Studying the High Loading of Lead-Rubber Nanocomposites as Gamma Radiations Shielding.

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Salih Abbas Habeeb This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-3832030/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This research aims to prepare a polymeric composite material from styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) reinforced with lead nanoparticles (Pb-NPs) to make protective shields from gamma rays to protect the healthy tissues of cancer patients while receiving treatment and to protect workers in nuclear reactors and malignant tumors centers. The basic principle is to attenuate the gamma-ray photons emitted by the Cesium source (Cs 137) with an energy of 663 keV. The basis for studying the shielding properties after adding the 50,100,150,200, and 300 phr lead nanoparticles. The results showed increased mass density, linear attenuation, and mass attenuation coefficients by 743.712%, 390.47%, and 180.95% with increasing loading levels of Pb-NPs in SBR composites up to 300 p h r. At the same time, the half-value and tenth-value layers decrease by 64% compared with the control sample (without Pb-NPs). The field emission scanning electron microscope (FE-SEM) images show good dispersion and homogeneity of these particles in the rubber matrix, and few agglomerations occur with increasing lead loading. The swelling ratio decreased by 199%, increasing the volume fraction of rubber and cross-link densities by about 7.1% and 14%, respectively. the addition of lead nanoparticles leads to enhanced crystalline properties. Materials Engineering Polymer Science Attenuation Coefficient Gamma Rays Shielding Styrene Butadiene Rubber Nanocomposite Materials Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 1. Introduction Gamma rays are considered the most important type of nuclear rays because they are the shortest electromagnetic waves resulting from the atomic nucleus's radioactive decay. They have applications in various fields, such as medicine, agriculture, biology, astronomy, and industry. Radioactive isotopes have been used in industry to inspect oil pipelines, study soil and plants [ 1 ], and preserve processed foods to rid them of germs and bacteria. [ 2 – 4 ]. On the other hand, X-rays and gamma rays depend on several factors, including describing the radiation shielding ability of the compound mass attenuation coefficient, half value layer (HVL), and tenth value layer (TVL) [ 5 ]. Mercury and lead are considered the most important traditional shielding materials against gamma rays or for protection against radioactive materials due to their physical properties and the possibility of their availability with various compounds such as glass powder, boron mixtures, polyethene, lead and natural rubber [ 6 ]. However, these composite polymeric materials have some limitations and problems. Collateral damage, including high toxicity, high cost, and large weight due to its high density, in addition to the generation of secondary radiation during the attenuation of gamma rays by lead electrons, such as bremsstrahlung radiation, which affects people who deal with these radiologically hazardous materials in addition to environmental pollution [ 7 – 9 ]. However, lead has the highest linear attenuation coefficient when using gamma rays or x-rays [ 10 ]. Therefore, the SBR compound was reinforced with TiO2 because it can protect against gamma rays, facilitate photocatalytic activity, generate reactive oxygen species [ 11 ], and enhance electrical and optical properties [ 12 ]. Polymers are good shielding materials to protect against gamma radiation when combined with materials that have large atomic numbers. Still, hydrogen-rich composite materials provide good protection from fast neutrons when added to other advantages such as abundance, lightweight, cheapness, and less secondary radiation emission than other solid materials [ 13 , 14 ]. Metal or metal oxides have enhanced physical properties of composite polymers such as thermal conductivity, mechanical, optical, magnetic and electrical [ 15 , 16 ]. Increasing amounts of lead oxide led to increased mechanical properties and resistance to gamma rays, in addition to increasing the cross-linking of the Lead/SBR-NBR rubber blend [ 17 , 18 ]. Atta et al. study the strengthening samples of SBR/montmorillonite with mineral oxides such as (Fe2O3, ZnO, MoO, and TiO2) for protection from gamma rays. The results showed that samples strengthened with MoO give the best protection from gamma rays, where µ was found to be 0.067 (cm ± 1) and HVL 10.34 (cm) at power 662 kV. SEM morphology analysis of the surface of the samples showed a regular distribution of metal oxide particles [ 11 , 19 ]. Strengthening rubber compounds of SBR/PbO2 with carbon black for use as shielding materials from X-rays, enhancing electrical properties and increasing the density of crosslinks. The results showed that gamma radiation with different types of doses (50, 100, 200, and 500 kGy) is affected by the time of chewing and by increasing the density of cross-links [ 20 ]. Chlorophyll is considered a natural extract that enhances stability by increasing activity against oxidation due to its ability to absorb ultraviolet rays, the mechanical parameters, and cross-linking of natural rubber after ageing compared to rubber without these extracts [ 21 ]. In this study, the SBR matrix was reinforced with several loading ratios of Pb-NPs and other additives such as Chlorophyll and TiO2 to improve the resistance of the rubber compound to oxidation and increase the density of crosslinks in addition to improving the efficiency of the rubber compound for shielding against gamma rays. 2. Experimental Practical 2.1 Materials Styrene butadiene rubber was obtained from the production of the emulsion technique (e-SBR) and was used as a continuous method Stage for all compounds, with trade label (trade name KER 1500); Purchased from Synthos S.A. Oswiecim, Poland. Other components of rubber mixtures, such as sulfur, zinc oxide, and stearic acid, were also prepared by rubber laboratories in BASF AG, Germany. Rubber accelerator as tetramethylthiumran disulfide (TMTD) was supplied by Taizhou Huangyan Donghai Chemical Co., Ltd, China. 1, 2-Dihydro-2, 2,4-trimethyl quinoline (TMQ) supplied by PJSC Khimprom, Russia. Chlorophyll Powder supplied by Aarkay Food Products Ltd., India; Titanium Dioxide supplied by Wuxi CHTI New Materials Co., Ltd, China; and lead Nanopowder with an average particle size of 75–100 nm range with a specific surface area of approximately 5–10 m2/g, supplied by American Elements, U.S.A. 2.2 Specimens Preparation In this work, a polymeric composite material was prepared from natural rubber and lead Nanoparticles using sol-gel technology, direct mixing and homogenizing or the so-called chewing process of the materials included in the rubber paste. Use a 6-inch dual grinder (Bridge, UK) with a friction coefficient of 1.1 and a rotational speed of 20 rpm. All components of the rubber compounds were added according to ASTMD 15–627 at a temperature not exceeding 50°C to obtain rubber sheets with a thickness of approximately 2 mm, as shown in Table 1 . Table 1 Recipe of compounds used for pure SBR and SBR: Pb-NPs Nanocomposites. Compounding ingredients SBR1 (P h r) SBR2 (P h r) SBR3 (P h r) SBR4 (P h r) SBR5 (P h r) SBR 100 100 100 100 100 Zinc Oxide 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 Satiric Acid 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 Paraffin wax 1 1 1 1 1 TMQ 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 TMTD 1 1 1 1 1 DOP 6 6 6 6 6 sulfur 2 2 2 2 2 Chlorophyll 20 20 20 20 20 \({\text{T}\text{i}\text{O}}_{2}\) 20 20 20 20 20 Pb-NPs ratio - 50 100 200 300 The rheological and curing properties of all rubber compounds are determined using MV-ODR-PROPERTIES Rheometer (Micro Vision Enterprises, India) according to ASTM D2705. The scorch time (TS), curing time (TC), torque and viscosity are determined under the test standard ISO 6502-2:2018 at 150°C for 6 minutes. Based on the results of the above properties, the rubber compounds are processed in the Polymers Department laboratory Engineering and petrochemical industries using XLB-D 350 x 350 electric heat press (Huzhou, East Machinery, China) at 150°C with optimal curing time (TC90) under pressure of 10 MPa. 2.3 Radiation-shielding Measurements. The linear attenuation coefficient ( \({\mu _L}\) ) is defined as the radiation interaction with the shielding material for each length path depending on the type of shielding material and gamma-ray energy. It is calculated using the Lambert-Beer equation [ 22 ] as: $${\mu _L}=\frac{{ - \ln (I/{I_0})}}{x}$$ 1 Where I is the intensity of photons transmitted across some distance x, I o is the initial intensity of photons, \({\mu }_{L}\) is the linear attenuation coefficient. It is the relative decrease in the number of photons per unit thickness measured in cm − 1, and x is the shielding thickness sample. The mass attenuation coefficient can be calculated from the following relation: $${\mu _m}=\frac{{{\mu _L}}}{\rho }$$ 2 Determine the half-value layer (HVL) to determine the ability of rubber compounds to absorb or reduce the intensity of gamma radiation to its half at a given energy. HVL is