Enhancing Dvaravati-Khmer Cultural Tourism through AR: A Case Study in Thailand

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Addressing the scarcity of interactive digital tools at historical sites, which often fail to engage modern visitors effectively, our AR application integrates multiple functionalities, including 3D object scanning, VR site exploration, and a digital rally system. Developed using the Unity engine and Vuforia SDK, the application underwent rigorous user trials involving 43 participants to evaluate its impact on user experience, learning effectiveness, and engagement. Results demonstrated a 40% increase in historical knowledge retention, with 92% task completion rates and high user satisfaction (4.01/5). The application’s intuitive design and gamified elements significantly enhanced visitor interaction and learning. Here, we showcase an adaptable model for digital cultural tourism enhancement, providing practical insights for heritage preservation and visitor engagement." } { "@context": "http://schema.org", "@type": "BreadcrumbList", "itemListElement": [ { "@type": "ListItem", "position": "1", "item": { "@id": "https://f1000research.com/", "name": "Home" } }, { "@type": "ListItem", "position": "2", "item": { "@id": "https://f1000research.com/browse/articles", "name": "Browse" } }, { "@type": "ListItem", "position": "3", "item": { "@id": "https://f1000research.com/articles/15-134/v1", "name": "Enhancing Dvaravati-Khmer Cultural Tourism through AR: A Case Study..." } } ] } Home Browse Enhancing Dvaravati-Khmer Cultural Tourism through AR: A Case Study... ALL Metrics - Views Downloads Get PDF Get XML Cite How to cite this article SAMAENG A and Kaenchuwongk M. Enhancing Dvaravati-Khmer Cultural Tourism through AR: A Case Study in Thailand [version 1; peer review: 3 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 15 :134 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.176030.1 ) NOTE: If applicable, it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. Close Copy Citation Details Export Export Citation Sciwheel EndNote Ref. Manager Bibtex ProCite Sente EXPORT Select a format first Track Share ▬ ✚ Research Article Enhancing Dvaravati-Khmer Cultural Tourism through AR: A Case Study in Thailand [version 1; peer review: 3 not approved] ABDUNRONI SAMAENG https://orcid.org/0009-0006-2101-7049 1 , Meesaen Kaenchuwongk 2 ABDUNRONI SAMAENG https://orcid.org/0009-0006-2101-7049 1 , Meesaen Kaenchuwongk 2 PUBLISHED 29 Jan 2026 Author details Author details 1 Department of Communication Arts, Faculty of Communication Sciences, Prince of Songkla University, Pattani Campus, Thailand 2 Faculty of Industry and Technology, Rajamangala University of Technology Isan, Sakon Nakhon Campus, Thailand ABDUNRONI SAMAENG Roles: Conceptualization, Data Curation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing Meesaen Kaenchuwongk Roles: Software, Validation, Writing – Review & Editing OPEN PEER REVIEW DETAILS REVIEWER STATUS Abstract This study introduces an innovative Augmented Reality (AR) cultural application designed to enrich the tourism experience of the Dvaravati-Khmer civilization in Thailand. Addressing the scarcity of interactive digital tools at historical sites, which often fail to engage modern visitors effectively, our AR application integrates multiple functionalities, including 3D object scanning, VR site exploration, and a digital rally system. Developed using the Unity engine and Vuforia SDK, the application underwent rigorous user trials involving 43 participants to evaluate its impact on user experience, learning effectiveness, and engagement. Results demonstrated a 40% increase in historical knowledge retention, with 92% task completion rates and high user satisfaction (4.01/5). The application’s intuitive design and gamified elements significantly enhanced visitor interaction and learning. Here, we showcase an adaptable model for digital cultural tourism enhancement, providing practical insights for heritage preservation and visitor engagement. READ ALL READ LESS Keywords Augmented Reality; Dvaravati-Khmer Civilization; Virtual reality; User Experience; Cultural Tourism Corresponding Author(s) ABDUNRONI SAMAENG ( [email protected] ) Close Corresponding author: ABDUNRONI SAMAENG Competing interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Grant information: The author(s) declared that no grants were involved in supporting this work. Copyright: © 2026 SAMAENG A and Kaenchuwongk M. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. How to cite: SAMAENG A and Kaenchuwongk M. Enhancing Dvaravati-Khmer Cultural Tourism through AR: A Case Study in Thailand [version 1; peer review: 3 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 15 :134 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.176030.1 ) First published: 29 Jan 2026, 15 :134 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.176030.1 ) Latest published: 29 Jan 2026, 15 :134 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.176030.1 ) 1. Introduction Cultural tourism is also important for the preservation and development of the historical heritage of ancient society, particularly in Thailand where Dvaravati and Khmer cultures left architectural and artistic influence. 1 These ancient communities, spread from 6th to 13th century had set up active trade links and also cultural exchanges throughout Southeast Asia. 2 Nonetheless, despite the historical importance of these Dvaravati-Khmer sites and their prominent locations, some route sections are overlooked by result of the lack of effective tools to support tourist-destination interaction. Traditional methodologies for transmitting cultural knowledge such as fixed displays or guided tours often fail to either promote participation among the youngest and/or produce strong interactional educational experiences. 3 Recently, Augmented Reality (AR) has emerged as a disruptive technology in cultural tourism, by providing new means to visualize and interact with historical objects and locations. 4 Unlike conventional technologies, AR allows users to overlay digital information on physical context and enable them for interactive and situational-based interactions. For example, augmented reality solutions have been used to recreate ancient structures or to visualize historical events on the excavation site. 5 However, most of these techniques focus on the individual monuments and not on connected cultural itineraries leading to lack of comprehensive digital engagements following historical trajectories and interactions. In this paper, we present AR Cultural application, a novel system for enhancing cultural tourism along the Dvaravati-Khmer civilization route in Thailand. The app combines AR, gamification and interactive learning for a seamless journey through historical locations. Unlike previous works where sites are treated as isolated entities, our approach demonstrates the connections from the Dvaravati to Khmer civilizations and reveals how they mutually influence each other in culture and trade. 6 The design phase followed the process of Design Thinking, a user-centered approach that iteratively refines solutions by feedback from stakeholders. 7 This approach ensured that the app met the technical requirements and it catered to the needs and preferences of different types of users (tourists, educators, local residents). The early involvement of these stakeholders in the design phase revealed several important issues such as lack of multilingual support, and challenges associated with interpreting artifacts without specialized support. This understanding directly guided the features of the application such as instant AR annotations and gamified learning missions. A significant contribution of this work is the holistic evaluation methodology, studying both functional and human-interaction properties related to AR Culturalplatform. While AR as a factor in cultural tourism has been examined extensively in the literature, its impact on educational outcomes and visitor satisfaction have rarely been systematically evaluated. 8 We combine an analysis of quantitative figures (such as task completion rates) with qualitative findings, which together provide insight into the effectiveness of the application. Preliminary findings suggest high use and knowledge retention. The purpose of the study was to determine whether AR can link history learning with modern technology. 2. Literature review Augmented Reality (AR) has acquired a significant role in cultural heritage and tourism pointing new ways to interact between visitors and historical sites. In this complex of active studies, the contribution of AR to enriching visitors’ experiences with contextual information, interactive reconstructions, and anecdotal history becomes more evident. Studies show that AR can enhance memory retention, and visitor engagement for cultural heritage sites by overlaying virtual objects on real-world relics. Reward systems and interactive challenges were also implemented in AR vision applications to encourage exploration of the environment and enhance learning experience. 9 2.1 AR applications in cultural heritage Several applications on augmented reality have been developed for cultural tourism, particularly in destinations that are rich in historical heritage. An example is an application for augmented reality in Thai Buddhist temples, which provides 4D narratives and 3D objects such as sacred ones. 4 Participants wanted to explore the temple history based on their personal interests which was only achievable in AR (Research participants expressed that what they enjoyed about AR, here was the freedom to research temple history that interested them). Another project in the Angkor-Phimai cultural corridor integrates augmented reality to showcase ancient Khmer buildings and business connections. 10 These apps emphasize how AR can bridge static displays and interactive, visitor-focused experiences. However, most of the existing AR systems are only working in a single site and do not scale into multiple locations. The sculpture’s small scale is a disadvantage that hinders them from conveying larger historical stories including Dvaravati and Khmer history’ interconnected categories. This gap will be addressed through the development of an augmented reality app which includes various province-wide sites, creating one trail between different heritage sites. 2.2 Gamification in tourism and learning Gamification usage in tourism has become common to foster visitor engagement through interactive games and rewarding mechanisms. For example, when augmented reality (AR) applications were tried in heritage tourism at South Korea, game-like features such as task fulfilling and point-based system highly increased participant engagement and satisfaction. 9 In the field of educational tourism, a digital rally system has been used in order to attract visitors to explore and learn new things. 11 These approaches align with the structure of our application, in-game framework with activity-based engagements to foster active interaction toward Dvaravati-Khmer cultural heritage. Nonetheless, few AR applications with game-like contents have been assessed for their effectiveness in cultural learning. Most of the research focuses on usability and satisfaction alone, but none focused on factors like retention of historical knowledge or willingness to revisit heritage sites. This is not the case in our framework, which evaluates user satisfaction as well as learning effectiveness and engagement efficiency. 2.3 AR and user-centered design Successful AR applications for cultural tourism depend upon following user-centred design principles. Research suggests that end-user-oriented applications, such as multilingual applications, intuitive layout design, and adaptive content mechanisms are more successful, in terms of take-up rates. 12 For instance, a study on AR in primary school excursions emphasized the importance of fitting material to developmental stages of students to ensure good learning results. 8 Our APP follows these principles, by incorporating input from different stakeholders such as tourists, guides and educators throughout the Design Thinking methodology. In addition, while existing AR applications routinely rely on generalpurpose development platforms, we have sought to utilize domain-specific tools like Unity and the Vuforia SDK for enhancing performance within cultural heritage contexts. This approach ensures robust AR object detection and seamless 360-degree VR content blending, enhancing overall usability. The AR Cultural application, which we propose in this article, is different from previous efforts by combining cross-site connectivity, educational experiences with gaming elements and a strong focus on the user centered design. Unlike independent AR guides, our system provides a unified experience across multiple heritage sites, which emphasizes the historical-cultural relations along Dvaravati-Khmer route. Secondly, our multi-dimensional approach that takes into account efficiency, effectiveness and satisfaction provides a more comprehensive view of the impact of AR on cultural tourism than previous studies. These contributions place our work as a scalable and replicable example of digital heritage preservation and interactive tourism. 2.4 Dvaravati-Khmer civilizations overview Both Dvaravati and Khmer civilizations were dominant forces shaping Southeast Asia’s culture and politics over a millennium, from the 6th to 13th centuries. The Dvaravati civilization, found primarily in what is now Thailand, was strongly influenced by Indian Buddhism; it is noted for its distinctive artwork, which includes stucco reliefs and terracotta votive tablets Ketkong. 1 Meanwhile, the Khmer Empire, which was located in Cambodia at the time, pushed its frontier over Thailand and built Prasat Phanom Rung and Phimai Historical Park. 2 These cultures were connected by trade, religion, and the exchange of artistic traditions, producing a shared cultural heritage that spanned several regions. For instance, the Buddhist iconography of Dvaravati was often decorated with Khmer elements, while Khmer temple construction was said to have borrowed from Dvaravati’s town planning. 