Soil compaction limits soil water dynamics and reduces canola yield components

Soil compaction limits soil water dynamics and reduces canola yield components | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Soil compaction limits soil water dynamics and reduces canola yield components Caroline Beal Montiel, Luiz Antônio Zanão Júnior, Doglas Bassegio, and 4 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7887295/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background and Aims Soil compaction may alter soil water dynamics, potentially limiting yield in oilseed crops such as canola ( Brassica napus L.). Although canola exhibits moderate drought tolerance, responses to soil compaction in this species have not been well documented. Methods This study evaluated the effects of increasing soil compaction levels (1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, and 1.5 Mg m⁻³) on canola yield components and spatial soil water distribution. The experiment employed PVC tubes under controlled conditions, with a compacted subsoil layer (10–30 cm) overlain by non-compacted topsoil. Soil water was monitored using capacitive sensors. Results Soil water sensors revealed that compaction increased water retention in the compacted zone, but this water remained unavailable to plants. Increasing soil density from 1.0 to 1.5 Mg m⁻³ reduced all yield components, with grain yield decreasing by approximately 76% and vegetative growth parameters declining by 45–65%. Canola yield components improved only when water was accessible in the topsoil layer. Principal Component Analysis confirmed clear segregation, associating high compaction with trapped subsoil water and low compaction with better yield and topsoil water use. Conclusion These findings demonstrate that soil compaction induces physical hydric stress in canola by restricting water availability, rendering canola sensitive to compaction due to critical changes in soil water dynamics. Brassica napus L. physical hydric stress yield components soil physical properties Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Introduction Canola ( Brassica napus L.) ranks as the third most produced oilseed crop globally, after soybean and palm, holding significant economic importance (Lu et al., 2025 ). The crop accounts for approximately 15% of global edible vegetable oil production, in addition to serving as a source of animal feed and biodiesel (Silva et al., 2017; Confortin et al., 2019 ). In the Brazilian context, canola represents a strategic option for the autumn-winter crop season, due to its low production cost, early cycle, and moderate tolerance to abiotic stresses such as drought and low temperatures (Tomm, 2006 ; Aquino et al., 2023 ). However, the productive potential of canola during this period, characteristically marked by irregular rainfall, faces severe limitation from edaphic factors interfering with soil water dynamics. Among these, soil compaction stands out as a primary form of physical degradation (Zhang et al., 2024 ). Typically induced by intensive agricultural machinery traffic, compaction imposes serious physical constraints on root development and water movement in the soil (Secco et al., 2023 ), creating an environment that may compromise the natural tolerance of canola to water deficit. The detrimental effects of soil compaction arise from changes in soil physical structure (Keller et al., 2021 ). Compaction increases soil strength, impeding root growth, while reducing porosity and pore connectivity. This degraded pore architecture critically compromises water dynamics by restricting infiltration, water storage, and, most importantly, capillary rise, which is essential for moving water upward to roots (Ryken et al., 2018 ). Several studies have employed compacted soil in PVC tubes to assess the tolerance of annual crop species to soil compaction (Rosolem et al., 2002 ; Castagnara et al., 2013 ; Falkoski Filho et al., 2013 ; Silva et al., 2014 ; Sarto et al., 2018 ; Zoz et al., 2021 ). However, the specific mechanisms by which compaction alters water dynamics and subsequently limits canola yield have not been quantitatively explored using soil water sensors. Furthermore, the sensors used in the present study have open-source hardware and software that enables individuals to design, construct, and program their own devices at low-cost. The hypothesis proposed that increasing soil compaction would limit upward water movement and root access to water, despite increasing soil water content in the compacted zone, ultimately impairing canola growth and yield. To test this hypothesis, this study evaluated the effects of increasing soil compaction levels on the spatial dynamics of soil water and yield components of canola. Material and methods The experiment was conducted under controlled greenhouse conditions at the State University of Western Paraná, Cascavel, Paraná, Brazil. The soil was classified as Oxisol in U.S. Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 2014 ) and Red Latosol in the Brazilian Soil Classification system (Santos et al., 2018), with 47, 311, and 642 g kg⁻¹ of sand, silt, and clay, respectively. The soil properties prior to the start of the experiment were: soil pH (CaCl₂) of 4.88; 25 g dm⁻³ of organic matter (OM); 5.65 mg dm⁻³ of available P (Mehlich-1); and exchangeable K⁺, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, and potential acidity (H + Al) of 0.6, 6.3, 2.18, and 8.0 cmolc dm⁻³, respectively, resulting in a base saturation of 52.3%. Soil from the surface layer (0–10 cm) of a commercial field established a 10 cm thick, non-compacted topsoil layer, providing favorable conditions for seed germination and seedling establishment. A 20 cm thick subsoil layer (10–30 cm depth) was created by packing soil from the deeper horizon (> 10 cm) to specific bulk densities, simulating the compacted layer commonly found in Brazilian no-till systems. The PVC tubes measured 30 cm in height with an internal diameter of 20 cm. The experiment was arranged in a randomized complete block design with four replications. Six soil compaction levels were evaluated, corresponding to bulk densities of 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, and 1.5 Mg m⁻³. These bulk densities were established by mechanically pressing a predetermined mass of air-dried soil into PVC tubes to form a compacted subsoil layer. Sowing was conducted in the first fortnight of May across both growing seasons (2023 and 2024), with an initial density of seven canola seeds per pot, using the Hyola 575 CL hybrid. After germination, thinning retained the three most vigorous seedlings per pot to ensure uniform competition (Fig. 1 A). Irrigation management reflected the water requirements of the canola plants and encouraged root exploration. Until the pre-flowering stage, water was applied to the soil surface based on pot evapotranspiration. From the onset of flowering until the end of the crop cycle, a critical period for water stress in canola development, irrigation was supplied exclusively from the bottom by maintaining water in the saucers beneath the PVC tubes (Fig. 1 B). This shift in irrigation method aimed to stimulate deeper root growth in search of water. Fertilization was not applied, and crop management practices were performed according to crop requirements. The monitoring system utilized low-cost sensors (Fig. 1 C). To ensure a accurate correspondence between the voltage outputs from the sensors and the actual soil moisture values, a calibration procedure was performed (Fig. 1 D). This process involved using 500 mL glass jars. Nine jars were prepared, each containing 500 g of soil with pre-established moisture levels. Two sensors were inserted into each jar to assess their inter-correlation, a necessary step to verify data consistency between individual sensor units. Sensors were installed at three distinct depths from the base of the PVC tubes: 5 cm (Sensor 1), 15 cm (Sensor 2), and 25 cm (Sensor 3). This configuration placed sensors 1 and 2 within the compacted soil layer, while sensor 3 occupied the overlying non-compacted layer (Fig. 1 B). Soil water content was automatically recorded at 15-minute intervals throughout the experimental period. Soil water sensors were installed approximately 40 days after plant emergence. Soil water was monitored using 72 capacitive sensors that function on the capacitance principle, the ability of a system to store an electrical charge. Structurally, the sensors consist of two conductive plates separated by an insulating material (dielectric), forming a capacitor whose capacitance varies with the dielectric