Physicochemical properties and quality characteristics of biscuits with different bigel-based shortening substitution levels

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Novel biscuits were developed based on various substitution percentages (0% (WAL biscuits), 50% (MIX biscuits), and 100% (CHESS biscuits)) of bigel for the shortening, and their quality characteristics were systematically evaluated. The results indicated that partial replacement of shortening with bigels exhibited positive effect on the quality properties of biscuits. Specifically, the MIX biscuits exhibited Specifically, the MIX biscuits exhibited an optimal color and the lowest baking loss (15.54 ± 0.59%). They also had significantly higher oil and water content (16.93 ± 1.80% and 4.05 ± 0.18%, respectively), alongside a lower diffusion coefficient (11.71 ± 0.24) and the lowest peroxide value (0.04 ± 0.02 g/100g) among all groups. Furthermore, the MIX biscuits exhibited excellent hardness, fracturability, and short-range ordering. Meanwhile, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) revealed a homogeneous distribution of water and oil in the MIX biscuits. Sensory evaluation results indicated that the MIX biscuits received high scores for color, taste, appearance, texture, flavor and overall acceptability. These findings may provide an important reference for the development of healthy and functional bakery products. Bigels Shortening substitute Biscuits Oil and water content Baking loss rate Sensory properties. Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 1 Introduction Nowadays, the global biscuit market is highly competitive, with its considerable scale expanding in China. The eating quality and nutritional composition of the modern biscuit was related to the upstream raw materials, midstream production and downstream applications [ 1 , 2 ]. Specifically, the major raw materials used in the upstream biscuit production process were flour, eggs, milk, edible oil, sugar and others [ 3 ]. For traditional biscuits, the butter, cream, hydrogenated vegetable oils and other traditions fats high in saturated fatty acid were used as the shortening [ 4 , 5 ]. Modern research revealed that excessive intake of saturated fatty acids or trans fatty acids was linked to an increased risk of hypertension, hyperglycemia, cardiovascular diseases, obesity and other chronic diseases [ 6 ]. With the increase of consumer health awareness, greater attention was paid to the fats properties contained in food [ 7 , 8 ]. As for biscuits, the producers and consumers preferred to develop and obtain healthier products that were low in sugar, low in fat, high in fiber, and rich in nutrients [ 9 ]. Therefore, numerous research and academic projects were conducted to develop healthier and more nutritional shortening, aiming to minimize the associated diseases while maintaining the flavor and taste of the biscuits [ 10 , 11 ]. Bigels, also known as hybrid gels, are semi-solid systems consisting of hydrogel and oleogel, respectively. It has been widely used in the food industry due to their characteristics of both organic and aqueous phases. Previous studies had shown that the bigel processed excellent potential for decreasing the health risks of concern. When applied to biscuits, fat content was reduced by 50% through bigel-based shortening [ 11 – 13 ]. Besides, spread product prepared with bigel system were found to improve its product performance and nutritional quality [ 14 ]. Oleogel cookies were developed by replacing traditional shortening with oleogel and the cookies exhibited a greater physico-chemical properties and oxidative stability [ 15 ]. Other study showed that oleogel biscuits could replicate the water absorption, dough consistency and stability of traditional biscuits [ 16 ]. Meanwhile, a bigels plant-based shortening with good plasticity and high unsaturated fatty acid had been developed by our research group, utilizing potato starch-based hydrogel and the candelilla wax based walnut oil oleogel [ 17 ]. However, potato starch-based hydrogels and candelilla wax-based walnut oil had not been widely applied in the preparation of novel biscuits [ 18 ]. Therefore, a novel biscuit was developed using various substitutions of bigels plant-based shortening. The optimal ratio of bigels plant-based shortening was explored. The physicochemical features and the sensory properties, texture, oil and moisture content, diffusion coefficient, baking loss rate, grease mobility, peroxide value and microstructure (molecular and component distributions) quality characteristics of novel biscuits were investigated. The findings of this study were expected to provide technical guidance for the development and application of new nutritious and healthy semi-solid fat foods. 2 Materials and methods 2.1 Materials Potato starch (Pharmacopoeia grade) was purchased from Beijing InnoChem Science and Technology CO., Ltd.; The walnut oil and candelilla wax were obtained from Jinlongyu, Yihai Kerry Arawana Holdings Co, Ltd. and Shanghai Macklin Biochemical Science and Technology Co., Ltd., respectively; Powdered sugar (food-grade) was supplied by Shandong Kaibei Food Co., Ltd.; edible baking soda was purchased from Fengmanpo (Jingshan Siyun Trading Co., Ltd.); pastry wheat flour was obtained from Jinlongyu (Wilmar Yihai Kerry Arawana Holdings Co., Ltd.); Jinyan shortening was provided by Shangqiu Jingduo Trading Co., Ltd.; and modified baking milk powder was sourced from Zhanyi (Shanghai Jiabeixiang Trading Co., Ltd.). Potassium bromide (KBr, analyzed grade and Chromatographic grade), N-hexane, ethyl acetate, and other reagents were purchased from Shanghai Macklin Biochemical Science and Technology Co., Ltd. All the chemical reagents used for the study were of analytical grade (AOAC official method Cd 20–91). 2.2 Preparation of various bigel-based biscuits First, bigel-based shortening was prepared by our research group following previous research [ 19 ]. The optimal formulation (oleogel (oil/wax = 25) to hydrogel (distilled water/starch = 30) ratio of 2:1 ( w/w )) was selected for the development of novel biscuits. Then, Wheat flour was used as the basic material. The dough formulation consisted of the following components (flour basis): milk powder 1.5%, salt 1%, sugar powder 45%, baking soda powder 1%, pure water 12%, walnut oil based bigels (40%) or commercial shortening (20%) mixed with walnut oil based bigels (20% ) or commercial shortening 40%, The ingredients were thoroughly mixed, and the dough was pressed into discs using a biscuit mold (50 mm diameter×5 mm thickness). The dough sheets were then baked in an oven at 180°C for 12 minutes. The prepared biscuits were named as WAL biscuits, MIX biscuits and CHESS biscuits, respectively. 2.3 Physiochemical properties of biscuits prepared from different types of bigels 2.3.1 Color feature of bigels-based biscuits The prepared biscuits were ground into powder and dried in an oven for 24 h. The color characteristics were then measured using X-rite Ci7600 (X-rite Co., USA). The lightness (L*), redness/greenness (a*), yellowness/blueness (b*) values were recorded with the CIE color system. 2.3.2 Oil and moisture content of bigels-based biscuits The moisture content of biscuits was determined by oven-drying at 105 ± 2°C to constant weight (GB/T 5009.3–2016). Oil content was analyzed via Soxhlet extraction with petroleum ether (30–60°C). Briefly, 3–4 g samples were dried (105°C, 3 h), and the oil fraction was quantified as weight percentage of the extract relative to the original sample. 2.3.3 Diffusion coefficient of bigels-based biscuits The diffusion coefficient of biscuits was calculated as the ratio of the average diameter to the thickness. After cooling, six biscuits were placed horizontally in a row, and the total diameter was measured. This measurement was repeated three times to obtain the average diameter. For thickness determination, six biscuits were vertically stacked, and the measurements was repeated three times to obtain the average thickness. 2.3.4 Baking loss rate of bigels-based biscuits The baking loss rate of the biscuits was calculated using the following formula: Baking loss rate (%) = (1-m 2 /m 1 ) × 100 Note M 1 is the quality of the dough before baking, and M 2 is the quality of the biscuit after baking. 2.3.5 Grease mobility of bigels-based biscuits The grease mobility of biscuits was as follows: Place 5 layers in a Petri dish, place the biscuits in it, put them in an incubator at 30°C, removed the biscuits after 24 h, and calculate the oil mobility of the biscuits according to equation. Lipid mobility (%) = (M 2 -M 0 )/M 1 ×100 Note M 0 was the quality of the filter paper, M 1 is the mass of the biscuits, and M 2 was the total mass of the filter paper and biscuits. 2.3.6 Peroxide value of bigels-based biscuits The peroxide value of the biscuits was determined through iodometric titration according to the national standard GB 5009.227–2023. In this method, peroxides were reacted with potassium iodide under acidic conditions, and the liberated iodine was titrated with standardized sodium thiosulfate solution. The endpoint was determined by starch indicator, and results were expressed as milliequivalents of active oxygen per kilogram of sample (meq/kg). 2.4 Texture properties of bigels-based biscuits The hardness and crispy of biscuits were determined by texture analyzer (TA. XT PLUS/50, STABLEMICVO, Surrey, UK) equipped with HDP/3PB probe (2.00 mm/s pre-test, 1.00 mm/s test, 50% strain). Five replicates per sample were performed. 