Strike-Slip Pull-Apart Process of the Jiyang Depression during the Yanshanian Tectonic Cycle and Its Response to Paleo-Pacific Plate Movement

Strike-Slip Pull-Apart Process of the Jiyang Depression during the Yanshanian Tectonic Cycle and Its Response to Paleo-Pacific Plate Movement | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Strike-Slip Pull-Apart Process of the Jiyang Depression during the Yanshanian Tectonic Cycle and Its Response to Paleo-Pacific Plate Movement Zhongyu Wang, Shuping Chen, Rui Zhang, Zhihui Wang, Yemei Hu, and 2 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7934533/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 16 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The Yanshanian tectonic evolution of the Jiyang Depression was complex in Jurassic and Cretaceous, making it difficult to pin down the tectonic regime of that time. This study compared fault activity, lithology, and sedimentary-facies patterns across the depression using 3D seismic volumes, borehole data, and sedimentary facies data. This integrated dataset let us define the Yanshanian tectonic regime and subdivide the tectonic evolution together with the record of regional plate motions. In the Early Yanshanian Stage (J₁-₂), faults trended mainly NW and shew low activity. Sedimentation was dominated by stable continental deposits, including coal-bearing clastic rocks and dolomitic clastics. In the Mid Yanshanian Stage (J₃-K₁), NW-trending en echelon faults became more numerous and much more active, and braided-river to fan-delta systems developed in the depression. Volcanism was strong, producing tuffaceous clastics and volcanic rocks. In the Late Yanshanian Stage (K₂), compressional uplift removed the Upper Cretaceous by erosion. Taken together, these patterns point to a strike-slip pull-apart process along the pre-existing Tan-Lu Fault Zone. This process was driven by sinistral stress linked to the subduction of the Paleo-Pacific (Izanagi) Plate. In the Early Yanshanian Stage, low-angle subduction toward the NNW formed a small angle with the Tan–Lu Fault Zone, promoting left-lateral motion and the initial pull-apart basin. In the Mid Yanshanian Stage, subduction shifted to a high-angle NNW direction and sped up, which strengthened left-lateral slip on the Tan–Lu Fault, increased normal-faulting inside the depression, and triggered vigorous volcanism. In the Late Yanshanian Stage, subduction changed to a low-angle NWW direction, nearly perpendicular to the Tan–Lu Fault Zone trend, producing compression and uplift of the depression. Overall, the Yanshanian strike-slip pull-apart evolution in the Jiyang Depression shows a clear staged pattern. These two pull-apart stages partitioned the depositional environments and, as a result, controlled the type and richness of the source rocks. Earth and environmental sciences/Natural hazards Earth and environmental sciences/Solid earth sciences Jiyang Depression Tan-Lu Fault Zone Yanshanian Cycle Strike-Slip Pull-Apart Basin Plate Tectonic Regime Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13 1. Introduction The Bohai Bay Basin, in the eastern North China Craton, has been strongly modified by multiple tectonic phases [ 1 – 5 ] . Within it, the Jiyang Depression is both a major hydrocarbon province and one of the basin’s most structurally complex areas. Since the Phanerozoic, the basin evolved from a Paleozoic–Middle Triassic stable platform to a reactivated platform and rift stage that began in the Late Triassic. However, there is no consensus on the stress field during the Yanshanian tectonic cycle. Yanshanian tectonics in the Jiyang Depression are hard to resolve because of stratigraphic erosion and the limited quality of deep seismic data. Yet the tectonic movement during this period controlled the formation of Mesozoic source rocks, so clarifying its tectonic processes is important [ 6 , 7 ] . The basin nature of the Jiyang Depression during the Yanshanian Movement is key to understanding its Mesozoic evolution. Three competing views exist. One view treats it as an extensional basin [ 8 – 14 ] , linking its origin to deep processes such as mantle-derived magmatic underplating and regional extension from lithospheric thinning. A second view sees it as a strike-slip pull-apart basin [ 2 , 15 – 19 ] , arguing that major strike-slip faults controlled the basin and allowed escape and lateral stretching of crustal blocks. A third view proposes inversion under compression [ 20 , 21 ] , suggesting that a compressional stress field persisted through the Early–Middle Jurassic. These different readings of the basin nature lead to different estimates for when normal faulting began and, in turn, imply distinct paths of sedimentary evolution. Based on sedimentary-basin analysis, this study integrated high-resolution 3D seismic interpretation, borehole data, and facies analysis. Using quantitative fault-activity rates and physical analog experiments, we documented the geometry, kinematics, and dynamics of the Yanshanian normal-fault system in the Jiyang Depression and constrained the timing of its onset. Furthermore, This study reconstructs the Yanshanian tectonic evolution of the Jiyang Depression and examines the basin nature and driving forces linked to subduction of the Paleo-Pacific (Izanagi) Plate. This study provides new insights into the Yanshanian tectonic evolution, basin nature, and the assessment of new deep exploration plays. These insights supply an updated basis for reconstructing the Mesozoic tectonic framework of the Jiyang Depression and for guiding exploration of its deep petroleum systems. 2. Geological Setting The Jiyang Depression, in the southeastern Bohai Bay Basin, covers 2.6 × 10⁴ km² and is a typical hydrocarbon-rich depression in eastern China. Its sedimentary cover unconformably overlies Archean and Paleozoic basement. The depression is bounded by the Luxi Uplift to the south, the Chengning Uplift and Huanghua Depression to the north, the Tan–Lu Fault Zone to the east, and the Lan–Liao Fault Zone to the west (Figure. 1). The tectonic history of the Jiyang Depression includes several stages: Paleozoic platform development, Triassic thrusting and erosion; Jurassic–Early Paleogene rifting; and Late Paleogene to present post-rift subsidence [ 2 , 22 – 24 ] . The rift stage can be divided into Yanshanian and Himalayan substages. During the Yanshanian substage, NW-trending normal faults formed within the depression [ 12 , 25 – 28 ] . In the Himalayan substage, NEE-trending normal faults became dominant [ 6 , 9 ] . Stratigraphically, the basement is Archean crystalline rock overlain by a series of Phanerozoic sedimentary sequences, including the Cambrian–Ordovician depositional cycle, the Carboniferous–Permian paralic depositional cycle, the Mesozoic continental–volcanic depositional cycle, and the Cenozoic continental depositional cycle [ 29 ] (Figure. 2). Three major unconformities are recognized: between the Permian and Lower Jurassic, between the Middle and Upper Jurassic, and between the Lower Cretaceous and Paleogene [ 30 , 31 ] . These unconformities record multiple episodes of tectonic activity. Since the discovery of the Shengli Oilfield, more than five decades of exploration in the Jiyang Depression have delineated 3.3 × 10⁹ t of proven petroleum geological reserves. The main source rocks are lacustrine units of the Paleogene Shahejie Formation. Over the past decade, conventional resources at middle–shallow depths have become maturely explored, and new reserve additions now come mainly from deep targets and unconventional plays. In the Mesozoic, two source-rock intervals (the Santai and Mengyin Formations) are characterized by moderately high organic matter, Type II–III kerogen, and thermal maturity from mature to highly mature. Drilling has produced high industrial oil flows from Mesozoic reservoirs in areas such as Chengdao–Kendong and Yihezhuang, underscoring the strong deep hydrocarbon potential of the Jiyang Depression [ 23 , 32 ] . 3. Data and Methods This study follows sedimentary-basin analysis and uses seismic and well-log interpretation together with physical analog modeling. We evaluated three components: structural geometry, kinematics, and dynamics. 