) largely reflect protocol-specified dose and may not capture dose received, particularly in less structured programs where adherence and fidelity vary. Third, outcomes were assessed using diverse instruments, and reliance on composite or global scores constrained domain-specific comparability. Future studies should improve reporting of intervention content and delivery, harmonise cognitive outcome assessment, and routinely measure adherence and implementation fidelity. Trials are also needed to prospectively test how session density and component time allocation influence outcomes, including less frequently evaluated components such as diet, sleep, and social engagement. Longer follow-up and pragmatic designs will be important to assess the durability of cognitive effects and to identify scalable programmes that balance effectiveness with participant and workforce burden. 5. Conclusion This synthesis indicates that multidomain interventions may improve cognitive outcomes in older adults with MCI. The results further suggest that how interventions are delivered (e.g., intensity and session density) may influence observed effects and should be treated as core design variables rather than ancillary details. Future research should prioritise rigorous protocol specification, standardised outcome measurement, and longer-term evaluation to clarify durability, feasibility, and potential downstream clinical outcomes. Declarations Data availability The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Funding No specific funding was provided for this study by any public, commercial, or non-profit organizations. The study was conducted without external financial support. CRediT authorship contribution statement Meixian Li: Writing-review & editing, Writing-original draft, Visualization, Formal analysis. Haiwei Fu: Writing-review & editing, Visualization, Methodology. Zonghua Wang: Writing-review & editing, Visualization, Supervision, Project administration, Methodology, Conceptualization, Supervision. All authors participated in editing and reviewing the manuscript, and all authors approved the final draft. Ethics approval and consent to participate This study is a systematic review and meta-analysis of published randomized controlled trials and did not involve direct human participants. Therefore, ethical approval and participant consent were not required. Human ethics and consent to participate declarations Not applicable. Consent for publication Not applicable. Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. References Ainslie, P.N., Cotter, J.D., George, K.P., Lucas, S., Murrell, C., Shave, R., Thomas, K.N., Williams, M.J.A., Atkinson, G., 2008. Elevation in cerebral blood flow velocity with aerobic fitness throughout healthy human ageing. 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Comparative Effectiveness of Interventions for Global Cognition in Patients With Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience 13, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2021.653340 Xu, Z., Zhang, D., Yip, B.H.-K., Lee, E.K.-P., Poon, P.K.-M., Peters, R., Yang, Z., Lee, A.T.-C., Leung, M.K.-W., Wong, E.L.-Y., Mok, V.C.-T., Lam, L.C.-W., Wong, S.Y.-S., 2025. Combined mind–body physical exercise, cognitive training, and nurse-led risk factor modification to enhance cognition among older adults with mild cognitive impairment in primary care: A three-arm randomised controlled trial. Lancet Healthy Longev. 6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lanhl.2025.100706 Yang, Q., Lyu, X., Lin, Q., Wang, Z., Tang, L., Zhao, Y., Lyu, Q., 2022. Effects of a multicomponent intervention to slow mild cognitive impairment progression: a randomized controlled trial. Int J Nurs Stud 125, 104110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2021.104110 Ying, G., Perez-Lao, A., Marsiske, M., Levy, S.-A., Smith, G.E., 2024. Multimodal cognitive and behavioral interventions for patients with MCI: a systematic review and meta-analysis on cognition and mood. Front Aging Neurosci 16, 1390699. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2024.1390699 Yu, H., Ma, B.X., Feng, Y.C., He, Z.W., Li, C., Wang, Z.H., Gao, T., Xu, X.Y., 2025. Effects of multi-domain cognitive-motor training in older adults with amnestic mild cognitive impairment: a randomized controlled trial. Geriatr Nur (lond) 61, 64–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gerinurse.2024.10.072 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files SupplementaryMaterial.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Reviewers agreed at journal 04 May, 2026 Reviewers invited by journal 22 Apr, 2026 Editor invited by journal 27 Mar, 2026 Editor assigned by journal 24 Mar, 2026 Submission checks completed at journal 24 Mar, 2026 First submitted to journal 18 Mar, 2026 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-9170544","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":631886052,"identity":"e2ce45d2-f22e-495e-87c3-17b306121a4c","order_by":0,"name":"Meixian Li","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Army Medical University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Meixian","middleName":"","lastName":"Li","suffix":""},{"id":631886056,"identity":"cd6110a6-4000-4440-9963-42c568e7a8e8","order_by":1,"name":"Haiwei Fu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Army Medical University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Haiwei","middleName":"","lastName":"Fu","suffix":""},{"id":631886059,"identity":"500c445d-034c-4ef4-88fc-883def2d7c15","order_by":2,"name":"Zonghua Wang","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA50lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYJACZiCWY2NmPgDlJxCnxZiPvS2xgSQtifN4zhgSp0W+vffw68I2u8Q2iZzvj27mHGbgZ88xYPi5A7cWxp5zadYz25KN2yRyNzbnbjvMINnzxoCx9wweR0nkmBnztjHLwrUY3MgxYGZsw62FDaKlnhHosIdgLfaEtPBI5Bg/5m07rNjGc4YRYosEAS0SPGfMmHnOHTdmY28znJ27LZ1H4syzgoO9eLTIt/cYf+Ypq5aTb2Z+8Dl3m7Ucf3vyxgc/8WgBewfFpSDiAF4NwED7QEDBKBgFo2AUjHQAACCZTS6zkbM8AAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Army Medical University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Zonghua","middleName":"","lastName":"Wang","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-03-19 14:23:30","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9170544/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9170544/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":108492870,"identity":"cc5b2037-7548-4abd-b6a1-9dff09ca6ceb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-05 09:58:50","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":173184,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePRISMA flow diagram.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9170544/v1/46547446373fae3166c22766.png"},{"id":108492401,"identity":"db5a5b94-c749-4575-a0b7-100f53a3c722","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-05 09:57:41","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":105540,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe number of studies that incorporated multidomain Interventions for mild cognitive impairment throughout the years. CT: cognitive training; A: activities (physical); B: blood pressure control; C: connecting with others; D: diet intervention; S: sleep intervention.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9170544/v1/bca2e1f94ce5fb588f9398ee.png"},{"id":108399047,"identity":"5c5b33f0-b676-47fb-a039-dc3bfb7d76be","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-04 08:36:43","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":232622,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eIntensity of multidomain Intervention (MI) studies aimed at preventing cognitive decline, including (A) structured intervention programs (B) mixed intervention programs (C) community intervention programs, and (D) clinic intervention programs.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9170544/v1/5bb9d7ce22de96f14f85bbc9.png"},{"id":108492813,"identity":"6829475e-2b4e-4b5f-9a74-fe58534027d8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-05 09:58:41","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":352645,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ea-g. Forest plot effect of multidomain intervention targeting on (a) global cognition, (b) attention, (c) executive function, (d) memory, (e) processing speed, (f) verbal fluency, and (g) visuospatial ability. MI, multidomain intervention.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9170544/v1/3aafbbdceb5f40c504be7b3b.png"},{"id":108399049,"identity":"c1d0fa9a-5436-41d9-a3ed-6250fa8352f0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-04 08:36:44","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":564239,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDose-response relationship between characteristics and different components of multidomain intervention and global cognition. Solid lines represent the dose-response lines, and lines above and below are 95% CIs. Circles represent Hedge's g estimates from each study, with circle size proportional to the inverse of standard error. CT: cognitive training; A: activities (physical).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9170544/v1/5b345c669fa12d5cb7942278.png"},{"id":109295875,"identity":"f22374cc-3462-4ccc-a737-b7fe67c84e1b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-15 08:39:12","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2017943,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9170544/v1/d7215232-ec3e-478d-adac-ee6e9740776f.pdf"},{"id":108399044,"identity":"915817f4-6fef-473c-8d80-0f77f98484d0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-04 08:36:43","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":618852,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"SupplementaryMaterial.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9170544/v1/9a6284913f1ef7308a740ce0.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Effectiveness of multidomain interventions for the elderly with mild cognitive impairment: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eMild cognitive impairment (MCI) is an intermediate stage between normal aging and dementia, characterized by subjective cognitive complaints and objective cognitive deficits that do not significantly interfere with daily life(Petersen, 2004). Its prevalence increases with age, affecting approximately 6.7% to 25.2% of individuals over 60(Jongsiriyanyong and Limpawattana, 2018), with rates rising to 25.2% in those aged 80 to 84(Albert et al., 2013). Compared to the healthy population\u0026rsquo;s 1% to 2% dementia prevalence, individuals with MCI face a 5% to 17% annual progression rate to dementia, making them at significantly higher risk(Mitchell and Shiri-Feshki, 2009). Although many individuals progress to dementia within 4 to 6 years in the absence of effective intervention(Petersen et al., 2001), 30% to 40% may experience a reversal to normal cognitive function(Petersen et al., 1999), indicating that MCI is not invariably progressive and may represent a modifiable, time-sensitive window for prevention.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNon-pharmacological strategies that target modifiable risk factors and multiple pathways implicated in cognitive decline have garnered increasing attention for their potential to preserve cognitive function and delay the onset of dementia(G\u0026oacute;mez-Soria et al., 2022). There remains no established gold-standard treatment or intervention for MCI. The American Academy of Neurology guidelines similarly conclude that empirical evidence is insufficient to support pharmacological treatments for MCI in older adults(Petersen et al., 2018). By contrast, a growing body of research supports nonpharmacological interventions that target multiple biological and behavioral pathways, rendering these approaches both feasible and acceptable for clinical implementation(Rodakowski et al., 2015). These interventions encompass a range of strategies, including cognitive training, physical exercise, nutrition and dietary modification, social engagement, vascular risk management, and sleep interventions. Mechanistically, such interventions may influence neurobiological processes relevant to cognitive aging, such as the enhancement of norepinephrine signaling and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)\u0026mdash;to support neuroplasticity, improve cerebral perfusion, and promote hippocampal network function, thereby fostering both cognitive outcomes in older adults with MCI(Ainslie et al., 2008; Vaynman et al., 2004).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLarge prevention trials conducted in cognitively healthy or at-risk older adults have reported cognitive benefits from multidomain interventions. The FINGER trial, for example, improved cognitive performance using a package that combined physical exercise, cognitive training, and vascular risk-factor management (Ngandu et al., 2015). Signals in the same direction have been observed in MAPT and PreDIVA, suggesting that multidomain approaches may slow cognitive decline in groups at higher vascular or dementia risk(Andrieu et al., 2017; Coley et al., 2019; van Charante et al., 2016). Whether comparable benefits are achievable in people with established mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is still uncertain. Uncertainty also remains regarding the dose required and the combination of components most strongly associated with benefit.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSingle-domain nonpharmacological interventions typically yield small-to-moderate, domain-specific effects(Salzman et al., 2022), whereas the multifactorial and cross-domain nature of cognitive impairment in MCI provides a rationale for multidomain programs that may confer additive or synergistic benefits when delivered with sufficient intensity and high-quality implementation(V\u0026aacute;squez-Carrasco et al., 2025). To reduce subjectivity in defining \u0026ldquo;multidomain\u0026rdquo; content and to enhance cross-trial comparability, we organized intervention components using the ABCDS framework (Activity, Blood pressure control, Connecting with others, Diet, Sleep)(Avan et al., 2025), a simplified, operational set of evidence-based, modifiable actions. Given the frequent inclusion of cognitive training in MCI trials, we additionally tracked cognitive training as a separate component alongside ABCDS. This component-based approach helps clarify how differences in selection and dosing of elements may contribute to heterogeneity in observed cognitive effects. Recent syntheses and network meta-analyses suggest that multidomain interventions can improve global and domain-specific cognition in MCI, but conclusions are tempered by study quality, substantial heterogeneity, and inconsistent findings across reviews(Gkotzamanis and Panagiotakos, 2020; G\u0026oacute;mez-Soria et al., 2022; Ying et al., 2024). This heterogeneity reflects variation in component selection, dosing schedules, and implementation quality across trials(Gkotzamanis and Panagiotakos, 2020).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBeyond design differences, multidomain intervention programs are often time- and resource-intensive, requiring repeated sessions of substantial duration delivered multiple times per week over several months, which may increase participant burden and undermine adherence in real-world settings. Across published multidomain trials, intervention delivery has ranged from 30 to 135 minutes per session, delivered 1 to 7 times per week over 8 to 52 weeks(Salzman et al., 2022). Such demands may increase the burden for implementers (eg, training, coordination, supervision, and monitoring), thereby challenging scalability. Importantly, implementation evidence indicates that protocol-specified intensity does not necessarily translate into exposure actually received; adherence and delivery fidelity jointly shape realized dose and may condition treatment effects(Soldevila-Domenech et al., 2025). In addition, prior reviews have often emphasized global cognition outcomes or focused on combinations of cognitive and physical training, with less representation of other potentially relevant components such as diet, sleep interventions, and psychosocial support, which may also contribute significantly to cognitive improvements(Gavelin et al., 2021). Collectively, these limitations underscore a key evidence gap: how core design features, including intervention intensity, session density, and component composition (operationalized using ABCDS, with CT coded separately), relate to cognitive outcomes in MCI and how multidomain interventions can be optimized for effectiveness and feasibility.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo address these gaps, we intend to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis to compare the effects of single-domain versus multidomain interventions on cognitive outcomes in older adults with MCI. Specifically, this study aims to (1) compare the effect sizes between multidomain and single-domain interventions for global cognition and specific cognitive domains and (2) examine the relationship between intervention length, dose, and critical implementation factors (such as intensity, density, intervention format, and component composition) and cognitive outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e This study was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) reporting guideline(Page et al., 2021) and was prospectively registered in PROSPERO (Registration number: CRD420261283039).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1. Search strategy\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe literature search was conducted from their inception to November 2025 using PubMed, Embase, Cochrane, Web of Science, PsycINFO, and CINAHL. The full search strategy combined medical subject heading terms and keywords encompassing 4 key concepts: mild cognitive impairment, old, multidomain intervention, and randomized controlled trial (details in Supplementary Table \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e). In addition, references from relevant systematic reviews and meta-analyses were examined and manually searched as an additional source of literature. Relevant studies were independently screened by two reviewers following the same standard in 2 steps: (1) title and abstract, and (2) full text\u0026mdash;using identical eligibility criteria. Relevant abstracts were retained for full-text assessment. The same reviewers extracted data on study and participant characteristics and outcome measures from included studies. Discrepancies at any stage were resolved by consensus; if consensus could not be reached, a third reviewer adjudicated. When full texts were not available in public databases, study authors were contacted to obtain them.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2. Eligibility criteria\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe eligibility criteria are conducted in accordance with the PICOS (population, intervention, comparison, outcome, and study design) framework (details in Supplementary Table S2). Randomized controlled trials were eligible if they enrolled adults aged 50 years or older with clinically diagnosed MCI and evaluated a multidomain intervention comprising at least 2 nonpharmacological components. Eligible comparators included usual care or any other intervention with the intervention type different from that of other groups. The primary outcome was the change in global cognition from baseline to the first post-intervention assessment; secondary outcomes were changes in domain-specific cognitive functions. Only RCTs were included in the review. Trials primarily targeting co-occurring neurologic or psychiatric disorders, and interventions that included an active pharmacologic component unique to the intervention arm, were excluded.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3. Data extraction, risk-of-bias, and certainty assessment\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTwo reviewers independently extracted the study data for all eligible reports using a Excel form and compared to ensure no errors. Extracted items covered participant characteristics, attrition, diagnostic criteria, multidomain Intervention components and dosing (length, frequency, follow-up duration), comparator details, outcome measures, effect sizes for each outcome, and author-reported results. Outcomes were extracted as the mean and SDs for cognition outcome scores at baseline and post-intervention or change from baseline to post-intervention if any. For studies with multiple cognitive measures within a domain, variables and measures were identified and coded independently by both reviewers, then cross-checked to minimize errors. Baseline characteristics were compared between groups to evaluate any imbalances attributable to the randomization process.