2.5 Short-range ordering features of bigels-based biscuits The short-range order of biscuits was determined by KBr method. The ratio of biscuit powder to potassium bromide was 1:150. Fourier Transform Infrared spectra were acquired using a Vertex 70 Spectrometer (Bruker, Germany) with the following parameters: 400–4000 cm -1 spectral range, 16 scans per measurement, and 4 cm⁻¹ resolution. Spectra data were analyzed using OMNIC 9.2 software (Thermo Fisher Scientific). 2.6 Oil and moisture distribution of bigels-based biscuits by Low-field NMR The proton relaxation test was performed using a 22.96 Hz 1H NMR spectrometer at a constant temperature of 25 ± 0.1°C. The biscuits were ground and placed in a 10 mm NMR tube for a transverse relaxation event (T 2 ) of the large 1H measured by the Carr-Purcell-Meoboom-Gill (CPMG) pulse train. 2000 ms duration, 0.2 ms callback time (TE), 10000 echo number. The number of scans (NS) was 16. Oil-water distribution analysis: The sample was placed in an NMR test tube with a 15 mm diameter, and T 2 -weighted images were obtained by spin-echo (SE) imaging sequence. 18 mm×18 mm FOV; 1.2 mm slice thickness and 2.27 mm clearance. 13.44 ms echo time, 200 ms repetition time, number of repeated scans (Averages) = 64. Converted into a pseudo-color image based on the signal strength of the measured image. 2.7 Sensory evaluation of bigels-based biscuits The sensory properties of prepared biscuits were evaluated by a panel of twenty-five trained assessors (5 teachers and 20 students) majoring in food science. Panelists rated the samples on five attributes: appearance, flavor, texture, mouthfeel and overall acceptance. All evaluations were performed in individual sensory booths under controlled conditions to prevent crosstalk, and samples were presented in a randomized order and were coded with three-digit numbers, and the evaluation criteria are shown in Table 1 . Table 1 Sensory evaluation criteria of various bigels-based biscuits Index Evaluation criteria Appearance Golden-yellow color, uniform appearance, and smooth surface (8 ~ 10 score); Burnt yellow color, fairly even color, some shadowing on the surface (4 ~ 7 score); Burnt color, uneven appearance, and some cracks on the surface (1 ~ 3 score) Flavor Strong fragrant and pure (8 ~ 10 score); Aromatic and without off-odor (4 ~ 7 score); Faint aroma and off odor (1 ~ 3 score) Texture Crispy texture and well-defined structure (8 ~ 10 score); Slightly firm and relatively well-defined structure (4 ~ 7 score); Stiff texture and poorly defined structure (1 ~ 3 score) Mouthfeel Crispy and non-sticky texture (8 ~ 10 score); Relatively crispy, slightly greasy mouthfeel, non-sticky (4 ~ 7 score); Hard, greasy, sticky texture (1 ~ 3 score) Overall acceptance Easily acceptable (8 ~ 10 score); Acceptable but needs improvement (4 ~ 7 score); Not easily acceptable (1 ~ 3 score) 2.8 Statistical analysis The data of this research were analyzed by IBM SPSS 2020 software. The significance of differences between samples was determined by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Duncan test. A p-value of less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant. All experiments were repeated three times and the results are expressed as mean ± standard deviation (SD). Figures were created using Origin 2022 software. 3 Result and discussion 3.1 Physiochemical properties of biscuits prepared from different types of bigels 3.1.1 Color properties of various bigels-based biscuits Previous research indicated that the color of the biscuit was affected by non-enzymatic browning during the baking process [ 20 ]. Meanwhile, the color of the biscuits was a critical attribute evaluated by consumers for product acceptance. The visual appearance and color properties of the biscuits were presented in Fig. 1 and Table 2 , respectively. As shown in Fig. 1 , the WAL biscuits, MIX biscuits and CHESS biscuits all had a similarly light gold-yellow color, uniform appearance, and smooth surface. And the visual appearance characteristics were nearly identical to commercial biscuit products. Table 2 Physiochemical properties of various bigels-based biscuits Samples L* a* b* Oil content (%) Moisture content (%) Diffusion coefficient Baking loss rate (%) Oil mobility (%) Peroxide value (g/100g) WAL biscuits 53.53 ± 0.50 c 13.03 ± 0.82 a 31.95 ± 1.73 a 13.95 ± 1.38 c 3.05 ± 0.39b 10.99 ± 0.06 c 16.80 ± 0.10 a 1.24 ± 0.59 a 0.15 ± 0.02 a MIX biscuits 69.14 ± 0.36 b 6.37 ± 0.55 b 29.26 ± 0.65 b 16.93 ± 1.80 a 4.05 ± 0.18a 11.71 ± 0.24 b 15.54 ± 0.59 ab 0.002 ± 0.00 b 0.04 ± 0.02 bc CHESS biscuits 75.05 ± 0.35 a 1.33 ± 0.50c 22.00 ± 1.61 c 16.33 ± 0.23 b 0.85 ± 0.02c 12.21 ± 0.25 a 17.16 ± 0.02 a 0.004 ± 0.00 c 0.07 ± 0.04 b Note: Different lowercase letters (a, b, c) indicate significant differences in the same series (p < 0.05) Table 3 Relaxation signals of various bigels-based biscuits Samples Peak number Peak start time (ms) Highest peak time (ms) Peak end time (ms) Peak ratio (%) WAL biscuits T 21 0.021 0.287 1.128 5.059 T 22 2.305 5.295 11.554 2.107 T 23 26.141 95.631 804.390 92.834 MIX biscuits T 21 0.010 0.238 0.709 12.420 T 22 2.437 5.055 9.890 3.039 T 23 10.601 63.051 290.408 83.693 T 24 311.286 393.196 556.369 0.848 CHESS biscuits T 21 0.199 0.411 0.747 1.464 T 22 0.621 38.782 209.061 98.444 T 23 581.714 789.506 1149.959 0.092 The results of the instrumental color analysis of the biscuits are presented in Table 2 . Obviously, the CHESS biscuits (75.05 ± 0.35) had the highest L* value, while the WAL biscuits (53.53 ± 0.50) had the lowest. The MIX biscuits (69.14 ± 0.36) had an intermediate L* value. The same trend was observed for the redness (a*) of the three biscuits varieties as for the L* value. The yellowness (b*) and ΔE value of the biscuits were reduced as the addition of bigel-based shortening was decreased. This phenomenon could be attributed to the high solid fat content of the commercial shortening used in the CHESS biscuits, as previous studies have demonstrated that browning during biscuit production was inhibited by high-solid-fat shortening through physical mechanisms (physical barrier) [ 21 ]. Therefore, it might be concluded that the biscuits developed with walnut oil-based bigels had an acceptable color and a lower solid fat content. 3.1.2 Oil and moisture content of various bigel-based shortening biscuits Moisture content plays a critical role in determining the structural, visual, textual and spoilage -related properties of food [ 22 ]. Generally, excessive moisture accelerates oxidation, adversely affecting the food's flavor, color, and nutritional content, while insufficient moisture compromises its overall quality. Concurrently, the oil content contributes distinct sensory attributes—elevated levels increase stickiness and degrade texture, whereas insufficient levels reduce nutritional value and promote brittleness. The oil and moisture content of biscuits are presented in Table 2 . The oil content of the biscuits followed the order: MIX biscuits > CHESS biscuits > WAL biscuits, with no significant differences observed (p > 0.05). The corresponding content ranged from 13.95 ± 1.38 to 16.93 ± 1.80%, indicating that all the prepared the biscuits belonged to the health-oriented category [ 23 ]. In contrast, the moisture content decreased in the order: MIX biscuits (4.05 ± 0.18) > WAL biscuits (3.05 ± 0.39) > CHESS biscuits (0.85 ± 0.02), showing statistically significant differences (p < 0.05). For optimal quality, the moisture content in biscuits is recommended to be maintained within 3%–5% to ensure a loose, crisp texture and to prevent dryness or stickiness. However, in this study, the moisture content of CHESS biscuits was observed to be significantly below this recommended range. Possible explanations for this phenomenon may involve drying time, drying temperature, ingredient components and prepared treatment, etc . Nevertheless, the specific reason requires further investigation. 3.1.3 Diffusion coefficient, baking loss rate, grease mobility, peroxide value of various bigel-based shortening biscuits Through measurement of biscuit diffusion coefficient, the texture, mouthfeel and degree of inflation could be ensured, while the shelf life was simultaneously predicted [ 24 ]. As shown in Table 2 , the highest diffusion coefficient was observed in CHESS biscuits (12.21 ± 0.25), followed by MIX biscuits (11.71 ± 0.24), while WAL biscuits (10.99 ± 0.06) showed the lowest value. This phenomenon was potentially related to the content of solid fat content. Studies found that high solid fat content impeded spreadability, producing smaller biscuits. Conversely, a lower SFC facilitated the spread of fat during baking, as the expanding bubbles promoted its flow [ 25 ]. Generally, MIX biscuits exhibited a better diffusion coefficient than the other two types. This was likely due to their superior aeration and bubble retention, which resulted in an improved structure. Aiming to judge the degree of roasting and ensure product consistency, we measured the baking loss rate, a metric that also serves as an indicator of energy consumption. The biscuits were ranked by baking loss rate in descending order as follows: CHESS, WAL, MIX (Table 2 ). A possible reason was that the commercial shortening had a weaker aeration and bubble retention, which led to a higher baking loss rate. This indicated that the addition of bigels-based shortening could help improved the stability of the structure of the dough’s structure and decrease the baking loss rate. Furthermore, this result was consistent with previous research. It also supported and supplemented the diffusion coefficient results within our own study. The bigel-based shortening showed great potential for the development of biscuits that had better consistency and were more cost-effective. Grease mobility and peroxide valu were found to serve as reliable indicators of the biscuit’s quality and stability [ 26 ]. The result of grease mobility and peroxide value were ranked as follows: WAL biscuits, CHESS biscuits and MIX biscuits (Table 2 ). This trend differed from that of the diffusion coefficient and baking loss rate, likely due to the compact and dense network structure of the WAL biscuits resulting from the use of bigel-based shortening. Notably, the peroxide values of all three types of biscuits were measured to be below 0.25g/100g, fully complying with food safety standards. Based on the above research results, the partial substitution with bigel-based shortening was demonstrated to have great potential for developing biscuits with a lower baking loss rates and higher stability. 