3.1 Geometric analysis Geometric interpretation is based on seismic data. The dataset includes 72.303 million traces, each with 6,000 samples, a 25 m trace spacing, and a maximum two-way travel time (TWT) of 5 s. Seismic horizons were tied to multiple deep wells. Guided by these ties, we interpreted faults and unconformities, and reconstructed fault systems in plan view. 3.2 Kinematic analysis Kinematic analysis involves the quantitative calculation of fault growth indices and fault activity rates [ 33 , 34 ] , supplemented by the identification of fault-marginal facies as sedimentary responses to fault activity. The main fault-margin facies are alluvial fans and nearshore subaqueous fans [ 35 ] . Alluvial fans are generally small and show chaotic or blank internal reflections with wedge-shaped external geometries on seismic profiles; reflection amplitude typically increases and continuity improves from the fan apex toward the distal fringe. Nearshore subaqueous fans are dominated by gravity-flow deposits and appear as hanging chaotic reflections, wedged chaotic reflections, or wedged progradational packages on seismic data. 3.3 Dynamic analysis Dynamic interpretation applies the Anderson faulting model to infer the stress state during faulting. We used the Riedel shear criterion to determine the sense of motion along strike-slip faults [ 36 – 38 ] . In parallel, physical analog experiments tested the development of strike-slip pull-apart structures. Finally, we integrated all results within a plate-tectonic framework to clarify the driving mechanisms of basin formation. 4. Mesozoic Structural Characteristics of the Jiyang Depression The Jiyang Depression developed NW-trending faults during the Mesozoic. Some NW-trending normal faults are negative inversions of Indosinian thrusts (Figure. 3a), whereas others are newly formed Yanshanian faults (Figure. 3b). 4.1 Indosinian negative-inversion faults Before the Indosinian orogeny, no major compressional deformation is recognized on the North China Platform. Where Paleozoic strata show pinch-outs or erosion along fault planes and the overlying section is unaffected, the thrusting is attributed to the Indosinian. The Jurassic–Paleozoic unconformity records this event [ 3 , 39 ] . A set of NW-trending faults—including Shaojia, Luoxi, Guxi, Chengbei, Yihezhuang, Chengnan, Shicun, Wanggu-1, and Wuhaozhuang (Figures. 4–7) are identified as Indosinian thrusts. Evidence includes eroded Paleozoic rocks in their hanging walls and angular unconformities. Although the Binxi fault did not evolve into a large thrust, imbricate thrusts in its hanging wall still indicate Indosinian shortening (Figure. 4). 3.2 Newly formed Yanshanian normal faults Seismic data show widespread NW-trending normal faults in the Yanshanian, which strongly controlled Jurassic–Cretaceous sedimentation. 3.2.1 Geometric characteristics On NE–SW seismic profiles (Figures. 4–6), Mesozoic strata in the hanging walls of faults such as Binxi (F 1 ), Shaojia (F 2 ), Luoxi (F 3 ), Guxi (F 4 ), Chengbei (F 5 ), Yihezhuang (F 6 ), Chengnan (F 7 ), Shicun (F 8 ), Wanggu-1 (F 9 ), and Chennan (F 10 ) are notably thicker. Jurassic–Cretaceous strata are truncated beneath the Cenozoic. Wedge-shaped chaotic reflections and marginal-facies sand bodies next to boundary faults point to fault-controlled deposition. In the northeastern depression, Jurassic–Cretaceous thickness varies due to two processes: syndepositional faulting and later fault modification. The Wuhaozhuang fault (F 13 ), with fault-margin facies in its hanging wall, reflects syndepositional normal faulting. In contrast, the Changdi (F 14 ), Gudong (F 15 ), and Kendong faults (F 16 ) lack margin facies but show truncated unconformities in their footwalls, implying that thickness differences mainly reflect later normal-fault modification (Figure. 7). In the western depression, normal faulting was weaker. The Baiqiao fault (F 11 ) was active mainly in the Mid-Yanshanian Stage (J₃–K₁), and its hanging wall contains relatively thin Mesozoic strata. The Chexi fault (F 12 ) shows no signs of Early Yanshanian Stage (J₁–₂) activity—Middle–Lower Jurassic thickness is similar across both walls—and displays clear normal-faulting only by the Mid-Yanshanian Stage (J₃–K₁) (Figure. 8). On a NW–SE profile across the Bamianhe (F18) and Wangjiagang (F17) structural belts and the Central Uplift Belt of the Dongying Sag (Figure. 9), large NE-trending faults (e.g., the central–western Chennan Fault) formed mainly in the Cenozoic under Himalayan tectonism. By contrast, strike-slip faults (e.g., Bamianhe, Wangjiagang) and stress-overlap zones (e.g., the Central Uplift Belt) were activated later, mostly during deposition of the Shahejie Formation. This documents a timing pattern of “NW-trending in the Mesozoic, NE-trending in the Cenozoic.” In sum, Mesozoic structures in the Jiyang Depression are dominated by NW-trending faults. Among them, Shaojia, Shicun, Yihezhuang, Luoxi, Wanggu-1, Chengnan, Guxi, Chennan, Chengbei, and Wuhaozhuang are negative-inversion faults, whereas Baiqiao, Chexi, and Binxi were newly formed. 3.2.2 Kinematic characteristics Fault-activity-rate analysis shows clear episodicity, allowing division into an Early Yanshanian Stage (J₁–₂) and a Mid-Yanshanian Stage (J₃–K₁) stage (Figure. 10). In the Early Yanshanian Stage (J₁–₂), only some NW-trending normal faults (e.g., Luoxi, Shicun) began to move. Activity rates were low overall, averaging 5.56 m/Ma; Shaojia was highest at 15.76 m/Ma (Figure. 10). Normal faulting was localized and weak, and the fault system was not yet integrated. Accordingly, Middle–Lower Jurassic strata are relatively thin and show parallel reflections on seismic data. In the Mid-Yanshanian Stage (J₃–K₁), most major faults became active. Average rates rose to 33.71 m/Ma, much higher than in the early stage; Chennan reached 83.13 m/Ma (Figure. 10). Widespread, strong normal faulting integrated the fault system. The Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous strata extensively onlap the Middle Jurassic in the Zhanhua Sag (Figure. 4), Chezhen Sag (Figure. 5), and Dongying Sag (Figure. 6). The sedimentary bodies thicken in a wedge shape, producing a seismic facies defined by wedge-shaped reflections whose terminations converge at the underlying unconformity. 5. Mesozoic Sedimentary Characteristics Affected by several tectonic events, the Triassic and Upper Cretaceous in the Jiyang Depression were widely eroded, leaving an incomplete record. The preserved section, upward in order, includes the Fangzi Formation (J₁f), Santai Formation (J₂s), Mengyin Formation (J₃m), and Xiwa Formation (K₁x). Marked differences in lithologic packages and facies between the Lower–Middle Jurassic (Fangzi and Santai) and the Upper Jurassic–Lower Cretaceous (Mengyin and Xiwa) reflect a staged response to Yanshanian strike-slip pull-apart activity. 5.1 Lithologic characteristics The Fangzi Formation (J₁f) is dominated by dark, coal-bearing clastics. The lower part consists of interbedded gray-black and gray-green sandstone and mudstone; the middle part contains coal seams; and the upper part grades into light-gray to purple sandstone and mudstone (Figure. 11). Coal seams point to humid lacustrine-swamp settings. Overall uniform lithology suggests low sedimentation rates [ 40 ] . The Santai Formation (J₂s) is characterized by gray-white to purple-red dolomitic clastics. The lower part contains conglomerate and pebbly sandstone, and the middle–upper parts are interbedded siltstone and mudstone (Figure. 11). Widespread dolomitic sandstone indicates a fluvial–alluvial-plain setting. Sediments are moderately sorted and essentially free of volcanic material, implying relatively weak tectonic activity at this time [ 21 , 41 , 42 ] . The Mengyin Formation (J₃m) contains interbedded, variegated pebbly sandstone and gray sandstone in the lower part, and interbedded gray-purple mudstone and sandstone in the upper part. Tuffaceous sandstone and tuffaceous conglomerate in the Wangu-2 well mark the onset of volcanic-explosive facies [ 21 , 41 , 42 ] (Figure. 11). The Xiwa Formation (K₁x) is dominated below by siliceous rocks, lamprophyre, tuff, and basalt, and above by mainly andesite, showing a clear increase in volcanic rocks (Figure. 11). Strong eruptions produced widespread explosive, effusive, and hypabyssal (shallow intrusive) facies, recording coupled magmatism and faulting [ 21 , 41 , 42 ] . 5.2 Sedimentary-facies characteristics During the Early–Middle Jurassic, the area was a continuous, stable continental setting that accumulated the Fangzi and Santai formations without large hiatuses. NW-trending faults controlled lacustrine-basin distribution. Alluvial fan–fluvial–delta systems developed on gentle slopes, and alluvial-fan facies dominated along steep slopes [ 21 , 41 , 43 , 44 ] . These facies point to relatively weak tectonic activity and slow subsidence, with a fault system that was not yet fully integrated. Lacustrine basins were few but individually large. No volcanic interbeds are present, indicating negligible volcanism (Figure. 11a, b). From the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous, the depositional system changed markedly as activity on major NW-trending faults increased, depositing the Mengyin and Xiwa formations. Braided river–fan delta systems formed within the depression, with fan-delta subfacies along fault-bounded steep slopes [ 42 ] . These facies indicate strong tectonic activity and rapid subsidence. The fault network became interconnected and cross-cutting, partitioning lakes into more numerous but smaller isolated basins (Figure. 11c, d). Mixed volcanic and clastic deposits further show a major rise in volcanic intensity during this time [ 44 – 46 ] . The increase in volcanism is spatially and temporally coupled with higher activity rates on the NW-trending faults. 