Towards Cleaner Cities: Stakeholder Solutions for Combating Urban Air Pollution Enforcement Challenges in Ghana

Towards Cleaner Cities: Stakeholder Solutions for Combating Urban Air Pollution Enforcement Challenges in Ghana | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Towards Cleaner Cities: Stakeholder Solutions for Combating Urban Air Pollution Enforcement Challenges in Ghana Reginald Quansah, Enoch F Sam, Esther Y Danso-Wiredu, Joshua J Zaato, and 7 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7569655/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 4 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Research on air pollution control has largely concentrated on Europe, China, and India, with minimal focus on Africa. Existing African studies often examine environmental regulation in general, overlooking the specific challenges of air pollution governance. This study addresses the gap by applying a systems-based framework in Ghana to identify barriers and generate solutions for effective implementation and enforcement. Using the Future Workshop (FW) methodology, four workshops were held in Takoradi, Kumasi, Tamale, and Accra in 2024, engaging 20–35 institutional stakeholders per site. The process followed five phases: preparation, critical analysis, fantasy, implementation, and action. A total of 59 barriers were identified and classified into seven domains: politics and governance, education and training, technology, funding and economics, institutional collaboration, legal/regulatory frameworks, and socio-cultural factors. Participants proposed over 200 solutions, which were refined through consensus and prioritized into 90 actionable strategies. Each was evaluated using SWOT analysis and a Desirability-Possibility framework, with all recommended strategies scoring at least 60% for feasibility and desirability. The findings underscore the potential of multi-sectoral, context-specific strategic interventions to constitute a comprehensive framework for advancing effective air quality governance and public health protection in Ghana, while contributing valuable insights to broader African and global environmental management discourse.. Figures Figure 1 Introduction Traffic represents a major contributor to urban air pollution worldwide, driving significant increases in particulate matter (PM) and nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) concentrations [1–4]. This global challenge is particularly acute in Ghana's rapidly expanding cities such as Accra, Kumasi, and Takoradi, where air pollution has emerged as a critical public health crisis. The severity of this crisis is underscored by Ghana's 2019 ambient PM2.5 levels, which exceeded the World Health Organization's recommended limits by eleven times, contributing to approximately 28,000 premature deaths annually [4]. Road transport emerges as the main contributor behind this pollution burden, accounting for approximately 40% of particulate matter pollution nationwide. This contribution is exacerbated by Ghana's aging vehicle fleet, inadequate public transportation infrastructure, and the widespread reliance on older and highly polluting minibuses commonly known as "Tro-tros." Beyond vehicular emissions, the air pollution problem is compounded by multiple interconnected sources: unpaved roads that continuously resuspend dust particles, widespread biomass fuel use in urban areas, industrial emissions from manufacturing activities, and emissions from energy generation facilities [5]. The situation continues to deteriorate as Ghana's growing urban populations increase car ownership, creating a cycle where rising traffic congestion worsens air pollution. This pollution poses severe health risks to urban populations, including increased incidence of dementia, hypertension, asthma, lung cancer, and cardiovascular diseases [6–8]. Despite Ghana's establishment of comprehensive air quality standards and motor vehicle emission regulations, enforcement remains critically weak. This enforcement deficit stems from inadequate monitoring capacity, limited public awareness of air quality issues, and poor coordination between relevant government agencies [9]. These implementation challenges reflect broader governance issues commonly observed across many African countries, where regulatory frameworks exist but lack effective enforcement mechanisms. Unfortunately, current research on air pollution enforcement predominantly focuses on high-income countries or major Asian economies, leaving a significant knowledge gap regarding Africa-specific contexts and solutions that could address these very enforcement challenges [10–12]. This research gap is particularly problematic given that African countries face unique social, economic, and regulatory challenges that require tailored approaches rather than imported solutions from different contexts. Therefore, there exists a critical need for integrated, systems-based approaches specifically designed for African environments. To fill this gap and meet this need, this research uses Ghana as a representative case study to better understand and address the enforcement and implementation challenges that are distinctive to the continent's regulatory environment, particularly given the prevalent weak air quality monitoring infrastructure across the region. To address this knowledge gap, this study employed the Future Workshop (FW) methodology—a participatory and action-oriented research approach that engages diverse stakeholders including government officials, health professionals, educators, community leaders, and policymakers. Through this collaborative framework, stakeholders worked together to systematically analyze existing challenges, envision practical solutions, and develop context-specific strategies for improving air pollution control enforcement in Ghana's urban settings [13]. Methods A series of FWs were conducted between April and June 2024 to address air pollution implementation and enforcement challenges in Ghana through a systematic, participatory approach. The workshops were held in four major Ghanaian cities—Takoradi, Kumasi, Tamale, and Accra—with each three-day session engaging 20–35 diverse stakeholders in a structured five-phase process. The process began with a preparation phase involving careful venue selection and strategic stakeholder identification, where participants were selected using snowball sampling methodology to represent six key categories: individuals and groups directly affected by air pollution policies; those who influence policy decisions; agents responsible for policy implementation and enforcement; specialists with technical expertise and practical knowledge of logistical considerations; representatives of marginalized and systematically excluded communities; and stakeholders capable of effectively disseminating information and mobilizing broader community engagement. Following the preparation phase, participants progressed through a critical analysis phase to identify existing obstacles and challenges in air pollution enforcement, which was then followed by a fantasy phase that encouraged creative solution development without practical constraints, allowing for innovative thinking beyond current limitations. Following the solution development phase, each proposed solution underwent a systematic two-stage evaluation process. In the first stage, solutions were assessed using Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT) analysis to comprehensively evaluate factors affecting implementation feasibility. These SWOT findings provided the foundation for the second stage: a Desirability and Possibility (DP) analysis that served as the final evaluation framework. Solutions were required to achieve a minimum threshold of 60% in both the desirability and possibility dimensions to qualify for advancement. Those meeting this criterion progressed to the action phase, where participants collaboratively developed comprehensive implementation plans that specified clear responsibilities, target locations, realistic timelines, and detailed methodological approaches. The process culminated in comprehensive reports detailing identified problems, proposed solutions, and actionable implementation plans, which were subsequently shared with all stakeholders for feedback, ensuring a systematic approach to developing practical, user-centered solutions for Ghana's urban air pollution enforcement challenges. Full methodological details are provided in the appendix . Results Characteristics of stakeholders/workshop participants A total of 101 participants from diverse public and private institutions across Ghana took part in the FW aimed at identifying key barriers to effective air pollution regulation enforcement (Table 1 ). The workshops were held regionally, with Takoradi hosting 30 participants—largely from the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), media, and Metropolitan, Municipal, and District Assemblies (MMDAs); Kumasi with 31 participants mainly from the EPA and MMDAs; Tamale with 20 participants also primarily from the EPA and MMDAs; and Accra with 20 participants. The participation included 35 women, reflecting a deliberate effort toward gender inclusivity among the stakeholders engaged. Barriers to Effective Implementation and Enforcement of Air Pollution Prevention Regulations/Laws in Urban Ghana Participants in workshops across four major Ghanaian cities identified numerous barriers to effective air pollution management, with Takoradi pinpointing 179 barriers narrowed to 15 key ones in five sub-themes (education, advocacy and training; politics and socio-culture; technology; law and legal regulation; and funding and economics), Kumasi identifying 261 barriers reduced to 25 key issues across five sub-themes including political/governance and stakeholder engagement,- Tamale highlighting 171 barriers distilled into 20 key barriers within legal framework, institutional collaboration, politics/governance, and Accra cataloguing 119 barriers grouped into 15 key barriers under funding, socio-political, and law/education/technology themes. These diverse, city-specific challenges reflect unique local socio-economic contexts, governance, and infrastructure capacities. To integrate these findings, a comprehensive fishbone diagram was created categorizing 59 documented key barriers into seven overarching sub-themes—politics/government, education/advocacy and training, technology, funding/economics, institutional strengthening and collaboration, laws and regulations, and socio-cultural factors (Fig. 1 )—effectively illustrating the complex, interrelated causes hindering enforcement of air pollution laws in urban Ghana and guiding the development of feasible, actionable solutions. The analysis identified multi-dimensional barriers to enforcing environmental regulations. Governance-related challenges included weak political will, corruption, overlapping mandates, and inadequate resources. Limited public awareness, insufficient sensitization, and lack of clear policy direction constrained education and advocacy efforts. Technological barriers comprised inadequate monitoring capacity, poor research support, and reliance on outdated equipment. Funding and economic constraints, weak institutional coordination, and absence of harmonized policies further limited enforcement capacity. Legal gaps, unclear provisions, and delays in prosecution undermined compliance, while socio-cultural factors such as apathy, indiscipline, and traditional influences compounded enforcement difficulties. Practical Strategies and Responsible Stakeholders for Air Pollution Implementation Challenges in Urban Ghana Participants generated over 200 potential solutions to address the identified barriers, which were refined through consensus into more than 90 high-impact strategies. These strategies were evaluated using SWOT analysis and a D–P framework to assess feasibility within resource constraints. Solutions achieving ≥ 60% on the D-P framework dimensions were deemed viable, and all solutions presented in Table 2 met this threshold, representing practical and implementable approaches to overcoming enforcement challenges.. Education, advocacy, and training Barriers related to limited awareness of environmental and air pollution laws, inadequate understanding of associated risks, and insufficient public sensitization are categorized into three domains: Education, Advocacy, and Training (Table 2 ). In the Education domain, there was strong consensus, with 80% D and P ratings, on integrating motor vehicle emission courses across all educational levels. This reflects the importance of establishing foundational knowledge early on. The primary Table 2 Summary of Key Issues, Practical Solutions, and Responsible Stakeholders for Implementation Barriers to Air Pollution Laws/regulations Related to Education, Advocacy, and Training in Urban Ghana Category Key issues Recommended Actions with Desirability (D) and Possibility (P) Scores Responsible Stakeholders/Institutions Education, Advocacy, Training Limited awareness of environmental and air pollution laws -While waiting at DVLA offices, drivers should be informed about vehicle emissions laws through various media [D = 80%; P = 80%] -Management of testing and Licensing centres -Advertise motor laws widely using traditional and digital media platforms [D = 80%; P = 80%] -Ministries of Information, Communication and Digitalization; Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation. -Include eco-driving and emissions reduction in driving lessons and tests [D = 85%; P = 85%] -DVLA management - Include vehicle emissions education in schools and universities [D = 80%; P = 80%] Ministries of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation; Education, DTEC, WAEC Unaware of the risks air pollution poses to people and nature -Media platforms such as Radio, TV, Print and social media should be used to publish issues on air pollution in all Ghanaian languages. [D = 80%; P = 60%] -Ministries of Information, Communication and Digitalization; Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation Religious organizations should use their influence to educate congregations, promote environmental stewardship, and mobilize communities for action. [D = 80%; P = 60%] Ministry of interior Inadequate public awareness, advocacy and sensitization Add air pollution topics to classroom lessons. [D = 90%; P = 85%] Ministries of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation; Education, DTEC, WAEC Use multiple communication channels to continuously inform and engage the public about air pollution risks and solutions [D = 90%; P = 70%] -Ministries of Information, Communication and Digitalization; Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation responsibility for implementing these educational reforms lies with the Ministries of Education, the Ghana Tertiary Education Commission, and the West African Examinations Council. Advocacy efforts focused on targeted awareness campaigns for drivers and vehicle owners, especially during waiting periods at licensing offices (D = 80%, P = 80%). These campaigns would leverage diverse media platforms such as radio, television, and social media to disseminate information on motor vehicle emission laws and regulations. Key stakeholders responsible for these advocacy initiatives include the management of testing and licensing centres, the Ministries of Information, Communication and Digitalization, and the Ministries of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation. The Training domain also received substantial endorsement, with a majority (D = 85%, P = 85%) supporting the inclusion of vehicular emission-related questions and knowledge in driving tests. This emphasizes the need to integrate emission competencies into formal driver education. The Driver and Vehicle Licensing Authority (DVLA), in collaboration with relevant environmental and technological ministries, share responsibility for this aspect. Collectively, these coordinated efforts across education, advocacy, and training domains are essential to enhancing public awareness and compliance with air pollution regulations. To address the broader lack of public knowledge on air pollution health and environmental risks, multi-platform media outreach in all Ghanaian languages was recommended, alongside engaging religious organizations to foster community education and action. This multi-sectoral collaboration highlights the critical role of government agencies and community groups in enhancing public awareness and compliance with air quality regulations. Politics/Governance The study further identifies critical politics and governance challenges hindering air pollution regulation/laws implementation and enforcement in Ghana, including lack of