3.2 Texture properties of various bigel-based shortening biscuits The crispness and hardness of biscuits are key metrics for quantifying their core texture and mouthfeel qualities. The results directly reflect the effectiveness of the formulation, the stability of the production process, and can be used to predict both product shelf life and consumer acceptance [ 27 ]. Results for biscuits crispness and hardness are shown in Fig. 2 . From Fig. 2 , differences in the distribution of crispness and hardness were observed among the three types of biscuits, especially for hardness. A significant difference was observed in the hardness of CHESS biscuits WAL biscuits, and MIX biscuits was significant, which could be due to the different types of oil-based shortening used in their formulation. The opposite phenomenon was observed in the crispness of those biscuits. The crispness of MIX biscuits was bigger than others. Generally, the MIX biscuits exhibited the most desirable textural properties. 3.3 Short-range ordering properties of various bigel-based shortening biscuits The higher short-range ordered structure of starch the stronger its resistance to enzymatic hydrolysis, which is more beneficial to human health [ 28 , 29 ]. The absorption peaks of FTIR spectra and short-range ordering properties of the biscuits were shown in Fig. 3 . As shown in Fig. 3 (a), there were almost no significant difference in the characteristic peaks of various biscuits. The absorption peaks detected at1748 cm -1 and 1744 cm -1 were attributed to the C = O stretching vibration. The peaks at 1047, 1022, and 995 cm⁻¹ were used to characterize the crystalline domain, amorphous domain, and the strength of intermolecular hydrogen bonds in starch, respectively. The results for the short-range ordered structure of starch and the strength of hydrogen bonding between starch molecules in the biscuits are shown in Fig. 3 (b). As shown in the Fig. 3 (b), WAL biscuits exhibited the highest ration of 1047/1022 cm -1 (1.13), followed by MIX biscuits (1.09), while CHESS biscuits showed the lowest ratio (1.04). Results of the 1022/995 cm⁻¹ peak intensity ratio indicated that WAL biscuits had the lowest value (1.004), suggesting the strongest intermolecular hydrogen bonding, followed by shortening-based biscuits. Overall, MIX biscuits demonstrated relatively weaker hydrogen bonding and a moderate degree of starch short-range ordered structure. These findings were consistent with the outcomes regarding the texture and physical properties of the biscuits. 3.4 Oil and moisture distribution of various bigel-based shortening biscuits The distributions of the transverse relaxation time (T 2 ) spectrum of biscuits were shown in Fig. 4 . The transverse relaxation time (T 2 ), which indicates the state of water molecules in food (0–10 ms: bound water; 30–100 ms: immobilized water; >100 ms: free water), was used to analyze the biscuits. As observed in Fig. 4 (a), the low-field NMR spectra showed that the MIX biscuit group exhibited four relaxation peaks, while the other two groups each had three. Specifically, in WAL biscuits, no free water was detected, bound water and immobilized water accounted for 7.17% and 92.83% of the total water content, respectively. MIX biscuits exhibited a water composition of 15.46% bound water, 83.69% immobilized water, and only 0.85% free water. In CHESS biscuits, free water comprised merely 0.09%. The partial substitution of shortening with bigels was found to enhance the molecular constraint on water molecules, as evidenced by a significantly enhanced the molecular constraints on water molecules, as evidenced by an approximately 15-fold increase in the proportion of bound water. This finding further confirmed the increased compactness, stronger water-binding capacity, and higher degree of structural organization of the bigel-based biscuits structure. These results demonstrated that substituting shortening with bigels contributed to improved quality characteristics of the product. Furthermore, Pseudocolor images of the biscuits (Fig. 4 (b)) indicated that the binding effect on hydrogen protons was reduced as the substitution ratio of bigels decreased. This suggested that the three-dimensional network formed by bigels with starch-water complexes was stronger than that formed by shortening. These findings were consistent with previous results. Moreover, different sections of the same biscuit exhibited nearly identical states, demonstrating excellent homogeneity and stability. 3.5 Sensory evaluation of various bigel-based shortening biscuits Sensory evaluation serves as the most direct method for assessing and characterizing food quality [ 30 ].To determine consumer acceptance of bigel-based biscuits, a sensory evaluation panel assessed five key sensory attributes. The results of the sensory evaluation for the prepared bigel biscuits are shown in Fig. 5 . Flavor scores gradually increased with the increasing bigel substitution level, and a stronger and more appealing aroma was observed in WAL biscuits. The possible reason was that the walnut oil-based bigel shortening had a relatively intense walnut flavor, which resulted in a more pronounced distinctive flavor in the biscuits. Besides, WAL biscuits received the lowest scores across all attributes, indicating that the complete replacement of shortening with bigels remained suboptimal for biscuit production. Regarding appearance and color, the panel showed a preference for CHESS biscuits, likely due to the excessive browning observed in WAL and MIX biscuits. The higher hardness of CHESS biscuits may have contributed to their lower texture and mouthfeel ratings. Generally, MIX biscuits exhibited the highest overall acceptability score. These findings indicated that bigel-based shortening could improve the textural properties of biscuits, but its practical application features need further exploration. 4 Conclusion In this study, the application characteristics of bigels as a shortening substitute in biscuits were systematically evaluated. The results showed that MIX biscuits showed a golden uniform appearance and crispy taste, with walnut aroma, and the overall acceptance was good. Besides, MIX biscuits exhibited optimal mechanical properties, good physiochemical features, a desirable oil and water content and enhanced short-range ordered structure properties. And the diffusion coefficient and the color of biscuits were significantly dependent on the oil phase. Besides, the roast loss rate and moderate oil migration of biscuits were decreased with the reduction of the bigels shortening substitute. These findings could provide a novel perspective for the development of healthier baked products and innovative plant-based shortening alternatives. Declarations Author Contribution CRediT authorship contribution statementYitian Song: Writing – original draft and Writing – review & editingJia Hu: Formal analysisLinhang Qu: Data curationXia Su: Funding acquisitionQi Li: ResourcesYuan Gao: SupervisionXiuzhu Yu: Project administration Acknowledgement The authors would like to thank the National Natural Science Foundation of China Youth Fund (NO:32201947), Yulin City 2nd Science and Technology Light “Scientist + Engineer” Team Project (2024-KJZG-K + G-017) and Shaanxi Science and Technology Innovation Team Project (2024RS-CXTD-70) for the financial support. References Malochleb M (2018) Biscuits market heats up. Food Technol 72(1):10–10 Tanislav AE, Șandru B, Man SM et al (2024) I nvestigating the complete replacement of conventional fat with oleogel on the structural behavior of five different pastry products , vol 250. 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Food Chem, 356 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7737190","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":521917056,"identity":"8c2de4a8-4296-4d95-9d03-d856ab4fc541","order_by":0,"name":"Yitian Song","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Northwest A\u0026F University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yitian","middleName":"","lastName":"Song","suffix":""},{"id":521917059,"identity":"66d909f3-a809-4c22-8470-c770f9b264ad","order_by":1,"name":"Jia Hu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Northwest A\u0026F 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10:17:20","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2391867,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7737190/v1/82692f51-a0ab-4a58-b52f-4a2df0073440.