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe assessed risk of bias using the updated Cochrane Collaboration tool for assessing risk of bias in randomized controlled trials (RoB 2)(Sterne et al., 2019). Two reviewers independently judged each study across 5 standard domains, with disagreements resolved by consensus. Studies with all domains as low risk were considered as overall low risk. Studies with at least one domain as high risk were considered as high risk; the remaining studies were considered as some concerns. The outcomes of the risk-of-bias evaluations were graphically represented using the web-based R package robvis(McGuinness and Higgins, 2021). The assessment results for 29 clinical trials are presented in the Supplementary Fig. \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition to the risk-of-bias assessment of individual studies, we assessed the certainty of the body of evidence for each prespecified outcome (global cognition, attention, executive function, memory, processing speed, verbal fluency, and visuospatial ability) using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) approach. Because the review included randomized controlled trials, certainty was initially rated as high and could be downgraded for risk of bias, inconsistency, indirectness, imprecision, and publication bias. Judgments were informed by the RoB 2 assessments, the magnitude of between-study heterogeneity (including I\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e and prediction intervals where applicable), the precision of pooled estimates, and the results of reporting-bias assessments. Final certainty ratings were categorized as high, moderate, low, or very low.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4. Data synthesis and analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll analyses were performed in R (version 4.4.2) using metafor, meta, and esc packages; multilevel models were fitted with rma.mv where applicable. Additional computational details are provided in Supplementary Methods S1. Continuous outcomes were synthesized as standardized mean differences (Hedges\u0026rsquo; g) with 95% CIs, with score directions harmonized so that positive values indicated better cognition (scales where higher scores indicated worse cognition were sign-reversed). We prioritized change-from-baseline data; when unavailable, postintervention scores were used. When required, SEs, CIs, p values, or test statistics were converted to Hedges\u0026rsquo; g using standard methods (details in Supplementary Methods S1-3).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eManaging multiple outcomes and multi-arm studies\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo preserve independence of effect sizes, one prespecified measure per cognitive domain per study was selected according to an a priori hierarchy. For multi-arm trials, shared comparator groups were handled using standard unit-of-analysis approaches.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eMetrics for intervention dosage (intensity, density, and multidomain intervention component)\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe ratio of the anticipated dose to the intervention duration in months was used to estimate the intensity of multidomain interventions. The entire amount of intervention recommended in the trial protocol, usually expressed as the total number of sessions, was referred to as the dose. Meaningful comparisons between various multimodal lifestyle-based trials are made possible by the standardized indicator of intervention intensity provided by this combined metric of dose delivered and intervention length. By taking into account the amount of intervention time (minutes) per session, we evaluated intervention density. This measure complements frequency-based dose metrics by reflecting within-session time load (session duration). In order to examine each component's contribution to the overall effectiveness of the intervention, the composition of the intervention was also examined by classifying the proportion of each component within the overall intervention. The percentage of scheduled minutes per session allotted to each component (cognitive training and ABCDS framework) was measured as component density (min/session). The component composition percentage was calculated by dividing the total session minutes by the component minutes per session.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eHeterogeneity, subgroup analyses, and meta-regression\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeterogeneity was assessed using τ\u0026sup2; and I\u0026sup2;, with Cochran\u0026rsquo;s Q reported as applicable. Subgroup analyses were conducted when there was medium or large heterogeneity across studies. Prespecified subgroup analyses examined clinically relevant features (settings, intervention format, intervention composition, dose/sessions, and follow-up duration). When sufficient studies were available (\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;10), random-effects meta-regression was conducted to evaluate continuous moderators.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eSmall-study effects and sensitivity analyses\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmall-study effects were examined using funnel plots and Egger tests (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.10) when at least 10 studies contributed to an outcome. Contour-enhanced funnel plots and trim-and-fill were used exploratorily. Robustness was evaluated through leave-one-out analyses, influence diagnostics, and sensitivity checks for scale direction and unit-of-analysis decisions (including multilevel models where appropriate).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eNonlinear dose\u0026ndash;response analysis\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDose\u0026ndash;response associations between intervention parameters (sessions, intensity, density, and component proportions) and cognitive outcomes were examined using one-stage robust error meta-regression (REMR) with restricted cubic splines, testing for nonlinearity using Wald-type tests.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1. Study selection\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe initial search identified 7724 articles. After removing 2246 duplicates and 4 automation-ineligible records, 5475 titles and abstracts were screened; 76 full texts were assessed. Studies based on the same cohort were counted as a single study, including 2 studies by Arai et al.(Arai et al., 2023) and Sakurai et al.(Sakurai et al., 2024) and 3 studies by Montero-Odasso et al.(Montero-Odasso et al., 2023, 2022, 2018). Ultimately, 26 trials were identified through database searches. Manual citation searching from previous literature reviews(Chan et al., 2025; Gavelin et al., 2021; G\u0026oacute;mez-Soria et al., 2022; Liang et al., 2019; Salzman et al., 2022; Xu et al., 2021; Ying et al., 2024) found 47 results that did not overlap with the primary database search. After abstract/title screening, 22 remained for full-text screening. According to the AMSTAR 2 guidelines(Shea et al., 2017), studies with a high risk of bias were excluded from the meta-analysis. A total of 28 studies from 29 articles published between 2017 and 2025, encompassing a total of 3377 participants, were eligible for the final meta-analyses. One report(Johari et al., 2014) was excluded due to the high risk of bias. A detailed description of the study selection is presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2. Study characteristics\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe 28 trials enrolled 3377 participants (sample size range, 16\u0026ndash;531). Recruitment occurred in the community (15/28, 53.6%) and in clinic settings (13/28, 46.4%). Mean age ranged from 63.3 to 81.9 years, and 62.1% of participants were women overall. Attrition ranged from 0% to 32.5%, with 3 trials(Bae et al., 2019; Buele et al., 2024; Li et al., 2022) reporting\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;20% dropout (details in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCharacteristics of multidomain intervention studies for patients with mild cognitive impairment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAuthor, Year, Country\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSetting, Intervention format, Follow-ups\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInterventions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eControl group\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOutcome measures\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal (drop out), IG/CG\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge (mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD), Female (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiagnostic criteria*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComponents \u0026amp; Contents\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSession (times) \u0026amp; Duration (mo)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArai et al., 2023; Japan\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClinic; Structured; Baseline, 6-, 12-, and 18-month follow-up\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e531 (81);\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e265/266\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e74.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.0/74.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.8;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e52.0%/52.0%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e①At least 1.0 SD below the reference threshold in any cognitive domain on NCGG-FAT\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②MMSE\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e①Cognitive training (9 months, with a minimum of 30 min/day, at least 4 days/week)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②Physical exercise (group-based, 1x/week, 120 min/session)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;30 min of aerobic exercise\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;30 min of dual-task exercise\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;30 min of strength training\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;30 min of group meetings and discussion\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e③Management of vascular risk factors\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e④Nutritional counseling (12 phone and 3 in-person 60-min meetings)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e231/18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e①Management of vascular risk factors\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②Health-related information every 2 months\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMMSE, WMS-LM, TMT-A/B, DSST, FCSRT, WAIS-III, VFT, WFT, CGA, ADL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBae et al., 2019; Japan\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommunity; Structured; Baseline, end of the intervention\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e83 (27);\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e41/42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.0/76.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.1;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e43.9%/52.4%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e①Objective cognitive impairment\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;1.5 SD below norms in \u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;1 NCGG-FAT domain\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②MMSE\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;24 \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e③ADL\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;60 \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e④No dementia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKENKOJISEICHI program (2x/week)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;15 min condition check and stretching\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;60\u0026thinsp;min of physical, cognitive, or social activities\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;15\u0026thinsp;min of report writing, and discussion of the next session\u0026rsquo;s schedule\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48/6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2 health education classes (90\u0026thinsp;min)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMMSE, TMT-A/B, CWM, SWM, NCGG-FAT tablet-based assessments, GDS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlumenthal et al., 2019; America\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClinic; Mixed; Baseline, end of the intervention\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79 (0);\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e40/39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.2/64.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.6;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e65.0%/68.4%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e①MoCA: 19\u0026ndash;25\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②SCD\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e③At least one additional CVDs risk factor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e①Physical exercise (3x/week)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;10 min of warm-up exercises\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;35 min of continuous walking or stationary cycling\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②Diet\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;DASH Diet\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;dietary counseling with a nutritionist (1x/week for 12 weeks, then 2x/week for 12 weeks, 30-min/session)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90/6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHealth education: weekly 30-min educational phone calls on cardiovascular health.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSCWT, TMT, DST, HVLT, COWA, and CDR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBuele et al., 2024; Ecuador\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommunity; Structured; Pre and post intervention\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34 (8);\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e17/17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75.41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.76/77.35\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.75);\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e58.8%/76.5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoCA: 19\u0026ndash;25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e①Cognitive training (2x/week, 20 min/session)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;individual immersive VR-based cognitive training simulating IADLs using a head-mounted display\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②Physical exercise (group-based, 2x/week, 20 min/session)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;aerobic, balance, resistance, and socially interactive exercises\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12/1.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e①Physical exercise\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②Cognitive training: traditional paper-and-card cognitive training\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoCA-S, GDS, IADL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCastellote-Caballero et al., 2024; Spain\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommunity; Structured; Baseline and end of intervention\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95 (3);\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e48/47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71.85\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.70/72.30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.78;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.7%/14.7%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMMSE\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e①Cognitive stimulation (group-based, \u0026le;\u0026thinsp;8 participants, 2x/week, 45\u0026ndash;50 min/session)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②Psychomotor training (group-based, 2x/week)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;5 min of activity introduction and explanation\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;30\u0026ndash;40 min of psychomotor and cognitive skills activity\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;5 min of relaxation (cooling and relaxation exercises)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48/3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCognitive stimulation: group-based sessions (\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;8 participants), twice weekly, 45\u0026ndash;50 min/session\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMMSE, MoCA, IST, TMT-A/B, the Tinetti scale, the arm curl test, the 30-s chair stand test, BST, TUG\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFalck et al., 2020; Canada\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommunity; Mixed; Baseline, 12 weeks, and 24 weeks\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96 (8);\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e48/48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.0/74.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.0;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e48%/67%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e①MoCA\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;26\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②MMSE\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e①Physical activity promotion (individually tailored )\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;week 5: development of an individualized physical activity plan\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;weeks 5\u0026ndash;24: phone calls (2\u0026times;/week) for motivational interviewing and setting physical activity goals\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;continuous activity tracking, regular bed/wake times\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②Sleep hygiene education (week 1\u0026ndash;4, 1\u0026times;/week; 2 hours/session)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;sleep strategies and the role of BLT and physical activity in sleep regulation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e③Individually timed BLT\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;philips goLITE BLU device, with advice on maximizing natural daylight exposure, for 20 weeks. 1 hour of BLT twice daily, approximately 12 hours apart\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e299/6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e①Health lectures: group-based, general health/lifestyle (Weeks 1\u0026ndash;4; 1/week)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②Usual activities: continue; assess health/QoL by 4 calls (Weeks 5\u0026ndash;24)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMMSE, MoCA, ADAS-Cog 13, TMT-A/B, CFT, PSQI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFan et al., 2024; China\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommunity; Mixed; Baseline and end of the intervention\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e120 (4);\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e60/60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.4/67.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.1;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e61.0%/61.4%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePeterson criteria(Petersen, 2004)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e①In-person training course (group-based, 1\u0026times;/week for 6 weeks)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;25-min of cognitive training: memory and attention\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;15-min of physical exercise: finger exercises, elastic band, Tai Chi/Baduanjin\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;15-min of healthy lifestyle education: nutrition, sleep, stress, mood, and problem-solving\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②Computerized cognitive training (3\u0026times;/week for 6weeks)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;spatial cognition, left-right balance, clock imitation, ATM simulation\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e③Home-based physical exercise (5 days/week, ~\u0026thinsp;30 min/day)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e④Homework\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;calligraphy (2 days/week) and physical exercise (5 days/week) for 12 weeks\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24/3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeneral health education: via booklets, home visits, or phone calls (30-min, once per week)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoCA, MMSE and sub-scores, AVLT, LMT, TMT-A, DSST, DSF, DSB, DST\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGriffiths et al., 2020; Thailand\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommunity; Structured; Baseline and end of the intervention\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70 (0);\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e35/35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNP;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e68.57%/68.57%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e①Thai version of MoCA-B\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;24\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②MSET-10 above dementia cut-offs (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;14, \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;17, \u0026gt;22 for no schooling, elementary, and higher education respectively)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e①Multifaceted cognitive training (2\u0026times;/week, 60\u0026ndash;90 min/session):\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;20 min of attention training\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;20 min of memory training\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;20\u0026ndash;50 min of executive function training\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②Physical exercise (2\u0026times;/week)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;arm and leg movements, tapping sticks, and step changes with simultaneous control of steps, arm movements, and rhythm\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;participants count aloud and follow therapist instructions, creating a motor-plus-attention/executive dual-task training\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24/3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo intervention (offered one session after post-intervention assessment)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMMSE, TMT-A/B, BDS, DSF, DSB, DSS, VFT, WLL, WAIS-IV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHagovska and Nagyova, 2017; Slovak Republic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClinic; Mixed; Baseline and end of the intervention\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80 (2);\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e40/40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.4/67.