calculated according to the following relationship [ 23 ]: $$HVL=\frac{{\ln 2}}{{{\mu _L}}}$$ 3 The attenuation coefficient for gamma rays is calculated, which is related to reducing the intensity of gamma radiation to its tenth at a given energy. The tenth-value layer (TVL) can be calculated according to the following relationship [ 5 ]: $$TVL=\frac{{\ln 10}}{{{\mu _L}}}$$ 4 2.4 Swelling Measurements The swelling parameters of the rubber compounds are measured using an accurately weighed sample (W i ) in (g), with a diameter of 20 mm and a thickness of 2 mm, immersed in acetone solvent for 24 hours, and the weight of the sample (W t ) in (g) is recorded after simple drying with a filter paper. The samples are immersed again in the solvent to reach equilibrium for 36 hours, and the solvent absorption ratio S(t) is calculated [ 23 , 24 ]: $$S(t)=\frac{{{W_t} - {W_i}}}{{{W_i}}}*100$$ 5 To determine the crosslink density of SBR and SBR: Pb-NPs compounds, the volume fraction of rubber for each compound must be calculated according to the following relationship [ 10 , 25 ] Where: the volume fraction of rubber is Vr [-], SΡ and ΡΡ represent the density of solvent and polymer (g/cm3). The Flory-Renner equation is used to calculate the density of crosslinks resulting from vulcanization processes and strengthening of the rubber matrix by adding lead nanoparticles [ 11 , 26 ]: $$V=\frac{{\ln [(1 - {V_r})+{V_r}+XV_{r}^{2}]}}{{{V_o}\left( {V_{r}^{{1/3}} - \frac{{{V_r}}}{2}} \right)}}$$ 7 Where: The crosslink density of rubber compounds per unit volume is V (mol/cm3), the molar volume of acetone (Vo = 73.519 cm3/mol). X represents the interaction coefficient of the Flory-Huggins rubber compound with the solvent (0.3692 for the average sulfur-bound SBR acetone pair). 2.5 Characterizations Scanning electron microscopy type JEOL JSM5310 is used to determine the dispersion of lead nanoparticles in rubber mixtures and detect surface agglomerates. The contact angle system tests the water absorbency of rubber compound surfaces using the SL200B optical dynamic/static contact angle meter in Cambodia. It is also used for Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, IRAffinity-1S, Shimadzu, Japan, to determine the chemical bonds between SBR and lead nanoparticles. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC-60, SHIMADZU-JAPAN)) to detect the thermal behavior of rubber compounds while determining crystalline properties is done by using X-ray diffraction (XRD-6000, SHIMADZU-JAPAN). The linear attenuation coefficient of rubber compounds is measured for a Cs-137 (662 keV) using a gamma-ray spectrometer (EG&G Ortec DSPEC) Digital LED Display. 3. Results and discussion 3.1. Morphological Properties The scanning electron microscope images were used in this work to study the distribution and homogeneity of lead nanoparticles, which depends on sample scanning, by projecting an electron beam on the sample's surface [ 27 – 30 ]. Figure 1 shows the FE-SEM image with 3µm and energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX) elemental concentration of the SBR before and after adding the lead nanoparticles. Due to the addition of lead nanoparticles to the SBR compounds, the FE-SEM images show good dispersion and homogeneity of these particles in the rubber matrix, and few agglomerations occur with increasing lead loading; this result was in good agreement with a previous study [ 31 ]. Also, EDX analysis shows an increase in the weight percentage of lead in samples SBR1, SBR2, SBR3, and SBR4 as a result of the increased lead loading in rubber compounds, as shown in Table 2 . The uniform distribution of lead nanoparticles enhances mechanical properties and contributes to the enhanced resistance of rubber models to gamma-ray shielding properties. The current study showed that increasing the concentration of lead nanoparticles increases the cutting distance and the final force [ 32 – 34 ]. Table 2 EDX analysis of elements detected after adding the lead nanoparticles to SBR compounds. Samples Elements Contents (wt%) C O Si Zn Ti S Pb SBR1 61.5 24.49 1.02 1.09 7.49 4.41 0 SBR2 57.55 23.49 1.06 1.06 7.16 4.21 5.47 SBR3 54.4 24.32 1.54 0.87 6.78 4.16 7.93 SBR4 50.78 28.07 3.07 0.67 6.56 2.75 8.1 SBR5 44.7 26.9 8.08 0.5 5.57 2.62 11.63 3.2. Swelling Measurements Swelling properties are considered one of the most important physical properties that limit rubber compounds' applications, especially when they come in direct contact with organic solvents, which decompose or dissolve these compounds and weaken their performance [ 35 , 36 ]. Figure 2 shows the relation between the loading levels in (p h r) and swelling properties such as swelling ratio (%), rubber volume fraction (-), and cross-links density (mol/cm 3 ). The results show that the swelling ratio decreased with increased loading levels of lead nanoparticles. A decrement was about 199% when the SBR filled with 300 p h r (SBR5) lead compared with unfilled rubber. At the same time, increasing the volume fraction of rubber and cross-link densities by about 7.1% and 14%, respectively. Because the increase in cross-linking within the rubber matrix limits the movement of the polymeric chains and enhances the resistance of the rubber compound to decomposition by the organic solvent, these results agree with previous studies [ 23 , 32 ]. At the same time, the metal oxides act as auxiliary activators during the vulcanization process, which leads to an increase in the density of crosslinks [ 33 ]. 3.3. FTIR Analysis Figure 3 shows the FTIR spectra of pure SBR and SBR: Pb -NPs with a range of 500–4000 cm − 1 ; the peaks around 2924 and 2846 cm − 1 represent the symmetric stretching of the C–H band [ 32 , 37 – 39 ]. The peak at 1720 cm − 1 represented the C = O stretching band of aldehyde, and 1640 cm-1 represented the C = C stretching band that can be attributed to the alkane group. Also peak at 1440 cm − 1 corresponded to the O-H bending band. The peak at 1381 cm − 1 is related to the S = O stretching, and the peak at 1280 cm − 1 is related to the C-O stretching group. Peaks at 111 and 1026 cm − 1 represented the C-O stretching group attributed to the ester class. The peaks observed at 802 cm − 1 and 887 cm − 1 correspond to the C = C bending attributed to the alkane group. The peak at about 1140 cm − 1 is attributed to the filled rubber's Pb–O stretching linkage [ 40 ]. The sharp peaks at about 1,455 and 1,538 cm − 1 represent the symmetric and antisymmetric carboxylate ion COO-stretching mode [ 41 ]. The peak 1111 cm − 1 relating to Pb- OH stretching vibration shifted to 1095 cm − 1 [ 42 ]. Additionally, the obvious shift in O -H bending vibration positions at 3477 cm − 1 shifted to 3379 cm − 1 [ 43 ]. 3.4. XRD Analysis Figure 4 and Table 3 show the XRD patterns of pure SBR (SBR1) and SBR: Pb-NPs (SBR3) compounds, as shown in Table 1 . The results show that the amorphous peaks of pure SBR at diffraction scattering angles 2θ͌ ≈ 26.04°,31.74°,39.9°,46.8°,49.6°,53.36°,64.42°, and 88.12° according to d-spacing 3.42 Å, 2.82 Å, 2.26 Å, 1.94 Å,1.84 Å,1.72 Å,1.45 Å, and 1.11 Å with the crystalline planes (110), (111), (102), (112), (211), (220), (311), and (313). The planes (101) and (211) are related to TiO 2 [ 44 ]. In addition, the average crystalline size and crystallinity were 35.4 nm and 38.43%; these results agree with previous studies [ 32 , 45 ]. Adding zinc oxide and titanium oxide leads to a complex structure with the rubber and enhances the rubber's crystalline properties [ 46 ]. On the other hand, the addition of lead nanoparticles leads to enhance the crystalline properties. Table 3 Crystalline size and crystallinity of SBR1 and SBR: Pb-NPs (SBR5) samples Crystalline Size (nm) Crystallinity (%) SBR1 35.40 38.43 SBR5 48.93 54.13 They observe a new peak at 2θ ≈ 28.68°, 31.4°,36.4°, 48.78°, 52.44°, 54.74°, 60.04°, 62.38°, 65.44°, 77.2°,85.8°, and 88.3° corresponding to d-spacing as 3.11 Å,2.85 Å,2.47 Å,1.87 Å, 1.74 Å, 1.68 Å, 1.54 Å, 1.49 Å,1.43 Å,1.24 Å,1.13 Å, and1.11 Å with crystalline planes as (101), (110), (111), (112), (121), (211), (202), (300), (310), (320), (321), and (400). At the same time, the average crystalline size and crystallinity were 48.93 nm and 54.13% respectively [ 32 ]. The clear increase in the sharp and very strong percentage of strength and density of the particles after the addition of lead nanoparticles indicates the high degree of crystallinity of the SBR compounds. 