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Physicochemical properties and quality characteristics of biscuits with different bigel-based shortening substitution levels","fulltext":[{"header":"1 Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eNowadays, the global biscuit market is highly competitive, with its considerable scale expanding in China. The eating quality and nutritional composition of the modern biscuit was related to the upstream raw materials, midstream production and downstream applications [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. Specifically, the major raw materials used in the upstream biscuit production process were flour, eggs, milk, edible oil, sugar and others [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. For traditional biscuits, the butter, cream, hydrogenated vegetable oils and other traditions fats high in saturated fatty acid were used as the shortening [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. Modern research revealed that excessive intake of saturated fatty acids or trans fatty acids was linked to an increased risk of hypertension, hyperglycemia, cardiovascular diseases, obesity and other chronic diseases [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWith the increase of consumer health awareness, greater attention was paid to the fats properties contained in food [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. As for biscuits, the producers and consumers preferred to develop and obtain healthier products that were low in sugar, low in fat, high in fiber, and rich in nutrients [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, numerous research and academic projects were conducted to develop healthier and more nutritional shortening, aiming to minimize the associated diseases while maintaining the flavor and taste of the biscuits [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBigels, also known as hybrid gels, are semi-solid systems consisting of hydrogel and oleogel, respectively. It has been widely used in the food industry due to their characteristics of both organic and aqueous phases. Previous studies had shown that the bigel processed excellent potential for decreasing the health risks of concern. When applied to biscuits, fat content was reduced by 50% through bigel-based shortening [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR12\" citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. Besides, spread product prepared with bigel system were found to improve its product performance and nutritional quality [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. Oleogel cookies were developed by replacing traditional shortening with oleogel and the cookies exhibited a greater physico-chemical properties and oxidative stability [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. Other study showed that oleogel biscuits could replicate the water absorption, dough consistency and stability of traditional biscuits [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. Meanwhile, a bigels plant-based shortening with good plasticity and high unsaturated fatty acid had been developed by our research group, utilizing potato starch-based hydrogel and the candelilla wax based walnut oil oleogel [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. However, potato starch-based hydrogels and candelilla wax-based walnut oil had not been widely applied in the preparation of novel biscuits [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTherefore, a novel biscuit was developed using various substitutions of bigels plant-based shortening. The optimal ratio of bigels plant-based shortening was explored. The physicochemical features and the sensory properties, texture, oil and moisture content, diffusion coefficient, baking loss rate, grease mobility, peroxide value and microstructure (molecular and component distributions) quality characteristics of novel biscuits were investigated. The findings of this study were expected to provide technical guidance for the development and application of new nutritious and healthy semi-solid fat foods.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2 Materials and methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1 Materials\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003ePotato starch (Pharmacopoeia grade) was purchased from Beijing InnoChem Science and Technology CO., Ltd.; The walnut oil and candelilla wax were obtained from Jinlongyu, Yihai Kerry Arawana Holdings Co, Ltd. and Shanghai Macklin Biochemical Science and Technology Co., Ltd., respectively; Powdered sugar (food-grade) was supplied by Shandong Kaibei Food Co., Ltd.; edible baking soda was purchased from Fengmanpo (Jingshan Siyun Trading Co., Ltd.); pastry wheat flour was obtained from Jinlongyu (Wilmar Yihai Kerry Arawana Holdings Co., Ltd.); Jinyan shortening was provided by Shangqiu Jingduo Trading Co., Ltd.; and modified baking milk powder was sourced from Zhanyi (Shanghai Jiabeixiang Trading Co., Ltd.).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePotassium bromide (KBr, analyzed grade and Chromatographic grade), N-hexane, ethyl acetate, and other reagents were purchased from Shanghai Macklin Biochemical Science and Technology Co., Ltd. All the chemical reagents used for the study were of analytical grade (AOAC official method Cd 20\u0026ndash;91).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2 Preparation of various bigel-based biscuits\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFirst, bigel-based shortening was prepared by our research group following previous research [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. The optimal formulation (oleogel (oil/wax\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;25) to hydrogel (distilled water/starch\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;30) ratio of 2:1 (\u003cem\u003ew/w\u003c/em\u003e)) was selected for the development of novel biscuits. Then, Wheat flour was used as the basic material. The dough formulation consisted of the following components (flour basis): milk powder 1.5%, salt 1%, sugar powder 45%, baking soda powder 1%, pure water 12%, walnut oil based bigels (40%) or commercial shortening (20%) mixed with walnut oil based bigels (20% ) or commercial shortening 40%, The ingredients were thoroughly mixed, and the dough was pressed into discs using a biscuit mold (50 mm diameter\u0026times;5 mm thickness). The dough sheets were then baked in an oven at 180\u0026deg;C for 12 minutes. The prepared biscuits were named as WAL biscuits, MIX biscuits and CHESS biscuits, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3 Physiochemical properties of biscuits prepared from different types of bigels\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3.1 Color feature of bigels-based biscuits\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe prepared biscuits were ground into powder and dried in an oven for 24 h. The color characteristics were then measured using X-rite Ci7600 (X-rite Co., USA). The lightness (L*), redness/greenness (a*), yellowness/blueness (b*) values were recorded with the CIE color system.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3.2 Oil and moisture content of bigels-based biscuits\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe moisture content of biscuits was determined by oven-drying at 105\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2\u0026deg;C to constant weight (GB/T 5009.3\u0026ndash;2016). Oil content was analyzed via Soxhlet extraction with petroleum ether (30\u0026ndash;60\u0026deg;C). Briefly, 3\u0026ndash;4 g samples were dried (105\u0026deg;C, 3 h), and the oil fraction was quantified as weight percentage of the extract relative to the original sample.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3.3 Diffusion coefficient of bigels-based biscuits\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe diffusion coefficient of biscuits was calculated as the ratio of the average diameter to the thickness. After cooling, six biscuits were placed horizontally in a row, and the total diameter was measured. This measurement was repeated three times to obtain the average diameter. For thickness determination, six biscuits were vertically stacked, and the measurements was repeated three times to obtain the average thickness.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3.4 Baking loss rate of bigels-based biscuits\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe baking loss rate of the biscuits was calculated using the following formula:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBaking loss rate (%) = (1-m\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/m\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e) \u0026times; 100\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNote\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eM\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e is the quality of the dough before baking, and M\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e is the quality of the biscuit after baking.