stakeholder consultation, bribery and corruption, overlapping institutional roles, insufficient political will, inadequate resources, unclear policy direction, and frequent political interference (Table 3 ). To address these issues, the research proposes highly supported solutions such as encouraging whistleblowing (D = 60%; P = 85%), strengthening anti-corruption and transparency laws (D = 90%; P = 60%), and building systems and structures to enhance integrity and professionalism[D = 90%; P = 60%] to combat bribery and corruption. Addressing political interference in air pollution regulation in Ghana requires establishing political champions for clean air across sectors (95% desirability, 70% possibility), strengthening institutions such as independent media, judiciary, and civil service (90% desirability, 70% possibility), and enforcing robust whistle-blower protections with independent oversight (90% desirability, 80% possibility). The responsibility for implementing these strategies lies with multiple institutions, including the Motor Traffic and Transport Department, Attorney General’s Department, Environmental Protection Agency, Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies, Ghana Police Service, Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Justice and Attorney General, Ministry of Interior, and Parliament. This multi-institutional approach is designed to enhance accountability, transparency, and effective governance to overcome political barriers hindering air pollution law enforcement. Table 3 Summary of Key Issues, Practical Solutions, and Responsible Stakeholders for Implementation Barriers to Air Pollution Laws/regulations Related to Politics/Governance in Urban Ghana Category Key issues Recommended Actions with Desirability (D) and Possibility (P) Scores Responsible Stakeholders/Institutions Politics/Governance Lack of consultation with relevant stakeholders in policy formulation and implementation Engaging stakeholders for input during the formulation and implementation of air pollution and clean air policies [D = 100%; P = 90%] EPA, Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation, Ministry of Transport, MTTD, Feeder Roads and Road safety Authority etc. Include vulnerable groups in decision-making to address their specific needs and promote equity. [D = 100%; P = 80%] EPA, Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation, Ministry of Transport, MTTD, Feeder Roads and Road safety Authority etc. Bribery and Corruption. Encourage whistle blowing [D = 60%; P = 85%] MTTD, Attorney General Department, EPA Prosecution of offenders. [D = 85%; P = 80%] EPA, MMDAs, Ghana Police Service, Attorney General. Build systems/structures to enhance integrity and professionalism. [D = 90%; P = 60%] AG Department, Ministry of Finance, Ghana Police service. Strengthening the legal and regulatory framework with anti-corruption laws, transparency laws, and conflict of interest policies. [D = 90%; P = 60%] Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Justice and Attorney General, Ministry of Interior, Parliament. Overlapping of roles. Simplify and streamline regulatory frameworks/laws. [D = 100%; P = 70%] EPA, MMDAs, Min of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation. Lack of political will. Promote national interest on air pollution. [ D = 70%, P = 90%] EPA/MMDAs/Min of Local Government and Rural Encourage and foster better collaboration between the MMDAs and traditional authorities. [D = 80%; P = 100%] MMDAs/National House of Chiefs/Min of Local Government, Rural Development and Decentralization Political champion to advocate for clean air. [D = 95%; P = 80%] Ministry of Justice and Attorney General, Ministry of Interior, Parliament, MMDAs/National House of Chiefs/Min of Local Government, Rural Development and Decentralization Inadequate resources Implementing air pollution tax systems-such as emissions taxes, vehicle levies, or carbon taxes [D = 100%; P = 70%] EPA, MMDAs, Min of Local Government and Rural Development and Decentralization, Min of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation., Min of Finance Harness international Environmental Funds to combat air pollution. [D = 100%; P = 70%] Strengthening Government Integrated Financial Management Information System (GIFMIS) to enhance expenditures related to clean and broader environmental objectives. [D = 100%; P = 80%] Lack of clear policy direction on air pollution Adapt best air pollution policies and practices from other countries. [D = 100%; P = 70%] EPA, MMDAs, Min of Local Government and Rural Development and Decentralization, Min of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation, Ghana Standards Authority Develop a long-term National Policy framework on air pollution and action plan for implementation. [D = 100%; P = 70%] Political interference Establish political champions across all sectors to advocate for clean air. [D = 95%; P = 70%] All government sectors, Ministry of Justice and Attorney General Department, Parliament Strengthen institutions with an independent media, judiciary, and robust civil service. [D = 90%,P = 70%] Inadequate coordination and collaboration. Institute mechanisms to enhance collaboration and coordination among stakeholders on air pollution.[D = 85%; P = 70%] Ministry of Justice and Attorney General Department, Parliament, Ministry of Finance, Build enough capacity to enhance collaboration and coordination among stakeholders. [D = 85%; P = 70%] All government sectors, Ministry of Justice and Attorney General Department, Parliament Develop protocols to guide institutional coordination and collaboration. [D = 80%; P = 80%] Technology In the Technology domain, stakeholders strongly endorsed several strategies to address insufficient investment in emission-reducing technologies and enhance air quality in Ghana. These included mandating emission control devices on all internal combustion engines (D = 90%, P = 65%), providing tax incentives and infrastructure to promote the adoption of electric vehicles (D = 80%, P = 60%), and developing infrastructure to support alternative transport modes such as biking, walking, and boating (D = 90%, P = 60%). These efforts are led by key institutions including the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Ghana Standards Authority, and relevant ministries (Table 4 ). To tackle improper vehicle maintenance, there was unanimous support for rigorous emission testing enforcement by agencies such as the Motor Traffic and Transport Department and the Driver and Vehicle Licensing Authority (100% desirability and possibility), supplemented by ongoing education for transport operators (D = 100%, P = 90%), coordinated by ministries responsible for transport, environment, and communication. Addressing gaps in research capacity for air pollution management, stakeholders advocated for securing adequate funding, encouraging systematic data sharing among institutions, and fostering collaboration across. Table 4 Summary of Key Issues, Practical Solutions, and Responsible Stakeholders for Implementation Barriers to Air Pollution Laws/regulations Related to Technology in Urban Ghana Category Key issues Recommended Actions with Desirability (D) and Possibility (P) Scores Responsible Stakeholders/Institutions Technology Inadequate resources Provide funding to acquire emission testing equipment, air monitors and dust suppression equipment. [D = 80%; P = 100%] EPA, MMDAs, Research Institutions Build capacity of emission testing and air quality monitoring officers. [D = 100%; P = 70%] Ministry of Science & Technology, EPA, Ghana Standard Authority, Academia and MMDAs Provide enough funding to improve the capacity for testing and monitoring. [D = 80%; P = 70%] Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation, EPA, Ghana Standards Authority Inadequate resources Make budgetary allocations to procure new equipment. [D = 60%; P = 60%] Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation Ensure routine maintenance servicing of all equipment. [D = 70%; P = 60%] DVLA, EPA,MMDAs, Research institutions, Ghana Standards Authority Support local manufactures of equipment. [D = 90%; P = 60%] Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation. Inadequate investment in relevant technology. Provide funding to acquire emission testing equipment, air monitors and dust suppression equipment. [D = 80%; P = 100%] Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation, EPA, Ghana Standards Authority, DVLA Build capacity of emission testing and air quality monitoring officers. [D = 100%; P = 70%] EPA, Academic institutions Provide enough funding to improve the capacity for testing and monitoring. [D = 80%; P = 70%] Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation, EPA, Ghana Standards Authority, DVLA Make budgetary allocations to procure new equipment. [D = 60%; P = 60%] Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation, EPA, Ghana Standards Authority, DVLA Ensure routine maintenance servicing of all equipment. [D = 70%; P = 60%] EPA, Ghana Standards Authority, DVLA Support local manufactures of equipment. [D = 90%; P = 60%] Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation, EPA, Ghana Standards Authority, Inadequate state of- the-art technology for determining, measuring, and reducing pollutants. Explore and procure more state-of-the-art equipment (including technology transfer). [D = 100%;P = 70%] EPA, Ministry of Transport, Ministry of Local Government, Rural Development and Decentralizations Build capacity, including exchange programs/study tours/ skill development in the use of state-of-the art equipment. [D = 80%; P = 60%] Ministry of Environment Science, Technology and innovation, Ministry of Transport. Allocate budget to procure state of the art equipment.[D = 80%; P = 70%] Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation, Continuous capacity building in the use of state-of the- art equipment. [D = 80%; P = 70%] EPA, Ghana Standards Authority, Academic institutions Routinely maintain and service the equipment. [D = 80%; P = 70%] EPA, Ghana Standards Authority, Technical institutions Improper maintenance of vehicles. Strict adherence to emission test in a relevant institution such as Motor Traffic and Transport Division of Ghana Police Service (MTTD), Driver, vehicle and Licensing Authority (DVLA) etc. [D = 100%; P = 100%] Ministry of Transport, DVLA, MTTD, EPA Continuous education for transport operators on the maintenance of vehicles to reduce emissions [D = 100%; P = 90% Ministry of Information, Ministry of Communication Digitalization, Ministry of Transport. Lack of research to support air pollution management. Secure adequate resources for research and innovation. [D = 80%; P = 65%] Ministry of Environment Science, Technology and innovation, Ministry of Transport, Ministry of Finance, EPA, Research Institutions/Consultants. Encourage data collation and sharing among research institutions. [D = 80%; P = 70%] Ministry of Environment Science, Technology and innovation, Ministry of Transport, Ministry of Finance, EPA, Ghana Statistical Services, Research Institutions. Foster greater collaboration between government, non-governmental organizations, business/industry, academia and international organizations. [D = 80%; P = 870%] Ministry of Environment Science, Technology and innovation, Ministry of Transport, Ministry of Finance, EPA, Ghana Statistical Services, Research Institutions. Create automated database systems for monitoring. [D = 80%; P = 80%] Ministry of Environment Science, Technology and innovation, Ministry of Transport, Ministry of Finance, EPA, Ghana Statistical Services, Research Institutions. Install air monitoring equipment in major cities across the country. [D = 80%; P = 80%] EPA, Research Institutions. Construction and maintenance of roads. Rehabilitation/construction and surface dressing of roads. [D = 70%; P = 70%] Ministry of Environment Science, Technology and innovation, Ministry of Transport, Ministry of Finance, EPA, Increase the use of Dust suppressors. [D = 70%; P = 70%] , EPA, Ghana Statistical Services, Research Institutions. government, academia, industry, and international partners (all with approximately D = 80% P = 87%). These initiatives, coordinated primarily by the Ministry of Environment Science, Technology and innovation, EPA, Ghana Statistical Services, and research organizations, collectively aim to enhance technological capacity, improve compliance, and strengthen the scientific foundation for effective air quality governance in Ghana. Legal framework Within the Legal Framework domain, improving air quality management requires addressing ineffective collaboration and role duplication among institutions by harmonizing policies, clarifying institutional mandates, and enhancing inter-agency cooperation—particularly among compliance and enforcement bodies—with leadership from the Environmental Protection Authority (EPA), Ministries of Roads and Highways and Transport, and Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies (MMDAs) (Table 5 ). Additionally, there is unanimous support (D = 100%, P = 70%) for public education and training initiatives to combat environmental law illiteracy. This responsibility is shared among the EPA, relevant ministries, MMDAs, NGOs, and independent practitioners to empower citizens with knowledge of their legal rights and obligations. Addressing delays in prosecuting air pollution offenses, stakeholders advocate for the establishment of a specialized court dedicated to environmental cases, alongside continuous judicial training on environmental matters. The creation of a robust case tracking system was unanimously supported by stakeholders, while comprehensive training and sensitization of state prosecutors receive full backing and endorsement. These prosecutorial and judicial reforms involve collaboration among the EPA, Attorney General’s Department, Ministry of Interior, Ministry of Information, and Ministry of Communication and Digitalization, collectively aiming to enhance transparency, efficiency, and expertise in environmental law enforcement. Funding/Economic The analysis of funding and economic challenges in Ghana's air pollution control reveals critical issues such as inadequate financial resources for pollution monitoring equipment and staffing shortages within compliance and enforcement agencies. To address these, strategic recommendations include implementing tax incentives to foster a green economy, prioritizing and budgeting specifically for air pollution control, establishing systematic case tracking, and ensuring proper allocation of funds—especially for monitoring devices. There is strong support for recruiting, training, and incentivizing additional personnel to strengthen regulatory oversight. The issue of overaged vehicle importation, which exacerbates air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions, is tackled through strategies to incentivize the importation and use of efficient vehicles and increased. Table 5 Summary of Key Issues, Practical Solutions, and Responsible Stakeholders for Implementation Barriers to Air Pollution Laws/regulations Related to Legal framework, Funding, Socio-cultural and Institutional Strengthening and Collaboration in Urban Ghana Category Key issues Recommended Actions with Desirability (D) and Possibility (P) Scores Responsible Stakeholders/Institutions Legal framework Ineffective collaboration and duplication of roles. Identify and harmonize existing policies [D = 80%; P = 90%] Selected senior officers from EPA, Ministry of Roads and highways, Ministry of Transport, MMDAs. Establish and develop clear institutional mandate. [D = 90%; P = 65%] EPA, Ministry of Roads and highways, Ministry of Transport, MMDAs. Enhance collaboration among institutions. [D = 90%; P = 60%] EPA, Ministry of Roads and highways, Ministry of Transport, MMDAs, NGOs Develop standardized guidelines for coordination and collaboration among institutions. (e.g., Compliance and enforcement agencies) [D = 90%; P = 60%] Management of All relevant institutions illiteracy, ignorance of the law. Creation of public awareness, education and training. [D = 100%; P = 70%] EPA, Ministry of Roads and highways, Ministry of Transport, MMDAs, NGOs, Ministry of Information, Ministry of Communication and Digitalization Targeted advocacy on the laws. [D = 90%; P = 70%] EPA, Ministry of Roads and highways, Ministry of Transport, MMDAs, NGOs, Ministry of Information, Ministry of Communication and Digitalization Gaps in regulations. Periodic reviews of laws, regulations and standards to make them relevant to current needs. [D = 90%; P = 65%] EPA, Road Traffic and safety commission, Ministry of Transport and other key institutions Promote information sharing and collaboration among agencies to address