permittivity of the soil, which depends primarily on water content. At physiological maturity, approximately 50 days after sensor installation, the following agronomic variables were evaluated: plant height (measured with a ruler from the soil surface to the apex of the main stem), stem diameter (measured at the base of the stem using a digital caliper), shoot dry weight (determined after drying the material in a forced-air oven at 65°C until constant weight), root length, root dry mass, number of siliques per plant, and grain yield per plant (with grain moisture corrected to 9%). Data for canola yield components and soil water were subjected to regression analysis at a 5% significance level using SigmaPlot 11. Additionally, a Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was performed using the PAST Statistical Software (Hammer et al., 2001). Results Soil compaction levels significantly affected all yield components, including plant height, stem diameter, root dry mass, shoot dry weight, root length, number of siliques per plant, and grain yield per plant (p < 0.05). All variables decreased linearly with increasing soil bulk density, demonstrating the sensitivity of canola to soil compaction (Figs. 2 , 3 and 4 ). At the highest compaction level (1.5 Mg m⁻³), grain yield was the most affected parameter, showing a reduction of approximately 76% compared to the non-compacted control (1.0 Mg m⁻³). This was followed by reductions of 65% in both root dry mass and silique number, 58% in shoot dry weight, 46% in root length, and 29–32% in plant height and stem diameter (Figs. 2 , 3 and 4 ). Soil compaction levels linearly increased soil water content at sensors 1 and 2 (Fig. 5 ). Conversely, soil water content at sensor 3 decreased with increasing compaction (Fig. 5 ). Furthermore, soil water content was higher across all treatments in year 2 (2024) compared to year 1 (2023). The Principal Component Analysis (PCA) revealed that the first two principal components explained 92.4% of the total data variance (Fig. 6 ). PC1, which captured the major axis of variation, was primarily associated with plant height, stem diameter, shoot dry weight, and grain yield per plant. The biplot showed a clear segregation of treatments along PC1. Treatments with higher soil compaction clustered in the quadrants associated with higher soil water content in sensors 1 and 2, while treatments with lower compaction were separated in the quadrants characterized by canola yield components and higher soil water content in sensor 3. Furthermore, the loadings plot showed strong positive contributions from all yield components on PC1, which were directly opposed by the negative loadings of soil water in the compacted zone (sensors 1 and 2). A positive association was observed between grains per silique and root length, which contrasted with the negative weighting of thousand-grain weight. Discussion The decline in canola yield components resulted directly from the detrimental effects of soil compaction. Compaction negatively alters soil pore architecture by reducing macroporosity and total porosity, which in turn decreases soil oxygen availability (Valadão et al., 2015 ). This degraded physical environment increases soil strength, restricting root growth and impairing water dynamics and nutrient interactions within the soil, ultimately limiting their uptake by the plant (Sarto et al., 2018 ). The restricted water flow further compromises nutrient transport, which occurs primarily by mass flow for nutrients like nitrogen or by diffusion for phosphorus (Cabral et al., 2012 ). Moreover, in compacted soil, the volume of soil explored by roots is severely limited, thereby reducing the accessible reservoir of nutrients essential for plant growth (Oliveira et al., 2016 ). The restriction of canola shoot and root growth by increasing soil bulk density directly reflected in reduced grain mass per plant (Fig. 4 ). Although canola is generally considered a hardy winter crop with tolerance to frost and drought, these results demonstrate that its yield is severely constrained by soil compaction, revealing a significant vulnerability to this abiotic stress. This sensitivity to physical impedance aligns with findings in other species, where shoot and root growth reduction has been reported in Stylosanthes (1.0-1.83 Mg m⁻³; Castagnara et al., 2013 ), millet (1.28–1.74 Mg m⁻³; Guimarães et al., 2013 ), cover crops (1.10–1.90 Mg m⁻³; Lima et al., 2015 ), safflower (1.10–1.50 Mg m⁻³; Montiel et al., 2020 ), and crambe (1.0-1.80 Mg m⁻³; Oliveira et al., 2023 ). The observed increase in soil water content at sensors 1 and 2 under higher compaction is a direct result of reduced macroporosity and a concomitant increase in microporosity. According to the principles of capillary rise, the maximum height of water ascent is inversely proportional to pore diameter (Huo et al., 2021 ). Consequently, the compaction-induced shift towards smaller pores enhanced the soil water retention capacity in the compacted layer, explaining the higher water content recorded. Conversely, the decrease in water content at sensor 3 suggests a physical discontinuity in pore space between the compacted and non-compacted layers. This discontinuity would have impeded upward water movement through capillary flow and likely redirected it, thereby reducing water availability in the topsoil (Kuncoro et al., 2014 ; Keller et al., 2019 ). The higher soil water content in year 2 can be attributed to the hotter and drier conditions experienced in the first year. This enhanced water availability in the second year created a more favorable environment for crop development, which was reflected in the measured yield components. The high explanatory power of the first two PCs (92.4%) confirms that the experiment was predominantly governed by the compaction-induced gradient. The clear segregation of treatments along PC1 reinforces the phenomenon of water trapping in the compacted zone, as visualized by the clustering of high-compaction treatments with soil water in sensors 1 and 2. Conversely, the distinct separation of low-compaction treatments with yield components and soil water in sensor 3 delivers a conclusive insight: it demonstrates that successful canola establishment and yield are critically dependent on water accessibility in the non-compacted topsoil layer, while water stored in the compacted subsoil remains ineffective for sustaining plant growth. The strong opposition between yield components and water in the compacted zone on PC1 provides quantitative multivariate evidence for the physical hydric stress mechanism. The specific pattern of loadings, where grains per silique and root length were positively associated but opposed to thousand-grain weight, suggests that under compaction stress, canola plants prioritize increasing grain number and soil exploration over investing in individual grain mass. This indicates that soil compaction triggers not only a general suppression of growth but also a complex reallocation of resources within the plant. The insights gained here into plant resource reallocation are promising, yet their generalizability to field conditions warrants careful consideration. The controlled conditions of this study, while enabling the precise isolation of compaction effects, may not fully capture field complexity. Additionally, while the sensor network documented soil water dynamics in detail, the lack of direct physiological measurements limits characterization of the plant internal water status. Future field studies integrating plant physiological monitoring are therefore recommended to validate these findings. Conclusion Increasing soil compaction levels altered the dynamics of soil water, directly impairing canola yield components. Growth and yield parameters decreased linearly with increasing soil density. This response was driven by a physical hydric stress mechanism, where compaction trapped water in the subsoil, making it unavailable for plant uptake, while simultaneously reducing water availability in the topsoil. The strong association between high compaction, trapped subsoil water, and low yield was unequivocally validated by the PCA. These findings emphasize that sustainable canola cultivation in no-till systems requires soil compaction management to ensure effective water availability. Declarations Conflict of interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Funding This research was funded by Coordenaçao de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior—Brasil (CAPES), which supported the research and scholarships to Doglas Bassegio (grant number PDPG 88887.924187/2023-00). Luiz A. Zanão Junior and Samuel N. M. Souza also appreciate the scholarship support given by National Council of Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq). Author Contributions: Caroline Beal Montiel: Writing–review & editing, Writing–original draft, Software, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation. Luiz Antônio Zanão Júnior: Investigation, Data curation, Supervision, Project administration, writing–review & editing, funding acquisition. Rogerio Luis Rizzi, Doglas Bassegio, Samuel Nelson Meleragari de Souza, Matheus Rodrigues Savioli, and Juliana de Souza Pinto: Writing–review & editing, Writing–original draft, Software. References Aquino GS, Shahab M, Moraes LA, Moreira A (2023) Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria increased canola yield and root system. J Plant Nutr 46(7):1400–1406. https://doi.org/10.1080/01904167.2022.2068441 Cabral CE, Bonfim-Silva EM, Bonelli EA, da Silva TJ, Cabral CH, Scaramuzza WL (2012) Compactação do solo e macronutrientes primários na Brachiaria brizantha cv. Piatã e Panicum maximum cv. Mombaça. Revista Brasileira de Engenharia Agrícola e Ambiental 16:362–367. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1415-43662012000400005 Castagnara DD, Zoz T, Castro AMC, Zoz A, Oliveira PSRD (2013) Crescimento de Stylosanthes cv. Campo Grande em diferentes níveis de densidade de um Latossolo Vermelho. Revista Ciência Agronômica 44:260–266. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1806-66902013000200007 Confortin TC, Todero I, Luft L, Ugalde GA, Mazutti MA, Oliveira ZB, Tres MV (2019) Oil yields, protein contents, and cost of manufacturing of oil obtained from different hybrids and sowing dates of canola. J Environ Chem Eng 7(2):102972. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2019.102972 Embrapa (2018) Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária. Sistema Brasileiro de Classificação de Solos, 5 edn. Embrapa, Brasília, DF Falkoski Filho J, Batista I, Rosolem CA (2013) Sensitivity of cotton cultivars to soil compaction. Semina: Ciências Agrárias 1(34):3645–3653. https://doi.org/10.5433/1679-0359.2013v34n6Supl1p3645 Guimarães CV, Assis RLD, Simon GA, Pires FR, Ferreira RL, Santos DCD (2013) Desempenho de cultivares e híbridos de milheto em solo submetido a compactação. Revista Brasileira de Engenharia Agrícola e Ambiental 17:1188–1194. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1415-43662013001100009 Hammer Ø, Harper DA (2001) Past: paleontological statistics software package for educaton and data anlysis. Palaeontologia electronica 4(1):1 http:// palaeo-electronica.org/2001_1/past/issue1_01.htm Huo W, Zhu Z, Peng Y, Pu S, Wan Y, Zhang C (2021) Experimental study on capillary water rise and influencing factors in silty soil. Arab J Geosci 14(24):2706 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-021-09097-6 Keller T, Sandin M, Colombi T, Horn R, Or D (2019) Historical increase in agricultural machinery weights enhanced soil stress levels and adversely affected soil functioning. Soil Tillage Res 194:104293 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2019.104293 Keller T, Colombi T, Ruiz S, Schymanski SJ, Weisskopf P, Koestel J, Or D (2021) Soil structure recovery following compaction: Short-term evolution of soil physical properties in a loamy soil. Soil Sci Soc Am J 85(4):1002–1020. https://doi.org/10.1002/saj2.20240 Kuncoro PH, Koga K, Satta N, Muto Y (2014) A study on the effect of compaction on transport properties of soil gas and water I: Relative gas diffusivity, air permeability, and saturated hydraulic conductivity. Soil Tillage Res 143:172–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2014.02.006 Lima LBD, Petter FA, Leandro WM (2015) Desempenho de plantas de cobertura sob níveis de compactação em Latossolo Vermelho de Cerrado. Revista Brasileira de Engenharia Agrícola e Ambiental 19(11):1064–1071 https://doi.org/10.1590/1807-1929/agriambi.v19n11p1064-1071 Lu X, Zhang T, Ma Y, Han C, Yang W, Pu Y, Sun W (2025) Advances in Genetic Diversity of Germplasm Resources, Origin and Evolution of Turnip Rape (Brassica rapa L). Plants 14(15):2311. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14152311 Montiel CB, Secco D, Marins AC, Zanao LA, Deggerone JR, Bassegio D (2020) Root and shoot growth in safflower as affected by soil compaction. Aust J Crop Sci 14(9):1443–1448. https://doi.org/10.21475/ajcs.20.14.09.p2466 Oliveira CES, Zoz T, Castagnara DD, Zoz A, Mortinho ES, Fernandes GC, Faria GA (2023) Growth of crambe under different soil bulk densities and water restriction. Russ J Plant Physiol 70(4):63 https://doi.org/10.1134/S1021443722602592 Oliveira PDD, Sato MK, Lima HVD, Rodrigues S, Silva APD (2016) Critical limits of the degree of compactness and soil penetration resistance for the soybean crop in N Brazil. J Plant Nutr Soil Sci 179(1):78–87. https://doi.org/10.1002/jpln.201400315 Rosolem CA, Foloni JSS, Tiritan CS (2002) Root growth and nutrient accumulation in cover crops as affected by soil compaction. Soil Tillage Res 65(1):109–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-1987(01)00286-0 Ryken N, Nest V, Al-Barri T, Blake B, Taylor W, Bodé A, Verdoodt S, A (2018) Soil erosion rates under different tillage practices in central Belgium: New perspectives from a combined approach of rainfall simulations and 7Be measurements. Soil Tillage Res 179:29–37 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2018.01.010 Sarto MVM, Bassegio D, Rosolem CA, Sarto JRW (2018) Safflower root and shoot growth affected by soil compaction. Bragantia 77(2):348–355 https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-4499.2017191 Secco D, Bassegio D, de Marins AC, Chang P, Savioli MR, Castro MBS, Wendt EJ (2023) Short-term impacts of different intercropping times of maize and ruzigrass on soil physical properties in subtropical Brazil. Soil Tillage Res 234:105838. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2023.105838 Silva FRD, Albuquerque JA, Costa AD (2014) Crescimento inicial da cultura da soja em Latossolo Bruno com diferentes graus de compactação. Revista Brasileira de Ciência do Solo 38:1731–1739. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-06832014000600008 Silva LFLE, Gonçalves WM, Maluf WR, Resende LV, Sarmiento CM, Licursi V, Moretto P (2016) Energy balance of biodiesel production from canola. Ciência Rural 47(2):20151084. https://doi.org/10.1590/0103-8478cr20151084 Soil Survey Staff (2014) Keys to Soil Taxonomy, 12 edn. th ed. United States Department of Agriculture - Natural Resources Conservation Service, Washingthon, DC Tomm GO (2006) Canola: alternativa de renda e benefícios para os cultivos seguintes. Revista Plantio Direto 15(94):4–8 Valadão FCDA, Weber OLDS, Valadão DD, Scapinelli A, Deina FR, Bianchini A (2015) Adubação fosfatada e compactação do solo: sistema radicular da soja e do milho e atributos físicos do solo. Revista Brasileira de Ciência do Solo 39(1):243–255. https://doi.org/10.1590/01000683rbcs20150144 Zoz T, de Castro Seron C, da Silva Oliveira CE, Zanotto MD, Bono JAM, Aguiar EB, Witt TW (2021) Growth of dwarf castor hybrids at different soil bulk densities. Ind Crops Prod 159:113069. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2020.113069 Zhang B, Jia Y, Fan H, Guo C, Fu J, Li S, Ma R (2024) Soil compaction due to agricultural machinery impact: A systematic review. Land Degrad Dev 35(10):3256–3273. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.51443 Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7887295","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":535874283,"identity":"1a51dfbe-2690-4857-aae8-ff61f4fe324d","order_by":0,"name":"Caroline Beal Montiel","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Caroline","middleName":"Beal","lastName":"Montiel","suffix":""},{"id":535874284,"identity":"2c6f954d-5292-41ed-ad8e-fe173a875bb1","order_by":1,"name":"Luiz Antônio Zanão Júnior","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Luiz","middleName":"Antônio Zanão","lastName":"Júnior","suffix":""},{"id":535874285,"identity":"56eb50b4-23e4-40a7-afec-b7af25d9b8c5","order_by":2,"name":"Doglas Bassegio","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA5UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDCCAwyMBxgYJJj5JcBcCRlitICQBbvkDAbGBqAWHmK1VPAb3ABrYSCshe94+4UDP/5ISBvfbj7+6EaNBQ8D++GjG/BpkTxzpuBgb5uEsdmdY4nNOceADuNJS7uBT4vBjZyEA7wNEslmN3IMm3PYgFokeMwIajn4549E/eYZIC3/iNKSfuAwD5sEs4EEUEtuGxFagH5hOCzbJsEscSMtcXZunwQPGyG/AEPs4cM3f+qY+WckH/ic861Ojp/98DG8WoARYYDKZ8OvHATYHxBWMwpGwSgYBSMbAABQAk273Ue5hAAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6628-8594","institution":"UNIOESTE: Universidade Estadual do Oeste do Parana","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Doglas","middleName":"","lastName":"Bassegio","suffix":""},{"id":535874286,"identity":"9ed15eb3-c584-4878-8a0f-f77fdec23a0f","order_by":3,"name":"Rogerio Luis Rizzi","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Rogerio","middleName":"Luis","lastName":"Rizzi","suffix":""},{"id":535874287,"identity":"0e88ee42-a93b-4bca-9f65-54f359f9204d","order_by":4,"name":"Samuel Nelson Meleragari de Souza","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Samuel","middleName":"Nelson Meleragari","lastName":"de Souza","suffix":""},{"id":535874288,"identity":"0b5b0774-2894-4d43-97da-19f20bcd34d5","order_by":5,"name":"Matheus Rodrigues Savioli","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Matheus","middleName":"Rodrigues","lastName":"Savioli","suffix":""},{"id":535874289,"identity":"8505e7e3-28bc-458c-9680-e6d386f4a9d7","order_by":6,"name":"Juliana de Souza Pinto","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Juliana","middleName":"de Souza","lastName":"Pinto","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-10-17 13:53:05","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7887295/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7887295/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":95314081,"identity":"63fe11b8-f28a-4415-9ea4-1b7cc96b8e49","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-06 15:52:27","extension":"xml","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":9125,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"plsoPLSOD2503996.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7887295/v1/bacbbd9cd45b6fa57e2fde55.xml"},{"id":95314852,"identity":"12ad7449-d4ce-4da3-a71c-edbb1d868220","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-06 15:53:24","extension":"xml","order_by":3,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":985,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"PLSOD250399665090.go.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7887295/v1/8a0e8457e347438a85817b23.xml"},{"id":95313883,"identity":"4ed755ab-4b6e-45c3-8f2e-8e199519fa79","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-06 15:52:11","extension":"xml","order_by":4,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":839,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"PLSOD2503996Import.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7887295/v1/510c066fb0c31ff8a134732a.xml"},{"id":95290166,"identity":"495215e1-f154-47ec-9559-e265ac06cb68","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-06 10:51:14","extension":"xml","order_by":5,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":78212,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"PLSOD25039960enriched.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7887295/v1/74d52849b4e2d6592ffa877f.xml"},{"id":95314558,"identity":"6b380ee1-3364-4557-a072-4add887738a9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-06 15:53:00","extension":"eps","order_by":6,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":739,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"drawingimage1.eps","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7887295/v1/ebed29dfa6756f6c75ba2cb3.eps"},{"id":95314116,"identity":"4a25f182-6c73-43f2-a106-66243dfa0979","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-06 15:52:29","extension":"eps","order_by":7,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":44579,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"drawingimage2.eps","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7887295/v1/e0ed27db67e639ccab89daf4.eps"},{"id":95290181,"identity":"ff12953a-0ecb-4e49-95d8-9f6cefbb618e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-06 10:51:14","extension":"emf","order_by":8,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":6393136,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.emf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7887295/v1/a962ca2809cad5a24f9b2552.emf"},{"id":95314629,"identity":"6b9f6c36-f808-478c-984f-b3a321f31d5a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-06 15:53:07","extension":"emf","order_by":9,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":111272,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.emf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7887295/v1/c5fa5c42d6f77189b1c6a8bf.emf"},{"id":95314891,"identity":"40b6fe3b-75a4-4ec2-86ec-3fe0489d674d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-06 15:53:26","extension":"emf","order_by":10,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":77024,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.emf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7887295/v1/d482d1585592cb58c2c3a49d.emf"},{"id":95313803,"identity":"76fd8199-d8ba-4fee-ba3e-0c0c6a7cd128","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-06 15:52:01","extension":"emf","order_by":11,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":77144,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.emf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7887295/v1/c4132c6928e3ee9e09ec13d9.emf"},{"id":95314269,"identity":"67f2fbef-e781-4d38-8687-9cb4a26c0c4d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-06 15:52:38","extension":"emf","order_by":12,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":110688,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.emf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7887295/v1/4f6ee04f9929709c2a3f0eeb.emf"},{"id":95314512,"identity":"723447e7-2583-461b-91cc-07f5ba9e8c66","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-06 15:52:58","extension":"jpeg","order_by":13,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":69558,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7887295/v1/ddd76a9a6278b0af74da7027.jpeg"},{"id":95290179,"identity":"da0f0440-a291-460f-9a28-c2f6536872b4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-06 10:51:14","extension":"png","order_by":14,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":1502382,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7887295/v1/bb2f06f548796e6fb3013b54.png"},{"id":95290172,"identity":"ce204916-b166-4eda-b6ed-4b5f6c8f57af","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-06 10:51:14","extension":"png","order_by":15,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":53200,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7887295/v1/53299f8c6fd3d572773fc1f6.png"},{"id":95290168,"identity":"0bfc12d0-4153-4307-b691-c2c03eb54e24","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-06 10:51:14","extension":"png","order_by":16,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":35081,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7887295/v1/58f81a1d6758ece12052302c.png"},{"id":95290170,"identity":"1131f5cb-08b9-4305-ae09-d964edc0707f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-06 10:51:14","extension":"png","order_by":17,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":37616,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7887295/v1/1a677b69b78c5cb84c211968.png"},{"id":95290174,"identity":"b2f7cd8e-a457-4392-85b1-cfe3d11e593d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-06 10:51:14","extension":"png","order_by":18,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":27138,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7887295/v1/9d64732bf3db173d1bb43400.png"},{"id":95290177,"identity":"12d9687b-fbe9-4426-85eb-e6ae6532ea96","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-06 10:51:14","extension":"png","order_by":19,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":10802,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7887295/v1/eb9aac3e970c27f299243dab.png"},{"id":95290184,"identity":"1a28407f-b35b-4031-835b-19a6e34675f1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-06 10:51:14","extension":"xml","order_by":20,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":76746,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"PLSOD25039960structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7887295/v1/0117b712290192b615e6f80b.xml"},{"id":95290183,"identity":"d01b121d-5ad9-4664-8d7a-2df12a273197","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-06 10:51:14","extension":"html","order_by":21,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":82795,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7887295/v1/c21219f011569217f180afc3.html"},{"id":95290165,"identity":"7768ed01-9c32-4ca7-b791-1f2d765d517d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-06 10:51:13","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":4673560,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eExperimental setup for canola cultivation before soil water sensor installation (A), positioning of soil water sensors in PVC tubes (B), capacitive sensor used in the experiment (C), calibration of the sensors (D), and complete experimental setup with sensors installed (E).