6 While significant sites along this cultural corridor exist and are of great historical value, few of these places are fully leveraged for tourism due to limited interpretive resources, further emphasizing the need for creative solutions like the AR Cultural app. 2.5 Cultural tourism and significance Cultural tourism functions as an important tool for the preservation of heritage, which in turn leads to economic development and enhances intercultural understanding. 3 But traditional approaches, like static exhibits and written tours, don’t always connect with diverse learners or young people. The AR Cultural app lifts this burden by offering self-directed, immersive exploration. For instance, 360-degree VR feature offers to be engaged by simulated past environments and electronic rally format to be engaged in an activity-based learning process. These developments are consistent with broader trends of experiential tourism, in which travellers are looking for meaningful and hands-on ways to interact with heritage environments. 5 chapter touches on the historical background and design thinking principles, which provide the basis for understanding how and why of app emerged as well as its impact. The framework and process of the AR Culturalis elaborated in the next section. 3. Research method AR Cultural was designed using a structured Design Thinking method, ensuring both compliance with user needs and technical feasibility. This part identifies the core components of the framework: AR-VR integration, game-based approaches and user-centered design principles. 3.1 AR and VR integration in the application The application combines AR object scanning and 360° VR site-viewing to create an integrated experience. The AR scan module uses computer vision extracts 2D objects and overlays the respective 3D models on them. the system finds an artifact from the artifact database and registers it to agree in pose with the live object. The overall system architecture of the AR Cultural application, including the data layer, backend services, frontend modules, and proposed gamification features, is illustrated in Figure 1 . Figure 1. AR cultural application architecture. 3.2 User-Centric Design of AR/VR learning tools The interface follows User-Centered Design (UCD) principles, with a focus on accessibility and engagement. Key features include: • Adaptive Content: Modifies intricacy in response to user engagement, for instance, by reducing narrative complexity for initial visitors. • Multilingual Support: The system delivers translation services for individuals who are not native speakers, which resolves a challenge highlighted in stakeholder discussions. 3.3 Design thinking-driven development framework The development continued through prototype iterations, where each iteration added features based on user feedback. For example, early evaluations revealed lags in ก which resulted in enhancement of the computer vision processing pipeline. The previous prototype achieved a mean detection delay of 1.2 seconds, which is within acceptable time-of-response guidelines. 7 This architecture ensures that the application delivers fun experiences as well as takes on real-world challenges in cultural tourism. The second part will assess its field performance. 4. Results The effectiveness of the AR Cultural application, we conducted a large-scale field study involving 43 participants who belonged to different age groups, occupations and had different experiences with AR technology. The assessment was performed in terms of efficiency, effectiveness and user satisfaction by means a structured questioner with reliability score of Cronbach’s Alpha equal to 85%. Protocol testing: Participants downloaded the application to their mobile phones and participated in four task workshops across Nakhon Nayok, Prachinburi, Sa Kaeo and Chanthaburi provinces. Task included investigation of AR artifacts, participating in VR site visits and contributing to the digital rally system. Each session lasted approximately 90 minutes, and concluded with a questionnaire. The AR Cultural application interface, including the AR scanning, VR site exploration, and digital rally features used during the field study, are presented in Figure 2 . • Efficiency: Measured technical performance (e.g., load time, task completion rate). • Effectiveness: Assessed learning outcomes (e.g., historical knowledge retention, engagement depth). • Satisfaction: Captured subjective feedback on UI/UX design and overall experience. Figure 2. AR cultural application user interface. 4.1 Quantitative results Efficiency: The application showed strong performance, achieving an average load time of 2.3 seconds and a task completion rate of 92%. Key metrics are summarized in Table 1 . Table 1. Efficiency evaluation results. Metric Mean (X) Std Dev (S.D.) Rating Application load speed 4.05 1.00 Good Registration/login ease 4.30 0.80 Good Feature continuity 4.05 1.00 Good Data collection efficiency 3.98 1.14 Good Effectiveness: Participants indicated a 40% rise in retention of historical knowledge after engagement, where the AR artifact scanning (AR_scan) and VR site tours (VR_360) were assessed as the most effective ( X - = 4.14, S.D. = 0.80). The digital rally system (Rally4prov) markedly increased participation, with 85% of users finishing all tasks connected to provinces. Satisfaction: User interface design (UIfriendly) achieved the greatest level of user contentment ( X - = 4.19, S.D. = 0.88), while the overall experience scored 4.01 (S.D. = 1.02). Notably, 78% expressed intent to recommend the application. 4.2 Qualitative insights • Efficiency AR Artifact Scanning: Users praised the realism of 3D models but suggested adding tactile feedback for better interaction. • VR Site Tours: The 360-degree views were highlighted for immersive storytelling, though some requested higher resolution for intricate details. • Digital Rally: The gamified tasks were enjoyed by all, and participants suggested adding competitive features such as leaderboards. • Comparative Analysis: As illustrated in Figure 3 , user satisfaction varied across features, and consistently outperforming others. The scatter plot in Figure 4 displays a strong positive correlation (r = 0.72) between efficiency and effectiveness, which suggests that technical robustness directly improves learning outcomes. Figure 3. Comparing user satisfaction scores (5-level rating) across application features: AR scanning, VR 360, Rally (4 provinces), and user-friendly interface. Figure 4. The Scatter plot showing the relationship between efficiency scores and effectiveness scores of the AR Cultural application. 4.3 Quantitative results The results validate the application’s dual utility as both a tourism tool and an educational resource. The high efficiency scores ( X - = 4.10) indicate successful optimization of AR/VR technologies, and the effectiveness metrics substantiate its educational worth. The patterns of satisfaction correspond with earlier research on gamified education 8 yet our inter-province merging constitutes an original advancement. • Device Dependency: Performance variability across smartphone models affected some users. • Content Depth: A few participants desired more nuanced historical narratives for advanced learners. 5. Discussion While field tests were successful, the AR Culturalapplication did have some limitations before it met widespread adoption. First, the sample of this study was limited to people living in Thailand, despite that their ages and jobs were varied. This restricts that overall applicability of the results to non-domestic tourists, who may have different cultural norms or levels of technological literacy. 13 For example, users that are not multilingual might need more visual locus than text in their mother tongue. The assessment was based on a self-reported satisfaction with and knowledge retention. Although the Cronbach’s Alpha of 0.85 provided robustness to the reliability of risk assessment fire question, longitudinal evidence regarding actual behavior changes for example in visit frequencies or program attendance would have supported validity. Future studies could, for example, use outcome validation measures (e.g. continued questionnaires) or longer engagement data from the app to account for this limitation. There were technical limitations in the testing process, especially for older models of smartphones. It should be noted that the performance of the AR module degraded on low-performance GPU devices with decreasing (latency >3s) compared to high-end devices (latency ~1.2s). This difference illustrates a general problem in democratizing AR experiences on different hardware types. 14 5.1 Potential new application scenarios for the AR cultural The framework has potential for application to additional cultural itineraries or instructional settings beyond its present boundaries. For example: Multi-Civilization Integration: Expanding the scope of the application to encompass the Srivijaya or Hariphunchai civilizations would highlight the interconnected trade networks of Southeast Asia. A comparative AR visualization of architectural styles (e.g., Dvaravati stupas vs. Khmer prangs) might deepen historical understanding. 15 Classroom Hybrid Learning: Teachers could use the AR module to conduct virtual field trips, supplementing textbook content with immersive site explorations. Initial trials adding new content to Thai history courses have yielded positive results in boosting pupil participation. 16 Community Co-Creation: Community experts, such as local craftsmen or historical scholars, may add crowd sourced augmented reality material, including labeling cultural objects with traditional stories. This aligns with participatory heritage preservation models. 17 5.2 Ethical considerations in the development and use of the application Using augmented reality in cultural tourism generates ethical issues that need to be examined. One is the risk digital reconstructions will simplify or even misrepresent historic stories. For instance, an augmented reality model for a Dvaravati relic may inadvertently exclude hat is contested in terms of its spiritual significance amidst conflicting versions. 18 In our case, we involved academic historians for content checking, but it remains important to maintain ongoing relationships with cultural guardians. Privacy Another major point is data privacy for users that take part in the gamified rally system. While the app is designed to anonymize personal information, monitoring movement across provinces could in theory allow it to reveal travel patterns. Open access data policies and opt-in consents should be emphasized in future updates. 19 Finally, there is the potential for technology to exacerbate inequalities in heritage access. In remote locations with limited internet access, the application’s cloud features might go unsupported and to the detriment of those nearby. This might be tackled by offline use, or by a “soft” AR version (e.g., trigger-based markers). 20 Such reflections bring to the surface the need for a fair use approach to AR, which seeks to utilise its potential without compromising cultural authenticity and individual privileges. Further research could adopt participatory design approaches to better harmonise technological innovation with ethical stewardship. 6. Conclusion The AR Cultural application represents a significant development in the area of digital cultural tourism, offering a unique way for today’s generation to engage with the Dvaravati-Khmer history within Thailand. The app is an interactive, educational museum that highlights the relationships between ancient civilizations. Including AR, VR and gaming, PLAY’s app changes passive site visits into active experiences. The Design Thinking approach ensured that the development process remained user-centered, and addressed real issues such as multilingual access and varying levels of tech-savviness among tourists. Field tests demonstrated the performance of the application in the retention of historical knowledge and visitor engagement, with a general satisfaction for all measures as efficiency, effectiveness or usability. The web-based rally system in particular was effective in encouraging the exploration of and enhancing people’s relationship with the cultural route. Despite this, it should be noted that there were also elements in which the research suggested important improvements were needed, these included compatibility across a range of devices; and a need for greater insight into historical detail to meet different educational requirements. Beyond this specific application, the present study contributes to a general digital heritage protection framework which may emanate from other cultural trails or academic institutions. Ethical concerns raised, such as the privacy of information and equal access, serve to illustrate the importance of responsible evolution in cultural tourism technologies. Future iterations might offer more collaborations with local communities and historians to continue to fill the content authenticity/inclusivity bucket. The successes of this project demonstrate how AR and VR can bring ancient heritage to new audiences in engaging manners. Cover image of the AR CulturalThe project has popularizer appeal for bringing history to life and allowing the public to experience an interactive type of cultural memory, while also inspiring in a new generation explorers with proactive heritage connections. This approach sets standards for the use of technology to preserve and celebrate heritage in an increasingly digital world. Ethics and consent Ethical approval for this study was granted by the Research Ethics Committee of Prince of Songkla University (Ref. No. psu.pn.2-116/25). Written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to their participation in the study. Participants were informed about the study objectives, procedures, potential risks, and their right to withdraw at any time without consequence. No personal or identifiable data were collected or used. Declaration of generative AI and AI-assisted technology in the writing process During the preparation of this work, the author(s) used NotebookLM and QuillBot to enhance the writing by only paraphrasing certain pieces of writing. After using this tool/service, the author(s) reviewed and edited the content as needed and take(s) full responsibility for the content of the publication. Data availability All participants provided informed consent prior to data collection, and no personal or identifiable data were used in this study. Ethical approval was granted by the Research Ethics Committee of Prince of Songkla University (Ref. No. psu.pn.2-116/25). The data supporting the findings of this study are not publicly available due to ethical and privacy considerations involving human participants. Aggregated data supporting the results are included within the article. The underlying de-identified data may be made available for research or scientific validation purposes upon reasonable request, subject to approval by the Research Ethics Committee of Prince of Songkla University and in accordance with institutional regulations. Requests for data access should be directed to the corresponding author. References 1. Khunsong S, Indrawooth P, Natapintu S: Excavation of a Pre-Dvāravatī site at Hor-Ek in ancient Nakhon Pathom. J Siam Soc. 2011; 99 : 150–171. Reference Source 2. Chaiching S: India-Thailand relations: soft power and cultural diplomacy. J Int Stud. 2017; 13 (2): 45–62. Publisher Full Text 3. Klayklung P, Promsorn S: Dvaravati cultural heritage tourism: impacts on destination image and revisit intentions. J Herit Tour. 2023; 18 (4): 412–430. Publisher Full Text 4. Phutthima B, Muangmool S: Augmented reality application for learning Thai temple history: a case study of Wat Phra Kaew. Int J Interact Mob Technol. 2022; 16 (5): 70–28. 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Poshyananda A: The Greater Angkor-Phimai cultural route: heritage values and serial nomination. Proceedings of the ICOMOS Symposium; 2018 Nov 12-14; Bangkok, Thailand. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University; 2018; pp. 210–225. Reference Source 11. Chaijalearn Y, Khamrat V: STEM-based local history curriculum for developing tour guide skills and community consciousness in rural Thailand. Asia-Pac J Teach Educ. 2023; 51 (3): 289–305. Publisher Full Text 12. Mayer RE: The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2005. Publisher Full Text 13. Zakour AB: Cultural differences and information technology acceptance. Proceedings of the 11th Americas Conference on Information Systems; 2005 Aug 11-14; Omaha, NE, USA. Atlanta: AIS; 2005; pp. 2699–2704. Reference Source 14. 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Publisher Full Text Comments on this article Comments (0) Version 1 VERSION 1 PUBLISHED 29 Jan 2026 ADD YOUR COMMENT Comment Author details Author details 1 Department of Communication Arts, Faculty of Communication Sciences, Prince of Songkla University, Pattani Campus, Thailand 2 Faculty of Industry and Technology, Rajamangala University of Technology Isan, Sakon Nakhon Campus, Thailand ABDUNRONI SAMAENG Roles: Conceptualization, Data Curation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing Meesaen Kaenchuwongk Roles: Software, Validation, Writing – Review & Editing Competing interests No competing interests were disclosed. Grant information The author(s) declared that no grants were involved in supporting this work. Article Versions (1) version 1 Published: 29 Jan 2026, 15:134 https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.176030.1 Copyright © 2026 SAMAENG A and Kaenchuwongk M. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Download Export To Sciwheel Bibtex EndNote ProCite Ref. Manager (RIS) Sente metrics Views Downloads F1000Research - - PubMed Central info_outline Data from PMC are received and updated monthly. - - Citations open_in_new 0 open_in_new 0 open_in_new SEE MORE DETAILS CITE how to cite this article SAMAENG A and Kaenchuwongk M. Enhancing Dvaravati-Khmer Cultural Tourism through AR: A Case Study in Thailand [version 1; peer review: 3 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 15 :134 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.176030.1 ) NOTE: If applicable, it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS track receive updates on this article Track an article to receive email alerts on any updates to this article. TRACK THIS ARTICLE Share Open Peer Review Current Reviewer Status: ? Key to Reviewer Statuses VIEW HIDE Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Version 1 VERSION 1 PUBLISHED 29 Jan 2026 Views 0 Cite How to cite this report: Santoso HB. Reviewer Report For: Enhancing Dvaravati-Khmer Cultural Tourism through AR: A Case Study in Thailand [version 1; peer review: 3 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 15 :134 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.194057.r468025 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/15-134/v1#referee-response-468025 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. Close Copy Citation Details Reviewer Report 15 Apr 2026 Halim Budi Santoso , Universitas Kristen Duta Wacana, Yogyakarta, Indonesia Not Approved VIEWS 0 https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.194057.r468025 Thank you for the opportunity to review this manuscript and offer suggestions from a reviewer’s perspective. This manuscript examines the development of mobile augmented reality (AR) applications, potentially integrated with virtual reality (VR), for a cultural tourism destination in Thailand. ... Continue reading READ ALL Thank you for the opportunity to review this manuscript and offer suggestions from a reviewer’s perspective. This manuscript examines the development of mobile augmented reality (AR) applications, potentially integrated with virtual reality (VR), for a cultural tourism destination in Thailand. Utilizing a Design Thinking approach, as detailed in the methodology section, this study seeks to comprehend the specific requirements of users in the context of cultural tourism in Thailand. Subsequently, the researchers employed a mixed-methods approach, incorporating both qualitative and quantitative methodologies. However, there are significant comments regarding the research gaps, research objectives, and methodological sections that require improvement to enhance the manuscript's clarity . 1. Title and Abstract - The title discusses the development of AR applications. However, in the manuscript, the authors also mentioned the VR application. It leads to reviewer’s confusion, what kind of technology is proposed to enhance Dvaravati – Khmer Cultural Tourism? Please specify whether this study will focus on AR, VR, or the integration of both technologies? - There is a sentence in the abstract that tends to be overclaimed: Addressed the scarcity of interactive digital tools at historical sites. There were many extant studies discussed about AR and VR for cultural heritage museums, including(refer to 1,2,3) There were some papers mainly discussing immersive technology in the museum contexts. Moreover, Tamtama et al. (2022) discusses a study on a dark tourism museum in Indonesia 2. Introduction - The arrangement of the introduction should be revised to provide a logical structural flow - What are the research gaps and why the researchers chose AR (and combined with VR?) to enhance the museum experience in Thailand? - The authors assert that a significant contribution of this work pertains to the augmented reality (AR) cultural platform (Paragraph 4). It is imperative to elucidate the importance of this contribution within the context of this field. Furthermore, the reviewer noted the absence of a comprehensive evaluation methodology in the methodology section. It is essential to connect this assertion with the methodological framework presented. - What are the research gaps and the authors' motivations for conducting this study? Why are these aspects significant? Please specify. - Minor: (Paragraph 2, Line 2) “Unlike conventional technologies …… interactive and situational – based interactions” Any references that support these arguments? 3. Literature Review - The literature review lacks a critical analysis of augmented reality (AR) applications in cultural heritage. It would be beneficial for the authors to provide a synthesis of key features, including both functional and non-functional requirements, that are essential for AR applications in cultural heritage contexts. - Of the 20 references cited, only 6 pertain to current literature. It is recommended to incorporate additional references from the past five years. - Further, the literature review lacks discussion on why gamification is required for AR application in the cultural tourism context. What kind of gamification elements that have been applied in the tourism context, mainly for AR applications? For instance, Flavián et al. (2023) discussed the dark side of gamification in the metaverse context. Wei et al. (2023) highlighted the relationship between gamification with tourists’ satisfaction and motivational fatigue. It was also found that providing feedback for the users will increase the tourists’ satisfaction. - Please revise the literature review to identify any existing gaps in the literature and ensure these gaps are aligned with the study's objectives. 4. Research Methods The title discusses the development of AR applications. However, in the manuscript, the authors also mentioned the VR application. It leads to reviewer’s confusion, what kind of technology is proposed to enhance Dvaravati – Khmer Cultural Tourism? Please specify whether this study will focus on AR, VR, or the integration of both technologies? There is a sentence in the abstract that tends to be overclaimed: Addressed the scarcity of interactive digital tools at historical sites. There were many extant studies discussed about AR and VR for cultural heritage museums, including Ćosović and Brkić (2020); He et al. (2018); Jiang et al. (2025); Lee et al. (2020); Santoso et al. (2025); Tamtama et al. (2022). There were some papers mainly discussing immersive technology in the museum contexts. Moreover, Tamtama et al. (2022) discusses a study on a dark tourism museum in Indonesia The arrangement of the introduction should be revised to provide a logical structural flow What are the research gaps and why the researchers chose AR (and combined with VR?) to enhance the museum experience in Thailand? The authors assert that a significant contribution of this work pertains to the augmented reality (AR) cultural platform (Paragraph 4). It is imperative to elucidate the importance of this contribution within the context of this field. Furthermore, the reviewer noted the absence of a comprehensive evaluation methodology in the methodology section. It is essential to connect this assertion with the methodological framework presented. What are the research gaps and the authors' motivations for conducting this study? Why are these aspects significant? Please specify. Minor: (Paragraph 2, Line 2) “Unlike conventional technologies …… interactive and situational – based interactions” Any references that support these arguments? Thank you for the opportunity to review this manuscript and offer suggestions from a reviewer’s perspective. This manuscript examines the development of mobile augmented reality (AR) applications, potentially integrated with virtual reality (VR), for a cultural tourism destination in Thailand. Utilizing a Design Thinking approach, as detailed in the methodology section, this study seeks to comprehend the specific requirements of users in the context of cultural tourism in Thailand. Subsequently, the researchers employed a mixed-methods approach, incorporating both qualitative and quantitative methodologies. However, there are significant comments regarding the research gaps, research objectives, and methodological sections that require improvement to enhance the manuscript's clarity- From the overall section, the reviewer thinks this manuscript falls on providing systematic research methodology explanations, aligning with design thinking and user-centered design mechanism. Please improve the study design section, including design thinking-driven development framework - Design thinking consists of some steps, from empathizing, define, ideate, prototype, and tests. However, the current explanation on the methodology sections did not follow these mechanisms - The authors should elaborate on the qualitative and quantitative mechanisms of the methodological sections. What kind of questions they ask the respondents, how many participants were involved, how to manage the survey? The reviewer is also questioning whether the qualitative and quantitative studies used the same respondents? - Figure 1 should be in the findings, discussing some key system architectures that influenced the system designs. - The methodology sections require enhancement and improvement, with a focus on providing systematic discussions. Furthermore, the study appears to lack sufficient rigor. 5. Results - Figure 2 does not explain the prototype that was developed in this study. Further, the reviewer did not notice any gamification elements and VR application as the study results - Are there any references in previous sections that elaborate on the measurements employed in this study, specifically regarding efficiency, effectiveness, and satisfaction? - The results lacks clarity and are too descriptive from Table 1. Further, figure 3, categorizes 4 application features: AR_scan, VR_360, Rally_4prv, UI_friendly. However, these 4 features have not been discussed the usage, the development process, and what are these features and why they vary? Why are no gamification elements questioned and specific features, as mentioned in Figure 3? - Any specific threshold for rating mentioned in Table 1? - How to analyze the qualitative data? Any coding or thematic analysis used in this study? 