6. Discussion 6.1 Basin nature during the Yanshanian Movement Jiyang Depression was situated between the Tan–Lu and Lan–Liao Fault Zones. Faults in the area were predominantly NW-striking and arranged en echelon, at 35°–55° to the Tan–Lu Fault Zone. The strike of the Tan–Lu Fault Zone defined the principal displacement zone, and the development of en echelon secondary faults was a response to the strike-slip pull-apart stress field. To test the formation mechanism of these normal faults, this study ran a physical analog experiment. A rigid base plate was overlain by an elastic rubber layer (26 cm wide, 30 cm long) to simulate a diffuse shear zone [ 47 ] . Based on preliminary trials, the cover material was 100-mesh quartz sand, 3 cm thick, with a dry sand: water volume ratio of 50:1 (Figure. 12a). Imposing a sinistral shear with a moving plate produced tensile fractures striking 35°–45° to the principal displacement zone, consistent with T-fractures in the Riedel model (Figure. 12b). The resulting fracture pattern matched the distribution of Yanshanian NW-trending normal faults, and together the analog experiment and the Riedel shear model showed that these NW-trending normal faults formed as products of sinistral strike-slip pull-apart within the basin. Accordingly, during the Yanshanian Movement, the Jiyang Depression exhibited the nature of a strike-slip pull-apart basin. 6.2 Characteristics and mechanism of strike-slip pull-apart evolution Jiyang Depression recorded a strike-slip pull-apart evolution that directly reflected changes in Paleo-Pacific (Izanagi) Plate subduction beneath Eurasia [ 27 , 48 – 50 ] . The system followed “one continuous process with two distinct phases,” expressed through linked geometric, kinematic, and dynamic signals. a. In the Early Yanshanian Stage (J₁-₂), the Paleo-Pacific Plate subducted NNW at a low-angle and slow rate (4.7 cm/yr). Because the subduction direction made a small angle with the Tan–Lu trend, the compressional component transmitted into the basin was minor; instead, subduction chiefly promoted sinistral slip along the Tan–Lu Fault Zone, initiating extension in the Jiyang Depression [ 12 , 25 , 48 , 49 , 51 ] (Figure. 13a). Geometrically, The NW-striking normal faults were arranged in parallel. They were limited in number and constituted the primary fault system. Kinematically, activity rates were low (avg. 5.56 m/Ma; max 15.76 m/Ma). Middle–Lower Jurassic strata show parallel reflections; sedimentation was dominated by stable lacustrine-swamp and fluvial facies with little to no volcanism (Figure. 4). b. In the Mid-Yanshanian Stage (J₃-K₁), the Pacific Plate shifted to rapid (~ 20.7 cm/yr), high-angle NNW-directed subduction [ 25 , 48 , 49 , 51 ] (Figure. 13b). With the sharp increase in subduction rate, the Lan–Liao Fault Zone became active. Under a regional stress field dominated by sinistral slip on the Tan–Lu Fault Zone, the two fault zones together drove an intense strike-slip pull-apart regime in the Jiyang Depression, marking the onset of the main phase of the Yanshanian Movement. Intense pull-apart promoted lithospheric thinning and strong magmatism; volcanic activity began in the Late Jurassic and peaked in the Early Cretaceous. Geometrically, pre-existing thrusts underwent negative inversion and many new NW-striking normal faults formed, increasing in number and length. Kinematically, Fault activity rates rose sharply (avg. 33.71 m/Ma; max 83.13 m/Ma). Depositional systems shifted to braided-river fan-delta facies with mixed volcaniclastic and sandy-conglomerate deposits, recording coupled rifting and volcanism. c. In the Late Yanshanian Stage (K₂), subduction rotated to NWW and shallowed toward a flat-slab geometry while slowing to ~ 13.1 cm/yr [ 25 , 48 , 49 , 51 ] (Hilde et al., 1977; Maruyama et al., 1997; Wang et al., 2018; Y. Liu et al., 2022) (Figure. 13c). Under a near E–W compressional field, magmatism and subsidence waned; the depression was uplifted and eroded, removing the Upper Cretaceous. 6.3 Tectonic control on hydrocarbon accumulation The Yanshanian strike-slip pull-apart evolution strongly influenced source-rock development and hydrocarbon potential by controlling depositional settings and volcanism. Stage-by-stage differences in tectonic activity are the key drivers of source-rock heterogeneity. In the initial stage (J₁–₂), under weak extension and slow subsidence, lacustrine-swamp and fluvial facies were widespread. The coal-bearing clastic series of the Fangzi Formation and the dolomitic clastics of the Santai Formation form an important source-rock suite. Dark mudstones and coal seams have high organic-matter abundance, but thermal maturity is generally low, limited by burial depth and the paleo-geothermal regime [ 52 , 53 ] . In the intensive stage (J₃–K₁), rising fault activity led to rapid rifting. On one hand, strong extension enlarged and deepened lakes, depositing dark mudstones in the middle–upper Mengyin Formation that provided new material for hydrocarbon generation [ 52 , 53 ] . On the other hand, large-scale volcanism supplied abundant volcaniclastic material for rapid burial and raised the geothermal gradient via added heat flow, accelerating organic-matter maturation and aiding hydrocarbon generation and migration. In sum, the Yanshanian “one process, two stages” strike-slip pull-apart evolution not only controlled the timing and distribution of the main Mesozoic source rocks in the Jiyang Depression, but—through associated volcanic-thermal events—also improved the conditions for hydrocarbon generation, laying the groundwork for the region’s complex accumulations. 7. Conclusions a. The Yanshanian normal-fault system in the Jiyang Depression was driven by strike-slip pull-apart deformation and evolved as a single, continuous process with two stages. Structurally, NW-trending normal faults are arranged en echelon, set ~35°–55° to the Tan–Lu strike-slip zone. During the Early Yanshanian Stage (J₁–₂), faulting was only beginning: faults were few and small, and activity rates were low. In the Mid-Yanshanian Stage (J₃–K₁), many pre-existing reverse faults underwent negative inversion, numerous new normal faults formed and lengthened, and activity rates rose sharply. b. Lithology and facies indicate that the initial pull-apart stage (J₁–₂) comprised stable lacustrine-swamp and fluvial deposits. These were dominated by coal-bearing clastics and dolomitic clastics, with little volcanic input. This pattern fits slow subsidence and shallow, low-energy waters. By contrast, during the intensive pull-apart stage (J₃–K₁), deposition shifted to braided-river and fan-delta systems. Rapid accumulation along steep fault margins produced mixed volcaniclastic and sandy conglomerate deposits. The appearance of tuffaceous sandstone, andesite, and other eruptive rocks indicates strong coupling between vigorous volcanism and rift subsidence. These contrasts in lithologic assemblages and facies record the staged strike-slip pull-apart evolution of the basin. c. The strike-slip pull-apart evolution is a direct response to subduction of the Paleo-Pacific Plate. In the Early Yanshanian Stage (J₁-₂), slow, low-angle NNW-directed subduction formed a small angle with the Tan–Lu Fault Zone, promoting sinistral motion along Tan–Lu and initiating extension in the depression. In the Mid-Yanshanian Stage (J₃-K₁), the Pacific Plate shifted to rapid, high-angle NNW-directed subduction, peaking sinistral slip along the Tan-Lu and Lan-Liao Fault Zones. This drove large-scale lithospheric extension, controlled the intensive pull-apart stage, and triggered widespread magmatism and volcanism. In the Late Yanshanian Stage (K₂), the Pacific Plate transitioned to low-angle NWW-directed subduction; under the resulting compressional field, the strike-slip pull-apart process came to an end. Declarations Data Availability All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this article. CRediT authorship contribution statement Zhongyu Wang : Conceptualization, Investigation, Data curation, Methodology, Mapping, Writing. Shuping Chen : Funding acquisition, Review & editing. Rui Zhang : Review & editing. Zhihui Wang : Mapping. Yemei Hu : Mapping. Xueyao Huang : Investigation. Yujie Zhou : Investigation. Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Funding This work was financially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 42172138), the Sinopec Shengli Oilfield Company (Grant No. 30200020-23-ZC0613-0002). References Su, J., Zhu, W., Lu, H., Xu, M., Yang, W., Zhang, Z., 2009. Geometry styles and quantification of inversion structures in the Jiyang depression, Bohai Bay Basin, eastern China. Marine and Petroleum Geology 26, 25–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2007.08.003 Wu, Z., Hou, X., Li, W., 2007. Mesozoic basin patterns and evolution in the eastern North China Block. 