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.1;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e61.0%/61.4%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e①ICD-IX-CM Diagnosis Code 331.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②MMSE\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e①Cognitive training (computer-based, 2\u0026times;/week)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;alert: attention training by driving a virtual car (18 difficulty levels).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;n-back: working memory training with 2\u0026ndash;3 pictures to recall\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;names: long-term memory training for associating names with faces\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;pland: executive function training for planning daily activities under time pressure\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;vismo: visual-motor training by following a spaceship within a circle\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②Physical exercise (daily)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;5-min of walking over obstacles: walking over 5 boxes, increasing pace while maintaining balance\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;6-min of walking with directional change: direction changes, 360\u0026deg; turns, backward walking, and speed changes\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;6-min of changing walking base: varying stride width, step length, and tandem walking\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;3-min of speed walking\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;5-min of walking with a load: carrying a load in one or both hands\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;5-min of walking up and down stairs: repeatedly ascending and descending ten steps\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90/2.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDaily 30-min physical training\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMMSE, AVLT, SCWT, TMT-A, DRT and NHPT, ADL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJeong et al., 2021; Korea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClinic; Structured; Baseline and end of the intervention\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26 (0);\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13/13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.47/71.77\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.53;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e69.2%/69.2%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePetersen criteria(Petersen et al., 1999)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e①Dual-task training (2\u0026times;/week)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;10-min of warm-up: shuttle walking and stretching\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;50-min of main exercise: aerobic and cognitive dual-task training\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;10-min of cool-down: walking and stretching\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;20-min of education and feedback to promote habitual physical activity\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②Monitoring\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;participants wore an accelerometer (Lifecoder) to track weekly physical activity, with individualized feedback\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24/3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e①Maintain their usual daily life\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②Monthly health management classes\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e③Body composition checks and individual consultations were conducted every two weeks\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKorean version of MMSE, modified ADAS-Cog, TMT-A/B, DSST, SGDS-K\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKim and Park, 2023; Korea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommunity; Structured; Baseline and end of intervention\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42 (0);\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e21/21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.39/74.71\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.55;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e47.6%/57.1%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKorean version of MoCA\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCognitive-motor dual-task training (8 themed dual-tasks, 2\u0026times;/week, 45 min/session)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e①Cognitive training\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;counting numbers, simple calculations, naming pictures, naming backward, and finding common pictures\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②Physical exercise\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;range-of-motion exercises (wrist, elbow, shoulder, ankle, knee, hip), Thera-Band resistance exercises (pulling/pushing), ball exercises (passing/throwing), and leg exercises\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16/2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCognitive single-task training: only the executive function domain\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEFPT-K, FAB, IADL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKooncumchoo et al., 2025; Thailand\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommunity; Structured; Baseline and end of intervention\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46 (9);\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e23/23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.65/68.26\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e51.16%/43.84%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoCA: 17\u0026ndash;24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCognitive-motor dual-task training (3\u0026times;/week, 60 min/session)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e①Cognitive training\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;number and color recall during movement\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②Physical exercise\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;10 min of warm-up: upper- and lower-limb stretching; trunk stretching; breathing exercises\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;40 min of aerobic training: water-based aerobic movements (hip flexion/abduction, kicks, high knees, squats, step movements, dumbbell-assisted upper-limb exercises)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;10 min of cool-down: walking and stretching\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36/3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater-based exercise alone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoCA, 2-MST, BaPWV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLee et al., 2023; Korea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClinic; Structured; Baseline, 8-, and 12-week follow-up\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33 (2);\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16/17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e74.81\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.74/75.77\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.67;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.5%/76.5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e①Albert criteria(Albert et al., 2013)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②MMSE: 17\u0026ndash;27\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e③CDR: 0.5-1\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e④CDR-SB: 0.5-5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCognitive-motor dual-task training (2\u0026times;/week, 50 min/session)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e①Cognitive training\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;10 min of welcome and homework review\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;5 min of wrap-up\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;20 min of memory task\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;10 min executive function/attention tasks\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;5 min of visuospatial or calculation task\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②Physical exercise (supervised, small-group, n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;aerobic, strength, and balance training\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e③Metabolic/vascular risk management (every 4 weeks)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;individualized education and monitoring (blood pressure, body weight, waist circumference, alcohol intake, smoking)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e④Nutritional intervention (every 3 weeks, \u0026asymp;\u0026thinsp;3 sessions over 8 weeks)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;individual dietary counseling by dietitian\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;nutritional supplement: multinutrient drink (Memory Pack Plus); 150 mL/carton; 2 cartons/day for 8 weeks\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e⑤Motivational enhancement\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;one in-person session at baseline; weekly motivational text messages\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e86/2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDementia-prevention booklet; usual medical care\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMMSE, RBANS and\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003esubdomains, CDR-SB, IADL, GDS-15, ZBI, SPPB, NQ-E\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLi et al., 2023; America\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommunity; Structured; Baseline, 16-, 24-, and 48-week follow-up\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e211 (2);\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e105/106\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.1/76.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.1;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e71.4%/67.0%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e①MMSE\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;24\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②CDR\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCognitive-motor dual-task training (2\u0026times;/week)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e①Cognitive training\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;verbal repetition of movements, inhibition control, sequence recall, form-number association, cued/uncued performance, task switching, spelling during movement)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②Physical exercise\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;8-form Tai Ji Quan; postural control, coordinated upper- and lower-limb movements, multidirectional stepping, rotational weight shifting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48/6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLow-intensity stretching and relaxation program\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoCA, CDR-SB, TMT-B, CFT, DSF, DSB, DTC, the 4-stage balance test, 30-second chair stands, TUG, GDS, PSQI, EQ-5D-3L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLi et al., 2022; China\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommunity; Structured; Baseline, 8-, 20-week follow-up\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e229 (66);\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e116/113\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.40/74.83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.57;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e86.2%/85.0%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlbert criteria(Albert et al., 2013)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBRAVE programme (3\u0026times;/week, 60 min/session)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e①Physical exercise\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;Warm-up, multicomponent exercises (aerobic, resistance, balance, functional tasks), and cool-down\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②Peer-support (small groups, 2\u0026ndash;3 peers)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;exercise demonstration, setup/monitoring, and motivational support\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e③Digital support\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;BRAVE app for education (brain health/exercise), exercise videos, scheduling/reminders, and social networking\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24/2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe usual care offered by the non-governmental organisations, including social and leisure activities\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eADAS-Cog, CTT, DSF, DSB, QoL, SF-36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLiu et al., 2022; China\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClinic; Structured; Baseline and end of intervention\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36 (3);\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e18/18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e74.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.1/73.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.5;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e75.0%/64.71%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePetersen criteria(Petersen, 2004)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCognitive-motor dual-task training (group-based,3\u0026ndash;4 participants, 3/week, 50 min/session)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e①Physical exercise (Kinect-based exergaming with virtual Tai Chi coach)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;Tai Chi training: modified Yang-style; stance width changes, weight shifting, squats, slow symmetrical and diagonal coordinated limb movements\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;10-min of warm-up\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;35-min of main training\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;5-min of cool-down\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②Dual-task conditions\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;cognitive dual-task: walking with serial-3 subtraction, starting from 90\u0026ndash;100\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;motor dual-task: walking while carrying a tray with glasses of water\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36/3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsual activity control: no structured Tai Chi, exercise, or cognitive training; asked to maintain usual physical activities and lifestyle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoCA, CVVLT verbal memory and delayed recall, SCWT number and seconds, TMT-A/B, 1-back test, 2-back test, DTC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaffei et al., 2017; Italy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClinic; Structured; Baseline, 7-, 12-month follow-up\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e113 (0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e55/58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e74.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.8/74.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.4;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e52.7%/44.8%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEuropean Consortium criteria(Portet et al., 2006)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e①Cognitive training (3\u0026times;/week, 2h/session)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;alternating paper-and-pencil tasks, social games, and computerized exercises; single-domain (memory, attention, executive function) and multidomain activities (8 cycles; every 3 weeks with 18 sessions)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②Physical exercise (3\u0026times;/week, 60 min/session)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;cycle-ergometer aerobic training; strength, static/dynamic functional training; neuromuscular control; flexibility\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e③Social activities\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;music therapy (60 min/week)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;movie viewing with group discussion (monthly)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e263/7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsual care\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eADAS-Cog, MMSE, CDR, CDT, RPA-ProMem, CFT, VFT-letter, GDS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eManser et al., 2023; Switzerland\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClinic; Mixed; Baseline and end of intervention\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16 (2);\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10/6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.6/73.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.9;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.0%/66.7%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e①ICD-IX-diagnosis code 5A52\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②QMCI: 45\u0026ndash;62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e①Cognitive-motor dual-task training (exergame-based, \u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;5 sessions/week, \u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;21 min/session resulting in a weekly exercise volume of \u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;105 min)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;cognitive training: learning and memory, executive function, complex attention, visuospatial tasks\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;motor training: stepping and weight shifting, multidirectional steps, rhythm and response, balance and coordination\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②Breathing intervention\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;resonance breathing: app-guided HRV-based breathing training\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60/3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsual care as provided by the (memory) clinics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQMIC, WMS-LM IV, DSF, subtest \u0026ldquo;Alertness\u0026rdquo; of TAP, subtest \u0026ldquo;Go-NoGo\u0026rdquo; of TAP, subtest \u0026ldquo;Incompatibility\u0026rdquo; of TAP, HOTAP-A, MRT, QoL-AD, DASS-21, vm-HRV, SUS, BREQ-3, EEQ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMay et al., 2025; Australia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClinic; Mixed; Baseline and end of intervention\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44 (2);\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e23/21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e74.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.66/76.29\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.99;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e61.9%/33.3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e①MMSE: 24\u0026ndash;30\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②IQ\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;80 (estimated by the TOPF)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e①Cognitive training (group-based, face-to-face; ~6 participants/group; 3\u0026times;/week for week 3\u0026ndash;8; 2 h/session)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;2 h of psychoeducation; internal memory strategies and external memory aids\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;homework to promote strategy\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②Dietary intervention (250 mL/day;weeks 1\u0026ndash;8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;high-anthocyanin Queen Garnet plum juice\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62/2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e①Dietary: Apricot juice 250 mL daily (no anthocyanins)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②Group-based memory program\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRAVLT, CFT, RPA-ProMem, CAPM, EMQ, DASS-21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMontero-Odasso et al., 2023; Canada\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommunity; Structured; Pre and post intervention, 6 months after the intervention\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68 (11);\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e34/34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.1/73.