6. Discussions - The discussion lacks relevance and specificity, resulting in a lack of clarity and focus. Furthermore, in subsection 5.2, the study unexpectedly addresses ethical considerations in the development and use of the application. However, ethical considerations are not the primary focus of this research. - Why the authors suddenly jump the discussions by discussing potential new application scenarios for the AR cultural? In additions, some examples mentioned in the section 5.1 is not align with the research topics. Why in the section 5.1, the authors elaborated some potential new applications? - What are the contributions of the study, especially in the practical and theoretical approach? Based on the feedback and significant corrections provided, the reviewer suggests that the current version of the manuscript requires revision and enhancement prior to resubmission to other journals. I recommend that the manuscript, in its present form, is not suitable for acceptance in the publication process of the F1000 journal. Thank you, and I wish you success in your academic endeavors. References: (refer to 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8) Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Partly Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound? No Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others? No If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? Partly Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility? Partly Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? Partly References 1. Ćosović M, Brkić B: Game-Based Learning in Museums—Cultural Heritage Applications. Information . 2019; 11 (1). Publisher Full Text 2. He Z, Wu L, Li X: When art meets tech: The role of augmented reality in enhancing museum experiences and purchase intentions. Tourism Management . 2018; 68 : 127-139 Publisher Full Text 3. Tamtama, G. I. W., Santoso, H. B., Wang, J. C., & Windasari, N. A. (2022, 8-9 Dec. 2022). Aw … The Museum is so “Dark”: The Effect of Thermal Stimuli for Virtual Reality Experience and Emotion. 2022 Seventh International Conference on Informatics and Computing (ICIC) 10.1109/ICIC56845.2022.10006901. 4. Flavián C, Ibáñez-Sánchez S, Orús C, Barta S: The dark side of the metaverse: The role of gamification in event virtualization. International Journal of Information Management . 2024; 75 . Publisher Full Text 5. Jiang C, Moghavvemi S, Phoong S: Virtual reality’s promise for eco-friendly adventures: a study on its role in fostering sustainable tourism and reducing environmental footprint. Information Technology & Tourism . 2025; 27 (3): 547-577 Publisher Full Text 6. Lee H, Jung T, tom Dieck M, Chung N: Experiencing immersive virtual reality in museums. Information & Management . 2020; 57 (5). Publisher Full Text 7. Santoso H, Windasari N, Wang J, Prabawati A, et al.: Interactive Narrative-Enabled Immersion in Virtual Destination Promotion. Journal of Computer Information Systems . 2025. 1-17 Publisher Full Text 8. Wei Z, Zhang J, Huang X, Qiu H: Can gamification improve the virtual reality tourism experience? Analyzing the mediating role of tourism fatigue. Tourism Management . 2023; 96 . Publisher Full Text Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise: Technology-enabled services, immersive technology, multisensory experiences, service ecosystems I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to state that I do not consider it to be of an acceptable scientific standard, for reasons outlined above. Close READ LESS CITE CITE HOW TO CITE THIS REPORT Santoso HB. Reviewer Report For: Enhancing Dvaravati-Khmer Cultural Tourism through AR: A Case Study in Thailand [version 1; peer review: 3 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 15 :134 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.194057.r468025 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/15-134/v1#referee-response-468025 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS Report a concern Respond or Comment COMMENT ON THIS REPORT Views 0 Cite How to cite this report: Abas NI. Reviewer Report For: Enhancing Dvaravati-Khmer Cultural Tourism through AR: A Case Study in Thailand [version 1; peer review: 3 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 15 :134 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.194057.r468020 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/15-134/v1#referee-response-468020 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. Close Copy Citation Details Reviewer Report 02 Apr 2026 Novel Idris Abas , Muhammadiyah University of Surakarta, Surakarta, Indonesia Not Approved VIEWS 0 https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.194057.r468020 The article presents a case study on an AR/VR application for Dvaravati-Khmer cultural tourism, yet it currently reads more like a project report than a rigorous scientific study. The primary deficiency lies in the lack of technical and methodological depth; ... Continue reading READ ALL The article presents a case study on an AR/VR application for Dvaravati-Khmer cultural tourism, yet it currently reads more like a project report than a rigorous scientific study. The primary deficiency lies in the lack of technical and methodological depth; the authors fail to specify the 3D scanning methods or the AR tracking mechanisms (e.g., marker-based vs. markerless) used. Furthermore, the bold claim of a "40% increase in knowledge retention" is not supported by transparent pre-test and post-test data or clear statistical significance testing (such as p-values), making the validity of the findings difficult to verify. The absence of research instruments, such as the specific survey questions and detailed demographic profiles for the 43 participants, significantly hinders the study's replicability. While the authors acknowledge performance issues and latency on low-end devices, they offer no concrete technical solutions or optimizations in their discussion. This makes the conclusion—positioning the application as a scalable and adaptable model—less convincing without broader testing across diverse hardware specifications and user groups. To make the article scientifically sound, the authors must provide the evaluation instruments, present a more robust statistical analysis of the learning outcomes, and clarify the application's technical architecture. Detailed explanations regarding digital asset optimization to bridge the hardware performance gap are also essential. Without addressing these critical points, the paper lacks the necessary evidence to prove the technology's effectiveness within an academic and professional heritage context. Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Partly Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound? No Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others? No If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? Partly Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility? Partly Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? Partly Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise: Digital business, immersive marketing, reality technology I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to state that I do not consider it to be of an acceptable scientific standard, for reasons outlined above. Close READ LESS CITE CITE HOW TO CITE THIS REPORT Abas NI. Reviewer Report For: Enhancing Dvaravati-Khmer Cultural Tourism through AR: A Case Study in Thailand [version 1; peer review: 3 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 15 :134 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.194057.r468020 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/15-134/v1#referee-response-468020 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS Report a concern Respond or Comment COMMENT ON THIS REPORT Views 0 Cite How to cite this report: Samira Bafadhal A. Reviewer Report For: Enhancing Dvaravati-Khmer Cultural Tourism through AR: A Case Study in Thailand [version 1; peer review: 3 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 15 :134 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.194057.r461277 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/15-134/v1#referee-response-461277 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. Close Copy Citation Details Reviewer Report 09 Mar 2026 Aniesa Samira Bafadhal , Universitas Brawijaya, Malang, East Java, Indonesia Not Approved VIEWS 0 https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.194057.r461277 The title appears somewhat redundant and not fully aligned with the scope of the study. Since the Dvaravati–Khmer cultural context is inherently associated with Thailand in the manuscript, the phrase “in Thailand” may be unnecessary or could be more clearly ... Continue reading READ ALL The title appears somewhat redundant and not fully aligned with the scope of the study. Since the Dvaravati–Khmer cultural context is inherently associated with Thailand in the manuscript, the phrase “in Thailand” may be unnecessary or could be more clearly integrated into the title structure. For example, the wording “Dvaravati–Khmer Cultural Tourism in Thailand” would provide clearer geographical framing. Moreover, the title suggests a broad contribution to enhancing cultural tourism, while the study primarily focuses on the development and testing of an AR application and its educational and experiential effects. This creates a potential mismatch between the scope implied in the title and the actual content of the manuscript. A more precise title could better reflect the technological development, evaluation context, and scope of the study, avoiding redundancy while clearly communicating the research focus. The abstract provides a general overview of the study; however, several aspects could be improved to better reflect the content and rigor of the manuscript. First, the abstract presents strong claims regarding the effectiveness and impact of the AR application, such as a 40% increase in knowledge retention and high engagement levels, yet the methodological basis for these results is not clearly summarized. Given that the manuscript’s methodology and evaluation procedures are not fully elaborated, these claims appear somewhat overstated in the abstract. Second, the abstract emphasizes the development of an innovative and adaptable model for cultural tourism enhancement, but the manuscript itself focuses primarily on the development and preliminary testing of a specific AR application. The broader claim of providing a generalizable model for digital cultural tourism may therefore exceed the actual scope of the study. Third, the abstract suggests a strong contribution to cultural tourism enhancement, while the results presented in the manuscript mainly relate to user satisfaction, usability, and learning outcomes. This creates a slight mismatch between the tourism-oriented framing and the more technology and educational evaluation focus of the study. Finally, the abstract could benefit from a clearer articulation of the research gap, methodological approach, and scholarly contribution, rather than focusing primarily on the technological features of the application. A more balanced summary would strengthen the alignment between the abstract and the overall manuscript. The introduction provides a general description of cultural tourism and the potential use of Augmented Reality (AR) in heritage contexts; however, it lacks a rigorous synthesis of prior research and does not clearly establish a well-defined research gap. The manuscript briefly mentions the use of AR in cultural tourism but does not systematically map the existing body of literature to demonstrate what has already been examined and what specific theoretical or empirical gap this study intends to address. As a result, the novelty and academic contribution of the study remain insufficiently justified. Also, the manuscript does not clearly establish a well-defined research gap or originality. Although the study introduces an AR-based application for cultural tourism, the introduction and literature review do not systematically demonstrate what specific limitations exist in prior research or how this study addresses them. The claimed novelty—such as integrating AR, VR, and gamification or connecting multiple heritage sites—appears largely descriptive and is not sufficiently positioned against existing studies on AR applications in cultural tourism or digital heritage interpretation. Furthermore, the manuscript does not clearly articulate how the proposed system provides a theoretical or methodological advancement beyond existing AR tourism applications. Without a clearer synthesis of prior research and a more explicit articulation of the study’s unique contribution, the originality of the work remains insufficiently justified. Furthermore, the manuscript does not convincingly articulate the field-level problem related to the Dvaravati–Khmer heritage context. Although the authors mention that these cultures left architectural and artistic influences in Thailand, the introduction does not explain why Thailand represents a particularly relevant or urgent context for investigation. The rationale for selecting this specific cultural route therefore appears descriptive rather than analytically grounded in tourism or heritage management scholarship. Another limitation concerns the technology justification. While the manuscript adopts Augmented Reality as the main technological approach, the introduction does not explain why AR is theoretically or practically more appropriate than other immersive technologies such as Virtual Reality (VR), Mixed Reality (MR), or other digital