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12:51:26","extension":"png","order_by":28,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":1257636,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7934533/v1/e7016d799d5633ea87ba88d7.png"},{"id":96239481,"identity":"39d3f566-566e-4112-9b90-4298417decc2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-19 07:06:46","extension":"xml","order_by":29,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":126738,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"cf0202cd9d02424fa5cd0a575a5ca0811structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7934533/v1/9088b281ee298a26c6526fc0.xml"},{"id":95833103,"identity":"e4af39cb-1030-450b-be31-01a51a1ff8cc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-13 12:51:26","extension":"html","order_by":30,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":140864,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7934533/v1/627decd655fe3cff4f727f39.html"},{"id":95833066,"identity":"35b60ef7-56d0-417a-ac0a-8dd7ebfd746f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-13 12:51:25","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1921994,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(a) Location of the Tan-Lu Fault Zone and Bohai Bay Basin (BBB). (b) Simple structural map of the BBB during the Cenozoic, showing the major fault controlled uplifts, depressions, and sags. (c) Simple structural map of Jiyang depression during the Cenozoic, showing the major faults, uplifts and sags at the bottom of Member 1 of the Shahejie Formation(T\u003c/strong\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e).\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7934533/v1/447f380a4ee22bc77a131137.jpeg"},{"id":95833065,"identity":"e6266b3f-6f54-4c88-959b-307b7e865d7e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-13 12:51:25","extension":"jpeg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1070070,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStructure evolution process and generalized stratigraphy of the Jiyang Depression. \u003c/strong\u003eMbr = Member. The age of the base of each Formation or member in this study is adopted from.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7934533/v1/2ef65fe98d5fd5525cdd7414.jpeg"},{"id":95833069,"identity":"1b3d0f99-b09f-48fc-bcc7-a89168283a60","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-13 12:51:25","extension":"jpeg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":298114,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDistribution of Active Faults in the Jiyang Depression During the (a) Indosinian Periods, (b) Yanshanian Periods. \u003c/strong\u003eThe arrow/triangle/square on the fault line point towards the dip direction. The negative reversal fault developed along the Indosinian reverse fault.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7934533/v1/a8e662f11f546f42294fd902.jpeg"},{"id":96239432,"identity":"f18fa85d-92fa-4106-9964-3e0bd93db26a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-19 07:06:37","extension":"jpeg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1494068,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInterpreted seismic section profiles A-A′. \u003c/strong\u003eF\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e. Binxi Fault, F\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e. Shaojia Fault, F\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e. Luoxi Fault, F\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e. Guxi Fault, F\u003csub\u003e5\u003c/sub\u003e. Chengbei Fault. Location is Shown in \u003cstrong\u003eFigure.1c.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7934533/v1/689b2e7be4884e45bf356000.jpeg"},{"id":96239734,"identity":"a04a2ac6-51f1-4671-b09a-c8ea4b4d1fb6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-19 07:07:29","extension":"jpeg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1804901,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInterpreted seismic section profiles B-B′. \u003c/strong\u003eF\u003csub\u003e5\u003c/sub\u003e. Chengbei Fault, F\u003csub\u003e6\u003c/sub\u003e. Yihezhuang Fault, F\u003csub\u003e7\u003c/sub\u003e. Chengnan Fault. Location is Shown in \u003cstrong\u003eFigure.1c.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7934533/v1/ea97522f4f5b13b6e2f3f919.jpeg"},{"id":95833071,"identity":"edb203d7-a467-4e7f-9318-dac73188bae9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-13 12:51:25","extension":"jpeg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1369208,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInterpreted seismic section profiles C-C′. \u003c/strong\u003eF\u003csub\u003e8\u003c/sub\u003e. Shicun Fault, F\u003csub\u003e9\u003c/sub\u003e. Wanggu-1 Fault, F\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e. Chennan Fault. Location is Shown in \u003cstrong\u003eFigure.1c.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7934533/v1/11a0af5b13d837e370e67b1b.jpeg"},{"id":96239995,"identity":"f7f6c717-05a4-4891-8c33-d988e853a9cb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-19 07:08:07","extension":"jpeg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1756388,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInterpreted seismic section profiles D-D′, E-E′.\u003c/strong\u003e F\u003csub\u003e13\u003c/sub\u003e. Wuhaozhuang Fault, F\u003csub\u003e14\u003c/sub\u003e. Changdi Fault, F\u003csub\u003e15\u003c/sub\u003e. Gudong Fault, F\u003csub\u003e16\u003c/sub\u003e. Kendong Fault. Location is Shown in \u003cstrong\u003eFigure.1c.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage7.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7934533/v1/f31a85604c7354c6c17a30ac.jpeg"},{"id":96239342,"identity":"ccf9ae53-941c-4562-9611-b5e550e6ed19","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-19 07:06:15","extension":"jpeg","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2146535,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInterpreted seismic section profiles F-F′, G-G′.\u003c/strong\u003e F\u003csub\u003e11\u003c/sub\u003e. Baiqiao Fault, F\u003csub\u003e12\u003c/sub\u003e. Chexi Fault. Location is Shown in \u003cstrong\u003eFigure.1c.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage8.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7934533/v1/8bffa5465956e80f60fc026f.jpeg"},{"id":96239743,"identity":"ea416daf-26b2-4250-be72-7b71f108db83","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-19 07:07:32","extension":"jpeg","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2014113,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInterpreted seismic section profiles H-H′.\u003c/strong\u003e F\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e. Chennan Fault, F\u003csub\u003e17\u003c/sub\u003e. Wangjiagang Fault, F\u003csub\u003e18\u003c/sub\u003e. Bamianhe Fault. Location is Shown in \u003cstrong\u003eFigure.1c.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage9.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7934533/v1/ff9665a1d5c804b2e8bc7134.jpeg"},{"id":96241045,"identity":"5dce0a96-665c-4963-a251-7a1d03210714","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-19 07:09:55","extension":"jpeg","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":157670,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCalculated fault activity rates of major mesozoic faults.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage10.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7934533/v1/67a963a3e519e2479f7ae014.jpeg"},{"id":96239687,"identity":"b461acb5-6e83-4ed2-8812-7cf0dd96f785","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-19 07:07:21","extension":"jpeg","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":807586,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMap of sedimentary facies and well-tie sections in the Jiyang Depression: (a) Fangzi Fm, (b) Santai Fm, (c) Mengyin Fm, (d) Xiwa Fm.\u003c/strong\u003eThe well-tie profile uses purple to represent the Fangzi Fm, blue for the Santai Fm, green for the Mengyin Fm, and yellow for the Xiwa Fm.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage11.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7934533/v1/8f29f3b5cfe6d9d4f28a3dde.jpeg"},{"id":95833073,"identity":"ba757dee-ff8d-420f-9aa3-63e3d90f5547","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-13 12:51:25","extension":"jpeg","order_by":12,"title":"Figure 12","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":422385,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePhysical analog modeling experiment. (a) Initial state and (b) Application of sinistral strike-slip stress field.\u003c/strong\u003eFractures developed in the experiment closely resemble tensional fractures (T-fractures) in the Riedel shear model.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage12.