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7887295/v1/42a316f50194ba077a4e79ea.png"},{"id":95290161,"identity":"66c3ee56-33f3-4bd9-829d-a6f1aa4465db","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-06 10:51:13","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":734721,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePlant height (A and B), shoot dry weight (C and D), and stem diameter (E and F) of canola affected by soil compaction levels. *, ** Significant at 5 and 1% probability by F test, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7887295/v1/1579511896714b1e7360aa5c.png"},{"id":95290160,"identity":"7fed774a-8326-4368-8ead-bc7ed23b8810","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-06 10:51:13","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":523102,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRoot leight (A and B), and dry mass of roots (C and D) of canola affected by soil compaction levels. *, ** Significant at 5 and 1% probability by F test, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7887295/v1/92f275ce20e4171d4e3b1564.png"},{"id":95290185,"identity":"99ac961a-c997-424f-a90d-d46c7e599647","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-06 10:51:15","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":524705,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSiliques per plant (A and B), and yield per plant (C and D) of canola affected by soil compaction levels. *, ** Significant at 5 and 1% probability by F test, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7887295/v1/c043c18760d2dff0b2398302.png"},{"id":95290164,"identity":"79382590-2561-47a3-a01b-780e48d8670d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-06 10:51:13","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":397734,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSoil water affected by soil compaction levels in 2023 (A) and 2024 (B) in sensors 1, 2 and 3. *, ** Significant at 5 and 1% probability by F test, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7887295/v1/7a0dfc591677fd0b74564d2f.png"},{"id":95290163,"identity":"0ef9e03d-5112-4fb7-9f64-c04d624d8a71","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-06 10:51:13","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":137872,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePrincipal component analysis (PCA) of canola production components and soil water sensors.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7887295/v1/bbd9c4f23bd047e44aa67da4.png"},{"id":96106367,"identity":"756893e3-5850-4c85-8f7d-3000bb8bfc75","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-17 16:13:11","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":7394156,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7887295/v1/dca4bd54-c41b-4568-9c60-95c37c2eac8d.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Soil compaction limits soil water dynamics and reduces canola yield components","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eCanola (\u003cem\u003eBrassica napus\u003c/em\u003e L.) ranks as the third most produced oilseed crop globally, after soybean and palm, holding significant economic importance (Lu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). The crop accounts for approximately 15% of global edible vegetable oil production, in addition to serving as a source of animal feed and biodiesel (Silva et al., 2017; Confortin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). In the Brazilian context, canola represents a strategic option for the autumn-winter crop season, due to its low production cost, early cycle, and moderate tolerance to abiotic stresses such as drought and low temperatures (Tomm, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Aquino et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHowever, the productive potential of canola during this period, characteristically marked by irregular rainfall, faces severe limitation from edaphic factors interfering with soil water dynamics. Among these, soil compaction stands out as a primary form of physical degradation (Zhang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Typically induced by intensive agricultural machinery traffic, compaction imposes serious physical constraints on root development and water movement in the soil (Secco et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), creating an environment that may compromise the natural tolerance of canola to water deficit.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe detrimental effects of soil compaction arise from changes in soil physical structure (Keller et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Compaction increases soil strength, impeding root growth, while reducing porosity and pore connectivity. This degraded pore architecture critically compromises water dynamics by restricting infiltration, water storage, and, most importantly, capillary rise, which is essential for moving water upward to roots (Ryken et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSeveral studies have employed compacted soil in PVC tubes to assess the tolerance of annual crop species to soil compaction (Rosolem et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Castagnara et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Falkoski Filho et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Silva et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Sarto et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Zoz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). However, the specific mechanisms by which compaction alters water dynamics and subsequently limits canola yield have not been quantitatively explored using soil water sensors. Furthermore, the sensors used in the present study have open-source hardware and software that enables individuals to design, construct, and program their own devices at low-cost.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe hypothesis proposed that increasing soil compaction would limit upward water movement and root access to water, despite increasing soil water content in the compacted zone, ultimately impairing canola growth and yield. To test this hypothesis, this study evaluated the effects of increasing soil compaction levels on the spatial dynamics of soil water and yield components of canola.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Material and methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe experiment was conducted under controlled greenhouse conditions at the State University of Western Paran\u0026aacute;, Cascavel, Paran\u0026aacute;, Brazil. The soil was classified as Oxisol in U.S. Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) and Red Latosol in the Brazilian Soil Classification system (Santos et al., 2018), with 47, 311, and 642 g kg⁻\u0026sup1; of sand, silt, and clay, respectively. The soil properties prior to the start of the experiment were: soil pH (CaCl₂) of 4.88; 25 g dm⁻\u0026sup3; of organic matter (OM); 5.65 mg dm⁻\u0026sup3; of available P (Mehlich-1); and exchangeable K⁺, Ca\u0026sup2;⁺, Mg\u0026sup2;⁺, and potential acidity (H\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Al) of 0.6, 6.3, 2.18, and 8.0 cmolc dm⁻\u0026sup3;, respectively, resulting in a base saturation of 52.3%.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSoil from the surface layer (0\u0026ndash;10 cm) of a commercial field established a 10 cm thick, non-compacted topsoil layer, providing favorable conditions for seed germination and seedling establishment. A 20 cm thick subsoil layer (10\u0026ndash;30 cm depth) was created by packing soil from the deeper horizon (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;10 cm) to specific bulk densities, simulating the compacted layer commonly found in Brazilian no-till systems. The PVC tubes measured 30 cm in height with an internal diameter of 20 cm.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe experiment was arranged in a randomized complete block design with four replications. Six soil compaction levels were evaluated, corresponding to bulk densities of 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, and 1.5 Mg m⁻\u0026sup3;. These bulk densities were established by mechanically pressing a predetermined mass of air-dried soil into PVC tubes to form a compacted subsoil layer.