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3.5 Grease mobility of bigels-based biscuits\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe grease mobility of biscuits was as follows: Place 5 layers in a Petri dish, place the biscuits in it, put them in an incubator at 30\u0026deg;C, removed the biscuits after 24 h, and calculate the oil mobility of the biscuits according to equation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLipid mobility (%) = (M\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e-M\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e)/M\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026times;100\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNote\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eM\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e was the quality of the filter paper, M\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e is the mass of the biscuits, and M\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e was the total mass of the filter paper and biscuits.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3.6 Peroxide value of bigels-based biscuits\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe peroxide value of the biscuits was determined through iodometric titration according to the national standard GB 5009.227\u0026ndash;2023. In this method, peroxides were reacted with potassium iodide under acidic conditions, and the liberated iodine was titrated with standardized sodium thiosulfate solution. The endpoint was determined by starch indicator, and results were expressed as milliequivalents of active oxygen per kilogram of sample (meq/kg).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.4 Texture properties of bigels-based biscuits\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe hardness and crispy of biscuits were determined by texture analyzer (TA. XT PLUS/50, STABLEMICVO, Surrey, UK) equipped with HDP/3PB probe (2.00 mm/s pre-test, 1.00 mm/s test, 50% strain). Five replicates per sample were performed.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.5 Short-range ordering features of bigels-based biscuits\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe short-range order of biscuits was determined by KBr method. The ratio of biscuit powder to potassium bromide was 1:150. Fourier Transform Infrared spectra were acquired using a Vertex 70 Spectrometer (Bruker, Germany) with the following parameters: 400\u0026ndash;4000 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e spectral range, 16 scans per measurement, and 4 cm⁻\u0026sup1; resolution. Spectra data were analyzed using OMNIC 9.2 software (Thermo Fisher Scientific).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.6 Oil and moisture distribution of bigels-based biscuits by Low-field NMR\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe proton relaxation test was performed using a 22.96 Hz 1H NMR spectrometer at a constant temperature of 25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u0026deg;C. The biscuits were ground and placed in a 10 mm NMR tube for a transverse relaxation event (T\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e) of the large 1H measured by the Carr-Purcell-Meoboom-Gill (CPMG) pulse train. 2000 ms duration, 0.2 ms callback time (TE), 10000 echo number. The number of scans (NS) was 16. Oil-water distribution analysis: The sample was placed in an NMR test tube with a 15 mm diameter, and T\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e-weighted images were obtained by spin-echo (SE) imaging sequence. 18 mm\u0026times;18 mm FOV; 1.2 mm slice thickness and 2.27 mm clearance. 13.44 ms echo time, 200 ms repetition time, number of repeated scans (Averages)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;64. Converted into a pseudo-color image based on the signal strength of the measured image.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.7 Sensory evaluation of bigels-based biscuits\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe sensory properties of prepared biscuits were evaluated by a panel of twenty-five trained assessors (5 teachers and 20 students) majoring in food science. Panelists rated the samples on five attributes: appearance, flavor, texture, mouthfeel and overall acceptance. All evaluations were performed in individual sensory booths under controlled conditions to prevent crosstalk, and samples were presented in a randomized order and were coded with three-digit numbers, and the evaluation criteria are shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSensory evaluation criteria of various bigels-based biscuits\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndex\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEvaluation criteria\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAppearance\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGolden-yellow color, uniform appearance, and smooth surface (8\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;10 score);\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBurnt yellow color, fairly even color, some shadowing on the surface (4\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;7 score);\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBurnt color, uneven appearance, and some cracks on the surface (1\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;3 score)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFlavor\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStrong fragrant and pure (8\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;10 score);\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAromatic and without off-odor (4\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;7 score);\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFaint aroma and off odor (1\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;3 score)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTexture\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCrispy texture and well-defined structure (8\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;10 score);\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSlightly firm and relatively well-defined structure (4\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;7 score);\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eStiff texture and poorly defined structure (1\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;3 score)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMouthfeel\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCrispy and non-sticky texture (8\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;10 score);\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRelatively crispy, slightly greasy mouthfeel, non-sticky (4\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;7 score);\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHard, greasy, sticky texture (1\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;3 score)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOverall acceptance\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEasily acceptable (8\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;10 score);\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAcceptable but needs improvement (4\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;7 score);\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot easily acceptable (1\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;3 score)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.8 Statistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe data of this research were analyzed by IBM SPSS 2020 software. The significance of differences between samples was determined by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Duncan test. A p-value of less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant. All experiments were repeated three times and the results are expressed as mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;standard deviation (SD). Figures were created using Origin 2022 software.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3 Result and discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1 Physiochemical properties of biscuits prepared from different types of bigels\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1.1 Color properties of various bigels-based biscuits\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrevious research indicated that the color of the biscuit was affected by non-enzymatic browning during the baking process [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. Meanwhile, the color of the biscuits was a critical attribute evaluated by consumers for product acceptance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe visual appearance and color properties of the biscuits were presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e and Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, respectively. As shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, the WAL biscuits, MIX biscuits and CHESS biscuits all had a similarly light gold-yellow color, uniform appearance, and smooth surface. And the visual appearance characteristics were nearly identical to commercial biscuit products.