overlapping jurisdiction and gaps. [D = 90%; P = 60%] check Delay in prosecution Set a special court for air pollution offenders. [D = 80%; P = 80%] EPA, Attorney General, Ministry of interior, Ministry of interior, Ministry of Information and Ministry of communication and digitalization Training and continuous capacity building of judges on environmental matters. [D = 80%; P = 70%] EPA, Academic institutions, NGOs, Establish a tracking system of the cases reported. [D = 100%; P = 65%] AG’s office Train state prosecutors adequately sensitize them of the importance of their role. [D = 100%; P = 70%] AG’s office, Ministry of Justice Weak enforcement leads to ineffective compliance. Enhance the managerial skills of responsible compliance and enforcement officers. [D = 100%; P = 80%] EPA, Ministry of Roads and Transport, Ministry of Justice, Ministry of Highways, National Road Safety Authority, MTTD, MMDAs Educate officers to diligently discharge their duties without being influenced. [D = 100%; P = 70%] EPA, Attorney General Department, National Road Safety Authority, MMDAs, MTTD, Academia Encourage and support regulatory institutions in execution of their mandate. [D = 100%; P = 70%] EPA, Attorney General Department, National Road Safety Authority, MMDAs, MTTD Strengthen existing regulatory frameworks/Laws. [D = 100%; P = 80%] EPA, Attorney General Department, National Road Safety Authority, MMDAs, MTTD Funding/Economic Inadequate funds to acquire and install air pollution equipment. Use tax incentives to move the Country to a greener economy. [D = 80%; P = 70%] EPA, MMDAs, Road Traffic and Safety Commission, GRA and Ministry of Finance Prioritize and budget for Air pollution. [D = 90%; P = 670%] Ministry of Roads and Transport, Ministry of highways, MTTD, Road safety authority, EPA Provide adequate funds to acquire gadgets. [D = 73%; P = 83%] Ministry of Roads and Transport, Ministry of highways, MTTD, Road safety authority, EPA Direct Emission levies towards its intended purpose. [D = 100%; P = 60%] Ministry of Roads and Transport, Ministry of highways, Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Environment Science and Technology Inadequate budgetary support for the enforcement agencies. Increase revenue generation through Fees/fines, levies and charges. [D = 80%; P = 60%] Ministry of Transport, Ministry of Roads and Highways, Ministry of Finance Advocate for funding/Support. [D = 70%; P = 60%] Ministry of Roads and Transport, Ministry of highways, MTTD, Road safety authority, EPA Encourage Public Private Partnerships. [D = 90%; P = 80%] Ministry of Roads and Transport, Ministry of highways, Ministry of Finance Inadequate staff for compliance and enforcement agencies. Recruit, train, incentivize/motivate more staff. [D = 90%; P = 70%] Environmental Protection Agency, Ministry of Finance, Ghana Police service, National Road Safety Authority Importation of overaged vehicles. Incentivize and encourage the importation and use of efficient vehicles. [D = 70%; P = 60%] Environmental Protection Agency, MTTD, National Road Safety Authority, Ministry of Roads and Highways, Ministry of Transport Increase investment in public mass transport system. [D = 60%; P = 70%] Environmental Protection Agency, MTTD, National Road Safety Authority, Ministry of Roads and Highways, Ministry of Transport Socio-cultural Indiscipline/poor driving behaviour on our roads as a lifestyle. Enhance punitive measures for flouting laws and regulations. [D = 100%; P = 90%] institution of spot fins, penal, MTTD, NRSA, DVLA, MMDAs taskforce, traffic courts Organize sensitization programmes for road users and contractors using different modes of communication. [D = 100%; P = 90 NRSA, MTTD, MMDAs, Ministry of Communication a Urbanization. Deploy zero emission/electric vehicles for mass public transport. [D = 80%; P = 75%] Ministry of Transport, and Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology, and Innovation, EPA, Ministry of Roads and Highways, Energy Commission, media Promote efficient and reliable mass public transport system. [D = 80%; P = 70%] MMDAs, Transport operator unions, Ministry of Transport, Ministry of Roads and Highways Provide dedicated infrastructure for non-motorized transport. (biking, walking) [D = 85%; P = 85%] MMDAs, Ministries of Transport, and Roads and Highway, Department of Urban Roads, Ghana Highway Authority Expand on-going government project upgrading the rail network system (Accra, Tema and beyond). [D = 75%; P = 70%] Ministries of Transport, and Finance Influence of traditional rulers. Promote better stakeholders’ collaboration between traditional rulers and local government authorities. [D = 85%; P = 80%] MMDAs, Local government Institutional Strengthening and Collaboration Poor institutional coordination and collaboration. Develop effective protocols to guide institutional coordination and collaboration. [D = 80%; P = 80%] Ministry of Transport, Ministry of Roads and Highways, Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning and all relevant institutions. Effective stakeholder consultation to improve collaboration. [D = 100%; P = 80%] The use of bottom-up consultation approach in air quality management. [D = 90%; P = 80%] investment in public mass transport systems. These initiatives require coordinated collaboration among key institutions, including the EPA, Attorney General’s office, various ministries (Interior, Information, Communication, Transport, Roads and Highways, Finance), Ghana Police Service, and the National Road Safety Authority. This multi-agency collaboration reflects an integrated approach to overcoming economic and operational barriers to effective air pollution management in Ghana. Socio-cultural The socio-cultural challenge posed by rapid urbanization in Ghana—where over 61% of the population is projected to reside in urban areas by 2025 and beyond—necessitates comprehensive interventions to address its environmental and infrastructural consequences. There was strong consensus among stakeholders on the deployment of zero-emission or electric vehicles for mass public transport, alongside the promotion of an efficient and reliable mass public transport system. Additionally, the development of dedicated infrastructure for non-motorized transport modes such as biking and walking commanded even greater endorsement, reflecting a clear recognition of sustainable urban mobility imperatives. Expansion of ongoing government initiatives to upgrade the rail network in major urban centers like Accra and Tema was also favored. These integrated strategies are to be implemented through coordinated efforts by key institutions, including the Ministry of Transport, Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation, Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Ministry of Roads and Highways, and the Energy Commission. Institutional Strengthening and Collaboration The socio-cultural dimension of institutional strengthening and collaboration is pivotal for effective air quality management in Ghana, as demonstrated by strong stakeholder support for developing comprehensive protocols to guide inter-institutional coordination. There was unanimous endorsement for conducting thorough stakeholder consultations to enhance collaborative efforts, emphasizing the necessity of inclusive engagement in policy development and implementation. Additionally, a bottom-up consultation approach in air quality management was advocated, underscoring the importance of community participation and local knowledge in environmental governance. The implementation of these strategies is entrusted to a coalition of key institutions, including the Ministry of Transport, Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation, Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Ministry of Roads and Highways, Energy Commission, and Ministry of Finance, reflecting a coordinated and participatory framework essential for advancing air quality objectives. Discussions The study highlights complex and interconnected barriers to effective air quality management in Ghana spanning education, governance, technology, legal, financial, socio-cultural, and institutional domains. Key educational gaps call for integration of emissions topics in curricula, targeted advocacy at licensing centers, driving-test inclusion, and expansive multilingual media and community outreach. Political challenges such as corruption and weak coordination necessitate multi-agency efforts to boost transparency, accountability, and whistleblower protections. Technological solutions include mandatory emission controls, incentives for electric vehicles, improved alternative transport infrastructure, strict vehicle testing, and operator education. Legal reforms focus on policy harmonization, clarified mandates, enhanced inter-agency collaboration, combating environmental illiteracy, and establishing specialized courts with judicial training. Economic strategies emphasize tax incentives, dedicated funding, case tracking, proper emission levy use, staffing improvements, managing overaged vehicle imports, and mass transit investment. Rapid urbanization demands deployment of zero-emission public transport, non-motorized transport infrastructure, and rail expansions. Central to success is strengthened institutional collaboration through protocols, inclusive stakeholder engagement, and community participation. This comprehensive, multi-sectoral framework aims to strengthen air quality governance and public health in Ghana, while offering transferable insights for environmental management across Africa. This synthesis draws on global and regional research to illuminate multifaceted barriers and propose strategic solutions for effective air quality management, particularly in Ghana. Studies such as those by Rahayu et al [16]. 16 emphasize the urgent need to strengthen environmental regulations, institutional coordination, and enforcement mechanisms, underscoring the critical roles of government and community engagement. China’s extensive experience, reviewed by Feng and Liao 17 and expanded by Meng et al. 18 and Wang et al. 19 , identifies enforcement challenges including unclear legal principles, weak regulatory procedures, flawed emissions trading, and inadequate penalties, recommending enhanced motor vehicle pollution controls, empowered local agencies, decentralized governance structures, and targeted technical and financial support. Drawing parallels with Ghana and other African contexts, significant barriers emerged in our study across domains: education, advocacy, politics and governance, technology, legal frameworks, funding, socio-cultural factors, and institutional collaboration. There was strong consensus on integrating motor vehicle emissions into curricula at all educational levels, supported by studies from Nigeria and Kenya highlighting how lack of public awareness impedes environmental compliance. 20 , 21 Advocacy efforts favour targeted media campaigns and engagement with religious organizations to foster grassroots environmental stewardship, mirroring successful African community-based models. 21 , 22 Political and governance challenges such as corruption, weak political will, duplication of institutional roles, limited stakeholder consultation, and political interference are common impediments that undermine enforcement, as documented broadly across low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). 23 To address these barriers strategies such as reinforcing anti-corruption frameworks, appointing credible political champions to advocate for clean air, and strengthening whistleblower protections—aligning with best practice guidelines from Transparency International and the World Bank. 24 , 25 Technological strategies resonate with international best practices by mandating emission control devices, offering tax incentives for electric vehicle adoption, and developing infrastructure for alternative transport modes alongside strict enforcement of vehicle maintenance regulations and operator education (Nare and Kamakate 2017). 26 The need to harmonize air pollution regulations and policies in the current study, clarify institutional mandates, and improve inter-agency collaboration reflects challenges documented in many African countries, where fragmented legal frameworks impede enforcement. 27 Furthermore, our recommendation for specialized environmental courts and judicial training is supported by international experiences demonstrating that judicial specialization improves enforcement efficiency and environmental outcomes. 28 Public legal education to combat ignorance is also widely recognized as essential to fostering compliance. 29 Financial and economic solutions advocate for dedicated tax incentives, prioritized budgets for air pollution control, robust tracking of pollution cases, strict use of emission levies, capacity-building through recruitment and training, management of overaged vehicle imports, and investment in sustainable urban public transport have been echoed in findings from one African nation. 20 The study also highlights the socio-environmental pressures of rapid urbanization in Ghana—with projections that over 61% of the population will reside in urban areas by 2025—calling for deployment of zero-emission public vehicles, expansion of non-motorized transport infrastructure, and rail system upgrades to ensure sustainable urban mobility. Central to overcoming these challenges is strengthened institutional collaboration through comprehensive protocols, participatory stakeholder consultations, and community-driven, bottom-up governance approaches, reflecting Ostrom's principles of effective environmental management. 30 This emphasis on participatory governance informed our methodological approach: a key strength of our study lies in its novel use of the FW methodology, engaging diverse stakeholders from government, industry, and communities through a structured, five-phase process. This approach facilitated creative yet pragmatic solutions, validated through SWOT and desirability-possibility analyses. Snowball sampling enhanced the depth of expertise, and conducting workshops across multiple cities enriched contextual understanding. However, limitations include potential sampling bias excluding marginalized voices, time constraints of intensive workshops possibly affecting representativeness, subjective reliance on participant perceptions, and absence of inherent mechanisms for long-term monitoring and evaluation. Ultimately, the study provides a comprehensive, context-specific framework aligned with broader African and global research. It underscores the universality of air pollution governance challenges and the necessity of integrated, multi-sectoral strategies that encompass legal reform, technological innovation, robust governance, socio-cultural engagement, and economic incentives. By fostering collaboration across stakeholders and empowering affected communities, these approaches aim to build resilient, transparent, and sustainable frameworks for air quality management and environmental health in Ghana, offering transferable insights relevant to similar contexts across Africa and the developing world. Declarations Contribution RQ conceptualized and designed the study, supervised data collection and wrote the initial manuscript. EFS contributed to the design, contributed to the data collection, and edited the manuscript. EYD-W contributed to the design, contributed to the data collection, and edited the manuscript. JJZ contributed to the design, contributed to the data collection, and edited the manuscript. CYW contributed to editing of the manuscript. EK-EA contributed to the design, contributed to the data collection, and edited the manuscript. DCA contributed to editing of the manuscript. VOT contributed to editing of the manuscript. AAD contributed to the data collection and editing of the manuscript. EO contributed to the data collection and editing of the manuscript. MAS contributed to the design and supervision, data collection, and edited the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. All authors had full access to all the data in the study and had final responsibility for the decision to submit for publication. Declaration of interests We declare no competing interests Data sharing All data are present in the Article or appendix. Additional data related to this Article can be requested from the corresponding author. Acknowledgement We express our sincere gratitude to Clean Air Fund (grant number: 001465) for the financial support References Bigazzi AY, Rouleau M. Can traffic management strategies improve urban air quality? A review of the evidence. J Transp Health. 2017;7:111–24. Heydari M, et al. Contribution of traffic to ambient air pollution in Europe. Atmos Environ. 