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSowing was conducted in the first fortnight of May across both growing seasons (2023 and 2024), with an initial density of seven canola seeds per pot, using the Hyola 575 CL hybrid. After germination, thinning retained the three most vigorous seedlings per pot to ensure uniform competition (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eA). Irrigation management reflected the water requirements of the canola plants and encouraged root exploration. Until the pre-flowering stage, water was applied to the soil surface based on pot evapotranspiration. From the onset of flowering until the end of the crop cycle, a critical period for water stress in canola development, irrigation was supplied exclusively from the bottom by maintaining water in the saucers beneath the PVC tubes (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eB). This shift in irrigation method aimed to stimulate deeper root growth in search of water. Fertilization was not applied, and crop management practices were performed according to crop requirements.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe monitoring system utilized low-cost sensors (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eC). To ensure a accurate correspondence between the voltage outputs from the sensors and the actual soil moisture values, a calibration procedure was performed (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eD). This process involved using 500 mL glass jars. Nine jars were prepared, each containing 500 g of soil with pre-established moisture levels. Two sensors were inserted into each jar to assess their inter-correlation, a necessary step to verify data consistency between individual sensor units.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSensors were installed at three distinct depths from the base of the PVC tubes: 5 cm (Sensor 1), 15 cm (Sensor 2), and 25 cm (Sensor 3). This configuration placed sensors 1 and 2 within the compacted soil layer, while sensor 3 occupied the overlying non-compacted layer (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eB). Soil water content was automatically recorded at 15-minute intervals throughout the experimental period. Soil water sensors were installed approximately 40 days after plant emergence.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSoil water was monitored using 72 capacitive sensors that function on the capacitance principle, the ability of a system to store an electrical charge. Structurally, the sensors consist of two conductive plates separated by an insulating material (dielectric), forming a capacitor whose capacitance varies with the dielectric permittivity of the soil, which depends primarily on water content.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAt physiological maturity, approximately 50 days after sensor installation, the following agronomic variables were evaluated: plant height (measured with a ruler from the soil surface to the apex of the main stem), stem diameter (measured at the base of the stem using a digital caliper), shoot dry weight (determined after drying the material in a forced-air oven at 65\u0026deg;C until constant weight), root length, root dry mass, number of siliques per plant, and grain yield per plant (with grain moisture corrected to 9%).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eData for canola yield components and soil water were subjected to regression analysis at a 5% significance level using SigmaPlot 11. Additionally, a Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was performed using the PAST Statistical Software (Hammer et al., 2001).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eSoil compaction levels significantly affected all yield components, including plant height, stem diameter, root dry mass, shoot dry weight, root length, number of siliques per plant, and grain yield per plant (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). All variables decreased linearly with increasing soil bulk density, demonstrating the sensitivity of canola to soil compaction (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAt the highest compaction level (1.5 Mg m⁻\u0026sup3;), grain yield was the most affected parameter, showing a reduction of approximately 76% compared to the non-compacted control (1.0 Mg m⁻\u0026sup3;). This was followed by reductions of 65% in both root dry mass and silique number, 58% in shoot dry weight, 46% in root length, and 29\u0026ndash;32% in plant height and stem diameter (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSoil compaction levels linearly increased soil water content at sensors 1 and 2 (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). Conversely, soil water content at sensor 3 decreased with increasing compaction (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, soil water content was higher across all treatments in year 2 (2024) compared to year 1 (2023).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Principal Component Analysis (PCA) revealed that the first two principal components explained 92.4% of the total data variance (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). PC1, which captured the major axis of variation, was primarily associated with plant height, stem diameter, shoot dry weight, and grain yield per plant. The biplot showed a clear segregation of treatments along PC1. Treatments with higher soil compaction clustered in the quadrants associated with higher soil water content in sensors 1 and 2, while treatments with lower compaction were separated in the quadrants characterized by canola yield components and higher soil water content in sensor 3.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFurthermore, the loadings plot showed strong positive contributions from all yield components on PC1, which were directly opposed by the negative loadings of soil water in the compacted zone (sensors 1 and 2). A positive association was observed between grains per silique and root length, which contrasted with the negative weighting of thousand-grain weight.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe decline in canola yield components resulted directly from the detrimental effects of soil compaction. Compaction negatively alters soil pore architecture by reducing macroporosity and total porosity, which in turn decreases soil oxygen availability (Valad\u0026atilde;o et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). This degraded physical environment increases soil strength, restricting root growth and impairing water dynamics and nutrient interactions within the soil, ultimately limiting their uptake by the plant (Sarto et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). The restricted water flow further compromises nutrient transport, which occurs primarily by mass flow for nutrients like nitrogen or by diffusion for phosphorus (Cabral et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, in compacted soil, the volume of soil explored by roots is severely limited, thereby reducing the accessible reservoir of nutrients essential for plant growth (Oliveira et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe restriction of canola shoot and root growth by increasing soil bulk density directly reflected in reduced grain mass per plant (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Although canola is generally considered a hardy winter crop with tolerance to frost and drought, these results demonstrate that its yield is severely constrained by soil compaction, revealing a significant vulnerability to this abiotic stress. This sensitivity to physical impedance aligns with findings in other species, where shoot and root growth reduction has been reported in Stylosanthes (1.0-1.83 Mg m⁻\u0026sup3;; Castagnara et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), millet (1.28\u0026ndash;1.74 Mg m⁻\u0026sup3;; Guimar\u0026atilde;es et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), cover crops (1.10\u0026ndash;1.90 Mg m⁻\u0026sup3;; Lima et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), safflower (1.10\u0026ndash;1.50 Mg m⁻\u0026sup3;; Montiel et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), and crambe (1.0-1.80 Mg m⁻\u0026sup3;; Oliveira et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe observed increase in soil water content at sensors 1 and 2 under higher compaction is a direct result of reduced macroporosity and a concomitant increase in microporosity. According to the principles of capillary rise, the maximum height of water ascent is inversely proportional to pore diameter (Huo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, the compaction-induced shift towards smaller pores enhanced the soil water retention capacity in the compacted layer, explaining the higher water content recorded.