3.5. Gamma Ray Attenuation Metallic lead (Pb) has a high atomic number (82) and high density (11,340 g cm3), which helps provide significant interference between X-rays and gamma rays. Therefore, lead is one of the most widely used materials in radiation protection. Prabhu et al. reported that NR/SBR was filled with lead particles up to 500 p h r, which led to high linear attenuation coefficients. [ 47 ]. The test result was used to study the properties of the rubber batch as 20 phrTiO 2 , 20 p h r Chlorophyll, and other materials with different ratios of lead nanoparticles, as in Table 1 . Figure 5 . shows that the intensity of absorbed gamma radiation decreases with increased loading of lead nanoparticles for all shielding thicknesses, with the highest reduction in intensity of absorbed gamma radiation at 12 mm shielding thickness at 300 p h r. This result indicates the possibility of using various lead-containing artificial structures to mitigate gamma radiation, including using rubber gloves filled with lead powder that provides good protection for medical staff exposed to ionizing radiation in cancer hospitals [ 48 ]. On the other hand, the linear attenuation coefficient ( \({\mu _L}\) ) represented the slope of Eq. 1 after plotting the relation between the (-ln(I/I0) and many shielding thicknesses (x) for all loads of lead nanoparticles, shown in Fig. 6 . The correction factor (R 2 > 0.95) of all straight lines indicated that the linear attenuation coefficient values were more regular, as shown in Table 4 . It means that the incoming ray is completely absorbed because of the value of the linear absorption coefficient between zero and unity. If the absorption coefficient approaches zero, the material is transparent to the ray, and vice versa. If the absorption coefficient increases and approaches one, the incoming ray is almost completely absorbed [ 49 ]. It is observed from Fig. 7 that the gamma-ray absorption rates increase with increasing sample thickness and also with increasing loading of lead nanoparticles. The absorption rates of radiation at sample 300phr are high compared to the absorption rates of the sample without lead nanoparticles The best ratio is (300phr), which can be used as the best material in shielding against gamma rays. The value of the attenuation coefficients depends on the sample density. Increasing the sample density reduces the porosity, which leads to an increase in the attenuation coefficients [ 50 ]. Table 4 shows the mass density (ρ m), linear attenuation coefficient (µ L ), mass attenuation coefficient (µm), half-value layer (HVL), and tenth-value layer (TVL), by using the Cesium source (Cs 137 ) and an energy of 663 keV for (3, 6, 9, 12) mm shielding thickness of each Pb-NPs loading. The results show that the mass density, linear attenuation, and mass attenuation coefficients increase with increasing loading levels of Pb-NPs in SBR composites. At the same time, the half-value and tenth-value layers decrease compared with the control sample (without Pb-NPs). A lead concentration of 300 phr is considered a good candidate for applications protecting materials from radiation. These results are consistent with results in previous studies [ 31 , 51 ]. Table 4 Results of gamma-ray shielding properties for different lead nanoparticles loading. Loading levels of lead nanoparticles P h r 0.0 50 100 200 300 \({{\rho }}_{\text{m}}\) ( \(\text{g}\text{m}/{\text{c}\text{m}}^{3}\) ) 1.0059 1.3211 1.4821 1.493 1.754 R 2 0.993 0.978 0.966 0.977 0.959 \({{\mu }}_{\text{L} }({\text{c}\text{m}}^{-1}\) ) 0.042 0.1204 0.150 0.155 0.206 HVL (cm) 16.587 16.441 13.857 13.420 10.114 TVL (cm) 55.112 54.628 46.042 44.589 33.605 \({{\mu }}_{\text{m} }( {\text{c}\text{m}}^{2}/\text{g}\text{m}\) ) 0.042 0.091 0.101 0.104 0.118 Mass density (ρm); \({\mu }_{L}\) : linear attenuation coefficient; \({\mu }_{m}\) : Mass attenuation coefficient; half−value layer (HVL), tenth−value layer (TVL) . 4. Conclusions Lead nanoparticles with a maximum of 300 phr and 20 p h r titanium dioxide (TiO 2 ) can be added to styrene-butadiene rubber to prepare a suitable nanocomposite for radiation shielding. Using a mixing method that is safe and suitable for protection against gamma rays. The FE-SEM images show good dispersion and homogeneity of these particles in the rubber matrix, and few agglomerations occur with increasing lead loading. The swelling ratio decreased with increased loading levels of lead nanoparticles; adding lead nanoparticles leads to enhanced crystalline properties. The mass density, linear attenuation, and mass attenuation coefficients increase with increasing loading levels of Pb-NPs in SBR composites. At the same time, the half-value and tenth-value layers decrease compared with the control sample (without Pb-NPs). The nanocomposite with 300 p h r of Pb -NPs showed the best shielding properties, which can be used as protective suits to protect pregnant women and workers in tumors hospitals and nuclear reactors. Declarations Acknowledgements The authors sincerely thank all their friends in the College of Physical Sciences, Al-Mustaqbal University, and Anbar University for their help in completing the research. Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no competing interests or personal relationships influencing the research. Data availability All data supporting the study is available from the corresponding author and ready upon request. Funding The research did not receive financial support from any educational institution or scientific company. Contributions Saleh Abbas Habeeb and Ali K. Aobaid designed and carefully reviewed the study. At the same time, Mohammed H. Al Maamori and Fadhil Ketab Dahash formulated the research and experimental work. ORCID iDs Salih Abbas Habeeb: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4687-1744 References S. Nambiar,J.T. Yeow, Polymer-composite materials for radiation protection. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 4(11), 5717–26 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1021/am300783d M.K.Abdulkadhim,,S.A. Habeeb, The possibility of producing uniform nanofibers from blends of natural biopolymers, Mater. Perform. 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Ahmed M.,A comparative study between nano-cadmium oxide and lead oxide reinforced in high density poly ethylene as gamma rays shielding composites, Nucl. Technol. Radiat. Protect. 35, 42–49 (2020). https://doi.org/10.2298/NTRP2001042A S.Chen, N. Shruti ,L.I. Zhenhao,O. Ernest., Bismuth oxide-based nanocomposite for high-energy electron radiation shielding, J. Mater. Sci. 54(4), 3023–3034 (2019). doI: 10.1007/s10853-018-3063-0 S.A.Habeeb,L. Rajabi ,F. Dabirian F, Production of polyacrylonitrile/boehmite nanofibrous composite tubular structures by opposite-charge electrospinning with enhanced properties from a low‐concentration polymer solution, Polym. Compos 41(4), 1649–1661(2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.25486 B.A. Nadhim, S.A.Habeeb, Studying the Physical Properties of Non-Woven Polyacrylonitrile Nanofibers after Adding γ-Fe2O3 Nanoparticles, Egypt. J. Chem. 64(12), 7621–7630(2021). https://dx.doi.org/10.21608/ejchem.2021.75271.3694 M.F.Mahmoud, A.M. El-Khatib, M.S. Badawi, A.R. Rashad, R.M. El-Sharkawy, A.A. Thabet, Fabrication, characterization and gamma rays shielding properties of nano and micro lead oxide-dispersed-high density polyethylene composites, Radiat. Phys. Chem. 145, 160–173(2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radphyschem.2017.10.017 R.Gamal, E. Salama, H. Elshimy, D.E. El-Nashar, A. Bakry, M. Ehab, Gamma attenuation and mechanical characteristics of a lead/NBR/SBR rubber composite with black nanocarbon reinforcement, Sustainability 15(3), 2165(2023). https://doi.org/10.3390/su15032165 S. Intom, E. Kalkornsurapranee, J. Johns, S. Kaewjaeng, S. Kothan, W. Hongtong,W. Chaiphaksa,J. Kaewkhao, Mechanical and radiation shielding properties of flexible material based on natural rubber/ Bi2O3 composites, Radiat. Phys. Chem. 172, 108772(2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radphyschem.2020.108772 W.M. Mustfa, S.A. Habeeb, Evaluation of the physical properties and filtration efficiency of PVDF/PAN nanofiber membranes by using dry milk protein. Materials Research Express, 10(9), 095306 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1088/2053-1591/acf6f3 S.A. Habeeb, A.A. Diwan, M.Z. Albozahid, A compressive review on swelling parameters and physical properties of natural rubber nano composites. Egyptian Journal of Chemistry, 64(10), 5713–5724 (2021). https://dx.doi.org/10.21608/ejchem.2021.72560.3613 S.A.Habeeb, A.K. Alobad, M.A. Albozahid, Effect of zinc oxide loading levels on the cure characteristics, mechanical and aging properties of the epdm rubber. International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology (IJMET), 10(1), 133–141(2019). https://dx.doi.org/10.34218/IJMET.10.1.2019.013 K.Roy, M.N. Alam, S.K. Mandal, S.C. Debnath, Surface modification of sol–gel derived nano zinc oxide (ZnO) and the study of its effect on the properties of styrene–butadiene rubber (SBR) nanocomposites. J. Nanostructure Chem. 4, 133–142(2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40097-014-0127-9 S.A.Habeeb, B.A. Nadhim, B.J. Kadhim, M.S. Ktab, A.J. Kadhim, F.S. Murad, Improving the Physical Properties of Nanofibers Prepared by Electrospinning from Polyvinyl Chloride and Polyacrylonitrile at Low Concentrations, Adv. Polym. Technol. 2023, 1811577(2023). https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/1811577 D.Faris, N.J. Hadi, S.A. Habeeb, Effect of rheological properties of (Poly vinyl alcohol/Dextrin/Naproxen) emulsion on the performance of drug encapsulated nanofibers, Mater. Today: Proc, 42, 2725–2732(2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.12.712 S. Atef, D.F. El-Nashar, A.H. Ashour, S. El-Fiki, S.U. El-Kameesy, M. Medhat, Effect of gamma irradiation and lead content on the physical and shielding properties of PVC/NBR polymer blends, Polym. Bull. 77, 5423–5438 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00289-019-03022-4 C. Badre, T. Pauporte´, M. Turmine, D. Lincot,, A ZnO nanowire array film with stable highly water-repellent properties, Nanotechnol. 