2020;222:117130. Karagulian F, et al. Contributions to cities' ambient particulate matter (PM): A systematic review of local source contributions at global level. Atmos Environ. 2015;120:475–83. World Health Organization. Ambient air pollution and health in Accra, Ghana. Geneva: WHO Urban Health Initiative; 2020. Available from: https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/340678/9789240022294-eng.pdf Clean Air Fund. Accra and air pollution [Internet]. 2025 [cited 2025 Jul 9]. Available from: https://www.cleanairfund.org/clean-air-africas-cities/accra/ Quansah R, Semple S, Ochieng CA, Juvekar S, Armah FA, Luginaah I, Emina J. Effectiveness of interventions to reduce household air pollution and/or improve health in homes using solid fuel in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Environ Int. 2017;103:73–90. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2017.03.010 Sofianopoulou E, et al. Air pollution exposure and dementia incidence: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Environ Health Perspect. 2019;127(9):096002. Zang L, Batterman S. Air pollution and health risks due to vehicle traffic. Environ Res. 2017;156:451–6. Bruckmann P, Pfeffer U, Hoffmann V. 50 years of air quality control in Northwestern Germany: How the blue skies over the Ruhr district were achieved (Part I). 2014. Available from: http://www.lanuv.nrw.de/luft/pdf/X735-Bruckmann_50-years_part-1.pdf Afroz R, Hassan MN, Ibrahim NA. A critical review of managing air pollution through airshed approach. Cleaner Environ Syst. 2024;12:100145. doi:10.1016/j.cesys.2024.100145 Li H, Ma Y. Air pollution governance in China and India: Comparison and implications. Curr Opin Environ Sustain. 2023;60:101246. doi:10.1016/j.cosust.2023.101246 Li W, Wang C, Wang H, Chen J, Yuan C, Li W, et al. Progress of air pollution control in China and its challenges and opportunities in the ecological civilization era. Eng. 2020;6(12):1423–31. doi:10.1016/j.eng.2020.03.014 Kump S, Krainer L. Futures participation as anticipatory practice—what do futures workshops do? Eur J Futures Res. 2024;12(1):3. doi:10.1186/s40309-024-00226-4 Helms MM, Nixon J. Exploring SWOT analysis: Where are we now? A review of academic research from the last decade. J Strategy Manag. 2010;3(3):215–51. doi:10.1108/17554251011064837 Wheelen TL, Hunger JD, Hoffman AN, Bamford CE. Strategic management and business policy: Globalization, innovation and sustainability. 15th ed. London: Pearson; 2017. Rahayu S, Wijayanti A, Sari DP. Implementation barriers of environmental law in air pollution control: A normative legal analysis. Environ Law Rev. 2025;47(1):23–45. doi:10.1177/09560289241287456 Feng Y, Liao X. Legislation, plans, and policies for prevention and control of air pollution in China: Achievements, challenges, and improvements. J Clean Prod. 2016;112:1549–58. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.08.013 Meng Q, Liu W, Li Z, Hu X. Influencing factors, mechanism and prevention of coal mine gas explosions in China based on grounded theory. Resour Policy. 2019;67:101693. doi:10.1016/j.resourpol.2020.101693 Wang L, Zhang Y, Sun C, Wu H, Li S, Wang T, et al. Analysis of the environmental behavior of farmers for non-point source pollution control and management in a water source protection area in China. Sci Total Environ. 2018;633:1126–35. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.03.273 Omaka CE, Okorie CC. Barriers to environmental law compliance in Nigeria: Implications for sustainable development. Afr J Environ Sci Technol. 2024;18(2):78–89. doi:10.5897/AJEST2023.3234 Adewuyi TO, Adesina FA, Oluseyi IO. Environmental awareness and waste management behaviour among residents of Ibadan metropolis, Oyo State, Nigeria. J Environ Extension. 2020;19(1):21–32. doi:10.4314/jext.v19i1.3 Asper Review. Community-based environmental advocacy in Africa: Lessons learned and best practices. Asper Rev Int Bus Trade Law. 2022;22(1):45–67. ISS Africa. Environmental governance challenges in Africa: A continental perspective. Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies; 2024. Available from: https://issafrica.org/research/reports/environmental-governance-africa Transparency International. Global corruption barometer: Environmental governance and transparency. Berlin: Transparency International Publications; 2023. World Bank. Environmental governance diagnostic: A tool for assessing environmental governance systems. Washington, DC: World Bank Group; 2020. Nare PW, Kamakate F. Vehicle emissions standards for sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: International Council on Clean Transportation; 2017. Available from: https://theicct.org/publications/vehicle-emissions-standards-sub-saharan-africa Agwor TC. Legal and institutional frameworks for environmental protection in Africa: Challenges and prospects. Afr J Legal Stud. 2022;13(2):145–68. doi:10.1163/17087384-12341234 Pring G, Pring C. Greening justice: Creating and improving environmental courts and tribunals. Washington, DC: The Access Initiative, World Resources Institute; 2009. Gunningham N, Grabosky P, Sinclair D. Smart regulation: Designing environmental policy. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2023. Ostrom E. Governing the commons: The evolution of institutions for collective action. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1990. Table 1 Table 1 is available in the Supplementary Files section. Supplementary Files Table1.docx Appendix.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Reviewers agreed at journal 16 Oct, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 16 Oct, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 09 Sep, 2025 First submitted to journal 08 Sep, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7569655","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":512657193,"identity":"f68006ad-7e1a-4d45-af2a-b0960a1b4345","order_by":0,"name":"Reginald 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11:05:30","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":233598,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Table1.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7569655/v1/104fc663ca42d2c1812c0751.docx"},{"id":91525196,"identity":"faf3a378-f0af-4dbc-93af-be68c003d1c3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-17 11:05:30","extension":"docx","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":285080,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Appendix.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7569655/v1/75293461234f9e8cbc2c1a63.docx"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Towards Cleaner Cities: Stakeholder Solutions for Combating Urban Air Pollution Enforcement Challenges in Ghana","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eTraffic represents a major contributor to urban air pollution worldwide, driving significant increases in particulate matter (PM) and nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) concentrations [1\u0026ndash;4]. This global challenge is particularly acute in Ghana's rapidly expanding cities such as Accra, Kumasi, and Takoradi, where air pollution has emerged as a critical public health crisis. The severity of this crisis is underscored by Ghana's 2019 ambient PM2.5 levels, which exceeded the World Health Organization's recommended limits by eleven times, contributing to approximately 28,000 premature deaths annually [4].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRoad transport emerges as the main contributor behind this pollution burden, accounting for approximately 40% of particulate matter pollution nationwide. This contribution is exacerbated by Ghana's aging vehicle fleet, inadequate public transportation infrastructure, and the widespread reliance on older and highly polluting minibuses commonly known as \"Tro-tros.\" Beyond vehicular emissions, the air pollution problem is compounded by multiple interconnected sources: unpaved roads that continuously resuspend dust particles, widespread biomass fuel use in urban areas, industrial emissions from manufacturing activities, and emissions from energy generation facilities [5]. The situation continues to deteriorate as Ghana's growing urban populations increase car ownership, creating a cycle where rising traffic congestion worsens air pollution. This pollution poses severe health risks to urban populations, including increased incidence of dementia, hypertension, asthma, lung cancer, and cardiovascular diseases [6\u0026ndash;8].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite Ghana's establishment of comprehensive air quality standards and motor vehicle emission regulations, enforcement remains critically weak. This enforcement deficit stems from inadequate monitoring capacity, limited public awareness of air quality issues, and poor coordination between relevant government agencies [9]. These implementation challenges reflect broader governance issues commonly observed across many African countries, where regulatory frameworks exist but lack effective enforcement mechanisms. Unfortunately, current research on air pollution enforcement predominantly focuses on high-income countries or major Asian economies, leaving a significant knowledge gap regarding Africa-specific contexts and solutions that could address these very enforcement challenges [10\u0026ndash;12].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis research gap is particularly problematic given that African countries face unique social, economic, and regulatory challenges that require tailored approaches rather than imported solutions from different contexts. Therefore, there exists a critical need for integrated, systems-based approaches specifically designed for African environments. To fill this gap and meet this need, this research uses Ghana as a representative case study to better understand and address the enforcement and implementation challenges that are distinctive to the continent's regulatory environment, particularly given the prevalent weak air quality monitoring infrastructure across the region. To address this knowledge gap, this study employed the Future Workshop (FW) methodology\u0026mdash;a participatory and action-oriented research approach that engages diverse stakeholders including government officials, health professionals, educators, community leaders, and policymakers. Through this collaborative framework, stakeholders worked together to systematically analyze existing challenges, envision practical solutions, and develop context-specific strategies for improving air pollution control enforcement in Ghana's urban settings [13].\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eA series of FWs were conducted between April and June 2024 to address air pollution implementation and enforcement challenges in Ghana through a systematic, participatory approach. The workshops were held in four major Ghanaian cities\u0026mdash;Takoradi, Kumasi, Tamale, and Accra\u0026mdash;with each three-day session engaging 20\u0026ndash;35 diverse stakeholders in a structured five-phase process. The process began with a preparation phase involving careful venue selection and strategic stakeholder identification, where participants were selected using snowball sampling methodology to represent six key categories: individuals and groups directly affected by air pollution policies; those who influence policy decisions; agents responsible for policy implementation and enforcement; specialists with technical expertise and practical knowledge of logistical considerations; representatives of marginalized and systematically excluded communities; and stakeholders capable of effectively disseminating information and mobilizing broader community engagement. Following the preparation phase, participants progressed through a critical analysis phase to identify existing obstacles and challenges in air pollution enforcement, which was then followed by a fantasy phase that encouraged creative solution development without practical constraints, allowing for innovative thinking beyond current limitations. Following the solution development phase, each proposed solution underwent a systematic two-stage evaluation process. In the first stage, solutions were assessed using Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT) analysis to comprehensively evaluate factors affecting implementation feasibility. These SWOT findings provided the foundation for the second stage: a Desirability and Possibility (DP) analysis that served as the final evaluation framework. Solutions were required to achieve a minimum threshold of 60% in both the desirability and possibility dimensions to qualify for advancement. Those meeting this criterion progressed to the action phase, where participants collaboratively developed comprehensive implementation plans that specified clear responsibilities, target locations, realistic timelines, and detailed methodological approaches. The process culminated in comprehensive reports detailing identified problems, proposed solutions, and actionable implementation plans, which were subsequently shared with all stakeholders for feedback, ensuring a systematic approach to developing practical, user-centered solutions for Ghana's urban air pollution enforcement challenges. Full methodological details are provided in the \u003cb\u003eappendix\u003c/b\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eCharacteristics of stakeholders/workshop participants\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA total of 101 participants from diverse public and private institutions across Ghana took part in the FW aimed at identifying key barriers to effective air pollution regulation enforcement (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The workshops were held regionally, with Takoradi hosting 30 participants\u0026mdash;largely from the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), media, and Metropolitan, Municipal, and District Assemblies (MMDAs); Kumasi with 31 participants mainly from the EPA and MMDAs; Tamale with 20 participants also primarily from the EPA and MMDAs; and Accra with 20 participants. The participation included 35 women, reflecting a deliberate effort toward gender inclusivity among the stakeholders engaged.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eBarriers to Effective Implementation and Enforcement of Air Pollution Prevention Regulations/Laws in Urban Ghana\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants in workshops across four major Ghanaian cities identified numerous barriers to effective air pollution management, with Takoradi pinpointing 179 barriers narrowed to 15 key ones in five sub-themes (education, advocacy and training; politics and socio-culture; technology; law and legal regulation; and funding and economics), Kumasi identifying 261 barriers reduced to 25 key issues across five sub-themes including political/governance and stakeholder engagement,- Tamale highlighting 171 barriers distilled into 20 key barriers within legal framework, institutional collaboration, politics/governance, and Accra cataloguing 119 barriers grouped into 15 key barriers under funding, socio-political, and law/education/technology themes. These diverse, city-specific challenges reflect unique local socio-economic contexts, governance, and infrastructure capacities. To integrate these findings, a comprehensive fishbone diagram was created categorizing 59 documented key barriers into seven overarching sub-themes\u0026mdash;politics/government, education/advocacy and training, technology, funding/economics, institutional strengthening and collaboration, laws and regulations, and socio-cultural factors (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e)\u0026mdash;effectively illustrating the complex, interrelated causes hindering enforcement of air pollution laws in urban Ghana and guiding the development of feasible, actionable solutions. The analysis identified multi-dimensional barriers to enforcing environmental regulations. Governance-related challenges included weak political will, corruption, overlapping mandates, and inadequate resources. Limited public awareness, insufficient sensitization, and lack of clear policy direction constrained education and advocacy efforts. Technological barriers comprised inadequate monitoring capacity, poor research support, and reliance on outdated equipment. Funding and economic constraints, weak institutional coordination, and absence of harmonized policies further limited enforcement capacity. Legal gaps, unclear provisions, and delays in prosecution undermined compliance, while socio-cultural factors such as apathy, indiscipline, and traditional influences compounded enforcement difficulties.