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePhysiochemical properties of various bigels-based biscuits\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSamples\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eL*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ea*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eb*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOil content (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMoisture content (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDiffusion coefficient\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBaking loss rate (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOil mobility (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePeroxide value (g/100g)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWAL biscuits\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e53.53\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.50 c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.82 a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.73 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.38\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.39b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.99\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.80\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.59\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMIX biscuits\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e69.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.36 b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.37\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.55 b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29.26\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.65 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.80\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.18a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.71\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.24\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.54\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.59\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.002\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCHESS biscuits\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75.05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.35 a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.50c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.61 \u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.23\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.85\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.21\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.25\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.004\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00 \u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"10\"\u003eNote: Different lowercase letters (a, b, c) indicate significant differences in the same series (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05)\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRelaxation signals of various bigels-based biscuits\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSamples\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePeak number\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePeak start time (ms)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHighest peak time (ms)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePeak end time (ms)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePeak ratio (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWAL biscuits\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT\u003csub\u003e21\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.021\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.287\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.128\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.059\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT\u003csub\u003e22\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.305\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.295\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.554\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.107\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT\u003csub\u003e23\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26.141\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e95.631\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e804.390\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e92.834\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMIX biscuits\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT\u003csub\u003e21\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.010\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.238\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.709\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.420\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT\u003csub\u003e22\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.437\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.055\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.890\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.039\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT\u003csub\u003e23\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.601\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e63.051\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e290.408\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e83.693\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT\u003csub\u003e24\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e311.286\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e393.196\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e556.369\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.848\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCHESS biscuits\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT\u003csub\u003e21\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.199\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.411\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.747\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.464\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT\u003csub\u003e22\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.621\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e38.782\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e209.061\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e98.444\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT\u003csub\u003e23\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e581.714\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e789.506\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1149.959\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.092\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe results of the instrumental color analysis of the biscuits are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. Obviously, the CHESS biscuits (75.05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.35) had the highest L* value, while the WAL biscuits (53.53\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.50) had the lowest. The MIX biscuits (69.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.36) had an intermediate L* value. The same trend was observed for the redness (a*) of the three biscuits varieties as for the L* value. The yellowness (b*) and ΔE value of the biscuits were reduced as the addition of bigel-based shortening was decreased. This phenomenon could be attributed to the high solid fat content of the commercial shortening used in the CHESS biscuits, as previous studies have demonstrated that browning during biscuit production was inhibited by high-solid-fat shortening through physical mechanisms (physical barrier) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, it might be concluded that the biscuits developed with walnut oil-based bigels had an acceptable color and a lower solid fat content.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1.2 Oil and moisture content of various bigel-based shortening biscuits\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eMoisture content plays a critical role in determining the structural, visual, textual and spoilage -related properties of food [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. Generally, excessive moisture accelerates oxidation, adversely affecting the food's flavor, color, and nutritional content, while insufficient moisture compromises its overall quality. Concurrently, the oil content contributes distinct sensory attributes\u0026mdash;elevated levels increase stickiness and degrade texture, whereas insufficient levels reduce nutritional value and promote brittleness. The oil and moisture content of biscuits are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. The oil content of the biscuits followed the order: MIX biscuits\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;CHESS biscuits\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;WAL biscuits, with no significant differences observed (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). The corresponding content ranged from 13.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.38 to 16.