18(36), 365705 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1088/0957-4484/18/36/365705 P.Xu, G. Zeng, D. Huang, S. Hu, C. Feng, C. Lai, G. Xie, Synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles and their application in Phanerochaete chrysosporium immobilization for Pb (II) removal, Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 419, 147–155(2013). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2012.10.061 N.S.Kumar, K. Min, K., Phenolic compounds biosorption onto Schizophyllum commune fungus: FTIR analysis, kinetics and adsorption isotherms modeling, J. Chem. Eng. 168(2), 562–571(2011). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2011.01.023 S.Krishnan,A. Shriwastav, Application of TiO2 nanoparticles sensitized with natural chlorophyll pigments as catalyst for visible light photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue, J. Environ. Chem. Eng.9(1),104699 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2020.104699 S.Taheri, Y. Hassani, G.M.M. Sadeghi, F. Moztarzadeh, M.C. Li, Graft copolymerization of acrylic acid on to styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) to improve morphology and mechanical properties of SBR/polyurethane blend, J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 133(29), 43699(2016). https://doi.org/10.1002/app.43699 N.González, M.D.A. Custal, D.Rodríguez, J.R. Riba, E.Armelin, Influence of ZnO and TiO 2 particle sizes in the mechanical and dielectric properties of vulcanized rubber, Mat. Res. 20 (4), 1082–1091(2027). https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-5373-MR-2017-0178 S. Prabhu, S.G. Bubbly, S.B. Gudennavar, X-ray and γ-ray shielding efficiency of polymer composites: choice of fillers, effect of loading and filler size, photon energy and multifunctionality, Polym. Rev. 63(1), 246–288(2023). https://doi.org/10.1080/15583724.2022.2067867 V. Arena, Ionizing Radiation and Life, The C.V.Mosby CO. St. Louis, MO (1971). J. Ahn, S.J. Na, Three-dimensional thermal simulation of nanosecond laser ablation for semitransparent material, Appl. Surf. Sci 283, 115–127 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2013.06.048 D. R. McAlister, Gamma ray attenuation properties of common shielding materials, PG Res Found. Univ. Lane Lisle, USA, 60532(2012). I.M. Nikbin,R. Mohebbi ,S. Dezhampanah ,S. Mehdipour ,R. Mohammadi ,T. Nejat, Gamma- ray shielding properties of heavy-weight concrete containing NanoTiO, Radiat Phys Chem 162:157–167(2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radphyschem.2019.05.008 Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-3832030","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":265004099,"identity":"166440dd-631e-4a2d-924f-d119e4ba26fe","order_by":0,"name":"Salih Abbas Habeeb","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4687-1744","institution":"Unversity of Babylon","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Salih","middleName":"Abbas","lastName":"Habeeb","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-01-03 14:16:21","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":false,"vertebrateSubjects":true,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false,"humanSubjectConsent":false,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":true},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3832030/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3832030/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":49237518,"identity":"a69d475b-8c5a-4798-ac7c-1b853892e65b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-01-05 18:01:21","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":834768,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFE-SEM images and EDX analysis of SBR1(without Pb-NPs), SBR1, SBR2, SBR3, SBR4, and SBR5 (50,100,200,300) phr of Pb-NPs.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3832030/v1/682bf54ea8f40d2404adc528.png"},{"id":49237952,"identity":"5ea9c690-daa9-4373-aa8b-e9b2631078ee","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-01-05 18:09:21","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":599603,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eshows the swelling properties as a swelling ratio, rubber volume fraction, and cross-links density of SBR compounds as a function of Pb-NPs.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.211.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3832030/v1/10f82c2ac31003f397c0d4ac.png"},{"id":49237514,"identity":"76ba17a9-9c85-4dab-bf84-cb9572aae420","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-01-05 18:01:21","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":986744,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFTIR spectra of pure SBR(SBR1) and SBR: Pb-NPs\u003cstrong\u003e (\u003c/strong\u003eSBR5)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.311.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3832030/v1/fe4d30f07866deb3fead909b.png"},{"id":49237516,"identity":"28bea7ba-165a-4fa3-8103-3e47aa769796","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-01-05 18:01:21","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":624645,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eshows the XRD patterns of pure SBR and SBR: Pb-NPs nanocomposites.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.411.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3832030/v1/f0aa0b7041e2a2ce673ea640.png"},{"id":49237953,"identity":"eb75a555-bc72-498e-a5ea-392d9df5b211","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-01-05 18:09:21","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":898473,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffect of the lead nanoparticles loading (phr) on the intensity of absorption gamma radiation for all shielding thicknesses.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.511.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3832030/v1/b07bb1c64ce8f0517ae721a0.png"},{"id":49237513,"identity":"7ae450cb-e122-44a0-bfcf-c9318844e1b4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-01-05 18:01:20","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":879827,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe relation between the shield thickness and the intensity of the absorption gamma radiation ln (I/I\u003csub\u003e0 \u003c/sub\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.610.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3832030/v1/bdab5cda86638a22292a102a.png"},{"id":49239824,"identity":"1943ac09-3761-4868-86a8-a40bb546a3c4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-01-05 18:17:23","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":3941035,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3832030/v1/d14608f1-b224-45a9-84e1-6468c017f91e.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStudying the High Loading of Lead-Rubber Nanocomposites as Gamma Radiations Shielding.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eGamma rays are considered the most important type of nuclear rays because they are the shortest electromagnetic waves resulting from the atomic nucleus's radioactive decay. They have applications in various fields, such as medicine, agriculture, biology, astronomy, and industry. Radioactive isotopes have been used in industry to inspect oil pipelines, study soil and plants [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e], and preserve processed foods to rid them of germs and bacteria. [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR3\" citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOn the other hand, X-rays and gamma rays depend on several factors, including describing the radiation shielding ability of the compound mass attenuation coefficient, half value layer (HVL), and tenth value layer (TVL) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMercury and lead are considered the most important traditional shielding materials against gamma rays or for protection against radioactive materials due to their physical properties and the possibility of their availability with various compounds such as glass powder, boron mixtures, polyethene, lead and natural rubber [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. However, these composite polymeric materials have some limitations and problems. Collateral damage, including high toxicity, high cost, and large weight due to its high density, in addition to the generation of secondary radiation during the attenuation of gamma rays by lead electrons, such as bremsstrahlung radiation, which affects people who deal with these radiologically hazardous materials in addition to environmental pollution [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR8\" citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. However, lead has the highest linear attenuation coefficient when using gamma rays or x-rays [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, the SBR compound was reinforced with TiO2 because it can protect against gamma rays, facilitate photocatalytic activity, generate reactive oxygen species [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e], and enhance electrical and optical properties [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolymers are good shielding materials to protect against