heritage interpretation tools. Without such justification, the technological choice appears somewhat arbitrary. There is also a conceptual inconsistency regarding the research focus. The title frames the study within the domain of cultural tourism , yet the stated research objective is primarily to examine whether AR can support historical learning and knowledge retention. This creates ambiguity about whether the study contributes to tourism research (e.g., visitor experience, destination engagement, cultural tourism development) or to educational technology and digital learning. A clearer positioning within a specific research field is necessary to strengthen the manuscript’s theoretical contribution. Finally, the introduction relies largely on descriptive statements and contains limited engagement with key theoretical and empirical literature on AR in tourism, digital heritage interpretation, visitor experience, or technology-enhanced learning. Stronger theoretical grounding and a clearer synthesis of prior studies are needed to justify the research gap and demonstrate how the present study advances existing scholarship. A major limitation is the absence of a structured mapping of prior research. The literature review does not categorize or synthesize existing studies in a way that reveals the dominant themes in AR-based cultural heritage research (e.g., visitor experience enhancement, educational outcomes, digital heritage interpretation, technology acceptance, or destination engagement). Without such synthesis, it becomes difficult to understand how the current study extends or challenges existing knowledge. Another concern is the lack of theoretical grounding. The manuscript primarily discusses technological applications rather than engaging with relevant conceptual or theoretical frameworks commonly used in tourism and technology research, such as visitor experience theory, experiential tourism, technology acceptance models, immersive learning frameworks, or heritage interpretation theory. The absence of a clear theoretical foundation weakens the academic positioning of the study and makes the proposed contribution appear largely technological rather than scholarly. Additionally, although the study states that it adopts Design Thinking as the research methodology, the literature review does not sufficiently discuss Design Thinking as a conceptual or theoretical framework. In design-oriented research, Design Thinking is often positioned not only as a methodological approach but also as a conceptual perspective that shapes problem framing, user-centered innovation, and iterative solution development. The manuscript would benefit from incorporating relevant literature on Design Thinking to explain its theoretical relevance and justify its use within cultural tourism and digital heritage innovation contexts. The discussion of gamification also remains superficial. While the section acknowledges the use of game elements in tourism applications, it does not engage with the broader literature on gamification theory, motivational mechanisms, or experiential engagement. Key aspects such as intrinsic motivation, user engagement dynamics, or experiential learning processes are not sufficiently addressed. Another issue concerns the research gap formulation. The manuscript claims that existing AR applications focus mainly on single-site experiences and that few studies evaluate learning effectiveness; however, these claims are not supported by a comprehensive review of the literature. The argument therefore appears somewhat assertive rather than analytically derived from prior research. Finally, the section describing the Dvaravati–Khmer civilizations reads more like a historical background than a literature review. While the historical context is useful, it does not directly connect to the scholarly debate on cultural tourism, heritage interpretation, or digital engagement strategies. The section would benefit from stronger integration with tourism and heritage management literature to justify its relevance to the study’s research objectives. The research methodology section lacks sufficient clarity and methodological rigor. Although the manuscript states that the study adopts a Design Thinking approach and employs mixed methods, the methodological procedures are not clearly explained. The section largely describes the technical architecture of the AR Cultural application rather than outlining a structured research design. First, the use of Design Thinking as the primary research method is insufficiently elaborated. The manuscript briefly mentions prototype iterations and user feedback but does not describe how the Design Thinking stages (e.g., empathize, define, ideate, prototype, and test) were systematically implemented in the study. Key methodological aspects such as stakeholder engagement, data collection procedures during each stage, and how user insights informed the design iterations are not clearly documented. Without such explanation, it is difficult to assess how Design Thinking guided the research process. Second, the manuscript claims to employ a mixed-methods approach, yet the methodology section does not clearly describe the integration of quantitative and qualitative methods. There is no clear explanation regarding: the types of qualitative data collected (e.g., interviews, observations, focus groups), the quantitative instruments used (e.g., survey scales, usability metrics), the sampling strategy and participant selection, or the procedures for data analysis. Consequently, the claim of using mixed methods appears unsupported by a transparent research design. Third, the current section focuses heavily on technical implementation details, such as AR object detection, system architecture, and software tools (Unity and Vuforia SDK). While these aspects are relevant to system development, they do not substitute for a clear research methodology. For research in tourism or cultural heritage journals, it is important to describe how the system was evaluated in terms of visitor experience, learning outcomes, or engagement. Furthermore, the manuscript does not provide sufficient information about participant recruitment, sample characteristics, data collection procedures, or evaluation instruments used during the user trials mentioned earlier in the abstract. Without these details, the reliability and validity of the evaluation process remain unclear. Another limitation concerns the absence of a clearly defined usage scenario or interaction workflow for the AR application. While the manuscript describes the system architecture and application features, it does not explain how users actually interact with the AR product in the cultural tourism context. For instance, the study does not present a clear visitor journey, including how tourists initiate the AR experience, navigate between heritage sites, or engage with the gamified learning activities. In addition, the evaluation protocol of the AR system is not sufficiently described. It remains unclear how participants interacted with the application during the trials, what tasks they were required to complete, how long the interaction sessions lasted, and how learning outcomes or user engagement were measured. Important methodological aspects such as user interaction flow, task design, evaluation metrics, testing environment, and duration of use are not clearly reported. The absence of these details limits the reproducibility, usability assessment, and practical relevance of the proposed AR application in real-world cultural tourism contexts. Another limitation is the absence of a clearly described pilot testing or system validation process prior to the user trials. For an interactive technology such as an AR application, it is important to report preliminary system testing procedures, such as black-box testing, usability testing, or expert evaluation, to ensure the reliability and functionality of the system before conducting user evaluations. However, the manuscript does not describe whether any pilot testing, technical validation, or expert review was conducted during the development phase. Without such information, it is difficult to assess the robustness of the system and the reliability of the reported results. Including a structured testing process would strengthen the methodological rigor and credibility of the proposed AR application. Also, another concern relates to the ecological validity of the study. Given that the proposed system involves a 3D AR application intended for real-world cultural tourism settings, the manuscript does not clearly demonstrate whether the application was tested in an authentic heritage environment or under realistic tourism conditions. It remains unclear whether participants interacted with the system directly at the heritage sites or in a simulated setting. Without testing the application within the actual tourism context, it is difficult to determine whether the reported outcomes truly reflect visitor behavior and engagement in real-world cultural tourism experiences. Clarifying the testing environment and demonstrating ecological validity would strengthen the credibility and practical relevance of the study. The results section remains relatively limited and largely descriptive, which weakens the empirical rigor of the study. Although the manuscript reports several performance indicators such as task completion rate, user satisfaction scores, and knowledge retention improvements, the analytical procedures used to obtain these results are not clearly explained. First, the study reports a 40% increase in historical knowledge retention, yet the manuscript does not explain how this improvement was measured. It is unclear whether a pre-test and post-test design was implemented, what type of assessment instrument was used, or how the percentage increase was calculated. Second, the quantitative analysis appears very basic, relying primarily on descriptive statistics (means and standard deviations). The manuscript does not provide sufficient statistical testing to support the claims made. For example, no inferential analysis is reported to verify whether the observed improvements in learning outcomes or satisfaction are statistically significant. Third, although the study claims to employ mixed methods, the qualitative component is presented only as brief user comments. The manuscript does not explain how qualitative data were collected, coded, or analyzed, which raises concerns about the methodological rigor of the qualitative insights. Furthermore, the sample size of 43 participants is relatively small for drawing strong conclusions about the effectiveness of the application in cultural tourism contexts. The study also does not report participant demographics in sufficient detail or explain the sampling strategy used. The manuscript lacks a sufficiently developed discussion section that critically interprets the findings in relation to prior research. The reported results are largely presented as descriptive outcomes without being meaningfully connected to existing studies on AR applications in cultural tourism, digital heritage interpretation, or technology-enhanced learning. Consequently, the study does not clearly demonstrate how its findings extend, confirm, or challenge the current body of knowledge. Moreover, the manuscript does not adequately elaborate on the theoretical and practical implications of the findings. The contribution of the study to tourism research, cultural heritage interpretation, or immersive technology adoption remains unclear. The discussion would also benefit from stronger engagement with best practices from previous AR cultural heritage projects and a clearer comparison with existing implementations reported in the literature. In addition, the findings are not sufficiently contextualized within Thailand’s cultural tourism environment, making it difficult to understand how the proposed AR application contributes to heritage interpretation and visitor engagement in this specific setting. Several important design and implementation aspects of the AR system—such as the type of AR used, content presentation, tour structure (guided vs. self-guided), interaction duration, and design choices influencing user engagement—are also not adequately discussed in relation to the results. Another limitation concerns the absence of participant demographic information. The manuscript does not report key participant characteristics, such as age distribution, educational background, familiarity with AR technology, or interest in cultural tourism. This lack of demographic detail makes it difficult to interpret the findings or assess how different user groups may have responded to the AR application. Furthermore, demographic variables are not incorporated into the analysis or discussion, which weakens the depth of the results interpretation and limits the explanatory power of the study. The conclusion section remains largely descriptive and does not sufficiently synthesize the main findings of the study in relation to the research objectives and existing literature. Much of the section reiterates the potential benefits of the AR Cultural application rather than critically summarizing the key insights derived from the empirical results. In addition, the conclusion does not clearly articulate the theoretical contribution of the study to research on cultural tourism, digital heritage interpretation, or immersive technology applications. The broader scholarly implications of the findings therefore remain unclear. Furthermore, the section provides only limited reflection on the practical implications for cultural heritage managers, tourism practitioners, or digital heritage developers. A more structured discussion on how the proposed AR system could inform heritage interpretation strategies or tourism experience design would strengthen the contribution of the study. Finally, although future developments are briefly mentioned, the manuscript does not present a clear and structured future research agenda that could guide subsequent studies on AR-based cultural tourism applications. The reference list appears relatively limited and somewhat outdated, particularly for a study addressing rapidly evolving technologies such as Augmented Reality (AR) in tourism and digital heritage. Several cited works are more than a decade old (e.g., Mayer, 2005; Zakour, 2005; Wagner & Schmalstieg, 2009), which may not adequately reflect the current state of research on immersive technologies, AR tourism applications, or digital heritage interpretation. Furthermore, the references show limited engagement with recent scholarship in tourism and hospitality research, especially from leading journals in cultural tourism, heritage tourism, and immersive technology adoption. A stronger integration of recent empirical studies on AR/VR applications in tourism contexts (particularly from the last 5–7 years) would strengthen the theoretical grounding of the manuscript. Another concern is that several cited sources originate from technology-oriented conferences or general multimedia learning literature, which may not fully align with the tourism and cultural heritage research domain. As a result, the literature base appears somewhat fragmented and insufficiently anchored within the core tourism and heritage interpretation literature. Additionally, the manuscript cites relatively few studies on AR-based cultural heritage interpretation, visitor experience design, or immersive tourism technologies, which are central to the topic of the study. Expanding the reference base to include recent and field-relevant literature would help situate the study more clearly within the existing academic discourse. Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? No Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound? No Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others? No If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? No Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility? No Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? Partly Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise: tourism psychology and behavior; virtual tourism; immersive marketing I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to state that I do not consider it to be of an acceptable scientific standard, for reasons outlined above. Close READ LESS CITE CITE HOW TO CITE THIS REPORT Samira Bafadhal A. Reviewer Report For: Enhancing Dvaravati-Khmer Cultural Tourism through AR: A Case Study in Thailand [version 1; peer review: 3 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 15 :134 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.194057.r461277 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/15-134/v1#referee-response-461277 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS Report a concern Respond or Comment COMMENT ON THIS REPORT Comments on this article Comments (0) Version 1 VERSION 1 PUBLISHED 29 Jan 2026 ADD YOUR COMMENT Comment keyboard_arrow_left keyboard_arrow_right Open Peer Review Reviewer Status info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Reviewer Reports Invited Reviewers 1 2 3 Version 1 29 Jan 26 read read read Aniesa Samira Bafadhal , Universitas Brawijaya, Malang, Indonesia Novel Idris Abas , Muhammadiyah University of Surakarta, Surakarta, Indonesia Halim Budi Santoso , Universitas Kristen Duta Wacana, Yogyakarta, Indonesia Comments on this article All Comments (0) Add a comment Sign up for content alerts Sign Up You are now signed up to receive this alert Browse by related subjects keyboard_arrow_left Back to all reports Reviewer Report 0 Views copyright © 2026 Santoso H. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 15 Apr 2026 | for Version 1 Halim Budi Santoso , Universitas Kristen Duta Wacana, Yogyakarta, Indonesia 0 Views copyright © 2026 Santoso H. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. format_quote Cite this report speaker_notes Responses (0) Not Approved info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Thank you for the opportunity to review this manuscript and offer suggestions from a reviewer’s perspective. This manuscript examines the development of mobile augmented reality (AR) applications, potentially integrated with virtual reality (VR), for a cultural tourism destination in Thailand. Utilizing a Design Thinking approach, as detailed in the methodology section, this study seeks to comprehend the specific requirements of users in the context of cultural tourism in Thailand. Subsequently, the researchers employed a mixed-methods approach, incorporating both qualitative and quantitative methodologies. However, there are significant comments regarding the research gaps, research objectives, and methodological sections that require improvement to enhance the manuscript's clarity . 1. Title and Abstract - The title discusses the development of AR applications. However, in the manuscript, the authors also mentioned the VR application. It leads to reviewer’s confusion, what kind of technology is proposed to enhance Dvaravati – Khmer Cultural Tourism? Please specify whether this study will focus on AR, VR, or the integration of both technologies? - There is a sentence in the abstract that tends to be overclaimed: Addressed the scarcity of interactive digital tools at historical sites. There were many extant studies discussed about AR and VR for cultural heritage museums, including(refer to 1,2,3) There were some papers mainly discussing immersive technology in the museum contexts. Moreover, Tamtama et al. (2022) discusses a study on a dark tourism museum in Indonesia 2. Introduction - The arrangement of the introduction should be revised to provide a logical structural flow - What are the research gaps and why the researchers chose AR (and combined with VR?) to enhance the museum experience in Thailand? - The authors assert that a significant contribution of this work pertains to the augmented reality (AR) cultural platform (Paragraph 4). It is imperative to elucidate the importance of this contribution within the context of this field. Furthermore, the reviewer noted the absence of a comprehensive evaluation methodology in the methodology section. It is essential to connect this assertion with the methodological framework presented. - What are the research gaps and the authors' motivations for conducting this study? Why are these aspects significant? Please specify. - Minor: (Paragraph 2, Line 2) “Unlike conventional technologies …… interactive and situational – based interactions” Any references that support these arguments? 3. Literature Review - The literature review lacks a critical analysis of augmented reality (AR) applications in cultural heritage. It would be beneficial for the authors to provide a synthesis of key features, including both functional and non-functional requirements, that are essential for AR applications in cultural heritage contexts. - Of the 20 references cited, only 6 pertain to current literature. It is recommended to incorporate additional references from the past five years. - Further, the literature review lacks discussion on why gamification is required for AR application in the cultural tourism context. What kind of gamification elements that have been applied in the tourism context, mainly for AR applications? For instance, Flavián et al. (2023) discussed the dark side of gamification in the metaverse context. Wei et al. (2023) highlighted the relationship between gamification with tourists’ satisfaction and motivational fatigue. It was also found that providing feedback for the users will increase the tourists’ satisfaction. - Please revise the literature review to identify any existing gaps in the literature and ensure these gaps are aligned with the study's objectives. 4. Research Methods The title discusses the development of AR applications. However, in the manuscript, the authors also mentioned the VR application. It leads to reviewer’s confusion, what kind of technology is proposed to enhance Dvaravati – Khmer Cultural Tourism? Please specify whether this study will focus on AR, VR, or the integration of both technologies? There is a sentence in the abstract that tends to be overclaimed: Addressed the scarcity of interactive digital tools at historical sites. There were many extant studies discussed about AR and VR for cultural heritage museums, including Ćosović and Brkić (2020); He et al. (2018); Jiang et al. (2025); Lee et al. (2020); Santoso et al. (2025); Tamtama et al. (2022). There were some papers mainly discussing immersive technology in the museum contexts. Moreover, Tamtama et al. (2022) discusses a study on a dark tourism museum in Indonesia The arrangement of the introduction should be revised to provide a logical structural flow What are the research gaps and why the researchers chose AR (and combined with VR?) to enhance the museum experience in Thailand? The authors assert that a significant contribution of this work pertains to the augmented reality (AR) cultural platform (Paragraph 4). It is imperative to elucidate the importance of this contribution within the context of this field. Furthermore, the reviewer noted the absence of a comprehensive evaluation methodology in the methodology section. It is essential to connect this assertion with the methodological framework presented. What are the research gaps and the authors' motivations for conducting this study? Why are these aspects significant? Please specify. Minor: (Paragraph 2, Line 2) “Unlike conventional technologies …… interactive and situational – based interactions” Any references that support these arguments? Thank you for the opportunity to review this manuscript and offer suggestions from a reviewer’s perspective. This manuscript examines the development of mobile augmented reality (AR) applications, potentially integrated with virtual reality (VR), for a cultural tourism destination in Thailand. Utilizing a Design Thinking approach, as detailed in the methodology section, this study seeks to comprehend the specific requirements of users in the context of cultural tourism in Thailand. Subsequently, the researchers employed a mixed-methods approach, incorporating both qualitative and quantitative methodologies. However, there are significant comments regarding the research gaps, research objectives, and methodological sections that require improvement to enhance the manuscript's clarity- From the overall section, the reviewer thinks this manuscript falls on providing systematic research methodology explanations, aligning with design thinking and user-centered design mechanism. Please improve the study design section, including design thinking-driven development framework - Design thinking consists of some steps, from empathizing, define, ideate, prototype, and tests. However, the current explanation on the methodology sections did not follow these mechanisms - The authors should elaborate on the qualitative and quantitative mechanisms of the methodological sections. What kind of questions they ask the respondents, how many participants were involved, how to manage the survey? The reviewer is also questioning whether the qualitative and quantitative studies used the same respondents? - Figure 1 should be in the findings, discussing some key system architectures that influenced the system designs. - The methodology sections require enhancement and improvement, with a focus on providing systematic discussions. Furthermore, the study appears to lack sufficient rigor. 5. Results - Figure 2 does not explain the prototype that was developed in this study. Further, the reviewer did not notice any gamification elements and VR application as the study results - Are there any references in previous sections that elaborate on the measurements employed in this study, specifically regarding efficiency, effectiveness, and satisfaction? - The results lacks clarity and are too descriptive from Table 1. Further, figure 3, categorizes 4 application features: AR_scan, VR_360, Rally_4prv, UI_friendly. However, these 4 features have not been discussed the usage, the development process, and what are these features and why they vary? Why are no gamification elements questioned and specific features, as mentioned in Figure 3? - Any specific threshold for rating mentioned in Table 1? - How to analyze the qualitative data? Any coding or thematic analysis used in this study? 6. Discussions - The discussion lacks relevance and specificity, resulting in a lack of clarity and focus. Furthermore, in subsection 5.2, the study unexpectedly addresses ethical considerations in the development and use of the application. However, ethical considerations are not the primary focus of this research. - Why the authors suddenly jump the discussions by discussing potential new application scenarios for the AR cultural? In additions, some examples mentioned in the section 5.1 is not align with the research topics. Why in the section 5.1, the authors elaborated some potential new applications? - What are the contributions of the study, especially in the practical and theoretical approach? Based on the feedback and significant corrections provided, the reviewer suggests that the current version of the manuscript requires revision and enhancement prior to resubmission to other journals. I recommend that the manuscript, in its present form, is not suitable for acceptance in the publication process of the F1000 journal. Thank you, and I wish you success in your academic endeavors. References: (refer to 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8) Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Partly Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound? No Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others? No If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? Partly Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility? Partly Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? Partly References 1. Ćosović M, Brkić B: Game-Based Learning in Museums—Cultural Heritage Applications. Information . 