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.2;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e61.76%/50.00%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e①MoCA: 13\u0026ndash;24\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②Logical memory test below ADNI cut-offs\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e③CERAD word list recall\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSYNERGIC program (3\u0026times;/week, 90 min/session)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e①Cognitive training\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 min of training\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②Physical exercise\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;60 min of aerobic-resistance\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e③Vitamin D supplementation\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;Vitamin D3: 10 000 IU\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80/5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e①Balance-toning exercise\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②Sham cognitive training\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e③Placebo vitamin D\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eADAS-Cog-13 and the Plus variant, TMT-A/B, DSST, DSF, DSB, CFT, IADL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoon et al., 2025; Korea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClinic; Structured; Baseline and post-intervention\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e300 (23);\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e148/152\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.5/72.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.6;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e64.1%/74.8%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e①MMSE Z \u0026ge; -1.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②A performance score\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;1.0 SD below the age- and education-adjusted normative means for one or more of the delayed recall, naming, visuoconstruction, attention, and executive function tests\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e①Cognitive training\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;facility sessions (group-based, every 1\u0026ndash;2 weeks, 50 min/session)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;self-administered training (home-based; 1\u0026ndash;2 sessions/week, 30\u0026ndash;40 min/session)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;Online cognitive homework sessions via Zoom; 1\u0026ndash;2 sessions/week\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②Physical exercise (3\u0026times;/week; 50 min/session)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;mixed facility-based group sessions (every 1\u0026ndash;2 weeks)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;online sessions (home-based, 2\u0026ndash;3/week)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;progressive intensity every 8 weeks\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e③Vascular risk management (6 individual, face-to-face sessions)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e④Nutrition (group-based, 12 face-to-face sessions)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;nutritional education\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;DASH diet guidance\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e⑤Motivational support\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;4 face-to-face group sessions\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;tablet-based self-assessment: behavior change, family support, goal setting (1\u0026times;/week)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72/6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e①Met a study doctor\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②Received educational booklets\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e③Received standard care for cognitive impairment and vascular risk factors during the study period\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRBANS, MMSE, CDR-SB, PRMQ, GDS-15, ADL, QoL-AD, SPPB, NQ-E, SDI, PSQI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMurukesu et al., 2024; Malaysia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommunity; Mixed; Baseline, 12-, 24-week follow-up\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56 (0);\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e28/28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e67.74\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.43/69.54\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.06;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e52.1%/47.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCDR: 0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWE-RISE\u0026trade; (2\u0026times;/week; center-based phase: weeks 1\u0026ndash;12; 90 min/session; home-based phase: weeks 13\u0026ndash;24, biweekly phone supervision)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e①Cognitive stimulation\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②Physical exercise\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;aerobic endurance, progressive resistance, balance/coordination, flexibility, walking ability)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e③Psychosocial support\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;motivation and self-efficacy enhancement\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e④Nutrition\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;individualized dietary counseling by dietitian; educational materials\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48/6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe usual activities include arts and craft, cooking activities, health screening every three months, and religious studies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCDR, MMSE, DST, RAVLT, TMT, 30-CST, BST, CSR, 2-MST, TUG, 6MGST, IADL, BIA, DHQ, WHODAS 2.0, 15D Questionnaire, SEE, GDS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParial et al., 2023; Philippines\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommunity; Structured; Baseline, 12-, 18-week follow-up\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60 (0);\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e30/30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.54/64.27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.91;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e80.0%/73.3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePetersen criteria(Petersen, 2004)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDual-task Zumba Gold (2\u0026times;/week, 60 min/session)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e①Cognitive training\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;60 min of embedded dual-task activities targeting executive function, memory, and attention (serial counting, arm-clock positions, memory recall, complex spelling)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;10 min of cool-down\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②Physical exercise\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;60 min of aerobic dance\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36/3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHealth education on dementia risk reduction, which highlighted the importance of physical activities and lifestyle factors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoCA, TMT-A/B, DSB, DSF, GDS-SF, PWB, SPPB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSale et al., 2023; Italy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClinic; Structured; Baseline, 7-, 14-month follow-up\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e113 (0);\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e55/58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e74.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.8/74.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.4;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e52.7%/44.8%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrain the Brain Consortium criteria(Train the Brain Consortium, 2017)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCognitive-motor dual-task training (group-based, 3\u0026times;/week, 60 min/session)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e①Cognitive training (8 cycles; each cycle\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;18 sessions over 3 weeks)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;cognitive stimulation: paper-and-pencil tasks, social games, \u0026#159;computerized exercises\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②Physical training (3\u0026times;/week)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;supervised, small-group aerobic exercise on cycle ergometer; progressive intensity\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e③Music therapy (1\u0026times;/week, 60 min/session)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;listening, singing, instrument playing, rhythmic movement\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e256/7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsual care\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMMSE, ADAS-Cog, CDR, CDT, GDS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShimada et al., 2018; Japan\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommunity; Mixed; Baseline and end of intervention\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e308 (42);\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e154/154\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.0/71.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.9;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e50.0%/50.0%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePetersen criteria(Petersen, 2004)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCognitive-motor dual-task training (group based, 1\u0026times;/week, 90 min/session)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e①Cognitive training\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;dual-task training integrated with movement (e.g., word games during stepping)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②Physical training\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;10-min of warm-up/stretching\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;20-min of strength and postural balance\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;25-min of dual-task training\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;25-min of aerobic exercise\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;5-min of rest\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;5-min of cool-down\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e③Education\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;group lectures on cognitive health, dementia risk, and exercise effects\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e④Self-monitoring\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;home-based muscle strengthening and walking\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;booklet- and pedometer-based monitoring\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40/10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGroup-based education: health promotion classes focusing on aging, nutrition, oral care, frailty, and urinary incontinence.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMMSE, WMS-LM II, RAVLT, VFT-letter, VFT-category, TMT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eXu et al., 2025; China\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClinic; Mixed; Baseline, 6-, 12-, 15-month follow-up\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e304 (25);\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e152/152\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.8/69.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.8;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e68%/73%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHong Kong version of MoCA: 19\u0026ndash;21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e①Medical assessment (baseline and 6 month)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;10 min of clinician interviews; physical examination (blood pressure, weight, BMI, waist and hip circumference)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②Cognitive training (3\u0026times;/week, 12 weeks, 60 min/session)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;reading, computer use/internet, board/card games (e.g., mahjong), group discussion, arts and crafts, music-related activities\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e③Physical exercise (3\u0026times;/week, 12 weeks, 30 min/session)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;Tai Chi (24-form simplified), encouraged continuation via video/audio thereafter\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e④Nutrition and risk-factor modification\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;individualized dietary plan\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;motivational interviewing for lifestyle change and energy restriction (as needed)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75/6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e①Interviewed by the study clinician at screening only for a detailed medical history\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②Received health advice from a nurse in the form of booklets at baseline\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eADAS-Cog, CDR-SB,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDAD, EQ-VAS, GDS-15, GAS-20, PASE, AUDIT-C\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYang et al., 2022; China\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommunity; Structured; Baseline, 1-, 3-, 6-month follow-up\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e122 (10);\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e61/61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70.68\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.38/70.45\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.54;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e50.91%/54.39%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePetersen criteria(Petersen et al., 1997)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e①Physical exercise (first month: 1\u0026times;/week; remaining months: 2\u0026times;/week)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;individualized progressive resistance training and aerobic exercise\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②Cognitive training (1\u0026times;/week)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;60\u0026ndash;90 min of memory-focused training plus attention, executive function, visuospatial ability, language, abstraction, calculation, and orientation\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;20 min of braek time\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e③Diet\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;individualized dietary counseling (once every 3\u0026ndash;4 weeks, 10-30min/session)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;3-day food records, nutrient intake, metabolic indicators, and vascular risk factors; follow-up and adjustment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e74/6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsual care: health education classes (45 min each) during the 6-month study period\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoCA, SPPB, TUG, GDS-15, QoL-AD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYu et al., 2025; China\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClinic; Structured; Baseline, 12-, 24-month follow-up\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72 (10);\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e36/36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e81.86\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.31/80.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.27;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e52.9%/47.1%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePetersen criteria(Petersen, 2004)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCognitive-motor dual-task training (4\u0026ndash;6\u0026times;/week, 20\u0026ndash;30 min/session, totaling at least 120 min/week)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e①Cognitive training\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;counting and repeating sentences, data segments, or tongue twisters, simple math operations)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e②Physical exercise (6\u0026times;/week, 20\u0026ndash;30 min/session, \u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;120 min/week)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026#159;walking\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48/3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsual care\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoCA, AVLT, DSF, DSB, BNT, CDT, TMT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003eNotes: *A diagnosis of MCI requires that each study meet all of the specified diagnostic criteria.; \u0026uarr;greater improvement in the intervention group; \u0026darr;greater improvement in the control group. 2-MST, 2-min Step Test; 30-CST, 30-second Chair Stand Test; 6MGST, 6-Meter Gait Speed Test; ADAS-Cog, Alzheimer Disease Assessment Scale-Cognitive Subscale; ADL, Activities of Daily Living; ADNI, Alzheimer\u0026rsquo; s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative; AUDIT-C, Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test-Concise; AVLT, Auditory Verbal Learning Test; BaPWV, Brachial Pulse Wave Velocity; DS, Block Design Scale; BIA, Body Impedance Analysis; BLT, Bright Light Therapy; BNT, Boston Naming Test; BREQ-3, Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire; BST, Back Scratch Test; CAPM, Comprehensive Assessment of Prospective Memory; CDR, Clinical Dementia Rating; CDR-SB, Clinical Dementia Rating Scale Sum of Boxes; CDT, Clock Drawing Test; CERAD, Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer\u0026rsquo; s Disease; CFT, Complex Figure Test; CG: Control Group; CGA, Comprehensive Geriatric Assessments; COWA, Controlled Oral Word Association Test; CSR, Chair Sit and Reach Test; CTT, Color Trails Test; VDs, Cardiovascular Diseases; CVVLT, Chinese Version of California Verbal Learning Test; CWM, Composite Word Memory; DAD, Disability Assessment for Dementia; DASH, Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension; DASS, Depression Anxiety Stress Scale; DASS, Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale; DHQ, Dietary History Questionnaire; DRT, Disjunctive Reaction Time; SB, Digit Span Backwards; DSF, Digit Span Forwards; DSM-V, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition; DSS, Digit Span Sequence; DSST, Digit Symbol Substitution Test; DST, Digit Span Test; DTC, Dual-Task Cost; EEQ, Eexergame Enjoyment Questionnaire; FPT-K, Executive Function Performance Test-Korean Version; EMQ, Everyday Memory Questionnaire; EQ-5D-3L, The 3-Level Version of European Quality of Life 5-Dimension Scale; Q-VAS, European Quality of Life 5-Dimension Scale, the Visual Analogue Scale; FAB, Frontal Assessment Battery; FCSRT, Free and Cued Selective Reminding Test; GAS, Geriatric Anxiety Scale; GDS, Geriatric Depression Scale; HOTAP-A, Handlungsorganisation und Tagesplanung Picture-Sorting Test Part A; HVLT, Hopkins Verbal Learning Test; IADL, Instrumental Activities of Daily Living; ICD, International Classification of Diseases; IG: Intervention Group; IQ, Intelligence Quotient; IST, Isaacs Set Test; LBM, Lean Body Mass; LMT, Logic Memory Test; MCI, Mild cognitive impairment; MICFSI, Mail-in Cognitive Function Screening Instrument; MMSE, Mini-Mental State Examination; MoCA, Montreal Cognitive Assessment; MoCA-B, Montreal Cognitive Assessment-Basic; MRT, Mental Rotation Task; MSET, Mental Status Examination Thai; NCGG-FAT, National Center for Geriatrics and Gerontology Functional Assessment Tool; NHPT, Nine Hole Peg Test; NP, Not Reported; NQ-E, Nutrition Quotient for Elderly; PASE, Physical Activity Scale for the Elderly; PEBL, Psychology Experiment Building Language; PRMQ, Prospective Retrospective Memory Questionnaire; PSQI, Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index; PWB, Perceived Well-Being; QMCI, Quick Mild Cognitive Impairment Screen; QoL-AD, Quality of Life-Alzheimer's Disease; RAVLT, Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test; RBANS, Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status; RPA-ProMem, Royal Prince Alfred-Prospective Memory Test; SCD, Subjective Cognitive Decline; SCWT, Stroop Color and Word Test; SD, Standard Deviation; SDI, Self-Determination Index; SEE, Self-Efficacy for Exercise Scale; SF-36, Short Form-36 Health Survey; SGDS-K, Korean Short-Form Geriatric Depression Scale; SPPB, Short Physical Performance battery; SUS, System Usability Scale; SWM, Spatial Working Memory; TAP, Test of Attentional Performance; MT, Trail Making Test; TOPF, Test of Premorbid Functioning; TUG, Timed Up and Go; VFT, Verbal Fluency Test; vm-HRV, Vagally Mediated Heart Rate Variability; WAIS, Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale; WASO, Wake After Sleep Onset; WFT, Word Fluency Test; WHODAS 2.0, World Health Organization Disability Assessment Schedule; WLL, Word-List Learning; WMS, Wechsler Memory Scale; WMS-LM, Subtest \u0026ldquo;Logical Memory\u0026rdquo; of the Wechsler Memory Scale; ZBI, Zarit Burden Interview.