gamma radiation when combined with materials that have large atomic numbers. Still, hydrogen-rich composite materials provide good protection from fast neutrons when added to other advantages such as abundance, lightweight, cheapness, and less secondary radiation emission than other solid materials [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMetal or metal oxides have enhanced physical properties of composite polymers such as thermal conductivity, mechanical, optical, magnetic and electrical [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. Increasing amounts of lead oxide led to increased mechanical properties and resistance to gamma rays, in addition to increasing the cross-linking of the Lead/SBR-NBR rubber blend [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. Atta et al. study the strengthening samples of SBR/montmorillonite with mineral oxides such as (Fe2O3, ZnO, MoO, and TiO2) for protection from gamma rays. The results showed that samples strengthened with MoO give the best protection from gamma rays, where \u0026micro; was found to be 0.067 (cm\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1) and HVL 10.34 (cm) at power 662 kV. SEM morphology analysis of the surface of the samples showed a regular distribution of metal oxide particles [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStrengthening rubber compounds of SBR/PbO2 with carbon black for use as shielding materials from X-rays, enhancing electrical properties and increasing the density of crosslinks. The results showed that gamma radiation with different types of doses (50, 100, 200, and 500 kGy) is affected by the time of chewing and by increasing the density of cross-links [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. Chlorophyll is considered a natural extract that enhances stability by increasing activity against oxidation due to its ability to absorb ultraviolet rays, the mechanical parameters, and cross-linking of natural rubber after ageing compared to rubber without these extracts [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. In this study, the SBR matrix was reinforced with several loading ratios of Pb-NPs and other additives such as Chlorophyll and TiO2 to improve the resistance of the rubber compound to oxidation and increase the density of crosslinks in addition to improving the efficiency of the rubber compound for shielding against gamma rays.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Experimental Practical","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Materials\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStyrene butadiene rubber was obtained from the production of the emulsion technique (e-SBR) and was used as a continuous method Stage for all compounds, with trade label (trade name KER 1500); Purchased from Synthos S.A. Oswiecim, Poland. Other components of rubber mixtures, such as sulfur, zinc oxide, and stearic acid, were also prepared by rubber laboratories in BASF AG, Germany. Rubber accelerator as tetramethylthiumran disulfide (TMTD) was supplied by Taizhou Huangyan Donghai Chemical Co., Ltd, China. 1, 2-Dihydro-2, 2,4-trimethyl quinoline (TMQ) supplied by PJSC Khimprom, Russia. Chlorophyll Powder supplied by Aarkay Food Products Ltd., India; Titanium Dioxide supplied by Wuxi CHTI New Materials Co., Ltd, China; and lead Nanopowder with an average particle size of 75\u0026ndash;100 nm range with a specific surface area of approximately 5\u0026ndash;10 m2/g, supplied by American Elements, U.S.A.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Specimens Preparation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this work, a polymeric composite material was prepared from natural rubber and lead Nanoparticles using sol-gel technology, direct mixing and homogenizing or the so-called chewing process of the materials included in the rubber paste. Use a 6-inch dual grinder (Bridge, UK) with a friction coefficient of 1.1 and a rotational speed of 20 rpm. All components of the rubber compounds were added according to ASTMD 15\u0026ndash;627 at a temperature not exceeding 50\u0026deg;C to obtain rubber sheets with a thickness of approximately 2 mm, as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecipe of compounds used for pure SBR and SBR: Pb-NPs Nanocomposites.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompounding ingredients\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSBR1\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(P h r)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSBR2\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(P h r)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSBR3\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(P h r)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSBR4\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(P h r)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSBR5\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(P h r)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSBR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eZinc Oxide\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSatiric Acid\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParaffin wax\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTMQ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTMTD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDOP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003esulfur\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChlorophyll\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\({\\text{T}\\text{i}\\text{O}}_{2}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePb-NPs ratio\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e300\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe rheological and curing properties of all rubber compounds are determined using MV-ODR-PROPERTIES Rheometer (Micro Vision Enterprises, India) according to ASTM D2705. The scorch time (TS), curing time (TC), torque and viscosity are determined under the test standard ISO 6502-2:2018 at 150\u0026deg;C for 6 minutes. Based on the results of the above properties, the rubber compounds are processed in the Polymers Department laboratory Engineering and petrochemical industries using XLB-D 350 x 350 electric heat press (Huzhou, East Machinery, China) at 150\u0026deg;C with optimal curing time (TC90) under pressure of 10 MPa.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Radiation-shielding Measurements.\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe linear attenuation coefficient (\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\({\\mu _L}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e) is defined as the radiation interaction with the shielding material for each length path depending on the type of shielding material and gamma-ray energy. It is calculated using the Lambert-Beer equation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e] as:\u003cdiv id=\"Equ1\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ1\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$${\\mu _L}=\\frac{{ - \\ln (I/{I_0})}}{x}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e1\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere I is the intensity of photons transmitted across some distance x, I\u003csub\u003eo\u003c/sub\u003e is the initial intensity of photons, \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\({\\mu }_{L}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e is the linear attenuation coefficient. It is the relative decrease in the number of photons per unit thickness measured in cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1,\u003c/sup\u003e and x is the shielding thickness sample. The mass attenuation coefficient can be calculated from the following relation:\u003cdiv id=\"Equ2\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ2\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$${\\mu _m}=\\frac{{{\\mu _L}}}{\\rho }$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e2\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDetermine the half-value layer (HVL) to determine the ability of rubber compounds to absorb or reduce the intensity of gamma radiation to its half at a given energy. HVL is calculated according to the following relationship [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]:\u003cdiv id=\"Equ3\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ3\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$HVL=\\frac{{\\ln 2}}{{{\\mu _L}}}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e3\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe attenuation coefficient for gamma rays is calculated, which is related to reducing the intensity of gamma radiation to its tenth at a given energy. The tenth-value layer (TVL) can be calculated according to the following relationship [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]:\u003cdiv id=\"Equ4\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ4\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$TVL=\\frac{{\\ln 10}}{{{\\mu _L}}}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e4\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4 Swelling Measurements\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe swelling parameters of the rubber compounds are measured using an accurately