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePractical Strategies and Responsible Stakeholders for Air Pollution Implementation Challenges in Urban Ghana\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants generated over 200 potential solutions to address the identified barriers, which were refined through consensus into more than 90 high-impact strategies. These strategies were evaluated using SWOT analysis and a D\u0026ndash;P framework to assess feasibility within resource constraints. Solutions achieving\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;60% on the D-P framework dimensions were deemed viable, and all solutions presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e met this threshold, representing practical and implementable approaches to overcoming enforcement challenges..\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eEducation, advocacy, and training\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBarriers related to limited awareness of environmental and air pollution laws, inadequate understanding of associated risks, and insufficient public sensitization are categorized into three domains: Education, Advocacy, and Training (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). In the Education domain, there was strong consensus, with 80% D and P ratings, on integrating motor vehicle emission courses across all educational levels. This reflects the importance of establishing foundational knowledge early on. The primary\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSummary of Key Issues, Practical Solutions, and Responsible Stakeholders for Implementation Barriers to Air Pollution Laws/regulations Related to Education, Advocacy, and Training in Urban Ghana\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKey issues\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRecommended Actions with Desirability (D) and Possibility (P) Scores\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eResponsible Stakeholders/Institutions\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"7\" rowspan=\"8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEducation, Advocacy, Training\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLimited awareness of environmental and air pollution laws\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-While waiting at DVLA offices, drivers should be informed about vehicle emissions laws through various media \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-Management of testing and Licensing centres\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-Advertise motor laws widely using traditional and digital media platforms [D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-Ministries of Information, Communication and Digitalization; Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-Include eco-driving and emissions reduction in driving lessons and tests \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;85%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;85%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-DVLA management\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e-\u003c/em\u003e Include vehicle emissions education in schools and universities \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMinistries of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation; Education, DTEC, WAEC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUnaware of the risks air pollution poses to people and nature\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-Media platforms such as Radio, TV, Print and social media should be used to publish issues on air pollution in all Ghanaian languages. [D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;60%]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-Ministries of Information, Communication and Digitalization; Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReligious organizations should use their influence to educate congregations, promote environmental stewardship, and mobilize communities for action. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;60%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMinistry of interior\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInadequate public awareness, advocacy and sensitization\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdd air pollution topics to classroom lessons. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;90%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;85%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMinistries of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation; Education, DTEC, WAEC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUse multiple communication channels to continuously inform and engage the public about air pollution risks and solutions \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;90%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-Ministries of Information, Communication and Digitalization; Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eresponsibility for implementing these educational reforms lies with the Ministries of Education, the Ghana Tertiary Education Commission, and the West African Examinations Council. Advocacy efforts focused on targeted awareness campaigns for drivers and vehicle owners, especially during waiting periods at licensing offices (D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%, P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%). These campaigns would leverage diverse media platforms such as radio, television, and social media to disseminate information on motor vehicle emission laws and regulations. Key stakeholders responsible for these advocacy initiatives include the management of testing and licensing centres, the Ministries of Information, Communication and Digitalization, and the Ministries of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation. The Training domain also received substantial endorsement, with a majority (D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;85%, P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;85%) supporting the inclusion of vehicular emission-related questions and knowledge in driving tests. This emphasizes the need to integrate emission competencies into formal driver education. The Driver and Vehicle Licensing Authority (DVLA), in collaboration with relevant environmental and technological ministries, share responsibility for this aspect. Collectively, these coordinated efforts across education, advocacy, and training domains are essential to enhancing public awareness and compliance with air pollution regulations. To address the broader lack of public knowledge on air pollution health and environmental risks, multi-platform media outreach in all Ghanaian languages was recommended, alongside engaging religious organizations to foster community education and action. This multi-sectoral collaboration highlights the critical role of government agencies and community groups in enhancing public awareness and compliance with air quality regulations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003ePolitics/Governance\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study further identifies critical politics and governance challenges hindering air pollution regulation/laws implementation and enforcement in Ghana, including lack of stakeholder consultation, bribery and corruption, overlapping institutional roles, insufficient political will, inadequate resources, unclear policy direction, and frequent political interference (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). To address these issues, the research proposes highly supported solutions such as encouraging whistleblowing (D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;60%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;85%), strengthening anti-corruption and transparency laws (D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;90%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;60%), and building systems and structures to enhance integrity and professionalism[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;90%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;60%] to combat bribery and corruption. Addressing political interference in air pollution regulation in Ghana requires establishing political champions for clean air across sectors (95% desirability, 70% possibility), strengthening institutions such as independent media, judiciary, and civil service (90% desirability, 70% possibility), and enforcing robust whistle-blower protections with independent oversight (90% desirability, 80% possibility). The responsibility for implementing these strategies lies with multiple institutions, including the Motor Traffic and Transport Department, Attorney General\u0026rsquo;s Department, Environmental Protection Agency, Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies, Ghana Police Service, Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Justice and Attorney General, Ministry of Interior, and Parliament. This multi-institutional approach is designed to enhance accountability, transparency, and effective governance to overcome political barriers hindering air pollution law enforcement.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSummary of Key Issues, Practical Solutions, and Responsible Stakeholders for Implementation Barriers to Air Pollution Laws/regulations Related to Politics/Governance in Urban Ghana\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKey issues\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRecommended Actions with Desirability (D) and Possibility (P) Scores\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eResponsible Stakeholders/Institutions\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"8\" rowspan=\"9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePolitics/Governance\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLack of consultation with relevant stakeholders in policy formulation and implementation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEngaging stakeholders for input during the formulation and implementation of air pollution and clean air policies\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;100%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;90%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEPA, Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation, Ministry of Transport, MTTD, Feeder Roads and Road safety Authority etc.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInclude vulnerable groups in decision-making to address their specific needs and promote equity. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;100%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEPA, Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation, Ministry of Transport, MTTD, Feeder Roads and Road safety Authority etc.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBribery and Corruption.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEncourage whistle blowing [D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;60%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;85%]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMTTD, Attorney General Department, EPA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProsecution of offenders. [D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;85%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEPA, MMDAs, Ghana Police Service, Attorney General.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBuild systems/structures to enhance integrity and professionalism. [D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;90%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;60%]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAG Department, Ministry of Finance, Ghana Police service.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStrengthening the legal and regulatory framework with anti-corruption laws, transparency laws, and conflict of interest policies. [D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;90%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;60%]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMinistry of Finance, Ministry of Justice and Attorney General, Ministry of Interior, Parliament.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOverlapping of roles.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSimplify and streamline regulatory frameworks/laws. [D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;100%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70%]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEPA, MMDAs, Min of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLack of political will.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePromote national interest on air pollution. [\u003cem\u003eD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70%, P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;90%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEPA/MMDAs/Min of Local Government and Rural\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEncourage and foster better collaboration between the MMDAs and traditional authorities. [D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;100%]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMMDAs/National House of Chiefs/Min of Local Government, Rural Development and Decentralization\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"10\" rowspan=\"11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePolitical champion to advocate for clean air. [D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;95%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMinistry of Justice and Attorney General, Ministry of Interior, Parliament, MMDAs/National House of Chiefs/Min of Local Government, Rural Development and Decentralization\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInadequate resources\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eImplementing air pollution tax systems-such as emissions taxes, vehicle levies, or carbon taxes [D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;100%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70%]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEPA, MMDAs, Min of Local Government and Rural Development and Decentralization, Min of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation., Min of Finance\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHarness international Environmental Funds to combat air pollution. [D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;100%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70%]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStrengthening Government Integrated Financial Management Information System (GIFMIS) to enhance expenditures related to clean and broader environmental objectives. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;100%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLack of clear policy direction on air\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003epollution\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdapt best air pollution policies and practices from other countries. [D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;100%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70%]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEPA, MMDAs, Min of Local Government and Rural Development and Decentralization, Min of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation, Ghana Standards Authority\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDevelop a long-term National Policy framework on\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eair pollution and action plan for implementation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;100%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70%]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePolitical interference\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEstablish political champions across all sectors to advocate for clean air. [D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;95%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70%]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll government sectors, Ministry of Justice and Attorney General Department, Parliament\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStrengthen institutions with an independent media, judiciary, and robust civil service. [D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;90%,P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70%]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInadequate coordination\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eand collaboration.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInstitute mechanisms to enhance collaboration and coordination among stakeholders on air pollution.