2019; 11 (1). Publisher Full Text 2. He Z, Wu L, Li X: When art meets tech: The role of augmented reality in enhancing museum experiences and purchase intentions. Tourism Management . 2018; 68 : 127-139 Publisher Full Text 3. Tamtama, G. I. W., Santoso, H. B., Wang, J. C., & Windasari, N. A. (2022, 8-9 Dec. 2022). Aw … The Museum is so “Dark”: The Effect of Thermal Stimuli for Virtual Reality Experience and Emotion. 2022 Seventh International Conference on Informatics and Computing (ICIC) 10.1109/ICIC56845.2022.10006901. 4. Flavián C, Ibáñez-Sánchez S, Orús C, Barta S: The dark side of the metaverse: The role of gamification in event virtualization. International Journal of Information Management . 2024; 75 . Publisher Full Text 5. Jiang C, Moghavvemi S, Phoong S: Virtual reality’s promise for eco-friendly adventures: a study on its role in fostering sustainable tourism and reducing environmental footprint. Information Technology & Tourism . 2025; 27 (3): 547-577 Publisher Full Text 6. Lee H, Jung T, tom Dieck M, Chung N: Experiencing immersive virtual reality in museums. Information & Management . 2020; 57 (5). Publisher Full Text 7. Santoso H, Windasari N, Wang J, Prabawati A, et al.: Interactive Narrative-Enabled Immersion in Virtual Destination Promotion. Journal of Computer Information Systems . 2025. 1-17 Publisher Full Text 8. Wei Z, Zhang J, Huang X, Qiu H: Can gamification improve the virtual reality tourism experience? Analyzing the mediating role of tourism fatigue. Tourism Management . 2023; 96 . Publisher Full Text Competing Interests No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise Technology-enabled services, immersive technology, multisensory experiences, service ecosystems I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to state that I do not consider it to be of an acceptable scientific standard, for reasons outlined above. reply Respond to this report Responses (0) Santoso HB. Peer Review Report For: Enhancing Dvaravati-Khmer Cultural Tourism through AR: A Case Study in Thailand [version 1; peer review: 3 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 15 :134 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.194057.r468025) NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/15-134/v1#referee-response-468025 keyboard_arrow_left Back to all reports Reviewer Report 0 Views copyright © 2026 Abas N. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 02 Apr 2026 | for Version 1 Novel Idris Abas , Muhammadiyah University of Surakarta, Surakarta, Indonesia 0 Views copyright © 2026 Abas N. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. format_quote Cite this report speaker_notes Responses (0) Not Approved info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions The article presents a case study on an AR/VR application for Dvaravati-Khmer cultural tourism, yet it currently reads more like a project report than a rigorous scientific study. The primary deficiency lies in the lack of technical and methodological depth; the authors fail to specify the 3D scanning methods or the AR tracking mechanisms (e.g., marker-based vs. markerless) used. Furthermore, the bold claim of a "40% increase in knowledge retention" is not supported by transparent pre-test and post-test data or clear statistical significance testing (such as p-values), making the validity of the findings difficult to verify. The absence of research instruments, such as the specific survey questions and detailed demographic profiles for the 43 participants, significantly hinders the study's replicability. While the authors acknowledge performance issues and latency on low-end devices, they offer no concrete technical solutions or optimizations in their discussion. This makes the conclusion—positioning the application as a scalable and adaptable model—less convincing without broader testing across diverse hardware specifications and user groups. To make the article scientifically sound, the authors must provide the evaluation instruments, present a more robust statistical analysis of the learning outcomes, and clarify the application's technical architecture. Detailed explanations regarding digital asset optimization to bridge the hardware performance gap are also essential. Without addressing these critical points, the paper lacks the necessary evidence to prove the technology's effectiveness within an academic and professional heritage context. Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Partly Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound? No Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others? No If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? Partly Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility? Partly Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? Partly Competing Interests No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise Digital business, immersive marketing, reality technology I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to state that I do not consider it to be of an acceptable scientific standard, for reasons outlined above. reply Respond to this report Responses (0) Abas NI. Peer Review Report For: Enhancing Dvaravati-Khmer Cultural Tourism through AR: A Case Study in Thailand [version 1; peer review: 3 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 15 :134 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.194057.r468020) NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/15-134/v1#referee-response-468020 keyboard_arrow_left Back to all reports Reviewer Report 0 Views copyright © 2026 Samira Bafadhal A. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 09 Mar 2026 | for Version 1 Aniesa Samira Bafadhal , Universitas Brawijaya, Malang, East Java, Indonesia 0 Views copyright © 2026 Samira Bafadhal A. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. format_quote Cite this report speaker_notes Responses (0) Not Approved info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions The title appears somewhat redundant and not fully aligned with the scope of the study. Since the Dvaravati–Khmer cultural context is inherently associated with Thailand in the manuscript, the phrase “in Thailand” may be unnecessary or could be more clearly integrated into the title structure. For example, the wording “Dvaravati–Khmer Cultural Tourism in Thailand” would provide clearer geographical framing. Moreover, the title suggests a broad contribution to enhancing cultural tourism, while the study primarily focuses on the development and testing of an AR application and its educational and experiential effects. This creates a potential mismatch between the scope implied in the title and the actual content of the manuscript. A more precise title could better reflect the technological development, evaluation context, and scope of the study, avoiding redundancy while clearly communicating the research focus. The abstract provides a general overview of the study; however, several aspects could be improved to better reflect the content and rigor of the manuscript. First, the abstract presents strong claims regarding the effectiveness and impact of the AR application, such as a 40% increase in knowledge retention and high engagement levels, yet the methodological basis for these results is not clearly summarized. Given that the manuscript’s methodology and evaluation procedures are not fully elaborated, these claims appear somewhat overstated in the abstract. Second, the abstract emphasizes the development of an innovative and adaptable model for cultural tourism enhancement, but the manuscript itself focuses primarily on the development and preliminary testing of a specific AR application. The broader claim of providing a generalizable model for digital cultural tourism may therefore exceed the actual scope of the study. Third, the abstract suggests a strong contribution to cultural tourism enhancement, while the results presented in the manuscript mainly relate to user satisfaction, usability, and learning outcomes. This creates a slight mismatch between the tourism-oriented framing and the more technology and educational evaluation focus of the study. Finally, the abstract could benefit from a clearer articulation of the research gap, methodological approach, and scholarly contribution, rather than focusing primarily on the technological features of the application. A more balanced summary would strengthen the alignment between the abstract and the overall manuscript. The introduction provides a general description of cultural tourism and the potential use of Augmented Reality (AR) in heritage contexts; however, it lacks a rigorous synthesis of prior research and does not clearly establish a well-defined research gap. The manuscript briefly mentions the use of AR in cultural tourism but does not systematically map the existing body of literature to demonstrate what has already been examined and what specific theoretical or empirical gap this study intends to address. As a result, the novelty and academic contribution of the study remain insufficiently justified. Also, the manuscript does not clearly establish a well-defined research gap or originality. Although the study introduces an AR-based application for cultural tourism, the introduction and literature review do not systematically demonstrate what specific limitations exist in prior research or how this study addresses them. The claimed novelty—such as integrating AR, VR, and gamification or connecting multiple heritage sites—appears largely descriptive and is not sufficiently positioned against existing studies on AR applications in cultural tourism or digital heritage interpretation. Furthermore, the manuscript does not clearly articulate how the proposed system provides a theoretical or methodological advancement beyond existing AR tourism applications. Without a clearer synthesis of prior research and a more explicit articulation of the study’s unique contribution, the originality of the work remains insufficiently justified. Furthermore, the manuscript does not convincingly articulate the field-level problem related to the Dvaravati–Khmer heritage context. Although the authors mention that these cultures left architectural and artistic influences in Thailand, the introduction does not explain why Thailand represents a particularly relevant or urgent context for investigation. The rationale for selecting this specific cultural route therefore appears descriptive rather than analytically grounded in tourism or heritage management scholarship. Another limitation concerns the technology justification. While the manuscript adopts Augmented Reality as the main technological approach, the introduction does not explain why AR is theoretically or practically more appropriate than other immersive technologies such as Virtual Reality (VR), Mixed Reality (MR), or other digital heritage interpretation tools. Without such justification, the technological choice appears somewhat arbitrary. There is also a conceptual inconsistency regarding the research focus. The title frames the study within the domain of cultural tourism , yet the stated research objective is primarily to examine whether AR can support historical learning and knowledge retention. This creates ambiguity about whether the study contributes to tourism research (e.g., visitor experience, destination engagement, cultural tourism development) or to educational technology and digital learning. A clearer positioning within a specific research field is necessary to strengthen the manuscript’s theoretical contribution. Finally, the introduction relies largely on descriptive statements and contains limited engagement with key theoretical and empirical literature on AR in tourism, digital heritage interpretation, visitor experience, or technology-enhanced learning. Stronger theoretical grounding and a clearer synthesis of prior studies are needed to justify the research gap and demonstrate how the present study advances existing scholarship. A major limitation is the absence of a structured mapping of prior research. The literature review does not categorize or synthesize existing studies in a way that reveals the dominant themes in AR-based cultural heritage research (e.g., visitor experience enhancement, educational outcomes, digital heritage interpretation, technology acceptance, or destination engagement). Without such synthesis, it becomes difficult to understand how the current study extends or challenges existing knowledge. Another concern is the lack of theoretical grounding. The manuscript primarily discusses technological applications rather than engaging with relevant conceptual or theoretical frameworks commonly used in tourism and technology research, such as visitor experience theory, experiential tourism, technology acceptance models, immersive learning frameworks, or heritage interpretation theory. The absence of a clear theoretical foundation weakens the academic positioning of the study and makes the proposed contribution appear largely technological rather than scholarly. Additionally, although the study states that it adopts Design Thinking as the research methodology, the literature review does not sufficiently discuss Design Thinking as a conceptual or theoretical framework. In design-oriented research, Design Thinking is often positioned not only as a methodological approach but also as a conceptual perspective that shapes problem framing, user-centered innovation, and iterative solution development. The manuscript would benefit from incorporating relevant literature on Design Thinking to explain its theoretical relevance and justify its use within cultural tourism and digital heritage innovation contexts. The discussion of gamification also remains superficial. While the section acknowledges the use of game elements in tourism applications, it does not engage with the broader literature on gamification theory, motivational