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7934533/v1/d6660b845469a7d4f18723f6.jpeg"},{"id":95833083,"identity":"4fc55c65-e030-460b-be5b-0c966e97395e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-13 12:51:25","extension":"jpeg","order_by":13,"title":"Figure 13","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":375844,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePlate kinematics in east asia and the tectonic response of the jiyang depression during the (a) Early, (b) Mid, and (c) Late Yanshanian Stage. \u003c/strong\u003eThe 3D volumes colored in light and dark blue represent the subducting slabs, and the dashed line represents the initial position of the plate before subduction.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage13.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7934533/v1/11079d070a846013c3f7f338.jpeg"},{"id":96602756,"identity":"ca39c644-2a0e-4d64-ba74-d3c5944a69f1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-24 09:00:50","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":16950782,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7934533/v1/ddd73d2e-aaae-4a59-bf13-fa1c12cefa65.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Strike-Slip Pull-Apart Process of the Jiyang Depression during the Yanshanian Tectonic Cycle and Its Response to Paleo-Pacific Plate Movement","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe Bohai Bay Basin, in the eastern North China Craton, has been strongly modified by multiple tectonic phases \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR2 CR3 CR4\" citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. Within it, the Jiyang Depression is both a major hydrocarbon province and one of the basin\u0026rsquo;s most structurally complex areas. Since the Phanerozoic, the basin evolved from a Paleozoic\u0026ndash;Middle Triassic stable platform to a reactivated platform and rift stage that began in the Late Triassic. However, there is no consensus on the stress field during the Yanshanian tectonic cycle.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eYanshanian tectonics in the Jiyang Depression are hard to resolve because of stratigraphic erosion and the limited quality of deep seismic data. Yet the tectonic movement during this period controlled the formation of Mesozoic source rocks, so clarifying its tectonic processes is important \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. The basin nature of the Jiyang Depression during the Yanshanian Movement is key to understanding its Mesozoic evolution. Three competing views exist. One view treats it as an extensional basin \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR9 CR10 CR11 CR12 CR13\" citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e, linking its origin to deep processes such as mantle-derived magmatic underplating and regional extension from lithospheric thinning. A second view sees it as a strike-slip pull-apart basin \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR16 CR17 CR18\" citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e, arguing that major strike-slip faults controlled the basin and allowed escape and lateral stretching of crustal blocks. A third view proposes inversion under compression \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e, suggesting that a compressional stress field persisted through the Early\u0026ndash;Middle Jurassic. These different readings of the basin nature lead to different estimates for when normal faulting began and, in turn, imply distinct paths of sedimentary evolution.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBased on sedimentary-basin analysis, this study integrated high-resolution 3D seismic interpretation, borehole data, and facies analysis. Using quantitative fault-activity rates and physical analog experiments, we documented the geometry, kinematics, and dynamics of the Yanshanian normal-fault system in the Jiyang Depression and constrained the timing of its onset. Furthermore, This study reconstructs the Yanshanian tectonic evolution of the Jiyang Depression and examines the basin nature and driving forces linked to subduction of the Paleo-Pacific (Izanagi) Plate. This study provides new insights into the Yanshanian tectonic evolution, basin nature, and the assessment of new deep exploration plays. These insights supply an updated basis for reconstructing the Mesozoic tectonic framework of the Jiyang Depression and for guiding exploration of its deep petroleum systems.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Geological Setting","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe Jiyang Depression, in the southeastern Bohai Bay Basin, covers 2.6 \u0026times; 10⁴ km\u0026sup2; and is a typical hydrocarbon-rich depression in eastern China. Its sedimentary cover unconformably overlies Archean and Paleozoic basement. The depression is bounded by the Luxi Uplift to the south, the Chengning Uplift and Huanghua Depression to the north, the Tan\u0026ndash;Lu Fault Zone to the east, and the Lan\u0026ndash;Liao Fault Zone to the west (Figure. 1).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe tectonic history of the Jiyang Depression includes several stages: Paleozoic platform development, Triassic thrusting and erosion; Jurassic\u0026ndash;Early Paleogene rifting; and Late Paleogene to present post-rift subsidence \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR23\" citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. The rift stage can be divided into Yanshanian and Himalayan substages. During the Yanshanian substage, NW-trending normal faults formed within the depression \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR26 CR27\" citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. In the Himalayan substage, NEE-trending normal faults became dominant \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eStratigraphically, the basement is Archean crystalline rock overlain by a series of Phanerozoic sedimentary sequences, including the Cambrian\u0026ndash;Ordovician depositional cycle, the Carboniferous\u0026ndash;Permian paralic depositional cycle, the Mesozoic continental\u0026ndash;volcanic depositional cycle, and the Cenozoic continental depositional cycle \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e (Figure. 2). Three major unconformities are recognized: between the Permian and Lower Jurassic, between the Middle and Upper Jurassic, and between the Lower Cretaceous and Paleogene \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. These unconformities record multiple episodes of tectonic activity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSince the discovery of the Shengli Oilfield, more than five decades of exploration in the Jiyang Depression have delineated 3.3 \u0026times; 10⁹ t of proven petroleum geological reserves. The main source rocks are lacustrine units of the Paleogene Shahejie Formation. Over the past decade, conventional resources at middle\u0026ndash;shallow depths have become maturely explored, and new reserve additions now come mainly from deep targets and unconventional plays. In the Mesozoic, two source-rock intervals (the Santai and Mengyin Formations) are characterized by moderately high organic matter, Type II\u0026ndash;III kerogen, and thermal maturity from mature to highly mature. Drilling has produced high industrial oil flows from Mesozoic reservoirs in areas such as Chengdao\u0026ndash;Kendong and Yihezhuang, underscoring the strong deep hydrocarbon potential of the Jiyang Depression \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. Data and Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study follows sedimentary-basin analysis and uses seismic and well-log interpretation together with physical analog modeling. We evaluated three components: structural geometry, kinematics, and dynamics.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1 Geometric analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eGeometric interpretation is based on seismic data. The dataset includes 72.303\u0026nbsp;million traces, each with 6,000 samples, a 25 m trace spacing, and a maximum two-way travel time (TWT) of 5 s. Seismic horizons were tied to multiple deep wells. Guided by these ties, we interpreted faults and unconformities, and reconstructed fault systems in plan view.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2 Kinematic analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eKinematic analysis involves the quantitative calculation of fault growth indices and fault activity rates \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e, supplemented by the identification of fault-marginal facies as sedimentary responses to fault activity. The main fault-margin facies are alluvial fans and nearshore subaqueous fans \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. Alluvial fans are generally small and show chaotic or blank internal reflections with wedge-shaped external geometries on seismic profiles; reflection amplitude typically increases and continuity improves from the fan apex toward the distal fringe. Nearshore subaqueous fans are dominated by gravity-flow deposits and appear as hanging chaotic reflections, wedged chaotic reflections, or wedged progradational packages on seismic data.