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2.1. Multidomain intervention characteristics\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll trials evaluated multidomain nonpharmacological interventions, incorporating combinations of components aligned with the ABCDS framework(Avan et al., 2025) (including cognitive training, physical activities, blood pressure control, connecting with others, diet intervention, and sleep intervention). Comparators included usual care, health education, waitlist, usual care, or single-domain interventions. Detailed intervention combinations and dosing characteristics are presented in Tables\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e \u0026amp; \u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e (and trends by year in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMultidomain intervention components\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"36\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c14\" colnum=\"14\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c15\" colnum=\"15\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c16\" colnum=\"16\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c17\" colnum=\"17\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c18\" colnum=\"18\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c19\" colnum=\"19\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c20\" colnum=\"20\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c21\" colnum=\"21\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c22\" colnum=\"22\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c23\" colnum=\"23\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c24\" colnum=\"24\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c25\" colnum=\"25\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c26\" colnum=\"26\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c27\" colnum=\"27\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c28\" colnum=\"28\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c29\" colnum=\"29\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c30\" colnum=\"30\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c31\" colnum=\"31\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c32\" colnum=\"32\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c33\" colnum=\"33\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c34\" colnum=\"34\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c35\" colnum=\"35\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c36\" colnum=\"36\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudies\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"8\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCognitive training\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCognitive stimulation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"12\" nameend=\"c24\" namest=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eActivity (physical)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c25\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlood pressure control\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c28\" namest=\"c26\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConnecting with others\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c31\" namest=\"c29\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiet\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c34\" namest=\"c32\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSleep\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c36\" namest=\"c35\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOthers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCT1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCT2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCT3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCT4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCT5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCT6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCT7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCT8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCS1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCS2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCS3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c21\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c22\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c23\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c24\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c25\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c26\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c27\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c28\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c29\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eD1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c30\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eD2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c31\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eD3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c32\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c33\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c34\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c35\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eO1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c36\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eO2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArai et al., 2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c21\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c22\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c23\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c24\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c25\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c26\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c27\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c28\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c29\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c30\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c31\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c32\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c33\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c34\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c35\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c36\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBae et al., 2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c21\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c22\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c23\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c24\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c25\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c26\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c27\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c28\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c29\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c30\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c31\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c32\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c33\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c34\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c35\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c36\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlumenthal et al., 2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c21\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c22\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c23\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c24\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c25\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c26\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c27\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c28\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c29\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c30\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c31\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c32\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c33\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c34\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c35\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c36\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBuele et al., 2024\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c21\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c22\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c23\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c24\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c25\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c26\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c27\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c28\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c29\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c30\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c31\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c32\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c33\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c34\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c35\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c36\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCastellote-Caballero et al., 2024\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c21\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c22\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c23\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c24\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c25\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c26\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c27\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c28\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c29\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c30\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c31\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c32\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c33\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c34\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c35\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c36\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFalck et al., 2020\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c21\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c22\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c23\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c24\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c25\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c26\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c27\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c28\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c29\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c30\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c31\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c32\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c33\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c34\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c35\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c36\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFan et al., 2024\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c21\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c22\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c23\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c24\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c25\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c26\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c27\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c28\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c29\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c30\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c31\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c32\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c33\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c34\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c35\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c36\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGriffiths et al., 2020\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c21\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c22\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c23\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c24\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c25\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c26\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c27\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c28\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c29\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c30\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c31\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c32\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c33\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c34\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c35\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c36\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHagovska and Nagyova, 2017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c21\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c22\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c23\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c24\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c25\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c26\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c27\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c28\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c29\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c30\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c31\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c32\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c33\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c34\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c35\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c36\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJeong et al., 2021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c21\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c22\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c23\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c24\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c25\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c26\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c27\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c28\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c29\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c30\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c31\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c32\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c33\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c34\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c35\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c36\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKim and Park, 2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c21\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c22\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c23\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c24\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c25\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c26\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c27\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c28\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c29\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c30\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c31\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c32\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c33\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c34\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c35\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c36\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKooncumchoo et al., 2025\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c21\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c22\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c23\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c24\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c25\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c26\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c27\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c28\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c29\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c30\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c31\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c32\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c33\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c34\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c35\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c36\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLee et al., 2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c21\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c22\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c23\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c24\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c25\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c26\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c27\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c28\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c29\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c30\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c31\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c32\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c33\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c34\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c35\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c36\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLi et al., 2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c21\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c22\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c23\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c24\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c25\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c26\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c27\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c28\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c29\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c30\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c31\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c32\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c33\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c34\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c35\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c36\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLi et al., 2022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c21\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c22\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c23\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c24\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c25\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c26\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c27\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c28\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c29\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c30\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c31\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c32\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c33\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c34\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c35\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c36\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLiu et al., 2022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c21\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c22\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c23\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c24\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c25\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c26\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c27\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c28\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c29\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c30\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c31\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c32\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c33\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c34\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c35\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c36\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaffei et al., 