weighed sample (W\u003csub\u003ei\u003c/sub\u003e) in (g), with a diameter of 20 mm and a thickness of 2 mm, immersed in acetone solvent for 24 hours, and the weight of the sample (W\u003csub\u003et\u003c/sub\u003e) in (g) is recorded after simple drying with a filter paper. The samples are immersed again in the solvent to reach equilibrium for 36 hours, and the solvent absorption ratio S(t) is calculated [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]:\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Equ5\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e \u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ5\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$S(t)=\\frac{{{W_t} - {W_i}}}{{{W_i}}}*100$$\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e5\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \n\u003cp\u003eTo determine the crosslink density of SBR and SBR: Pb-NPs compounds, the volume fraction of rubber for each compound must be calculated according to the following relationship [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cimg src=\"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAmIAAAA2CAYAAABk1vUuAAAKNUlEQVR4Ae2dMW4UMRSGcwXEDYKUE1ClpSB1CujoUtAmqaiidEiIGon0KDXiAAk9ot4DUNFxgEXfSC9yhtkde3Z2dzx8llYz47H97M+R8us923OwNElAAhKQgAQkIAEJ7IXAwV6salQCEpCABCQgAQlIYKkQ849AAhKQgAQkIAEJ7ImAQmxP4LvM/vnzZ3l9fb3kapKABCQgAQlIYP4EFGIFc/zr16/l4eHh8uDg4OF3fHz8cB/5Hz58WPKLZ65fv37ttfTjx4/l58+fe8tZQAISkIAEJCCBeRBQiBXOI96qFy9eNL/wXEXe6enpI2/WmzdvmnKLxSLLCiIMMWaSgAQkIAEJSOD/IKAQK5znEF2IrEh4u/B6pXkIqlevXj0SZlG+60q7hiW7yJgnAQlIQAISmC8BhVjh3EZ4ktAjCQF1eXnZhCwjjzKvX79ecs1NhiVzSVlOAhKQgAQkMB8CCrHCuWwLMcKJNzc3y6dPnz6sA0OQ5awJS02XhCURfx8/fmxs4onD9pcvX9LmvJeABCQgAQlIoAICCrHCScJzFaILUXZ7e9us64q80pAk5kvCkpQl5Pnt27em59hjAwG/Eg9c4bAtLgEJSEACEpDAFggoxAqhxnowrnjCED/cI8Tu7+8bkYQ4KkmUz90tyTq0CIGGDZ6xX2o36nuVgAQkIAEJSGA/BBRihdxDdCHC7u7umtoIITxSFxcX/4iknOZzw5Jhuy24wr4esRzalpGABCQgAQlMh4BCrHAuwvt0dXX1UJM81mpxrAWhw5JUEpaM4zBSG9xjlz6YJCABCUhAAhKoi4BCrHC+EEPtMGBXXm6zuWFJvF143dqCCy+Z68NyaVtOAhKQgAQkMC0CCrHC+ehao9WVlza7zutVEpaMs8rCI8ZOyZOTExfpp7C9l4AEJCABCVREQCFWMFkIoLOzs0fCZ53I6mu6pC5ijxAk9uPICo6wCFHWZ8v3EpCABCQgAQlMj4BCbMtzglBCQCGkhqZVYclV7RHuPDo6ag6aJYx6fn6+qqj5EpCABCQgAQnskYBCbAfwCT+ylmtoKl0HhvjDc0boElFW8qmloX20ngQkIAEJSGBOBDiv8/nz500UKmdc79+/b8ryZZ2fP3/mVGnKKMSyUQ0rGKJok6Ml8KaVeNQQX+EFQ8SV1B02SmtJQAISkIAE5kMAEfbkyZPl9+/fOwfFewQXS4VS0fX79+/l27dvm7rc5ySFWA6lDcqkomhIMxFm5JqbEF/8FotFs5i/pG6uDctJQAISkIAE5krg2bNny3fv3nUOD6GFpwwxtkpsIeI+ffrUWb+dqRBrExn5GUFEmBBRtKuEBywW9GPfJAEJSEACEpBAHgHEFf9Du7xhIcJWCbCwgLfs5cuX8bj2qhBbi6e+l4RALy8v3U1Z39TZYwlIQAISmAABBFg75Ei3CEGuEmjtbrNebHQhlnpZItSV7gjk3rRfAswLuyTbB87ut1dal4AEJCABCdRDIIRYu8eEKgk5IrIIXSLKuHZ5zmLhfruNrucij1j8o09Pdyf0VborL0Qdg1j1S210ddw8CUhAAhKQgAQkMDaBVUIMDxdCjLVhJMKTsTC/3YetCbHUAxZGEWccz2CSgAQkIAEJSEACtRNYJ8Ta4cYo2/aKbU2IARdvVvpxa0533+RohpIJW+U9M3+1Z3GKbErm3LISkIAEJCCBXRIIcdW2ifeLUGSaomx6hAXvtyrECBmGELu7u2sODE07lXNvaDKHkmUkIAEJSEACEtg1gRBXbS9X5MexFIQm2R3JURbthBBre8/aZeK5aI0YlRBih4eHTYzUkGRg9CoBCUhAAhKQwBwIxPEVsRYsHRN5sVCf9WJ4ybqOstjq8RUszmdX3tXVVdo37yUgAQlIQAISkMAsCCC2EFlDE/XDc9bXRrFHDCFGaLGdyGc9EmvGUIK7WjfW7ofPEpCABCQgAQlIYBMCfKsZTcO1JKU7Kbs8ZV1tFQuxrkbIY0clx1gQrry+vq7yQFHGUGvfV83LkHw5DKFmHQlIQAISmBMBRFhVH/3mGIuTk5OtesLwsrE+Ld0JeHx8/OiZd6xj45eWw2PXl2o4imPbDGBUA4e+ufS9BCQgAQlIoAYCo3nEQvxse9Bxllns3MRe5J2enj7yxMVRG7nfecSbhwiZeorxboMBY6+Fw9Tnyf5JQAISkIAE+giMJsQQPTlep74O9b0PEZKuU4v1aWkegqrkxH/arSUsuS0GsK+JQ9/fiu8lIAEJSEACUycwmhDb1UAjNIcHjoRw4CPXhCwjjzKlGwamEI5DUMYY1vHcFgNsToHDurH7TgISkIAEJDAnAtULMcJoNzc3zZEa4ZFDzMR97mSVhOMQf+wO5RgP1qFxLd1Z0dWvoUJsLAb0aQocutiYJwEJSEACEpgjgeqEGB4bhA+iBc/Q7e1t48WJvNKQJJNaEo6jLCHPOOgNe3jj+NGfTVKuENsGgylx2IShdSUgAQlIQAI1EahOiCFW8EJxxROG+OEeIXZ/f9+IJIRKSaI8nqCcxDq0dviQZ+yX2m3byxVi22BAX6bCoc3FZwlIQAISkMBcCVQpxBA9iDC+dUlCCOGRuri4+Eck5UxcbjguBF9bcIX9Uo8Yoi49YqPrPt2AEGOJfozJgLb3xSHG5VUCEpCABCTwvxGoToiF9yn9xBJ5iJj0OIfciSwJSyKK2jaoTx592DTlesTGZkC/p8RhU47Wl4AEJCABCdRCoDohhhhqhwG78nInIDcch7cr3ZkZ7SOexlgfRnu5QqxrvF150cec65Q45PTXMhKQgAQkIIE5EKhSiLW9T4iQdl46Oeu8PSXhOLxu2KI9Ejslx/yaQIkQa4+3j0HKo+t+Shy6+meeBCQgAQlIYI4EqhJiCKCzs7NHuxPXiay+CSupi9AhBIl9BBleOY6wCFHWZyvnfY4QG5sB/ZoahxxWlpGABCQgAQnMgUBVQmwIcEQGAgohNTStCkuuao8w39HRUXPQLILt/Px8VdGd5AeD8OgNNVrCYSybQ/tqPQlIQAISkEANBGYvxJgEwm54m4Ym6pasA0OE4DkjdIkoK/nU0tA+rquHgOLrA/Rrk1TCYSybm/TXuhKQgAQkIIGpE5i9EAtRhDAYmvCmlXjUEF/hBUO8lNQd2se+evQpjvvoK7vq/RAOm9pc1RfzJSABCUhAAnMgMHshloqiIRNGfcKMXHMT4ovfYrFoFvOX1M21kVsOIRofM+fIj6GCtITDWDZzx2g5CUhAAhKQQK0EZi/EEESECRFFu0p4jmJBP/b3mRBehFXpDxw2DU/mjGUfNnP6ZRkJSEACEpDA1AjMXojtGjgiZIz1WLvut/YkIAEJSEACEtg9AYXYiMwJ37FLsn3g7IgmbEoCEpCABCQggRkRUIjNaDIdigQkIAEJSEACdRFQiNU1X/ZWAhKQgAQkIIEZEVCIzWgyHYoEJCABCUhAAnURUIjVNV/2VgISkIAEJCCBGRH4C1pPIuJVcA1/AAAAAElFTkSuQmCC\" height=\"54\" width=\"610\"\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhere: the volume fraction of rubber is Vr [-], SΡ and ΡΡ represent the density of solvent and polymer (g/cm3). The Flory-Renner equation is used to calculate the density of crosslinks resulting from vulcanization processes and strengthening of the rubber matrix by adding lead nanoparticles [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]:\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Equ6\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ6\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$V=\\frac{{\\ln [(1 - {V_r})+{V_r}+XV_{r}^{2}]}}{{{V_o}\\left( {V_{r}^{{1/3}} - \\frac{{{V_r}}}{2}} \\right)}}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e7\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere: The crosslink density of rubber compounds per unit volume is V (mol/cm3), the molar volume of acetone (Vo\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;73.519 cm3/mol). X represents the interaction coefficient of the Flory-Huggins rubber compound with the solvent (0.3692 for the average sulfur-bound SBR acetone pair).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5 Characterizations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eScanning electron microscopy type JEOL JSM5310 is used to determine the dispersion of lead nanoparticles in rubber mixtures and detect surface agglomerates. The contact angle system tests the water absorbency of rubber compound surfaces using the SL200B optical dynamic/static contact angle meter in Cambodia. It is also used for Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, IRAffinity-1S, Shimadzu, Japan, to determine the chemical bonds between SBR and lead nanoparticles. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC-60, SHIMADZU-JAPAN)) to detect the thermal behavior of rubber compounds while determining crystalline properties is done by using X-ray diffraction (XRD-6000, SHIMADZU-JAPAN). The linear attenuation coefficient of rubber compounds is measured for a Cs-137 (662 keV) using a gamma-ray spectrometer (EG\u0026amp;G Ortec DSPEC) Digital LED Display.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results and discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1. Morphological Properties\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe scanning electron microscope images were used in this work to study the distribution and homogeneity of lead nanoparticles, which depends on sample scanning, by projecting an electron beam on the sample's surface [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR28 CR29\" citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e shows the FE-SEM image with 3\u0026micro;m and energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX) elemental concentration of the SBR before and after adding the lead nanoparticles. Due to the addition of lead nanoparticles to the SBR compounds, the FE-SEM images show good dispersion and homogeneity of these particles in the rubber matrix, and few agglomerations occur with increasing lead loading; this result was in good agreement with a previous study [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. Also, EDX analysis shows an increase in the weight percentage of lead in samples SBR1, SBR2, SBR3, and SBR4 as a result of the increased lead loading in rubber compounds, as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. The uniform distribution of lead nanoparticles enhances mechanical properties and contributes to the enhanced resistance of rubber models to gamma-ray shielding properties. The current study showed that increasing the concentration of lead nanoparticles increases the cutting distance and the final force [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR33\" citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEDX analysis of elements detected after adding the lead nanoparticles to SBR compounds.