mechanisms, or experiential engagement. Key aspects such as intrinsic motivation, user engagement dynamics, or experiential learning processes are not sufficiently addressed. Another issue concerns the research gap formulation. The manuscript claims that existing AR applications focus mainly on single-site experiences and that few studies evaluate learning effectiveness; however, these claims are not supported by a comprehensive review of the literature. The argument therefore appears somewhat assertive rather than analytically derived from prior research. Finally, the section describing the Dvaravati–Khmer civilizations reads more like a historical background than a literature review. While the historical context is useful, it does not directly connect to the scholarly debate on cultural tourism, heritage interpretation, or digital engagement strategies. The section would benefit from stronger integration with tourism and heritage management literature to justify its relevance to the study’s research objectives. The research methodology section lacks sufficient clarity and methodological rigor. Although the manuscript states that the study adopts a Design Thinking approach and employs mixed methods, the methodological procedures are not clearly explained. The section largely describes the technical architecture of the AR Cultural application rather than outlining a structured research design. First, the use of Design Thinking as the primary research method is insufficiently elaborated. The manuscript briefly mentions prototype iterations and user feedback but does not describe how the Design Thinking stages (e.g., empathize, define, ideate, prototype, and test) were systematically implemented in the study. Key methodological aspects such as stakeholder engagement, data collection procedures during each stage, and how user insights informed the design iterations are not clearly documented. Without such explanation, it is difficult to assess how Design Thinking guided the research process. Second, the manuscript claims to employ a mixed-methods approach, yet the methodology section does not clearly describe the integration of quantitative and qualitative methods. There is no clear explanation regarding: the types of qualitative data collected (e.g., interviews, observations, focus groups), the quantitative instruments used (e.g., survey scales, usability metrics), the sampling strategy and participant selection, or the procedures for data analysis. Consequently, the claim of using mixed methods appears unsupported by a transparent research design. Third, the current section focuses heavily on technical implementation details, such as AR object detection, system architecture, and software tools (Unity and Vuforia SDK). While these aspects are relevant to system development, they do not substitute for a clear research methodology. For research in tourism or cultural heritage journals, it is important to describe how the system was evaluated in terms of visitor experience, learning outcomes, or engagement. Furthermore, the manuscript does not provide sufficient information about participant recruitment, sample characteristics, data collection procedures, or evaluation instruments used during the user trials mentioned earlier in the abstract. Without these details, the reliability and validity of the evaluation process remain unclear. Another limitation concerns the absence of a clearly defined usage scenario or interaction workflow for the AR application. While the manuscript describes the system architecture and application features, it does not explain how users actually interact with the AR product in the cultural tourism context. For instance, the study does not present a clear visitor journey, including how tourists initiate the AR experience, navigate between heritage sites, or engage with the gamified learning activities. In addition, the evaluation protocol of the AR system is not sufficiently described. It remains unclear how participants interacted with the application during the trials, what tasks they were required to complete, how long the interaction sessions lasted, and how learning outcomes or user engagement were measured. Important methodological aspects such as user interaction flow, task design, evaluation metrics, testing environment, and duration of use are not clearly reported. The absence of these details limits the reproducibility, usability assessment, and practical relevance of the proposed AR application in real-world cultural tourism contexts. Another limitation is the absence of a clearly described pilot testing or system validation process prior to the user trials. For an interactive technology such as an AR application, it is important to report preliminary system testing procedures, such as black-box testing, usability testing, or expert evaluation, to ensure the reliability and functionality of the system before conducting user evaluations. However, the manuscript does not describe whether any pilot testing, technical validation, or expert review was conducted during the development phase. Without such information, it is difficult to assess the robustness of the system and the reliability of the reported results. Including a structured testing process would strengthen the methodological rigor and credibility of the proposed AR application. Also, another concern relates to the ecological validity of the study. Given that the proposed system involves a 3D AR application intended for real-world cultural tourism settings, the manuscript does not clearly demonstrate whether the application was tested in an authentic heritage environment or under realistic tourism conditions. It remains unclear whether participants interacted with the system directly at the heritage sites or in a simulated setting. Without testing the application within the actual tourism context, it is difficult to determine whether the reported outcomes truly reflect visitor behavior and engagement in real-world cultural tourism experiences. Clarifying the testing environment and demonstrating ecological validity would strengthen the credibility and practical relevance of the study. The results section remains relatively limited and largely descriptive, which weakens the empirical rigor of the study. Although the manuscript reports several performance indicators such as task completion rate, user satisfaction scores, and knowledge retention improvements, the analytical procedures used to obtain these results are not clearly explained. First, the study reports a 40% increase in historical knowledge retention, yet the manuscript does not explain how this improvement was measured. It is unclear whether a pre-test and post-test design was implemented, what type of assessment instrument was used, or how the percentage increase was calculated. Second, the quantitative analysis appears very basic, relying primarily on descriptive statistics (means and standard deviations). The manuscript does not provide sufficient statistical testing to support the claims made. For example, no inferential analysis is reported to verify whether the observed improvements in learning outcomes or satisfaction are statistically significant. Third, although the study claims to employ mixed methods, the qualitative component is presented only as brief user comments. The manuscript does not explain how qualitative data were collected, coded, or analyzed, which raises concerns about the methodological rigor of the qualitative insights. Furthermore, the sample size of 43 participants is relatively small for drawing strong conclusions about the effectiveness of the application in cultural tourism contexts. The study also does not report participant demographics in sufficient detail or explain the sampling strategy used. The manuscript lacks a sufficiently developed discussion section that critically interprets the findings in relation to prior research. The reported results are largely presented as descriptive outcomes without being meaningfully connected to existing studies on AR applications in cultural tourism, digital heritage interpretation, or technology-enhanced learning. Consequently, the study does not clearly demonstrate how its findings extend, confirm, or challenge the current body of knowledge. Moreover, the manuscript does not adequately elaborate on the theoretical and practical implications of the findings. The contribution of the study to tourism research, cultural heritage interpretation, or immersive technology adoption remains unclear. The discussion would also benefit from stronger engagement with best practices from previous AR cultural heritage projects and a clearer comparison with existing implementations reported in the literature. In addition, the findings are not sufficiently contextualized within Thailand’s cultural tourism environment, making it difficult to understand how the proposed AR application contributes to heritage interpretation and visitor engagement in this specific setting. Several important design and implementation aspects of the AR system—such as the type of AR used, content presentation, tour structure (guided vs. self-guided), interaction duration, and design choices influencing user engagement—are also not adequately discussed in relation to the results. Another limitation concerns the absence of participant demographic information. The manuscript does not report key participant characteristics, such as age distribution, educational background, familiarity with AR technology, or interest in cultural tourism. This lack of demographic detail makes it difficult to interpret the findings or assess how different user groups may have responded to the AR application. Furthermore, demographic variables are not incorporated into the analysis or discussion, which weakens the depth of the results interpretation and limits the explanatory power of the study. The conclusion section remains largely descriptive and does not sufficiently synthesize the main findings of the study in relation to the research objectives and existing literature. Much of the section reiterates the potential benefits of the AR Cultural application rather than critically summarizing the key insights derived from the empirical results. In addition, the conclusion does not clearly articulate the theoretical contribution of the study to research on cultural tourism, digital heritage interpretation, or immersive technology applications. The broader scholarly implications of the findings therefore remain unclear. Furthermore, the section provides only limited reflection on the practical implications for cultural heritage managers, tourism practitioners, or digital heritage developers. A more structured discussion on how the proposed AR system could inform heritage interpretation strategies or tourism experience design would strengthen the contribution of the study. Finally, although future developments are briefly mentioned, the manuscript does not present a clear and structured future research agenda that could guide subsequent studies on AR-based cultural tourism applications. The reference list appears relatively limited and somewhat outdated, particularly for a study addressing rapidly evolving technologies such as Augmented Reality (AR) in tourism and digital heritage. Several cited works are more than a decade old (e.g., Mayer, 2005; Zakour, 2005; Wagner & Schmalstieg, 2009), which may not adequately reflect the current state of research on immersive technologies, AR tourism applications, or digital heritage interpretation. Furthermore, the references show limited engagement with recent scholarship in tourism and hospitality research, especially from leading journals in cultural tourism, heritage tourism, and immersive technology adoption. A stronger integration of recent empirical studies on AR/VR applications in tourism contexts (particularly from the last 5–7 years) would strengthen the theoretical grounding of the manuscript. Another concern is that several cited sources originate from technology-oriented conferences or general multimedia learning literature, which may not fully align with the tourism and cultural heritage research domain. As a result, the literature base appears somewhat fragmented and insufficiently anchored within the core tourism and heritage interpretation literature. Additionally, the manuscript cites relatively few studies on AR-based cultural heritage interpretation, visitor experience design, or immersive tourism technologies, which are central to the topic of the study. Expanding the reference base to include recent and field-relevant literature would help situate the study more clearly within the existing academic discourse. Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? No Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound? No Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others? No If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? No Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility? No Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? Partly Competing Interests No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise tourism psychology and behavior; virtual tourism; immersive marketing I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to state that I do not consider it to be of an acceptable scientific standard, for reasons outlined above. reply Respond to this report Responses (0) Samira Bafadhal A. Peer Review Report For: Enhancing Dvaravati-Khmer Cultural Tourism through AR: A Case Study in Thailand [version 1; peer review: 3 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 15 :134 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.194057.r461277) NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/15-134/v1#referee-response-461277 Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved - the paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations - A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. 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