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3 Dynamic analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eDynamic interpretation applies the Anderson faulting model to infer the stress state during faulting. We used the Riedel shear criterion to determine the sense of motion along strike-slip faults \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR37\" citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. In parallel, physical analog experiments tested the development of strike-slip pull-apart structures. Finally, we integrated all results within a plate-tectonic framework to clarify the driving mechanisms of basin formation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Mesozoic Structural Characteristics of the Jiyang Depression","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe Jiyang Depression developed NW-trending faults during the Mesozoic. Some NW-trending normal faults are negative inversions of Indosinian thrusts (Figure. 3a), whereas others are newly formed Yanshanian faults (Figure. 3b).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.1 Indosinian negative-inversion faults\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eBefore the Indosinian orogeny, no major compressional deformation is recognized on the North China Platform. Where Paleozoic strata show pinch-outs or erosion along fault planes and the overlying section is unaffected, the thrusting is attributed to the Indosinian. The Jurassic\u0026ndash;Paleozoic unconformity records this event \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA set of NW-trending faults\u0026mdash;including Shaojia, Luoxi, Guxi, Chengbei, Yihezhuang, Chengnan, Shicun, Wanggu-1, and Wuhaozhuang (Figures. 4\u0026ndash;7) are identified as Indosinian thrusts. Evidence includes eroded Paleozoic rocks in their hanging walls and angular unconformities. Although the Binxi fault did not evolve into a large thrust, imbricate thrusts in its hanging wall still indicate Indosinian shortening (Figure. 4).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2 Newly formed Yanshanian normal faults\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSeismic data show widespread NW-trending normal faults in the Yanshanian, which strongly controlled Jurassic\u0026ndash;Cretaceous sedimentation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2.1 Geometric characteristics\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eOn NE\u0026ndash;SW seismic profiles (Figures. 4\u0026ndash;6), Mesozoic strata in the hanging walls of faults such as Binxi (F\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e), Shaojia (F\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e), Luoxi (F\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e), Guxi (F\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e), Chengbei (F\u003csub\u003e5\u003c/sub\u003e), Yihezhuang (F\u003csub\u003e6\u003c/sub\u003e), Chengnan (F\u003csub\u003e7\u003c/sub\u003e), Shicun (F\u003csub\u003e8\u003c/sub\u003e), Wanggu-1 (F\u003csub\u003e9\u003c/sub\u003e), and Chennan (F\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e) are notably thicker. Jurassic\u0026ndash;Cretaceous strata are truncated beneath the Cenozoic. Wedge-shaped chaotic reflections and marginal-facies sand bodies next to boundary faults point to fault-controlled deposition.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the northeastern depression, Jurassic\u0026ndash;Cretaceous thickness varies due to two processes: syndepositional faulting and later fault modification. The Wuhaozhuang fault (F\u003csub\u003e13\u003c/sub\u003e), with fault-margin facies in its hanging wall, reflects syndepositional normal faulting. In contrast, the Changdi (F\u003csub\u003e14\u003c/sub\u003e), Gudong (F\u003csub\u003e15\u003c/sub\u003e), and Kendong faults (F\u003csub\u003e16\u003c/sub\u003e) lack margin facies but show truncated unconformities in their footwalls, implying that thickness differences mainly reflect later normal-fault modification (Figure. 7). In the western depression, normal faulting was weaker. The Baiqiao fault (F\u003csub\u003e11\u003c/sub\u003e) was active mainly in the Mid-Yanshanian Stage (J₃\u0026ndash;K₁), and its hanging wall contains relatively thin Mesozoic strata. The Chexi fault (F\u003csub\u003e12\u003c/sub\u003e) shows no signs of Early Yanshanian Stage (J₁\u0026ndash;₂) activity\u0026mdash;Middle\u0026ndash;Lower Jurassic thickness is similar across both walls\u0026mdash;and displays clear normal-faulting only by the Mid-Yanshanian Stage (J₃\u0026ndash;K₁) (Figure. 8).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOn a NW\u0026ndash;SE profile across the Bamianhe (F18) and Wangjiagang (F17) structural belts and the Central Uplift Belt of the Dongying Sag (Figure. 9), large NE-trending faults (e.g., the central\u0026ndash;western Chennan Fault) formed mainly in the Cenozoic under Himalayan tectonism. By contrast, strike-slip faults (e.g., Bamianhe, Wangjiagang) and stress-overlap zones (e.g., the Central Uplift Belt) were activated later, mostly during deposition of the Shahejie Formation. This documents a timing pattern of \u0026ldquo;NW-trending in the Mesozoic, NE-trending in the Cenozoic.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn sum, Mesozoic structures in the Jiyang Depression are dominated by NW-trending faults. Among them, Shaojia, Shicun, Yihezhuang, Luoxi, Wanggu-1, Chengnan, Guxi, Chennan, Chengbei, and Wuhaozhuang are negative-inversion faults, whereas Baiqiao, Chexi, and Binxi were newly formed.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2.2 Kinematic characteristics\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFault-activity-rate analysis shows clear episodicity, allowing division into an Early Yanshanian Stage (J₁\u0026ndash;₂) and a Mid-Yanshanian Stage (J₃\u0026ndash;K₁) stage (Figure. 10).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the Early Yanshanian Stage (J₁\u0026ndash;₂), only some NW-trending normal faults (e.g., Luoxi, Shicun) began to move. Activity rates were low overall, averaging 5.56 m/Ma; Shaojia was highest at 15.76 m/Ma (Figure. 10). Normal faulting was localized and weak, and the fault system was not yet integrated. Accordingly, Middle\u0026ndash;Lower Jurassic strata are relatively thin and show parallel reflections on seismic data.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the Mid-Yanshanian Stage (J₃\u0026ndash;K₁), most major faults became active. Average rates rose to 33.71 m/Ma, much higher than in the early stage; Chennan reached 83.13 m/Ma (Figure. 10). Widespread, strong normal faulting integrated the fault system. The Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous strata extensively onlap the Middle Jurassic in the Zhanhua Sag (Figure. 4), Chezhen Sag (Figure. 5), and Dongying Sag (Figure. 6). The sedimentary bodies thicken in a wedge shape, producing a seismic facies defined by wedge-shaped reflections whose terminations converge at the underlying unconformity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5. Mesozoic Sedimentary Characteristics","content":"\u003cp\u003eAffected by several tectonic events, the Triassic and Upper Cretaceous in the Jiyang Depression were widely eroded, leaving an incomplete record. The preserved section, upward in order, includes the Fangzi Formation (J₁f), Santai Formation (J₂s), Mengyin Formation (J₃m), and Xiwa Formation (K₁x). Marked differences in lithologic packages and facies between the Lower\u0026ndash;Middle Jurassic (Fangzi and Santai) and the Upper Jurassic\u0026ndash;Lower Cretaceous (Mengyin and Xiwa) reflect a staged response to Yanshanian strike-slip pull-apart activity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.1 Lithologic characteristics\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Fangzi Formation (J₁f) is dominated by dark, coal-bearing clastics. The lower part consists of interbedded gray-black and gray-green sandstone and mudstone; the middle part contains coal seams; and the upper part grades into light-gray to purple sandstone and mudstone (Figure. 11). Coal seams point to humid lacustrine-swamp settings. Overall uniform lithology suggests low sedimentation rates \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Santai Formation (J₂s) is characterized by gray-white to purple-red dolomitic clastics. The lower part contains conglomerate and pebbly sandstone, and the middle\u0026ndash;upper parts are interbedded siltstone and mudstone (Figure. 11). Widespread dolomitic sandstone indicates a fluvial\u0026ndash;alluvial-plain setting. Sediments are moderately sorted and essentially free of volcanic material, implying relatively weak tectonic activity at this time \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Mengyin Formation (J₃m) contains interbedded, variegated pebbly sandstone and gray sandstone in the lower part, and interbedded gray-purple mudstone and sandstone in the upper part. Tuffaceous sandstone and tuffaceous conglomerate in the Wangu-2 well mark the onset of volcanic-explosive facies \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e (Figure. 