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSamples\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"7\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElements Contents (wt%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eZn\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSBR1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSBR2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSBR3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSBR4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSBR5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2. Swelling Measurements\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSwelling properties are considered one of the most important physical properties that limit rubber compounds' applications, especially when they come in direct contact with organic solvents, which decompose or dissolve these compounds and weaken their performance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e shows the relation between the loading levels in (p h r) and swelling properties such as swelling ratio (%), rubber volume fraction (-), and cross-links density (mol/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results show that the swelling ratio decreased with increased loading levels of lead nanoparticles. A decrement was about 199% when the SBR filled with 300 p h r (SBR5) lead compared with unfilled rubber. At the same time, increasing the volume fraction of rubber and cross-link densities by about 7.1% and 14%, respectively. Because the increase in cross-linking within the rubber matrix limits the movement of the polymeric chains and enhances the resistance of the rubber compound to decomposition by the organic solvent, these results agree with previous studies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. At the same time, the metal oxides act as auxiliary activators during the vulcanization process, which leads to an increase in the density of crosslinks [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3. FTIR Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e shows the FTIR spectra of pure SBR and SBR: Pb -NPs with a range of 500\u0026ndash;4000 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e; the peaks around 2924 and 2846 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e represent the symmetric stretching of the C\u0026ndash;H band [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR38\" citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]. The peak at 1720 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e represented the C\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;O stretching band of aldehyde, and 1640 cm-1 represented the C\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;C stretching band that can be attributed to the alkane group. Also peak at 1440 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e corresponded to the O-H bending band. The peak at 1381 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e is related to the S\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;O stretching, and the peak at 1280 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e is related to the C-O stretching group. Peaks at 111 and 1026 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e represented the C-O stretching group attributed to the ester class.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe peaks observed at 802 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e and 887 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e correspond to the C\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;C bending attributed to the alkane group. The peak at about 1140 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e is attributed to the filled rubber's Pb\u0026ndash;O stretching linkage [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. The sharp peaks at about 1,455 and 1,538 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e represent the symmetric and antisymmetric carboxylate ion COO-stretching mode [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e]. The peak 1111 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e relating to Pb- OH stretching vibration shifted to 1095 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]. Additionally, the obvious shift in O -H bending vibration positions at 3477 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e shifted to 3379 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4. XRD Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e and Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e show the XRD patterns of pure SBR (SBR1) and SBR: Pb-NPs (SBR3) compounds, as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. The results show that the amorphous peaks of pure SBR at diffraction scattering angles 2θ͌ \u0026asymp; 26.04\u0026deg;,31.74\u0026deg;,39.9\u0026deg;,46.8\u0026deg;,49.6\u0026deg;,53.36\u0026deg;,64.42\u0026deg;, and 88.12\u0026deg; according to d-spacing 3.42 \u0026Aring;, 2.82 \u0026Aring;, 2.26 \u0026Aring;, 1.94 \u0026Aring;,1.84 \u0026Aring;,1.72 \u0026Aring;,1.45 \u0026Aring;, and 1.11 \u0026Aring; with the crystalline planes (110), (111), (102), (112), (211), (220), (311), and (313). The planes (101) and (211) are related to TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e]. In addition, the average crystalline size and crystallinity were 35.4 nm and 38.43%; these results agree with previous studies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e]. Adding zinc oxide and titanium oxide leads to a complex structure with the rubber and enhances the rubber's crystalline properties [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e]. On the other hand, the addition of lead nanoparticles leads to enhance the crystalline properties.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrystalline size and crystallinity of SBR1 and SBR: Pb-NPs (SBR5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003esamples\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrystalline Size (nm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrystallinity (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSBR1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSBR5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThey observe a new peak at 2θ\u0026thinsp;\u0026asymp;\u0026thinsp;28.68\u0026deg;, 31.4\u0026deg;,36.4\u0026deg;, 48.78\u0026deg;, 52.44\u0026deg;, 54.74\u0026deg;, 60.04\u0026deg;, 62.38\u0026deg;, 65.44\u0026deg;, 77.2\u0026deg;,85.8\u0026deg;, and 88.3\u0026deg; corresponding to d-spacing as 3.11 \u0026Aring;,2.85 \u0026Aring;,2.47 \u0026Aring;,1.87 \u0026Aring;, 1.74 \u0026Aring;, 1.68 \u0026Aring;, 1.54 \u0026Aring;, 1.49 \u0026Aring;,1.43 \u0026Aring;,1.24 \u0026Aring;,1.13 \u0026Aring;, and1.11 \u0026Aring; with crystalline planes as (101), (110), (111), (112), (121), (211), (202), (300), (310), (320), (321), and (400). At the same time, the average crystalline size and crystallinity were 48.93 nm and 54.13% respectively [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. The clear increase in the sharp and very strong percentage of strength and density of the particles after the addition of lead nanoparticles indicates the high degree of crystallinity of the SBR compounds.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.5. Gamma Ray Attenuation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMetallic lead (Pb) has a high atomic number (82) and high density (11,340 g cm3), which helps provide significant interference between X-rays and gamma rays. Therefore, lead is one of the most widely used materials in radiation protection. Prabhu et al. reported that NR/SBR was filled with lead particles up to 500 p h r, which led to high linear attenuation coefficients. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e]. The test result was used to study the properties of the rubber batch as 20 phrTiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, 20 p h r Chlorophyll, and other materials with different ratios of lead nanoparticles, as in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e. shows that the intensity of absorbed gamma radiation decreases with increased loading of lead nanoparticles for all shielding thicknesses, with the highest reduction in intensity of absorbed gamma radiation at 12 mm shielding thickness at 300 p h r.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis result indicates the possibility of using various lead-containing artificial structures to mitigate gamma radiation, including using rubber gloves filled with lead powder that provides good protection for medical staff exposed to ionizing radiation in cancer hospitals [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOn the other hand, the linear attenuation coefficient (\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\({\\mu _L}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e ) represented the slope of Eq.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Equ1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e after plotting the relation between the (-ln(I/I0) and many shielding thicknesses (x) for all loads of lead nanoparticles, shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e. The correction factor (R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.95) of all straight lines indicated that the linear attenuation coefficient values were more regular, as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e. It means that the incoming ray is completely absorbed because of the value of the linear absorption coefficient between zero and unity. If the absorption coefficient approaches zero, the material is transparent to the ray, and vice versa. If the absorption coefficient increases and approaches one, the incoming ray is almost completely absorbed [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e]. It is observed from Fig.\u0026nbsp;7 that the gamma-ray absorption rates increase with increasing sample thickness and also with increasing loading of lead nanoparticles.