2017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c21\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c22\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c23\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c24\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c25\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c26\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c27\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c28\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c29\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c30\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c31\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c32\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c33\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c34\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c35\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c36\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eManser et al., 2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c21\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c22\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c23\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c24\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c25\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c26\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c27\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c28\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c29\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c30\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c31\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c32\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c33\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c34\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c35\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c36\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMay et al., 2025\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c21\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c22\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c23\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c24\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c25\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c26\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c27\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c28\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c29\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c30\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c31\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c32\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c33\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c34\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c35\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c36\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMontero-Odasso et al., 2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c21\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c22\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c23\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c24\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c25\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c26\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c27\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c28\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c29\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c30\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c31\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c32\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c33\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c34\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c35\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c36\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoon et al., 2025\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c21\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c22\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c23\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c24\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c25\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c26\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c27\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c28\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c29\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c30\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c31\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c32\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c33\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c34\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c35\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c36\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMurukesu et al., 2024\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c21\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c22\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c23\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c24\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c25\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c26\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c27\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c28\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c29\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c30\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c31\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c32\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c33\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c34\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c35\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c36\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParial et al., 2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c21\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c22\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c23\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c24\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c25\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c26\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c27\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c28\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c29\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c30\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c31\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c32\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c33\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c34\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c35\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c36\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSale et al., 2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c21\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c22\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c23\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c24\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c25\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c26\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c27\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c28\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c29\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c30\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c31\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c32\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c33\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c34\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c35\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c36\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShimada et al., 2018\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c21\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c22\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c23\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c24\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c25\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c26\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c27\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c28\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c29\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c30\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c31\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c32\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c33\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c34\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c35\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c36\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eXu et al., 2025\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c21\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c22\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c23\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c24\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c25\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c26\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c27\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c28\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c29\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c30\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c31\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c32\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c33\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c34\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c35\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c36\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYang et al., 2022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c21\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c22\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c23\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c24\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c25\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c26\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c27\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c28\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c29\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c30\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c31\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c32\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c33\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c34\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c35\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c36\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYu et al., 2025\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c21\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c22\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c23\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c24\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c25\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026radic;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c26\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c27\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c28\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c29\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c30\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c31\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c32\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c33\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c34\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c35\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c36\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"36\"\u003eNotes: A1, Aerobic exercise; A2, Resistance exercise; A3, Muscle strength training; A4, Dual-task training combining exercise and cognitive tasks; A5, Postural balance; A6, Flexibility exercise; A7, Physical function promotion; A8, Behavior modification; A9, Psychomotor exercise; A10, Mind\u0026ndash;body exercise (Taichi); A11, Unspecified motor training; B1, Management of vascular risk factors; C1, Social interaction exercise; C2, Attending events; C3, Visiting activities; CS1, Mentally demanding leisure activities/games; CS2, Multimedia-computer exercises; CS3, Metacognition/cognitive self-efficacy; CT1, Attention; CT2, Processing speed; CT3, Memory; CT4, Mental flexibility; CT5, Visuospatial ability; CT6, Executive function; CT7, Language; CT8, Calculations; D1, Nutritional counseling; D2, Dietary behavior (dietary timing, frequency, and regularity); D3, Nutritional Supplement; O1, Music therapy; O2, Psychotherapy; S1, Improvement of lifestyle (sleep); S2, Sleep hygiene classes; S3, Bright light therapy.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary of key findings across cognitive domain and other outcomes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudies\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlobal cognition\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAttention\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExecutive function\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMemory\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProcessing speed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVerbal fluency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVisuospatial ability\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMental flexibility\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKey findings\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArai et al., 2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=MMSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=TMT-A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=TMT-B\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026darr;DSST subset of the WAIS-III\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;VFT-letter\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=WMS-LM\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=FCSRT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=TMT-A\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;DSST\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=WAIS-III\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=WFT-letter\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr; diet diversity/social participation/handicap from hearing loss, body mass index, fat-free mass, and systolic blood pressure values\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBae et al., 2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=MMSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=TMT-A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=TMT-B\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;SWM\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=CWM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=DSST\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=TMT-A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e= grip strength, /walking speed/GDS/frequency of going outdoors/conversation time\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlumenthal et al., 2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=MoCA\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;CDR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=TMT\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=SCWT\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=DSB and DSF subtest from the WAIS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=HVLT\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=CFT\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=COWA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr; DASH adherence, \u0026uarr; consumption of potassium/magnesium/calcium/sodium\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBuele et al., 2024\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=MoCA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026darr; GDS, =ADL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCastellote-Caballero et al., 2024\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;MMSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;MoCA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=TMT-B\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;IST\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr; balance/gait speed/upper or lower limb strength/flexibility/ TUG\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFalck et al., 2020\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=MMSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;MoCA\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=ADAS-Cog-13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=TMT-A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=TMT-B\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=CFT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=sleep efficiency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFan et al., 2024\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;MMSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;MoCA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;DST\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=TMT-A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;DSST\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;DSF\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=DSB\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;AVLT\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=LMT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;DSST\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=TMT-A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;AVLT\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=LMT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGriffiths et al., 2020\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=TMT-A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=BDS\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=TMT-B\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=DSF\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=DSB\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=DSS\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;WLL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=TMT-A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;VFT-letter\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=VFT-category\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHagovska and Nagyova, 2017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;MMSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;SCWT\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;TMT-A\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=DRT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;AVLT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;NHPT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr; ADL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJeong et al., 2021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=MMSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=modified ADAS-Cog\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;TMT-A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;TMT-B\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;DSST\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;TMT-A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr; IADL/LBM/muscle mass/lower limb muscle mass/step count/hip circumference\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKim and Park, 2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;EFPT-K\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;FAB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr; IADL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKooncumchoo et al., 2025\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=MoCA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=\u0026thinsp;2-MST\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLee et al., 2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;RBANS\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;MMSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=CDR-SB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;RBANS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=RBANS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;RBANS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;RBANS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr; SPPB/sit-to-stand time\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLi et al., 2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;MocA\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;CDR-SB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;DSF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;TMT-B\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;DSB\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;DSF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;CFT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr; dual-task walking\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLi et al., 2022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=ADAS-Cog\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;CTT1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;CTT2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;DSB\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=DSF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;CTT1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;CTT2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e= SF-36/QoL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLiu et al., 