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.80%, indicating that all the prepared the biscuits belonged to the health-oriented category [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. In contrast, the moisture content decreased in the order: MIX biscuits (4.05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.18)\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;WAL biscuits (3.05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.39)\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;CHESS biscuits (0.85\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02), showing statistically significant differences (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). For optimal quality, the moisture content in biscuits is recommended to be maintained within 3%\u0026ndash;5% to ensure a loose, crisp texture and to prevent dryness or stickiness. However, in this study, the moisture content of CHESS biscuits was observed to be significantly below this recommended range. Possible explanations for this phenomenon may involve drying time, drying temperature, ingredient components and prepared treatment, \u003cem\u003eetc\u003c/em\u003e. Nevertheless, the specific reason requires further investigation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1.3 Diffusion coefficient, baking loss rate, grease mobility, peroxide value of various bigel-based shortening biscuits\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThrough measurement of biscuit diffusion coefficient, the texture, mouthfeel and degree of inflation could be ensured, while the shelf life was simultaneously predicted [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, the highest diffusion coefficient was observed in CHESS biscuits (12.21\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.25), followed by MIX biscuits (11.71\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.24), while WAL biscuits (10.99\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06) showed the lowest value. This phenomenon was potentially related to the content of solid fat content. Studies found that high solid fat content impeded spreadability, producing smaller biscuits. Conversely, a lower SFC facilitated the spread of fat during baking, as the expanding bubbles promoted its flow [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. Generally, MIX biscuits exhibited a better diffusion coefficient than the other two types. This was likely due to their superior aeration and bubble retention, which resulted in an improved structure.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAiming to judge the degree of roasting and ensure product consistency, we measured the baking loss rate, a metric that also serves as an indicator of energy consumption. The biscuits were ranked by baking loss rate in descending order as follows: CHESS, WAL, MIX (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). A possible reason was that the commercial shortening had a weaker aeration and bubble retention, which led to a higher baking loss rate. This indicated that the addition of bigels-based shortening could help improved the stability of the structure of the dough\u0026rsquo;s structure and decrease the baking loss rate. Furthermore, this result was consistent with previous research. It also supported and supplemented the diffusion coefficient results within our own study. The bigel-based shortening showed great potential for the development of biscuits that had better consistency and were more cost-effective.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGrease mobility and peroxide valu were found to serve as reliable indicators of the biscuit\u0026rsquo;s quality and stability [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. The result of grease mobility and peroxide value were ranked as follows: WAL biscuits, CHESS biscuits and MIX biscuits (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). This trend differed from that of the diffusion coefficient and baking loss rate, likely due to the compact and dense network structure of the WAL biscuits resulting from the use of bigel-based shortening. Notably, the peroxide values of all three types of biscuits were measured to be below 0.25g/100g, fully complying with food safety standards.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBased on the above research results, the partial substitution with bigel-based shortening was demonstrated to have great potential for developing biscuits with a lower baking loss rates and higher stability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2 Texture properties of various bigel-based shortening biscuits\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe crispness and hardness of biscuits are key metrics for quantifying their core texture and mouthfeel qualities. The results directly reflect the effectiveness of the formulation, the stability of the production process, and can be used to predict both product shelf life and consumer acceptance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. Results for biscuits crispness and hardness are shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. From Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, differences in the distribution of crispness and hardness were observed among the three types of biscuits, especially for hardness. A significant difference was observed in the hardness of CHESS biscuits WAL biscuits, and MIX biscuits was significant, which could be due to the different types of oil-based shortening used in their formulation. The opposite phenomenon was observed in the crispness of those biscuits. The crispness of MIX biscuits was bigger than others. Generally, the MIX biscuits exhibited the most desirable textural properties.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3 Short-range ordering properties of various bigel-based shortening biscuits\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe higher short-range ordered structure of starch the stronger its resistance to enzymatic hydrolysis, which is more beneficial to human health [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]. The absorption peaks of FTIR spectra and short-range ordering properties of the biscuits were shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. As shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e(a), there were almost no significant difference in the characteristic peaks of various biscuits. The absorption peaks detected at1748 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e and 1744 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e were attributed to the C\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;O stretching vibration. The peaks at 1047, 1022, and 995 cm⁻\u0026sup1; were used to characterize the crystalline domain, amorphous domain, and the strength of intermolecular hydrogen bonds in starch, respectively. The results for the short-range ordered structure of starch and the strength of hydrogen bonding between starch molecules in the biscuits are shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e(b). As shown in the Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e(b), WAL biscuits exhibited the highest ration of 1047/1022 cm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e (1.13), followed by MIX biscuits (1.09), while CHESS biscuits showed the lowest ratio (1.04). Results of the 1022/995 cm⁻\u0026sup1; peak intensity ratio indicated that WAL biscuits had the lowest value (1.004), suggesting the strongest intermolecular hydrogen bonding, followed by shortening-based biscuits. Overall, MIX biscuits demonstrated relatively weaker hydrogen bonding and a moderate degree of starch short-range ordered structure. These findings were consistent with the outcomes regarding the texture and physical properties of the biscuits.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4 Oil and moisture distribution of various bigel-based shortening biscuits\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe distributions of the transverse relaxation time (T\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e) spectrum of biscuits were shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e. The transverse relaxation time (T\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e), which indicates the state of water molecules in food (0\u0026ndash;10 ms: bound water; 30\u0026ndash;100 ms: immobilized water; \u0026gt;100 ms: free water), was used to analyze the biscuits. As observed in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e(a), the low-field NMR spectra showed that the MIX biscuit group exhibited four relaxation peaks, while the other two groups each had three. Specifically, in WAL biscuits, no free water was detected, bound water and immobilized water accounted for 7.17% and 92.83% of the total water content, respectively. MIX biscuits exhibited a water composition of 15.46% bound water, 83.69% immobilized water, and only 0.85% free water. In CHESS biscuits, free water comprised merely 0.09%. The partial substitution of shortening with bigels was found to enhance the molecular constraint on water molecules, as evidenced by a significantly enhanced the molecular constraints on water molecules, as evidenced by an approximately 15-fold increase in the proportion of bound water. This finding further confirmed the increased compactness, stronger water-binding capacity, and higher degree of structural organization of the bigel-based biscuits structure. These results demonstrated that substituting shortening with bigels contributed to improved quality characteristics of the product.