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eConversely, the decrease in water content at sensor 3 suggests a physical discontinuity in pore space between the compacted and non-compacted layers. This discontinuity would have impeded upward water movement through capillary flow and likely redirected it, thereby reducing water availability in the topsoil (Kuncoro et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Keller et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe higher soil water content in year 2 can be attributed to the hotter and drier conditions experienced in the first year. This enhanced water availability in the second year created a more favorable environment for crop development, which was reflected in the measured yield components.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe high explanatory power of the first two PCs (92.4%) confirms that the experiment was predominantly governed by the compaction-induced gradient. The clear segregation of treatments along PC1 reinforces the phenomenon of water trapping in the compacted zone, as visualized by the clustering of high-compaction treatments with soil water in sensors 1 and 2.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eConversely, the distinct separation of low-compaction treatments with yield components and soil water in sensor 3 delivers a conclusive insight: it demonstrates that successful canola establishment and yield are critically dependent on water accessibility in the non-compacted topsoil layer, while water stored in the compacted subsoil remains ineffective for sustaining plant growth.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe strong opposition between yield components and water in the compacted zone on PC1 provides quantitative multivariate evidence for the physical hydric stress mechanism. The specific pattern of loadings, where grains per silique and root length were positively associated but opposed to thousand-grain weight, suggests that under compaction stress, canola plants prioritize increasing grain number and soil exploration over investing in individual grain mass. This indicates that soil compaction triggers not only a general suppression of growth but also a complex reallocation of resources within the plant.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe insights gained here into plant resource reallocation are promising, yet their generalizability to field conditions warrants careful consideration. The controlled conditions of this study, while enabling the precise isolation of compaction effects, may not fully capture field complexity. Additionally, while the sensor network documented soil water dynamics in detail, the lack of direct physiological measurements limits characterization of the plant internal water status. Future field studies integrating plant physiological monitoring are therefore recommended to validate these findings.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIncreasing soil compaction levels altered the dynamics of soil water, directly impairing canola yield components. Growth and yield parameters decreased linearly with increasing soil density. This response was driven by a physical hydric stress mechanism, where compaction trapped water in the subsoil, making it unavailable for plant uptake, while simultaneously reducing water availability in the topsoil. The strong association between high compaction, trapped subsoil water, and low yield was unequivocally validated by the PCA. These findings emphasize that sustainable canola cultivation in no-till systems requires soil compaction management to ensure effective water availability.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConflict of interests\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis research was funded by Coordena\u0026ccedil;ao de Aperfei\u0026ccedil;oamento de Pessoal de N\u0026iacute;vel Superior\u0026mdash;Brasil (CAPES), which supported the research and scholarships to Doglas Bassegio (grant number PDPG 88887.924187/2023-00). Luiz A. Zan\u0026atilde;o Junior and Samuel N. M. Souza also appreciate the scholarship support given by National Council of Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contributions:\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eCaroline Beal Montiel: Writing\u0026ndash;review \u0026amp; editing, Writing\u0026ndash;original draft, Software, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation. Luiz Ant\u0026ocirc;nio Zan\u0026atilde;o J\u0026uacute;nior: Investigation, Data curation, Supervision, Project administration, writing\u0026ndash;review \u0026amp; editing, funding acquisition. Rogerio Luis Rizzi, Doglas Bassegio, Samuel Nelson Meleragari de Souza, Matheus Rodrigues Savioli, and Juliana de Souza Pinto: Writing\u0026ndash;review \u0026amp; editing, Writing\u0026ndash;original draft, Software.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAquino GS, Shahab M, Moraes LA, Moreira A (2023) Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria increased canola yield and root system. J Plant Nutr 46(7):1400\u0026ndash;1406. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1080/01904167.2022.2068441\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCabral CE, Bonfim-Silva EM, Bonelli EA, da Silva TJ, Cabral CH, Scaramuzza WL (2012) Compacta\u0026ccedil;\u0026atilde;o do solo e macronutrientes prim\u0026aacute;rios na Brachiaria brizantha cv. Piat\u0026atilde; e Panicum maximum cv. Momba\u0026ccedil;a. Revista Brasileira de Engenharia Agr\u0026iacute;cola e Ambiental 16:362\u0026ndash;367. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1590/S1415-43662012000400005\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCastagnara DD, Zoz T, Castro AMC, Zoz A, Oliveira PSRD (2013) Crescimento de Stylosanthes cv. Campo Grande em diferentes n\u0026iacute;veis de densidade de um Latossolo Vermelho. Revista Ci\u0026ecirc;ncia Agron\u0026ocirc;mica 44:260\u0026ndash;266. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1590/S1806-66902013000200007\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eConfortin TC, Todero I, Luft L, Ugalde GA, Mazutti MA, Oliveira ZB, Tres MV (2019) Oil yields, protein contents, and cost of manufacturing of oil obtained from different hybrids and sowing dates of canola. J Environ Chem Eng 7(2):102972. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2019.102972\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEmbrapa (2018) Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecu\u0026aacute;ria. Sistema Brasileiro de Classifica\u0026ccedil;\u0026atilde;o de Solos, 5 edn. Embrapa, Bras\u0026iacute;lia, DF\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFalkoski Filho J, Batista I, Rosolem CA (2013) Sensitivity of cotton cultivars to soil compaction. Semina: Ci\u0026ecirc;ncias Agr\u0026aacute;rias 1(34):3645\u0026ndash;3653. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.5433/1679-0359.2013v34n6Supl1p3645\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGuimar\u0026atilde;es CV, Assis RLD, Simon GA, Pires FR, Ferreira RL, Santos DCD (2013) Desempenho de cultivares e h\u0026iacute;bridos de milheto em solo submetido a compacta\u0026ccedil;\u0026atilde;o. Revista Brasileira de Engenharia Agr\u0026iacute;cola e Ambiental 17:1188\u0026ndash;1194. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1590/S1415-43662013001100009\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHammer \u0026Oslash;, Harper DA (2001) Past: paleontological statistics software package for educaton and data anlysis. Palaeontologia electronica 4(1):1 http://\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003epalaeo-electronica.org/2001_1/past/issue1_01.htm\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHuo W, Zhu Z, Peng Y, Pu S, Wan Y, Zhang C (2021) Experimental study on capillary water rise and influencing factors in silty soil. Arab J Geosci 14(24):2706\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-021-09097-6\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKeller T, Sandin M, Colombi T, Horn R, Or D (2019) Historical increase in agricultural machinery weights enhanced soil stress levels and adversely affected soil functioning. Soil Tillage Res 194:104293\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2019.104293\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKeller T, Colombi T, Ruiz S, Schymanski SJ, Weisskopf P, Koestel J, Or D (2021) Soil structure recovery following compaction: Short-term evolution of soil physical properties in a loamy soil. Soil Sci Soc Am J 85(4):1002\u0026ndash;1020. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1002/saj2.20240\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKuncoro PH, Koga K, Satta N, Muto Y (2014) A study on the effect of compaction on transport properties of soil gas and water I: Relative gas diffusivity, air permeability, and saturated hydraulic conductivity. Soil Tillage Res 143:172\u0026ndash;179. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2014.02.006\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLima LBD, Petter FA, Leandro WM (2015) Desempenho de plantas de cobertura sob n\u0026iacute;veis de compacta\u0026ccedil;\u0026atilde;o em Latossolo Vermelho de Cerrado. Revista Brasileira de Engenharia Agr\u0026iacute;cola e Ambiental 19(11):1064\u0026ndash;1071\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1590/1807-1929/agriambi.v19n11p1064-1071\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLu X, Zhang T, Ma Y, Han C, Yang W, Pu Y, Sun W (2025) Advances in Genetic Diversity of Germplasm Resources, Origin and Evolution of Turnip Rape (Brassica rapa L). Plants 14(15):2311. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3390/plants14152311\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMontiel CB, Secco D, Marins AC, Zanao LA, Deggerone JR, Bassegio D (2020) Root and shoot growth in safflower as affected by soil compaction. Aust J Crop Sci 14(9):1443\u0026ndash;1448. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.21475/ajcs.20.14.09.p2466\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOliveira CES, Zoz T, Castagnara DD, Zoz A, Mortinho ES, Fernandes GC, Faria GA (2023) Growth of crambe under different soil bulk densities and water restriction. Russ J Plant Physiol 70(4):63\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1134/S1021443722602592\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOliveira PDD, Sato MK, Lima HVD, Rodrigues S, Silva APD (2016) Critical limits of the degree of compactness and soil penetration resistance for the soybean crop in N Brazil. J Plant Nutr Soil Sci 179(1):78\u0026ndash;87. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1002/jpln.201400315\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRosolem CA, Foloni JSS, Tiritan CS (2002) Root growth and nutrient accumulation in cover crops as affected by soil compaction. Soil Tillage Res 65(1):109\u0026ndash;115. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-1987(01)00286-0\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRyken N, Nest V, Al-Barri T, Blake B, Taylor W, Bod\u0026eacute; A, Verdoodt S, A (2018) Soil erosion rates under different tillage practices in central Belgium: New perspectives from a combined approach of rainfall simulations and 7Be measurements. Soil Tillage Res 179:29\u0026ndash;37\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2018.01.010\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSarto MVM, Bassegio D, Rosolem CA, Sarto JRW (2018) Safflower root and shoot growth affected by soil compaction. Bragantia 77(2):348\u0026ndash;355\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1590/1678-4499.2017191\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSecco D, Bassegio D, de Marins AC, Chang P, Savioli MR, Castro MBS, Wendt EJ (2023) Short-term impacts of different intercropping times of maize and ruzigrass on soil physical properties in subtropical Brazil. Soil Tillage Res 234:105838. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2023.105838\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSilva FRD, Albuquerque JA, Costa AD (2014) Crescimento inicial da cultura da soja em Latossolo Bruno com diferentes graus de compacta\u0026ccedil;\u0026atilde;o. Revista Brasileira de Ci\u0026ecirc;ncia do Solo 38:1731\u0026ndash;1739. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-06832014000600008\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSilva LFLE, Gon\u0026ccedil;alves WM, Maluf WR, Resende LV, Sarmiento CM, Licursi V, Moretto P (2016) Energy balance of biodiesel production from canola. Ci\u0026ecirc;ncia Rural 47(2):20151084. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1590/0103-8478cr20151084\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSoil Survey Staff (2014) Keys to Soil Taxonomy, 12 edn. th ed. United States Department of Agriculture - Natural Resources Conservation Service, Washingthon, DC\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTomm GO (2006) Canola: alternativa de renda e benef\u0026iacute;cios para os cultivos seguintes. Revista Plantio Direto 15(94):4\u0026ndash;8\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eValad\u0026atilde;o FCDA, Weber OLDS, Valad\u0026atilde;o DD, Scapinelli A, Deina FR, Bianchini A (2015) Aduba\u0026ccedil;\u0026atilde;o fosfatada e compacta\u0026ccedil;\u0026atilde;o do solo: sistema radicular da soja e do milho e atributos f\u0026iacute;sicos do solo. Revista Brasileira de Ci\u0026ecirc;ncia do Solo 39(1):243\u0026ndash;255. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1590/01000683rbcs20150144\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZoz T, de Castro Seron C, da Silva Oliveira CE, Zanotto MD, Bono JAM, Aguiar EB, Witt TW (2021) Growth of dwarf castor hybrids at different soil bulk densities. Ind Crops Prod 159:113069. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2020.113069\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhang B, Jia Y, Fan H, Guo C, Fu J, Li S, Ma R (2024) Soil compaction due to agricultural machinery impact: A systematic review. Land Degrad Dev 35(10):3256\u0026ndash;3273. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.51443\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Brassica napus L., physical hydric stress, yield components, soil physical properties","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7887295/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7887295/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground and Aims\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSoil compaction may alter soil water dynamics, potentially limiting yield in oilseed crops such as canola (\u003cem\u003eBrassica napus\u003c/em\u003e L.). Although canola exhibits moderate drought tolerance, responses to soil compaction in this species have not been well documented.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study evaluated the effects of increasing soil compaction levels (1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, and 1.5 Mg m⁻\u0026sup3;) on canola yield components and spatial soil water distribution. The experiment employed PVC tubes under controlled conditions, with a compacted subsoil layer (10\u0026ndash;30 cm) overlain by non-compacted topsoil. Soil water was monitored using capacitive sensors.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSoil water sensors revealed that compaction increased water retention in the compacted zone, but this water remained unavailable to plants. Increasing soil density from 1.0 to 1.5 Mg m⁻\u0026sup3; reduced all yield components, with grain yield decreasing by approximately 76% and vegetative growth parameters declining by 45\u0026ndash;65%. Canola yield components improved only when water was accessible in the topsoil layer. Principal Component Analysis confirmed clear segregation, associating high compaction with trapped subsoil water and low compaction with better yield and topsoil water use.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusion\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese findings demonstrate that soil compaction induces physical hydric stress in canola by restricting water availability, rendering canola sensitive to compaction due to critical changes in soil water dynamics.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Soil compaction limits soil water dynamics and reduces canola yield components","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-11-06 10:51:09","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7887295/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"36c0e80a-2473-4718-9810-c360b062b7c0","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 6th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-11-17T16:12:03+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-11-06 10:51:09","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7887295","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7887295","identity":"rs-7887295","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}