2022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=MoCA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=SCWT\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=TMT-A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;TMT-B\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;N-back task\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=CVVLT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr; gait speed, \u0026darr; cognitive dual-task cost, =motor dual-task cost\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaffei et al., 2017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=MMSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;ADAS-Cog\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=RPA-ProMem\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=VFT-letter\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr; parahippocampal parahippocampal cerebral blood flow, =gray matter volume loss\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eManser et al., 2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=QMCI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=TAP\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=DSF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=HOTAP-A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=WMS-LM\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=DSF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=MRT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr; DASS/QoL/exergame enjoyment over time/stride duration, =walking speed and stride length\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMay et al., 2025\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=RAVLT\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=CFT-recall\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=RPA-ProMem\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=CAPM\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=EMQ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr; gait quality, =DASS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMontero-Odasso et al., 2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;ADAS-Cog-13\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=CDR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;TMT-A\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=DSB\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=DSF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=ADAS\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=TMT-B\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;ADAS\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=DSF\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=DSB\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=DSS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;TMT-A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=ADAS\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=CFT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=vitamin D supplementation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoon et al., 2025\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;RBANS\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;MMSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=RBANS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=RBANS\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=PRMQ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=RBANS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;RBANS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr; GDS-15/QoL/NQ-E/SPPB/2-MST/30-CST, =dementia conversion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMurukesu et al., 2024\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;MMSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=TMT-A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=TMT-B\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;RAVLT\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;DST\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr; physical physical function/QoL/ body composition/disability/self-perceived exercise self-efficacy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParial et al., 2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;MoCA\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=ADAS-Cog\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=TMT-B\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=DSF\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=DSB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr; QoL, \u0026uarr; mobility, =GDS-SF/BP/BMI/waist\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSale et al., 2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=MoCA\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;ADAS-Cog\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShimada et al., 2018\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=MMSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=TMT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;WMS-LM II\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=RAVLT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;VFT-letter\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;VFT-category\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=RAVLT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eXu et al., 2025\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=ADAS-Cog\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=MoCA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr; dietary adherence/compliance with physical activity and cognitive training, \u0026uarr; PASE/GDS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYang et al., 2022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;MoCA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr; SPPB/TUG/QoL/GDS-15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYu et al., 2025\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;MoCA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=TMT-A\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=DSF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=TMT-B\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=DSF\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;DSB\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;AVLT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e=BNT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;CDT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"10\"\u003eNotes: =, no difference; \u0026uarr;, greater improvement in intervention group; \u0026darr;, greater improvement in control group; 2-MST, 2-Minute Step Test; 30-CST, 30-second Chair Stand Test; ADAS-Cog, Alzheimer Disease Assessment Scale-Cognitive Subscale; AVLT, Auditory Verbal Learning Test; BDS, Block Design Scale; BNT, Boston Naming Test; CAPM, Comprehensive Assessment of Prospective Memory; CDR, Clinical Dementia Rating; CDR-SB, Clinical Dementia Rating Scale Sum of Boxes; CDT, Clock Drawing Test; CFT, Complex Figure Test; COWA, Controlled Oral Word Association Test; CTT, Color Trails Test; CWM, Composite Word Memory; CVVLT, Chinese Version of California Verbal Learning Test; DRT, Disjunctive Reaction Time; DSB, Digit Span Backwards; DSF, Digit Span Forwards; DSS, Digit Span Sequence; DSST, Digit Symbol Substitution Test; DST, Digit Span Test; EFPT-K, Executive Function Performance Test-Korean Version; EMQ, Everyday Memory Questionnaire; FAB, Frontal Assessment Battery; FCSRT, Free and Cued Selective Reminding Test; HOTAP-A, Handlungsorganisation und Tagesplanung Picture-Sorting Test Part A; HVLT, Hopkins Verbal Learning Test; IST, Isaacs Set Test; LBM, Lean Body Mass; LMT, Logic Memory Test; MMSE, Mini-Mental State Examination; MoCA, Montreal Cognitive Assessment; MoCA-B, Montreal Cognitive Assessment-Basic; MRT, Mental Rotation Task; NA, not applicable; NHPT, Nine Hole Peg Test; NP, NP, Not Reported; PRMQ, Prospective Retrospective Memory Questionnaire; QMCI, Quick Mild Cognitive Impairment Screen; QoL, Quality of Life; RAVLT, Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test; RBANS, Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status; RPA-ProMem, Royal Prince Alfred-Prospective Memory Test; SCWT, Stroop Color and Word Test; SWM, Spatial Working Memory; TAP, Test of Attentional Performance; TMT, Trail Making Test; TUG, Timed Up and Go; VFT, Verbal Fluency Test; WAIS, Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale; WFT, Word Fluency Test; WLL, Word-List Learning; WMS, Wechsler Memory Scale; WMS-LM, Subtest \u0026ldquo;Logical Memory\u0026rdquo; of the Wechsler Memory Scale.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2.2. Summary of cognitive outcomes\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, cognitive outcomes ranged from no cognitive benefits to improvements in global cognition. Four studies reported no cognitive benefits(Falck et al., 2020; Kooncumchoo et al., 2025; Manser et al., 2023; Xu et al., 2025). Global cognition benefits were observed in 6 studies(Buele et al., 2024; Li et al., 2023; Liu et al., 2022; Moon et al., 2025; Sale et al., 2023; Yang et al., 2022). Single-domain improvements were reported in 7 trials(Arai et al., 2023; Bae et al., 2019; Blumenthal et al., 2019; Kim and Park, 2023; Lee et al., 2023; Li et al., 2022; May et al., 2025). Multi-domain benefits (\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;2 cognitive domains) were most common, demonstrated in 11 trials(Castellote-Caballero et al., 2024; Fan et al., 2024; Griffiths et al., 2020; Hagovska and Nagyova, 2017; Jeong et al., 2021; Maffei et al., 2017; Montero-Odasso et al., 2023; Murukesu et al., 2024; Parial et al., 2023; Shimada et al., 2018; Yu et al., 2025) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Given heterogeneity in measures and program content, these categories reflect author-reported statistical significance rather than a harmonized effect size. Cognitive outcomes converged global cognition and 8 domains: attention, temporal and spatial orientation, executive function, memory, processing speed, verbal fluency, visuospatial ability, and mental flexibility (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Global cognition (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;13) showed the most frequent positive outcomes, followed by memory (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9) and attention (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6), with fewer on executive function, processing speed, verbal fluency, and mental flexibility.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeterogeneity in instruments, program composition/dose, and design factors (sample size, controls, follow-up length) likely contributed to variability in effects. Measures within a given domain varied across trials, and several studies reported only global or composite indices. Comprehensive outcomes, measurement tools, and targeted cognitive domains of the included studies are summarized in Tables\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e \u0026amp; \u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3. Associations of multidomain intervention intensity with cognitive outcomes\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntervention exposure varied substantially across trials. Median intervention length was 12 weeks (range 6\u0026ndash;72), with a median total dose of 48 sessions (range 12\u0026ndash;299). Most trials delivered structured programs (20/28, 71.4%), while the remainder used mixed structured plus self-management formats (8/28, 28.6%). The median intensity index (total sessions divided by intervention duration in months) was 12.4 points (IQR 8.0\u0026ndash;23.8).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe percentage of trials reporting cognitive benefit was comparable across settings, despite the fact that clinic-based trials were more intense than community-based trials (median 20.0 vs. 8.0). Similarly, both structured and mixed delivery demonstrated similar levels of intensity; however, mixed formats might be more vulnerable to variations in implementation and adherence. These patterns highlight the potential significance of delivery quality and adherence in converting protocol-specified exposure into observed effects and imply that expected dose alone may not be adequate to explain outcome variability (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe present intensity metric reflects expected intensity rather than adherence-adjusted observed dose; thus, true intensity may fall short of design specifications when adherence or implementation fidelity is suboptimal, particularly in mixed programs. Moreover, equal weighting of components may under-represent high-frequency elements (e.g., cognitive/physical training) relative to low-frequency elements (e.g., nutrition or vascular risk monitoring). Heterogeneity in outcome measures, assessment time points, and analytic choices (change scores versus posttest) may further introduce residual confounding. Accordingly, these comparisons should be interpreted as implementation-oriented, descriptive evidence that informs subsequent subgroup and dose\u0026ndash;response investigations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4. Cognitive domain effects and subgroup analyses\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAcross cognitive domains, multidomain interventions were associated with small-to-moderate improvements in global cognition (Hedges\u0026rsquo; g\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.51, 95% CI 0.36\u0026ndash;0.67; I\u0026sup2; = 58.4%), memory (Hedges\u0026rsquo; g\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.43, 95% CI 0.25\u0026ndash;0.61; I\u0026sup2; = 70.7%), executive function (Hedges\u0026rsquo; g\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.39, 95% CI 0.21\u0026ndash;0.57; I\u0026sup2; = 68.3%), and verbal fluency (Hedges\u0026rsquo; g\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.47, 95% CI 0.28\u0026ndash;0.66; I\u0026sup2; = 69.3%). Attention showed a smaller but consistent benefit with low heterogeneity (Hedges\u0026rsquo; g\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.31, 95% CI 0.18\u0026ndash;0.43; I\u0026sup2; = 21.6%). A larger but imprecise effect was observed for visuospatial ability (Hedges\u0026rsquo; g\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.80, 95% CI 0.16\u0026ndash;1.44; I\u0026sup2; = 69.9%), whereas processing speed did not reach statistical significance and showed substantial heterogeneity (Hedges\u0026rsquo; g\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.48, 95% CI\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.12 to 1.08; I\u0026sup2; = 77.7%) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e.)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn subgroup analyses, settings did not significantly modify effects for global cognition, attention, or executive function (all p for subgroup difference\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), whereas memory and verbal fluency showed larger pooled effects in community-recruited trials than clinic-recruited trials (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.00028 and p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.00235, respectively). Lower intensity (\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;10 points) was associated with larger pooled effects for global cognition, executive function, memory, and verbal fluency (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0019, 0.043, 0.00014, and 0.00203, respectively); intensity-related differences for attention and processing speed were not statistically significant (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.47 and p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.066). Subgroup analyses for visuospatial ability were limited because all contributing studies were clinic-recruited and \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;10 points, and other subgroup comparisons for processing speed and visuospatial ability were constrained by small numbers within strata. Details are provided in Supplementary Material (Supplementary Results S4\u0026ndash;S5; Tables S3\u0026ndash;S7).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e. a-g. Forest plot effect of multidomain intervention targeting on (a) global cognition, (b) attention, (c) executive function, (d) memory, (e) processing speed, (f) verbal fluency, and (g) visuospatial ability. MI, multidomain intervention.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e. (continued).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.5. Nonlinear dose-response meta-analyses\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe conducted dose\u0026ndash;response meta-analyses to examine how multiple dimensions of multidomain intervention relate to changes in global cognitive function, expressed as Hedges\u0026rsquo; g. Across all prespecified dose metrics, the overall dose\u0026ndash;response trend was statistically significant (all \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e for dose response\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003ea\u0026ndash;f). For total intervention total length, number of sessions, average session length, intervention intensity, and number of components, there was no evidence of nonlinearity (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e for nonlinearity\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.607, 0.649, 0.765, 0.888, and 0.378, respectively) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003ea\u0026ndash;d, and f). In contrast, intervention density (minutes/session) showed a nonlinear association (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e for nonlinearity\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.005), with an estimated optimal density of approximately 36.8 min/session and attenuation of gains at lower and higher densities (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003ee).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe further performed a nonlinear dose\u0026ndash;response analysis to examine the association between specific components of multidomain interventions (cognitive training, physical activities, blood pressure control, connecting with others, diet, and sleep intervention) and changes in global cognitive function. Significant dose\u0026ndash;response trends were across all components (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e for dose response\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eg\u0026ndash;j). These findings indicate that both the density and relative proportion of specific components within multidomain interventions were generally associated with greater improvements in cognitive function, although the dose\u0026ndash;response relationship varied across individual components.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor intervention density (minutes/session), there was no evidence of nonlinearity for cognitive training (CT) or physical activity (A) (P for nonlinearity\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.413 and 0.485, respectively; Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eg and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003ei). Likewise, the percentage of total intervention time allocated to CT showed no evidence of nonlinearity (P for nonlinearity\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.076; Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eh). In contrast, the percentage allocated to A showed evidence of nonlinearity (P for nonlinearity\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.034), with an estimated plateau at approximately 43.6% of total intervention time, beyond which additional increases were not associated with further cognitive benefit (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003ej).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDose\u0026ndash;response analyses were not performed for components B (blood pressure control), C (connecting with others), D (diet), and S (sleep) because dose variation was insufficient for reliable meta-regression. These components were absent in most studies or delivered as a binary, fixed-dose exposure (present/absent), resulting in fewer than three informative dose levels and limited identifiability for spline models. In addition, the number of studies with non-zero exposure was below a commonly used minimum (n\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;10), limiting statistical power. Accordingly, dose\u0026ndash;response modelling was restricted to A and CT, where dose distributions supported nonlinear analyses; alternative specifications in sensitivity analyses produced unstable estimates with wide confidence intervals.