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFurthermore, Pseudocolor images of the biscuits (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e(b)) indicated that the binding effect on hydrogen protons was reduced as the substitution ratio of bigels decreased. This suggested that the three-dimensional network formed by bigels with starch-water complexes was stronger than that formed by shortening. These findings were consistent with previous results. Moreover, different sections of the same biscuit exhibited nearly identical states, demonstrating excellent homogeneity and stability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.5 Sensory evaluation of various bigel-based shortening biscuits\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSensory evaluation serves as the most direct method for assessing and characterizing food quality [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e].To determine consumer acceptance of bigel-based biscuits, a sensory evaluation panel assessed five key sensory attributes. The results of the sensory evaluation for the prepared bigel biscuits are shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e. Flavor scores gradually increased with the increasing bigel substitution level, and a stronger and more appealing aroma was observed in WAL biscuits. The possible reason was that the walnut oil-based bigel shortening had a relatively intense walnut flavor, which resulted in a more pronounced distinctive flavor in the biscuits. Besides, WAL biscuits received the lowest scores across all attributes, indicating that the complete replacement of shortening with bigels remained suboptimal for biscuit production. Regarding appearance and color, the panel showed a preference for CHESS biscuits, likely due to the excessive browning observed in WAL and MIX biscuits. The higher hardness of CHESS biscuits may have contributed to their lower texture and mouthfeel ratings. Generally, MIX biscuits exhibited the highest overall acceptability score. These findings indicated that bigel-based shortening could improve the textural properties of biscuits, but its practical application features need further exploration.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4 Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn this study, the application characteristics of bigels as a shortening substitute in biscuits were systematically evaluated. The results showed that MIX biscuits showed a golden uniform appearance and crispy taste, with walnut aroma, and the overall acceptance was good. Besides, MIX biscuits exhibited optimal mechanical properties, good physiochemical features, a desirable oil and water content and enhanced short-range ordered structure properties. And the diffusion coefficient and the color of biscuits were significantly dependent on the oil phase. Besides, the roast loss rate and moderate oil migration of biscuits were decreased with the reduction of the bigels shortening substitute. These findings could provide a novel perspective for the development of healthier baked products and innovative plant-based shortening alternatives.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eCRediT authorship contribution statementYitian Song: Writing \u0026ndash; original draft and Writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editingJia Hu: Formal analysisLinhang Qu: Data curationXia Su: Funding acquisitionQi Li: ResourcesYuan Gao: SupervisionXiuzhu Yu: Project administration\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors would like to thank the National Natural Science Foundation of China Youth Fund (NO:32201947), Yulin City 2nd Science and Technology Light \u0026ldquo;Scientist\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Engineer\u0026rdquo; Team Project (2024-KJZG-K\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;G-017) and Shaanxi Science and Technology Innovation Team Project (2024RS-CXTD-70) for the financial support.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMalochleb M (2018) Biscuits market heats up. Food Technol 72(1):10\u0026ndash;10\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTanislav AE, Șandru B, Man SM et al (2024) I\u003cem\u003envestigating the complete replacement of conventional fat with oleogel on the structural behavior of five different pastry products\u003c/em\u003e, vol 250. European Food Research and Technology, pp 1933\u0026ndash;1947. 7\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHu X et al (2022) \u003cem\u003eClassification, Processing procedures, and market demand of Chinese biscuits and the breeding of special wheat for biscuit making.\u003c/em\u003e Journal of Food Quality, 2022\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMamat H, Hill SE (2018) Structural and functional properties of major ingredients of biscuit. 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Eur Food Res Technol 250(7):1933\u0026ndash;1947\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDoan CD et al (2018) Internal and external factors affecting the crystallization, gelation and applicability of wax-based oleogels in food industry. Innovative Food Sci Emerg Technol 45:42\u0026ndash;52\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePușcaș A, Mureșan V, Socaciu C et al (2020) Oleogels in food: A review of current and potential applications. Foods 9(1):70\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePradhan A et al (2023) Effect of soy wax/rice bran oil oleogel replacement on the properties of whole wheat cookie dough and cookies. Foods 12(19):3650\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLeahu A et al (2025) Textural, color, and sensory analysis of cookies prepared with hemp oil-based oleogels. 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J Food Eng, 268\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eVasilean I, Aprodu I, Patrascu L (2015) Fat content in yoghurts versus non-fat fortifying\u0026mdash;a rheological and sensorial approach. Studia Universitatis Babes-Bolyai Chem 60(2):259\u0026ndash;269\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOnacik-G\u0026uuml;r S, Zbikowska A (2020) Effect of high-oleic rapeseed oil oleogels on the quality of short-dough biscuits and fat migration. J Food Sci Technology-Mysore 57(5):1609\u0026ndash;1618\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYılmaz E, \u0026Ouml;ğ\u0026uuml;tc\u0026uuml; M (2015) The texture, sensory properties and stability of cookies prepared with wax oleogels, vol 6. Food \u0026amp; Function, pp 1194\u0026ndash;1204. 4\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGhiasi F, Golmakani MT (2022) Fabrication and characterization of a novel biphasic system based on starch and ethylcellulose as an alternative fat replacer in a model food system. Innovative Food Science \u0026amp; Emerging Technologies, p 78\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAlvarez-Ramirez J et al (2020) Effects of candelilla wax/canola oil oleogel on the rheology, texture, thermal properties and in vitro starch digestibility of wheat sponge cake bread. LWT-Food Science and Technology, p 130\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLi SY et al (2021) Roles of gelator type and gelation technology on texture and sensory properties of cookies prepared with oleogels. Food Chem, 356\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":false,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":true,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Bigels, Shortening substitute, Biscuits, Oil and water content, Baking loss rate, Sensory properties.","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7737190/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7737190/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eGrowing health concerns regarding saturated fatty acids amid market expansion are driving the food industry to develop novel solid fat-free alternatives. Novel biscuits were developed based on various substitution percentages (0% (WAL biscuits), 50% (MIX biscuits), and 100% (CHESS biscuits)) of bigel for the shortening, and their quality characteristics were systematically evaluated. The results indicated that partial replacement of shortening with bigels exhibited positive effect on the quality properties of biscuits. Specifically, the MIX biscuits exhibited Specifically, the MIX biscuits exhibited an optimal color and the lowest baking loss (15.54\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.59%). They also had significantly higher oil and water content (16.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.80% and 4.05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.18%, respectively), alongside a lower diffusion coefficient (11.71\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.24) and the lowest peroxide value (0.04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02 g/100g) among all groups. Furthermore, the MIX biscuits exhibited excellent hardness, fracturability, and short-range ordering. Meanwhile, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) revealed a homogeneous distribution of water and oil in the MIX biscuits. Sensory evaluation results indicated that the MIX biscuits received high scores for color, taste, appearance, texture, flavor and overall acceptability. These findings may provide an important reference for the development of healthy and functional bakery products.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Physicochemical properties and quality characteristics of biscuits with different bigel-based shortening substitution levels","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-09-30 12:23:22","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7737190/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"e0b61a6f-c9ef-4a46-83d2-45dd1be98eb4","owner":[],"postedDate":"September 30th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-10-14T10:09:12+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-09-30 12:23:22","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7737190","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7737190","identity":"rs-7737190","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}