11).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Xiwa Formation (K₁x) is dominated below by siliceous rocks, lamprophyre, tuff, and basalt, and above by mainly andesite, showing a clear increase in volcanic rocks (Figure. 11). Strong eruptions produced widespread explosive, effusive, and hypabyssal (shallow intrusive) facies, recording coupled magmatism and faulting \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.2 Sedimentary-facies characteristics\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eDuring the Early\u0026ndash;Middle Jurassic, the area was a continuous, stable continental setting that accumulated the Fangzi and Santai formations without large hiatuses. NW-trending faults controlled lacustrine-basin distribution. Alluvial fan\u0026ndash;fluvial\u0026ndash;delta systems developed on gentle slopes, and alluvial-fan facies dominated along steep slopes \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. These facies point to relatively weak tectonic activity and slow subsidence, with a fault system that was not yet fully integrated. Lacustrine basins were few but individually large. No volcanic interbeds are present, indicating negligible volcanism (Figure. 11a, b).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFrom the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous, the depositional system changed markedly as activity on major NW-trending faults increased, depositing the Mengyin and Xiwa formations. Braided river\u0026ndash;fan delta systems formed within the depression, with fan-delta subfacies along fault-bounded steep slopes \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. These facies indicate strong tectonic activity and rapid subsidence. The fault network became interconnected and cross-cutting, partitioning lakes into more numerous but smaller isolated basins (Figure. 11c, d). Mixed volcanic and clastic deposits further show a major rise in volcanic intensity during this time \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR45\" citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. The increase in volcanism is spatially and temporally coupled with higher activity rates on the NW-trending faults.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"6. Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e6.1 Basin nature during the Yanshanian Movement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eJiyang Depression was situated between the Tan\u0026ndash;Lu and Lan\u0026ndash;Liao Fault Zones. Faults in the area were predominantly NW-striking and arranged en echelon, at 35\u0026deg;\u0026ndash;55\u0026deg; to the Tan\u0026ndash;Lu Fault Zone. The strike of the Tan\u0026ndash;Lu Fault Zone defined the principal displacement zone, and the development of en echelon secondary faults was a response to the strike-slip pull-apart stress field.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo test the formation mechanism of these normal faults, this study ran a physical analog experiment. A rigid base plate was overlain by an elastic rubber layer (26 cm wide, 30 cm long) to simulate a diffuse shear zone \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. Based on preliminary trials, the cover material was 100-mesh quartz sand, 3 cm thick, with a dry sand: water volume ratio of 50:1 (Figure. 12a). Imposing a sinistral shear with a moving plate produced tensile fractures striking 35\u0026deg;\u0026ndash;45\u0026deg; to the principal displacement zone, consistent with T-fractures in the Riedel model (Figure. 12b).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe resulting fracture pattern matched the distribution of Yanshanian NW-trending normal faults, and together the analog experiment and the Riedel shear model showed that these NW-trending normal faults formed as products of sinistral strike-slip pull-apart within the basin. Accordingly, during the Yanshanian Movement, the Jiyang Depression exhibited the nature of a strike-slip pull-apart basin.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e6.2 Characteristics and mechanism of strike-slip pull-apart evolution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eJiyang Depression recorded a strike-slip pull-apart evolution that directly reflected changes in Paleo-Pacific (Izanagi) Plate subduction beneath Eurasia \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR49\" citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. The system followed \u0026ldquo;one continuous process with two distinct phases,\u0026rdquo; expressed through linked geometric, kinematic, and dynamic signals.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ea. In the Early Yanshanian Stage (J₁-₂), the Paleo-Pacific Plate subducted NNW at a low-angle and slow rate (4.7 cm/yr). Because the subduction direction made a small angle with the Tan\u0026ndash;Lu trend, the compressional component transmitted into the basin was minor; instead, subduction chiefly promoted sinistral slip along the Tan\u0026ndash;Lu Fault Zone, initiating extension in the Jiyang Depression \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e (Figure. 13a).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGeometrically, The NW-striking normal faults were arranged in parallel. They were limited in number and constituted the primary fault system. Kinematically, activity rates were low (avg. 5.56 m/Ma; max 15.76 m/Ma). Middle\u0026ndash;Lower Jurassic strata show parallel reflections; sedimentation was dominated by stable lacustrine-swamp and fluvial facies with little to no volcanism (Figure. 4).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eb. In the Mid-Yanshanian Stage (J₃-K₁), the Pacific Plate shifted to rapid (~\u0026thinsp;20.7 cm/yr), high-angle NNW-directed subduction \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e (Figure. 13b). With the sharp increase in subduction rate, the Lan\u0026ndash;Liao Fault Zone became active. Under a regional stress field dominated by sinistral slip on the Tan\u0026ndash;Lu Fault Zone, the two fault zones together drove an intense strike-slip pull-apart regime in the Jiyang Depression, marking the onset of the main phase of the Yanshanian Movement. Intense pull-apart promoted lithospheric thinning and strong magmatism; volcanic activity began in the Late Jurassic and peaked in the Early Cretaceous.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGeometrically, pre-existing thrusts underwent negative inversion and many new NW-striking normal faults formed, increasing in number and length. Kinematically, Fault activity rates rose sharply (avg. 33.71 m/Ma; max 83.13 m/Ma). Depositional systems shifted to braided-river fan-delta facies with mixed volcaniclastic and sandy-conglomerate deposits, recording coupled rifting and volcanism.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ec. In the Late Yanshanian Stage (K₂), subduction rotated to NWW and shallowed toward a flat-slab geometry while slowing to ~\u0026thinsp;13.1 cm/yr \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e (Hilde et al., 1977; Maruyama et al., 1997; Wang et al., 2018; Y. Liu et al., 2022) (Figure. 13c). Under a near E\u0026ndash;W compressional field, magmatism and subsidence waned; the depression was uplifted and eroded, removing the Upper Cretaceous.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e6.3 Tectonic control on hydrocarbon accumulation\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Yanshanian strike-slip pull-apart evolution strongly influenced source-rock development and hydrocarbon potential by controlling depositional settings and volcanism. Stage-by-stage differences in tectonic activity are the key drivers of source-rock heterogeneity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the initial stage (J₁\u0026ndash;₂), under weak extension and slow subsidence, lacustrine-swamp and fluvial facies were widespread. The coal-bearing clastic series of the Fangzi Formation and the dolomitic clastics of the Santai Formation form an important source-rock suite. Dark mudstones and coal seams have high organic-matter abundance, but thermal maturity is generally low, limited by burial depth and the paleo-geothermal regime \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the intensive stage (J₃\u0026ndash;K₁), rising fault activity led to rapid rifting. On one hand, strong extension enlarged and deepened lakes, depositing dark mudstones in the middle\u0026ndash;upper Mengyin Formation that provided new material for hydrocarbon generation \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. On the other hand, large-scale volcanism supplied abundant volcaniclastic material for rapid burial and raised the geothermal gradient via added heat flow, accelerating organic-matter maturation and aiding hydrocarbon generation and migration.