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.5. Certainty of evidence\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe certainty of evidence was judged as moderate for global cognition and attention, low for executive function, memory, and verbal fluency, and very low for processing speed and visuospatial ability. Evidence for global cognition was downgraded mainly for inconsistency because of moderate heterogeneity (I\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;58.4%), while the certainty for attention was downgraded by one level because some contributing studies had risk-of-bias concerns despite relatively low heterogeneity (I\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;21.6%). Executive function, memory, and verbal fluency were downgraded primarily for inconsistency, given substantial heterogeneity (I\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;68.3%, 70.7%, and 69.3%, respectively), with additional concerns related to study limitations and/or variation across trials. Processing speed was downgraded for serious inconsistency and serious imprecision because the pooled estimate was not statistically significant, the confidence interval crossed the null, and only seven studies contributed to the synthesis. Visuospatial ability was also judged to have very low-certainty evidence because only five studies contributed, heterogeneity was substantial, and the confidence interval was wide despite the pooled estimate favoring multidomain interventions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.7. Publication bias\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFunnel plots were visually inspected for each cognitive domain and formally evaluated using Egger\u0026rsquo;s regression test. Egger\u0026rsquo;s tests did not provide strong evidence of funnel plot asymmetry for attention [t(14)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.76, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.101], executive function [t(15)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.78, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.446], memory [t(17)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.54, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.596], processing speed [t(5)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.87, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.120], verbal fluency [t(11)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.38, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.195], or visuospatial ability [t(3)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.10, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.352]. Global cognition showed borderline evidence of asymmetry [t(24)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.06, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.050]. Trim-and-fill analyses imputed seven potentially missing studies for attention (k0\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7), whereas no missing studies were imputed for most other domains (k0\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0); the adjusted pooled effects remained similar to the primary estimates (details in Supplementary Fig. S2).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to investigate how multidomain interventions affect cognitive outcomes in older adults with MCI. This study examined the impact of intervention intensity, session frequency, and component composition on cognitive improvements by combining data from 28 RCTs. Our results demonstrate the potential of multidomain interventions to enhance both general cognition and particular cognitive domains, including memory, executive function, and attention, while also pointing out the crucial elements that affect their efficacy. Significantly, the findings show that MCI populations can benefit cognitively from structured interventions with suitable intensity and density.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur results are consistent with previous studies that have demonstrated that multidomain interventions can improve older adults' cognitive function, especially in those with MCI. Combining cognitive training, physical exercise, and other lifestyle interventions can significantly lower the risk of dementia and improve cognition in at-risk populations, according to earlier studies like the FINGER and MAPT trials. Multidomain programs yielded small-to-moderate improvements in verbal fluency, memory, and executive function as well as strong gains in global cognition, which is consistent with our meta-analytic findings. A moderate pooled effect for cognition was reported(Ying et al., 2024), which is consistent with our synthesis and reflects timing and instrument sensitivity. There have been conflicting findings in MCI populations; some studies have found no discernible effects, while others have reported cognitive gains(Xu et al., 2021). Few studies, nevertheless, have looked at how each component of multidomain interventions contributes proportionately. By offering more nuanced insights into how particular factors, like the number of sessions, intervention intensity, and adherence, affect outcomes, our study contributes to this corpus of literature. Additionally, by including a broader range of multidomain components\u0026mdash;such as dietary and sleep interventions, which have frequently been underrepresented in earlier studies\u0026mdash;we expand on previous research(Salzman et al., 2022).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne of the more interesting findings of this study was the significant role of intervention density (the amount of intervention time per session) in determining cognitive outcomes. Our dose-response analysis revealed an optimal density of approximately 36.8 minutes per session, with attenuation of cognitive benefits at both lower and higher densities. This result suggests that while the overall intensity of an intervention is important, the distribution of intervention time may be equally critical in achieving optimal cognitive outcomes(He et al., 2025). This finding is particularly noteworthy, as previous studies have primarily focused on the total intervention length or session frequency, with less attention given to session density(Li et al., 2011; Reijnders et al., 2013). Further investigation into this aspect could help refine intervention designs and enhance the effectiveness of multidomain programs for MCI.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe substantial nonlinearity found in the dose-response relationship for physical activity was one of our study's main conclusions. In particular, we discovered that in multidomain interventions, the ideal intervention time percentage of physical activity was roughly 43.6%. Increasing the percentage of physical activity after this point had no further positive effects on cognition. This finding emphasizes how important exercise is for improving cognitive outcomes, but it also shows that there may be a limit to the benefits of increasing physical activity. The duration or intensity of physical activity is the primary focus of the current research(Barreto et al., 2018; Kane et al., 2017; Salzman et al., 2022). According to our findings, optimizing the efficacy of multidomain interventions requires a well-balanced combination of components; an overemphasis on any one component, like physical activity, may not always improve cognitive outcomes. This equilibrium is essential because it avoids cognitive overload from an overemphasis on one area, which could result in decreased efficacy.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe concept of diminishing returns with higher levels of physical activity aligns with broader theories of neuroplasticity and cognitive reserve, which suggest that cognitive benefits may plateau after a certain point(Falck et al., 2019). The brain's plastic response to physical activity, such as neurogenesis and synaptic plasticity, tends to plateau after reaching a certain threshold. In other words, prior to reaching this threshold, more physical exercise can lead to greater neural changes; however, once this threshold is reached, additional exercise may only maintain the status quo without yielding further benefits(Nishijima et al., 2017; Rhodes et al., 2003). This finding also supports previous research, which indicates that physical exercise promotes BDNF and enhances hippocampal function(Gavelin et al., 2021; Liang et al., 2019), but the optimal dose of physical activity within a multidomain intervention needs to be carefully calibrated to maximize its effects.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur research advances our knowledge of neuroplasticity and cognitive aging. We contribute to the increasing amount of evidence that comprehensive, multiaspect approaches that involve multiple lifestyle interventions are the most effective way to address cognitive decline in MCI by determining the ideal time proportion of physical activity within multidomain interventions. Further supporting the significance of a comprehensive strategy for managing cognitive decline in MCI, our findings indicate that the combination of elements\u0026mdash;such as cognitive training, physical activity, and social engagement\u0026mdash;appears to have a synergistic effect on cognition. These results add to the increasing amount of data demonstrating the necessity of integrative models of intervention that take into account a variety of lifestyle and cognitive factors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur findings add to the literature on multidomain interventions in MCI by highlighting the potential relevance of how programme time is allocated across components. Rather than focusing solely on total exercise volume or overall intervention dose, our results suggest that the relative weighting of components (e.g., cognitive training, physical activity and social engagement) may be associated with cognitive outcomes. This supports integrative intervention models that address multiple behavioural and cognitive targets, while avoiding assumptions that increasing any single component will necessarily yield proportional gains. From an implementation perspective, the observed plateau around 43.6% of total intervention time allocated to physical activity may help inform programme design for MCI(Castro et al., 2023). The results suggest that increasing the physical-activity share beyond this level may offer limited added benefit and may increase participant burden, potentially affecting adherence\u0026mdash;particularly in community settings where sustained engagement can be challenging(Salzman et al., 2022). Future programmes may therefore prioritise a balanced time allocation that preserves adequate exposure to other active ingredients (e.g., cognitive training and social components) alongside physical activity, with feasibility and uptake considered as core design constraints.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile this study provides valuable insights, several limitations must be acknowledged. First, heterogeneity in intervention content, comparators, participant characteristics, and outcome measures limited inference about an optimal multidomain configuration for MCI; some subgroup and meta-regression estimates were imprecise because of small numbers of trials. Second, our exposure metrics (eg, sessions and duration) largely reflect protocol-specified dose and may not capture dose received, particularly in less structured programs where adherence and fidelity vary. Third, outcomes were assessed using diverse instruments, and reliance on composite or global scores constrained domain-specific comparability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFuture studies should improve reporting of intervention content and delivery, harmonise cognitive outcome assessment, and routinely measure adherence and implementation fidelity. Trials are also needed to prospectively test how session density and component time allocation influence outcomes, including less frequently evaluated components such as diet, sleep, and social engagement. Longer follow-up and pragmatic designs will be important to assess the durability of cognitive effects and to identify scalable programmes that balance effectiveness with participant and workforce burden.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis synthesis indicates that multidomain interventions may improve cognitive outcomes in older adults with MCI. The results further suggest that how interventions are delivered (e.g., intensity and session density) may influence observed effects and should be treated as core design variables rather than ancillary details. Future research should prioritise rigorous protocol specification, standardised outcome measurement, and longer-term evaluation to clarify durability, feasibility, and potential downstream clinical outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo specific funding was provided for this study by any public, commercial, or non-profit organizations. The study was conducted without external financial support.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCRediT authorship contribution statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMeixian Li:\u003c/strong\u003e Writing-review \u0026amp; editing, Writing-original draft, Visualization, Formal analysis. \u003cstrong\u003eHaiwei Fu:\u003c/strong\u003e Writing-review \u0026amp; editing, Visualization, Methodology. \u003cstrong\u003eZonghua Wang:\u003c/strong\u003e Writing-review \u0026amp; editing, Visualization, Supervision, Project administration, Methodology, Conceptualization, Supervision. All authors participated in editing and reviewing the manuscript, and all authors approved the final draft.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study is a systematic review and meta-analysis of published randomized controlled trials and did not involve direct human participants. Therefore, ethical approval and participant consent were not required.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHuman ethics and consent to participate declarations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAinslie, P.N., Cotter, J.D., George, K.P., Lucas, S., Murrell, C., Shave, R., Thomas, K.N., Williams, M.J.A., Atkinson, G., 2008. Elevation in cerebral blood flow velocity with aerobic fitness throughout healthy human ageing. 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Effectiveness of combined cognitive stimulation and physical activity interventions on activities of daily living, cognitive function, and physical function in older people with mild cognitive impairment: A systematic review with meta-analysis. J. Clin. Med. 14. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm14072261\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eVaynman, S., Ying, Z., Gomez-Pinilla, F., 2004. Hippocampal BDNF mediates the efficacy of exercise on synaptic plasticity and cognition. Eur J Neurosci 20, 2580\u0026ndash;2590. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-9568.2004.03720.x\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eXu, Z., Sun, W., Zhang, D., Chung, V.C.-H., Sit, R.W.-S., Wong, S.Y.-S., 2021. Comparative Effectiveness of Interventions for Global Cognition in Patients With Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience 13, 1\u0026ndash;10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2021.653340\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eXu, Z., Zhang, D., Yip, B.H.-K., Lee, E.K.-P., Poon, P.K.-M., Peters, R., Yang, Z., Lee, A.T.-C., Leung, M.K.-W., Wong, E.L.-Y., Mok, V.C.-T., Lam, L.C.-W., Wong, S.Y.-S., 2025. Combined mind\u0026ndash;body physical exercise, cognitive training, and nurse-led risk factor modification to enhance cognition among older adults with mild cognitive impairment in primary care: A three-arm randomised controlled trial. Lancet Healthy Longev. 6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lanhl.2025.100706\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYang, Q., Lyu, X., Lin, Q., Wang, Z., Tang, L., Zhao, Y., Lyu, Q., 2022. Effects of a multicomponent intervention to slow mild cognitive impairment progression: a randomized controlled trial. Int J Nurs Stud 125, 104110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2021.104110\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYing, G., Perez-Lao, A., Marsiske, M., Levy, S.-A., Smith, G.E., 2024. Multimodal cognitive and behavioral interventions for patients with MCI: a systematic review and meta-analysis on cognition and mood. Front Aging Neurosci 16, 1390699. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2024.1390699\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYu, H., Ma, B.X., Feng, Y.C., He, Z.W., Li, C., Wang, Z.H., Gao, T., Xu, X.Y., 2025. Effects of multi-domain cognitive-motor training in older adults with amnestic mild cognitive impairment: a randomized controlled trial. Geriatr Nur (lond) 61, 64\u0026ndash;72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gerinurse.2024.10.072\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-geriatrics","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"bgtc","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Geriatrics](http://bmcgeriatr.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/bgtc/default.aspx","title":"BMC Geriatrics","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Mild Cognitive Impairment, Multidomain Intervention, Systematic Review, Meta-Analysis","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9170544/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9170544/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMild cognitive impairment (MCI) is a high-risk and key transitional phase on the pathway to dementia. Multidomain interventions are increasingly used, but their cognitive benefits and the influence of intervention dose and component mix in MCI remain uncertain.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eObjective\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study aimed to first compare the cognitive outcomes of single-domain and multidomain interventions in older adults with MCI, and second, to examine the influence of intervention parameters such as intensity, density, and component composition on cognitive improvements.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSix international databases, including PubMed, Embase, Cochrane CENTRAL, Web of Science, PsycINFO, and CINAHL, were searched from inception to November 2025. Two reviewers independently screened, extracted, and critically appraised the studies. Random-effects meta-analyses pooled standardized mean differences (Hedges' g) for post-intervention global cognition and cognitive domains. Meta-regression and subgroup analyses explored design and implementation factors. One-stage robust error meta-regression modeled the dose\u0026ndash;response relationship between intervention intensity, sessions, intervention density, and component composition with cognitive outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA total of 28 trials (3,377 participants) were included. Pooled analyses showed that multidomain interventions were associated with statistically significant improvements in global cognition, memory, executive function, verbal fluency, and attention (Hedges' g\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.31\u0026ndash;0.50). A larger but less precise benefit was observed for visuospatial ability (Hedges' g\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.80), whereas the pooled estimate for processing speed did not reach statistical significance [Hedges' g\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.48, 95% CI (-0.12, 1.08)]. Dose\u0026ndash;response models suggested the optimal intervention density was found to be approximately 36.8 minutes/session, with greater cognitive benefits. Notably, the optimal percentage of the total intervention time for physical activity was approximately 43.6%, beyond which further increases offered no additional cognitive gains.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMultidomain interventions were linked to modest to moderate improvements in both global and domain-specific cognition in older adults with MCI. Multidomain programs may be more successful and feasible if session density is optimized and the proportionate contribution of physical activity is balanced. To maximize cognitive benefits, the ideal intervention intensity, density, and percentage of physical activity are essential. The creation of multidomain intervention protocols to stop cognitive decline and postpone the onset of dementia in older adults is supported by these findings. To improve their clinical applicability, future studies should investigate long-term effects and fine-tune these intervention parameters.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eTrial registration\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe protocol was registered on PROSPERO (registration number: CRD420261283039, date created: 13 January 2026).\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Effectiveness of multidomain interventions for the elderly with mild cognitive impairment: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-05-04 08:36:39","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9170544/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"173305823508253438279200372737452594092","date":"2026-05-04T15:11:22+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-04-22T04:07:41+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2026-03-27T08:21:48+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-03-25T02:32:42+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-03-25T02:32:05+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"BMC Geriatrics","date":"2026-03-19T02:02:20+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-geriatrics","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"bgtc","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Geriatrics](http://bmcgeriatr.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/bgtc/default.aspx","title":"BMC Geriatrics","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"ed39e699-09a9-4300-a83a-3d4856a283a5","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 4th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"173305823508253438279200372737452594092","date":"2026-05-04T15:11:22+00:00","index":59,"fulltext":""}],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-04T08:36:39+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-05-04 08:36:39","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9170544","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9170544","identity":"rs-9170544","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}