[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;85%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70%]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMinistry of Justice and Attorney General Department, Parliament, Ministry of Finance,\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBuild enough capacity to enhance collaboration and coordination among stakeholders. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;85%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll government sectors, Ministry of Justice and Attorney General Department, Parliament\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDevelop protocols to guide institutional coordination and collaboration. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTechnology\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the Technology domain, stakeholders strongly endorsed several strategies to address insufficient investment in emission-reducing technologies and enhance air quality in Ghana. These included mandating emission control devices on all internal combustion engines (D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;90%, P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;65%), providing tax incentives and infrastructure to promote the adoption of electric vehicles (D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%, P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;60%), and developing infrastructure to support alternative transport modes such as biking, walking, and boating (D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;90%, P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;60%). These efforts are led by key institutions including the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Ghana Standards Authority, and relevant ministries (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). To tackle improper vehicle maintenance, there was unanimous support for rigorous emission testing enforcement by agencies such as the Motor Traffic and Transport Department and the Driver and Vehicle Licensing Authority (100% desirability and possibility), supplemented by ongoing education for transport operators (D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;100%, P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;90%), coordinated by ministries responsible for transport, environment, and communication. Addressing gaps in research capacity for air pollution management, stakeholders advocated for securing adequate funding, encouraging systematic data sharing among institutions, and fostering collaboration across.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSummary of Key Issues, Practical Solutions, and Responsible Stakeholders for Implementation Barriers to Air Pollution Laws/regulations Related to Technology in Urban Ghana\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKey issues\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRecommended Actions with Desirability (D) and Possibility (P) Scores\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eResponsible Stakeholders/Institutions\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"25\" rowspan=\"26\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTechnology\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInadequate resources\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProvide funding to acquire emission testing equipment, air monitors and dust suppression equipment.\u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;100%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEPA, MMDAs, Research Institutions\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBuild capacity of emission testing and air quality monitoring officers. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;100%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMinistry of Science \u0026amp; Technology, EPA, Ghana Standard Authority, Academia and MMDAs\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProvide enough funding to improve the capacity for testing and monitoring. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMinistry of Finance, Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation, EPA, Ghana Standards Authority\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInadequate resources\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMake budgetary allocations to procure new equipment. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;60%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;60%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMinistry of Finance, Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnsure routine maintenance servicing of all equipment. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;60%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDVLA, EPA,MMDAs, Research institutions, Ghana Standards Authority\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSupport local manufactures of equipment. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;90%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;60%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMinistry of Finance, Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInadequate investment\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ein relevant\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003etechnology.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProvide funding to acquire emission testing equipment, air monitors and dust suppression equipment. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;100%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMinistry of Finance, Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation, EPA, Ghana Standards Authority, DVLA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBuild capacity of emission testing and air quality monitoring officers. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;100%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEPA, Academic institutions\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProvide enough funding to improve the capacity for testing and monitoring. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMinistry of Finance, Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation, EPA, Ghana Standards Authority, DVLA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMake budgetary allocations to procure new equipment. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;60%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;60%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMinistry of Finance, Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation, EPA, Ghana Standards Authority, DVLA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnsure routine maintenance servicing of all equipment. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;60%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEPA, Ghana Standards Authority, DVLA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSupport local manufactures of equipment. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;90%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;60%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMinistry of Finance, Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation, EPA, Ghana Standards Authority,\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"4\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInadequate state of-\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ethe-art technology\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003efor determining,\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003emeasuring, and reducing\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003epollutants.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExplore and procure more state-of-the-art equipment (including technology transfer). \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;100%;P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEPA, Ministry of Transport, Ministry of Local Government, Rural Development and Decentralizations\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBuild capacity, including exchange programs/study tours/ skill development in the use of state-of-the art equipment. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;60%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMinistry of Environment Science, Technology and innovation, Ministry of Transport.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAllocate budget to procure state of the art equipment.[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70%]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMinistry of Finance, Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation,\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eContinuous capacity building in the use of state-of the- art equipment. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEPA, Ghana Standards Authority, Academic institutions\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRoutinely maintain and service the equipment. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEPA, Ghana Standards Authority, Technical institutions\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eImproper maintenance of\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003evehicles.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStrict adherence to emission test in a relevant institution such as Motor Traffic and Transport Division of Ghana Police Service (MTTD), Driver, vehicle and Licensing Authority (DVLA) etc. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;100%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;100%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMinistry of Transport, DVLA, MTTD, EPA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eContinuous education for transport operators on the maintenance of vehicles to reduce emissions \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;100%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;90%\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMinistry of Information, Ministry of Communication Digitalization, Ministry of Transport.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"4\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLack of research to support\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eair pollution management.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSecure adequate resources for research and innovation. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;65%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMinistry of Environment Science, Technology and innovation, Ministry of Transport, Ministry of Finance, EPA, Research Institutions/Consultants.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEncourage data collation and sharing among research institutions. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMinistry of Environment Science, Technology and innovation, Ministry of Transport, Ministry of Finance, EPA, Ghana Statistical Services, Research Institutions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFoster greater collaboration between government, non-governmental organizations, business/industry, academia and international organizations.\u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;870%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMinistry of Environment Science, Technology and innovation, Ministry of Transport, Ministry of Finance, EPA, Ghana Statistical Services, Research Institutions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCreate automated database systems for monitoring. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMinistry of Environment Science, Technology and innovation, Ministry of Transport, Ministry of Finance, EPA, Ghana Statistical Services, Research Institutions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInstall air monitoring equipment in major cities across the country.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEPA, Research Institutions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConstruction and maintenance\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eof roads.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRehabilitation/construction and surface dressing of roads. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMinistry of Environment Science, Technology and innovation, Ministry of Transport, Ministry of Finance, EPA,\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIncrease the use of Dust suppressors. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e, EPA, Ghana Statistical Services, Research Institutions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003egovernment, academia, industry, and international partners (all with approximately D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80% P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;87%). These initiatives, coordinated primarily by the Ministry of Environment Science, Technology and innovation, EPA, Ghana Statistical Services, and research organizations, collectively aim to enhance technological capacity, improve compliance, and strengthen the scientific foundation for effective air quality governance in Ghana.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eLegal framework\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWithin the Legal Framework domain, improving air quality management requires addressing ineffective collaboration and role duplication among institutions by harmonizing policies, clarifying institutional mandates, and enhancing inter-agency cooperation\u0026mdash;particularly among compliance and enforcement bodies\u0026mdash;with leadership from the Environmental Protection Authority (EPA), Ministries of Roads and Highways and Transport, and Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies (MMDAs) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, there is unanimous support (D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;100%, P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70%) for public education and training initiatives to combat environmental law illiteracy. This responsibility is shared among the EPA, relevant ministries, MMDAs, NGOs, and independent practitioners to empower citizens with knowledge of their legal rights and obligations. Addressing delays in prosecuting air pollution offenses, stakeholders advocate for the establishment of a specialized court dedicated to environmental cases, alongside continuous judicial training on environmental matters. The creation of a robust case tracking system was unanimously supported by stakeholders, while comprehensive training and sensitization of state prosecutors receive full backing and endorsement. These prosecutorial and judicial reforms involve collaboration among the EPA, Attorney General\u0026rsquo;s Department, Ministry of Interior, Ministry of Information, and Ministry of Communication and Digitalization, collectively aiming to enhance transparency, efficiency, and expertise in environmental law enforcement.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFunding/Economic\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe analysis of funding and economic challenges in Ghana's air pollution control reveals critical issues such as inadequate financial resources for pollution monitoring equipment and staffing shortages within compliance and enforcement agencies. To address these, strategic recommendations include implementing tax incentives to foster a green economy, prioritizing and budgeting specifically for air pollution control, establishing systematic case tracking, and ensuring proper allocation of funds\u0026mdash;especially for monitoring devices. There is strong support for recruiting, training, and incentivizing additional personnel to strengthen regulatory oversight. The issue of overaged vehicle importation, which exacerbates air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions, is tackled through strategies to incentivize the importation and use of efficient vehicles and increased.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSummary of Key Issues, Practical Solutions, and Responsible Stakeholders for Implementation Barriers to Air Pollution Laws/regulations Related to Legal framework, Funding, Socio-cultural and Institutional Strengthening and Collaboration in Urban Ghana\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKey issues\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRecommended Actions with Desirability (D) and Possibility (P) Scores\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eResponsible Stakeholders/Institutions\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"15\" rowspan=\"16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLegal framework\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIneffective collaboration and\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eduplication of roles.