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn sum, the Yanshanian \u0026ldquo;one process, two stages\u0026rdquo; strike-slip pull-apart evolution not only controlled the timing and distribution of the main Mesozoic source rocks in the Jiyang Depression, but\u0026mdash;through associated volcanic-thermal events\u0026mdash;also improved the conditions for hydrocarbon generation, laying the groundwork for the region\u0026rsquo;s complex accumulations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"7. Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003ea. The Yanshanian normal-fault system in the Jiyang Depression was driven by strike-slip pull-apart deformation and evolved as a single, continuous process with two stages. Structurally, NW-trending normal faults are arranged en echelon, set ~35\u0026deg;\u0026ndash;55\u0026deg; to the Tan\u0026ndash;Lu strike-slip zone. During the Early Yanshanian Stage (J₁\u0026ndash;₂), faulting was only beginning: faults were few and small, and activity rates were low. In the Mid-Yanshanian Stage (J₃\u0026ndash;K₁), many pre-existing reverse faults underwent negative inversion, numerous new normal faults formed and lengthened, and activity rates rose sharply.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eb. Lithology and facies indicate that the initial pull-apart stage (J₁\u0026ndash;₂) comprised stable lacustrine-swamp and fluvial deposits. These were dominated by coal-bearing clastics and dolomitic clastics, with little volcanic input. This pattern fits slow subsidence and shallow, low-energy waters. By contrast, during the intensive pull-apart stage (J₃\u0026ndash;K₁), deposition shifted to braided-river and fan-delta systems. Rapid accumulation along steep fault margins produced mixed volcaniclastic and sandy conglomerate deposits. The appearance of tuffaceous sandstone, andesite, and other eruptive rocks indicates strong coupling between vigorous volcanism and rift subsidence. These contrasts in lithologic assemblages and facies record the staged strike-slip pull-apart evolution of the basin.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ec. The strike-slip pull-apart evolution is a direct response to subduction of the Paleo-Pacific Plate. In the Early Yanshanian Stage (J₁-₂), slow, low-angle NNW-directed subduction formed a small angle with the Tan\u0026ndash;Lu Fault Zone, promoting sinistral motion along Tan\u0026ndash;Lu and initiating extension in the depression. In the Mid-Yanshanian Stage (J₃-K₁), the Pacific Plate shifted to rapid, high-angle NNW-directed subduction, peaking sinistral slip along the Tan-Lu and Lan-Liao Fault Zones. This drove large-scale lithospheric extension, controlled the intensive pull-apart stage, and triggered widespread magmatism and volcanism. In the Late Yanshanian Stage (K₂), the Pacific Plate transitioned to low-angle NWW-directed subduction; under the resulting compressional field, the strike-slip pull-apart process came to an end.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCRediT authorship contribution statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZhongyu Wang\u003c/strong\u003e: Conceptualization, Investigation, Data curation, Methodology, Mapping, Writing. \u003cstrong\u003eShuping Chen\u003c/strong\u003e: Funding acquisition, Review \u0026amp; editing. \u003cstrong\u003eRui Zhang\u003c/strong\u003e: Review \u0026amp; editing. \u003cstrong\u003eZhihui Wang\u003c/strong\u003e: Mapping. \u003cstrong\u003eYemei Hu\u003c/strong\u003e: Mapping. \u003cstrong\u003eXueyao Huang\u003c/strong\u003e: Investigation. \u003cstrong\u003eYujie Zhou\u003c/strong\u003e: Investigation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclaration of Competing Interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis work was financially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 42172138), the Sinopec Shengli Oilfield Company (Grant No. 30200020-23-ZC0613-0002).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSu, J., Zhu, W., Lu, H., Xu, M., Yang, W., Zhang, Z., 2009. 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Natural Gas Industry 30, 24\u0026ndash;28, 139.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Jiyang Depression, Tan-Lu Fault Zone, Yanshanian Cycle, Strike-Slip Pull-Apart Basin, Plate Tectonic Regime","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7934533/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7934533/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe Yanshanian tectonic evolution of the Jiyang Depression was complex in Jurassic and Cretaceous, making it difficult to pin down the tectonic regime of that time. This study compared fault activity, lithology, and sedimentary-facies patterns across the depression using 3D seismic volumes, borehole data, and sedimentary facies data. This integrated dataset let us define the Yanshanian tectonic regime and subdivide the tectonic evolution together with the record of regional plate motions. In the Early Yanshanian Stage (J₁-₂), faults trended mainly NW and shew low activity. Sedimentation was dominated by stable continental deposits, including coal-bearing clastic rocks and dolomitic clastics. In the Mid Yanshanian Stage (J₃-K₁), NW-trending en echelon faults became more numerous and much more active, and braided-river to fan-delta systems developed in the depression. Volcanism was strong, producing tuffaceous clastics and volcanic rocks. In the Late Yanshanian Stage (K₂), compressional uplift removed the Upper Cretaceous by erosion. Taken together, these patterns point to a strike-slip pull-apart process along the pre-existing Tan-Lu Fault Zone. This process was driven by sinistral stress linked to the subduction of the Paleo-Pacific (Izanagi) Plate. In the Early Yanshanian Stage, low-angle subduction toward the NNW formed a small angle with the Tan\u0026ndash;Lu Fault Zone, promoting left-lateral motion and the initial pull-apart basin. In the Mid Yanshanian Stage, subduction shifted to a high-angle NNW direction and sped up, which strengthened left-lateral slip on the Tan\u0026ndash;Lu Fault, increased normal-faulting inside the depression, and triggered vigorous volcanism. In the Late Yanshanian Stage, subduction changed to a low-angle NWW direction, nearly perpendicular to the Tan\u0026ndash;Lu Fault Zone trend, producing compression and uplift of the depression. Overall, the Yanshanian strike-slip pull-apart evolution in the Jiyang Depression shows a clear staged pattern. These two pull-apart stages partitioned the depositional environments and, as a result, controlled the type and richness of the source rocks.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Strike-Slip Pull-Apart Process of the Jiyang Depression during the Yanshanian Tectonic Cycle and Its Response to Paleo-Pacific Plate Movement","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-11-13 12:51:20","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7934533/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-04-13T19:27:39+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-04-07T15:03:07+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-03-16T18:01:17+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"11692867014000901979992194387445247065","date":"2026-03-09T14:31:47+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"73725433895775361742476429227197070301","date":"2026-03-08T19:40:06+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-03-05T22:09:21+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"163104809899084423810337247991635875861","date":"2026-02-14T13:20:41+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"305287144054495738011399030193864203345","date":"2026-02-11T14:29:24+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"11692867014000901979992194387445247065","date":"2025-11-04T13:55:31+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"127522062536511812226298090808171848549","date":"2025-11-02T16:49:50+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"73725433895775361742476429227197070301","date":"2025-11-02T15:46:06+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"182269395148657559092327899484489183797","date":"2025-10-31T21:56:15+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-10-31T14:41:18+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-10-29T06:11:25+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-10-29T01:38:21+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Scientific Reports","date":"2025-10-29T01:34:47+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"16e5bd33-8ce3-4e13-a32d-eedd9c875e14","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 13th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[{"id":57739379,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Natural hazards"},{"id":57739380,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Solid earth sciences"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-18T23:53:47+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-11-13 12:51:20","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7934533","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7934533","identity":"rs-7934533","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}