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe absorption rates of radiation at sample 300phr are high compared to the absorption rates of the sample without lead nanoparticles The best ratio is (300phr), which can be used as the best material in shielding against gamma rays. The value of the attenuation coefficients depends on the sample density. Increasing the sample density reduces the porosity, which leads to an increase in the attenuation coefficients [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e shows the mass density (ρ m), linear attenuation coefficient (\u0026micro;\u003csub\u003eL\u003c/sub\u003e), mass attenuation coefficient (\u0026micro;m), half-value layer (HVL), and tenth-value layer (TVL), by using the Cesium source (Cs\u003csup\u003e137\u003c/sup\u003e) and an energy of 663 keV for (3, 6, 9, 12) mm shielding thickness of each Pb-NPs loading. The results show that the mass density, linear attenuation, and mass attenuation coefficients increase with increasing loading levels of Pb-NPs in SBR composites. At the same time, the half-value and tenth-value layers decrease compared with the control sample (without Pb-NPs). A lead concentration of 300 phr is considered a good candidate for applications protecting materials from radiation. These results are consistent with results in previous studies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResults of gamma-ray shielding properties for different lead nanoparticles loading.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLoading levels of lead nanoparticles\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP h r\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e300\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\({{\\rho }}_{\\text{m}}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e(\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\text{g}\\text{m}/{\\text{c}\\text{m}}^{3}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.0059\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3211\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.4821\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.493\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.754\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.993\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.978\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.966\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.977\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.959\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\({{\\mu }}_{\\text{L} }({\\text{c}\\text{m}}^{-1}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.042\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1204\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.150\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.155\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.206\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHVL (cm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.587\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.441\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.857\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.420\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.114\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTVL (cm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55.112\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54.628\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46.042\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44.589\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.605\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\({{\\mu }}_{\\text{m} }( {\\text{c}\\text{m}}^{2}/\\text{g}\\text{m}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.042\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.091\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.101\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.104\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.118\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003csup\u003eMass density (ρm);\u003c/sup\u003e \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\({\\mu }_{L}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e: \u003csup\u003elinear attenuation coefficient;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\({\\mu }_{m}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e: \u003csup\u003eMass attenuation coefficient; half\u0026minus;value layer (HVL), tenth\u0026minus;value layer (TVL)\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eLead nanoparticles with a maximum of 300 phr and 20 p h r titanium dioxide (TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e) can be added to styrene-butadiene rubber to prepare a suitable nanocomposite for radiation shielding. Using a mixing method that is safe and suitable for protection against gamma rays. The FE-SEM images show good dispersion and homogeneity of these particles in the rubber matrix, and few agglomerations occur with increasing lead loading. The swelling ratio decreased with increased loading levels of lead nanoparticles; adding lead nanoparticles leads to enhanced crystalline properties. The mass density, linear attenuation, and mass attenuation coefficients increase with increasing loading levels of Pb-NPs in SBR composites. At the same time, the half-value and tenth-value layers decrease compared with the control sample (without Pb-NPs).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe nanocomposite with 300 p h r of Pb -NPs showed the best shielding properties, which can be used as protective suits to protect pregnant women and workers in tumors hospitals and nuclear reactors.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors sincerely thank all their friends in the College of Physical Sciences, Al-Mustaqbal University, and Anbar University for their help in completing the research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests or personal relationships influencing the research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll data supporting the study is available from the corresponding author and ready upon request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe research did not receive financial support from any educational institution or scientific company.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eContributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSaleh Abbas Habeeb and Ali K. 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Nejat, Gamma- ray shielding properties of heavy-weight concrete containing NanoTiO, Radiat Phys Chem 162:157\u0026ndash;167(2019). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.radphyschem.2019.05.008\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.radphyschem.2019.05.008\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Attenuation Coefficient, Gamma Rays, Shielding, Styrene Butadiene Rubber, Nanocomposite Materials","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3832030/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3832030/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis research aims to prepare a polymeric composite material from styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) reinforced with lead nanoparticles (Pb-NPs) to make protective shields from gamma rays to protect the healthy tissues of cancer patients while receiving treatment and to protect workers in nuclear reactors and malignant tumors centers. The basic principle is to attenuate the gamma-ray photons emitted by the Cesium source (Cs\u003csup\u003e137)\u003c/sup\u003e with an energy of 663 keV. The basis for studying the shielding properties after adding the 50,100,150,200, and 300 phr lead nanoparticles. The results showed increased mass density, linear attenuation, and mass attenuation coefficients by 743.712%, 390.47%, and 180.95% with increasing loading levels of Pb-NPs in SBR composites up to 300 p h r. At the same time, the half-value and tenth-value layers decrease by 64% compared with the control sample (without Pb-NPs). The field emission scanning electron microscope (FE-SEM) images show good dispersion and homogeneity of these particles in the rubber matrix, and few agglomerations occur with increasing lead loading. The swelling ratio decreased by 199%, increasing the volume fraction of rubber and cross-link densities by about 7.1% and 14%, respectively. the addition of lead nanoparticles leads to enhanced crystalline properties.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Studying the High Loading of Lead-Rubber Nanocomposites as Gamma Radiations Shielding.","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-01-05 18:01:16","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3832030/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"2e4f7adc-519c-4e2e-8dfa-b316d261fccc","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 5th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":27928419,"name":"Materials Engineering"},{"id":27928420,"name":"Polymer Science"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-01-05T18:01:16+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-01-05 18:01:16","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-3832030","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-3832030","identity":"rs-3832030","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}