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIdentify and harmonize existing policies \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;90%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSelected senior officers from EPA, Ministry of Roads and highways, Ministry of Transport, MMDAs.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEstablish and develop clear institutional mandate. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;90%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;65%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEPA, Ministry of Roads and highways, Ministry of Transport, MMDAs.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnhance collaboration among institutions. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;90%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;60%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEPA, Ministry of Roads and highways, Ministry of Transport, MMDAs, NGOs\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDevelop standardized guidelines for coordination and collaboration\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eamong institutions. (e.g., Compliance and enforcement agencies)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;90%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;60%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eManagement of All relevant institutions\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eilliteracy, ignorance of the law.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCreation of public awareness, education and training. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;100%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEPA, Ministry of Roads and highways, Ministry of Transport, MMDAs, NGOs, Ministry of Information, Ministry of Communication and Digitalization\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTargeted advocacy on the laws. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;90%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEPA, Ministry of Roads and highways, Ministry of Transport, MMDAs, NGOs, Ministry of Information, Ministry of Communication and Digitalization\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGaps in regulations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePeriodic reviews of laws, regulations and standards to make them relevant\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eto current needs. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;90%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;65%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEPA, Road Traffic and safety commission, Ministry of Transport and other key institutions\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePromote information sharing and collaboration among agencies to address overlapping jurisdiction and gaps. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;90%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;60%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003echeck\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDelay in prosecution\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSet a special court for air pollution offenders. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEPA, Attorney General, Ministry of interior, Ministry of interior, Ministry of Information and Ministry of communication and digitalization\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTraining and continuous capacity building of judges on environmental matters. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEPA, Academic institutions, NGOs,\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEstablish a tracking system of the cases reported. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;100%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;65%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAG\u0026rsquo;s office\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTrain state prosecutors adequately sensitize them of the importance of\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003etheir role. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;100%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAG\u0026rsquo;s office, Ministry of Justice\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWeak enforcement leads to\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eineffective compliance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnhance the managerial skills of responsible compliance and enforcement officers. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;100%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEPA, Ministry of Roads and Transport, Ministry of Justice, Ministry of Highways, National Road Safety Authority, MTTD, MMDAs\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEducate officers to diligently discharge their duties without being influenced. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;100%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEPA, Attorney General Department, National Road Safety Authority, MMDAs, MTTD, Academia\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEncourage and support regulatory institutions in execution of their mandate.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;100%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEPA, Attorney General Department, National Road Safety Authority, MMDAs, MTTD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStrengthen existing regulatory frameworks/Laws. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;100%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEPA, Attorney General Department, National Road Safety Authority, MMDAs, MTTD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"9\" rowspan=\"10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFunding/Economic\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInadequate funds to acquire and install air pollution\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eequipment.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUse tax incentives to move the Country to a greener economy. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEPA, MMDAs, Road Traffic and Safety Commission, GRA and Ministry of Finance\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrioritize and budget for Air pollution. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;90%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;670%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMinistry of Roads and Transport, Ministry of highways, MTTD, Road safety authority, EPA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProvide adequate funds to acquire gadgets. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;73%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;83%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMinistry of Roads and Transport, Ministry of highways, MTTD, Road safety authority, EPA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDirect Emission levies towards its intended purpose. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;100%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;60%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMinistry of Roads and Transport, Ministry of highways, Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Environment Science and Technology\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInadequate budgetary support\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003efor the enforcement agencies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIncrease revenue generation through Fees/fines, levies and charges. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;60%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMinistry of Transport, Ministry of Roads and Highways, Ministry of Finance\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdvocate for funding/Support. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;60%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMinistry of Roads and Transport, Ministry of highways, MTTD, Road safety authority, EPA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEncourage Public Private Partnerships. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;90%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMinistry of Roads and Transport, Ministry of highways, Ministry of Finance\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInadequate staff for compliance\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eand enforcement\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eagencies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRecruit, train, incentivize/motivate more staff. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;90%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnvironmental Protection Agency, Ministry of Finance, Ghana Police service, National Road Safety Authority\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eImportation of overaged\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003evehicles.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIncentivize and encourage the importation and use of efficient vehicles. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;60%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnvironmental Protection Agency, MTTD, National Road Safety Authority, Ministry of Roads and Highways, Ministry of Transport\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIncrease investment in public mass transport system. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;60%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnvironmental Protection Agency, MTTD, National Road Safety Authority, Ministry of Roads and Highways, Ministry of Transport\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"6\" rowspan=\"7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSocio-cultural\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndiscipline/poor driving behaviour on our roads as a\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003elifestyle.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnhance punitive measures for flouting laws and regulations. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;100%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;90%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003einstitution of spot fins, penal, MTTD, NRSA, DVLA, MMDAs taskforce, traffic courts\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOrganize sensitization programmes for road users and contractors using\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003edifferent modes of communication. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;100%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;90\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNRSA, MTTD, MMDAs, Ministry of Communication a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUrbanization.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDeploy zero emission/electric vehicles for mass public transport.\u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;75%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMinistry of Transport, and Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology, and Innovation, EPA, Ministry of Roads and Highways, Energy Commission, media\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePromote efficient and reliable mass public transport system. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMMDAs, Transport operator unions, Ministry of Transport, Ministry of Roads and Highways\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProvide dedicated infrastructure for non-motorized transport. (biking, walking) \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;85%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;85%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMMDAs, Ministries of Transport, and Roads and Highway, Department of Urban Roads, Ghana Highway Authority\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExpand on-going government project upgrading the rail network system\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(Accra, Tema and beyond). \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;75%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMinistries of Transport, and Finance\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInfluence of traditional rulers.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePromote better stakeholders\u0026rsquo; collaboration between traditional rulers and\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003elocal government authorities. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;85%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMMDAs, Local government\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInstitutional\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eStrengthening and\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCollaboration\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePoor institutional coordination\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eand collaboration.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDevelop effective protocols to guide institutional coordination and collaboration.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMinistry of Transport, Ministry of Roads and Highways, Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning and all relevant institutions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEffective stakeholder consultation to improve collaboration. \u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;100%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe use of bottom-up consultation approach in air quality management.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e[D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;90%; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80%]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003einvestment in public mass transport systems. These initiatives require coordinated collaboration among key institutions, including the EPA, Attorney General\u0026rsquo;s office, various ministries (Interior, Information, Communication, Transport, Roads and Highways, Finance), Ghana Police Service, and the National Road Safety Authority. This multi-agency collaboration reflects an integrated approach to overcoming economic and operational barriers to effective air pollution management in Ghana.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSocio-cultural\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe socio-cultural challenge posed by rapid urbanization in Ghana\u0026mdash;where over 61% of the population is projected to reside in urban areas by 2025 and beyond\u0026mdash;necessitates comprehensive interventions to address its environmental and infrastructural consequences. There was strong consensus among stakeholders on the deployment of zero-emission or electric vehicles for mass public transport, alongside the promotion of an efficient and reliable mass public transport system. Additionally, the development of dedicated infrastructure for non-motorized transport modes such as biking and walking commanded even greater endorsement, reflecting a clear recognition of sustainable urban mobility imperatives. Expansion of ongoing government initiatives to upgrade the rail network in major urban centers like Accra and Tema was also favored. These integrated strategies are to be implemented through coordinated efforts by key institutions, including the Ministry of Transport, Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation, Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Ministry of Roads and Highways, and the Energy Commission.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eInstitutional Strengthening and Collaboration\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe socio-cultural dimension of institutional strengthening and collaboration is pivotal for effective air quality management in Ghana, as demonstrated by strong stakeholder support for developing comprehensive protocols to guide inter-institutional coordination. There was unanimous endorsement for conducting thorough stakeholder consultations to enhance collaborative efforts, emphasizing the necessity of inclusive engagement in policy development and implementation. Additionally, a bottom-up consultation approach in air quality management was advocated, underscoring the importance of community participation and local knowledge in environmental governance. The implementation of these strategies is entrusted to a coalition of key institutions, including the Ministry of Transport, Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation, Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Ministry of Roads and Highways, Energy Commission, and Ministry of Finance, reflecting a coordinated and participatory framework essential for advancing air quality objectives.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study highlights complex and interconnected barriers to effective air quality management in Ghana spanning education, governance, technology, legal, financial, socio-cultural, and institutional domains. Key educational gaps call for integration of emissions topics in curricula, targeted advocacy at licensing centers, driving-test inclusion, and expansive multilingual media and community outreach. Political challenges such as corruption and weak coordination necessitate multi-agency efforts to boost transparency, accountability, and whistleblower protections. Technological solutions include mandatory emission controls, incentives for electric vehicles, improved alternative transport infrastructure, strict vehicle testing, and operator education. Legal reforms focus on policy harmonization, clarified mandates, enhanced inter-agency collaboration, combating environmental illiteracy, and establishing specialized courts with judicial training. Economic strategies emphasize tax incentives, dedicated funding, case tracking, proper emission levy use, staffing improvements, managing overaged vehicle imports, and mass transit investment. Rapid urbanization demands deployment of zero-emission public transport, non-motorized transport infrastructure, and rail expansions. Central to success is strengthened institutional collaboration through protocols, inclusive stakeholder engagement, and community participation. This comprehensive, multi-sectoral framework aims to strengthen air quality governance and public health in Ghana, while offering transferable insights for environmental management across Africa. This synthesis draws on global and regional research to illuminate multifaceted barriers and propose strategic solutions for effective air quality management, particularly in Ghana. Studies such as those by Rahayu et al [16].\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e emphasize the urgent need to strengthen environmental regulations, institutional coordination, and enforcement mechanisms, underscoring the critical roles of government and community engagement. China\u0026rsquo;s extensive experience, reviewed by Feng and Liao\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and expanded by Meng et al.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and Wang et al.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, identifies enforcement challenges including unclear legal principles, weak regulatory procedures, flawed emissions trading, and inadequate penalties, recommending enhanced motor vehicle pollution controls, empowered local agencies, decentralized governance structures, and targeted technical and financial support. Drawing parallels with Ghana and other African contexts, significant barriers emerged in our study across domains: education, advocacy, politics and governance, technology, legal frameworks, funding, socio-cultural factors, and institutional collaboration. There was strong consensus on integrating motor vehicle emissions into curricula at all educational levels, supported by studies from Nigeria and Kenya highlighting how lack of public awareness impedes environmental compliance. \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Advocacy efforts favour targeted media campaigns and engagement with religious organizations to foster grassroots environmental stewardship, mirroring successful African community-based models.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Political and governance challenges such as corruption, weak political will, duplication of institutional roles, limited stakeholder consultation, and political interference are common impediments that undermine enforcement, as documented broadly across low- and middle-income countries (LMICs).\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e To address these barriers strategies such as reinforcing anti-corruption frameworks, appointing credible political champions to advocate for clean air, and strengthening whistleblower protections\u0026mdash;aligning with best practice guidelines from Transparency International and the World Bank.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Technological strategies resonate with international best practices by mandating emission control devices, offering tax incentives for electric vehicle adoption, and developing infrastructure for alternative transport modes alongside strict enforcement of vehicle maintenance regulations and operator education (Nare and Kamakate 2017).\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e The need to harmonize air pollution regulations and policies in the current study, clarify institutional mandates, and improve inter-agency collaboration reflects challenges documented in many African countries, where fragmented legal frameworks impede enforcement.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Furthermore, our recommendation for specialized environmental courts and judicial training is supported by international experiences demonstrating that judicial specialization improves enforcement efficiency and environmental outcomes.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Public legal education to combat ignorance is also widely recognized as essential to fostering compliance.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Financial and economic solutions advocate for dedicated tax incentives, prioritized budgets for air pollution control, robust tracking of pollution cases, strict use of emission levies, capacity-building through recruitment and training, management of overaged vehicle imports, and investment in sustainable urban public transport have been echoed in findings from one African nation.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e The study also highlights the socio-environmental pressures of rapid urbanization in Ghana\u0026mdash;with projections that over 61% of the population will reside in urban areas by 2025\u0026mdash;calling for deployment of zero-emission public vehicles, expansion of non-motorized transport infrastructure, and rail system upgrades to ensure sustainable urban mobility. Central to overcoming these challenges is strengthened institutional collaboration through comprehensive protocols, participatory stakeholder consultations, and community-driven, bottom-up governance approaches, reflecting Ostrom's principles of effective environmental management.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e This emphasis on participatory governance informed our methodological approach: a key strength of our study lies in its novel use of the FW methodology, engaging diverse stakeholders from government, industry, and communities through a structured, five-phase process. This approach facilitated creative yet pragmatic solutions, validated through SWOT and desirability-possibility analyses. Snowball sampling enhanced the depth of expertise, and conducting workshops across multiple cities enriched contextual understanding. However, limitations include potential sampling bias excluding marginalized voices, time constraints of intensive workshops possibly affecting representativeness, subjective reliance on participant perceptions, and absence of inherent mechanisms for long-term monitoring and evaluation. Ultimately, the study provides a comprehensive, context-specific framework aligned with broader African and global research. It underscores the universality of air pollution governance challenges and the necessity of integrated, multi-sectoral strategies that encompass legal reform, technological innovation, robust governance, socio-cultural engagement, and economic incentives. By fostering collaboration across stakeholders and empowering affected communities, these approaches aim to build resilient, transparent, and sustainable frameworks for air quality management and environmental health in Ghana, offering transferable insights relevant to similar contexts across Africa and the developing world.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003ch2\u003eContribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eRQ conceptualized and designed the study, supervised data collection and wrote the initial manuscript. EFS contributed to the design, contributed to the data collection, and edited the manuscript. EYD-W contributed to the design, contributed to the data collection, and edited the manuscript. JJZ contributed to the design, contributed to the data collection, and edited the manuscript. CYW contributed to editing of the manuscript. EK-EA contributed to the design, contributed to the data collection, and edited the manuscript. DCA contributed to editing of the manuscript. VOT contributed to editing of the manuscript. AAD contributed to the data collection and editing of the manuscript. EO contributed to the data collection and editing of the manuscript. MAS contributed to the design and supervision, data collection, and edited the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. All authors had full access to all the data in the study and had final responsibility for the decision to submit for publication.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ch2\u003eDeclaration of interests\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe declare no competing interests\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData sharing\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll data are present in the Article or appendix. Additional data related to this Article can be requested from the corresponding author.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe express our sincere gratitude to Clean Air Fund (grant number: 001465) for the financial support\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBigazzi AY, Rouleau M. Can traffic management strategies improve urban air quality? A review of the evidence. J Transp Health. 2017;7:111\u0026ndash;24.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHeydari M, et al. Contribution of traffic to ambient air pollution in Europe. Atmos Environ. 2020;222:117130.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKaragulian F, et al. Contributions to cities\u0026apos; ambient particulate matter (PM): A systematic review of local source contributions at global level. Atmos Environ. 2015;120:475\u0026ndash;83.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWorld Health Organization. Ambient air pollution and health in Accra, Ghana. Geneva: WHO Urban Health Initiative; 2020. Available from: https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/340678/9789240022294-eng.pdf\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eClean Air Fund. Accra and air pollution [Internet]. 2025 [cited 2025 Jul 9]. Available from: https://www.cleanairfund.org/clean-air-africas-cities/accra/\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eQuansah R, Semple S, Ochieng CA, Juvekar S, Armah FA, Luginaah I, Emina J. Effectiveness of interventions to reduce household air pollution and/or improve health in homes using solid fuel in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Environ Int. 2017;103:73\u0026ndash;90. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2017.03.010\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSofianopoulou E, et al. Air pollution exposure and dementia incidence: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Environ Health Perspect. 2019;127(9):096002.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZang L, Batterman S. Air pollution and health risks due to vehicle traffic. 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Berlin: Transparency International Publications; 2023.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWorld Bank. Environmental governance diagnostic: A tool for assessing environmental governance systems. Washington, DC: World Bank Group; 2020.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNare PW, Kamakate F. Vehicle emissions standards for sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: International Council on Clean Transportation; 2017. Available from: https://theicct.org/publications/vehicle-emissions-standards-sub-saharan-africa\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAgwor TC. Legal and institutional frameworks for environmental protection in Africa: Challenges and prospects. Afr J Legal Stud. 2022;13(2):145\u0026ndash;68. doi:10.1163/17087384-12341234\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePring G, Pring C. Greening justice: Creating and improving environmental courts and tribunals. Washington, DC: The Access Initiative, World Resources Institute; 2009.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGunningham N, Grabosky P, Sinclair D. Smart regulation: Designing environmental policy. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2023.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOstrom E. Governing the commons: The evolution of institutions for collective action. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1990.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Table 1","content":"\u003cp\u003eTable 1 is available in the Supplementary Files section.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"journal-of-urban-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"jurh","sideBox":"Learn more about [Journal of Urban Health](https://www.springer.com/journal/11524)","snPcode":"11524","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/jurh","title":"Journal of Urban Health","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7569655/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7569655/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eResearch on air pollution control has largely concentrated on Europe, China, and India, with minimal focus on Africa. Existing African studies often examine environmental regulation in general, overlooking the specific challenges of air pollution governance. This study addresses the gap by applying a systems-based framework in Ghana to identify barriers and generate solutions for effective implementation and enforcement. Using the Future Workshop (FW) methodology, four workshops were held in Takoradi, Kumasi, Tamale, and Accra in 2024, engaging 20\u0026ndash;35 institutional stakeholders per site. The process followed five phases: preparation, critical analysis, fantasy, implementation, and action. A total of 59 barriers were identified and classified into seven domains: politics and governance, education and training, technology, funding and economics, institutional collaboration, legal/regulatory frameworks, and socio-cultural factors. Participants proposed over 200 solutions, which were refined through consensus and prioritized into 90 actionable strategies. Each was evaluated using SWOT analysis and a Desirability-Possibility framework, with all recommended strategies scoring at least 60% for feasibility and desirability. The findings underscore the potential of multi-sectoral, context-specific strategic interventions to constitute a comprehensive framework for advancing effective air quality governance and public health protection in Ghana, while contributing valuable insights to broader African and global environmental management discourse..\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Towards Cleaner Cities: Stakeholder Solutions for Combating Urban Air Pollution Enforcement Challenges in Ghana","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-09-17 11:05:25","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7569655/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2025-10-16T14:43:58+00:00","index":0,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-10-16T14:39:28+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-09-09T16:52:09+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Journal of Urban Health","date":"2025-09-09T01:46:15+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"journal-of-urban-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"jurh","sideBox":"Learn more about [Journal of Urban Health](https://www.springer.com/journal/11524)","snPcode":"11524","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/jurh","title":"Journal of Urban Health","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"c542f1b2-8384-4c9d-91f1-d0deeb8cf4c7","owner":[],"postedDate":"September 17th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-09-17T11:05:25+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-09-17 11:05:25","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7569655","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7569655","identity":"rs-7569655","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}