Sustainable Energy from Waste: Experimental Investigation and Optimization of Hybrid Biomass Briquette Production Using a Modified Briquetting Machine

Sustainable Energy from Waste: Experimental Investigation and Optimization of Hybrid Biomass Briquette Production Using a Modified Briquetting Machine | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Sustainable Energy from Waste: Experimental Investigation and Optimization of Hybrid Biomass Briquette Production Using a Modified Briquetting Machine IZU GODSTIME This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7909513/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study investigates the quality performance of hybrid biomass briquettes produced from water hyacinth, sawdust, and rice husk at varying blend ratios using a modified briquetting machine. Fourteen experimental runs were conducted to evaluate the effects of compositional variations on density, shatter index, combustion efficiency, average briquette quality, and desirability. The mixture proportions of water hyacinth (A), sawdust (B), and rice husk (C) ranged between 0.3–0.5kg, 0.2–0.4kg, and 0.1–0.3kg, respectively, ensuring a total blend of 1kg, an equivalence of 100%. The briquette density varied between 0.82 and 0.93 g/cm³, with the highest value (0.93 g/cm³) obtained at the optimal blend ratio 0.5:0.4:0.1 (Run 11), which also demonstrated the best overall performance. The shatter index ranged from 83.1% to 90.2%, while combustion efficiency varied from 75.3% to 85.4%, indicating that higher proportions of water hyacinth and sawdust enhanced both mechanical strength and combustion behavior. The average briquette quality ranged from 36.87% to 43.00%, with the maximum (43.00%) recorded at Run 11, corresponding to the optimal blend ratio of 0.5:0.4:0.1. Similarly, desirability, a composite indicator of performance, ranged from 0.000 to 1.000, with the highest value (1.000) achieved at the same optimal condition. Overall, the results indicate that the optimal briquette formulation for high-quality performance was achieved at 0.5-part water hyacinth, 0.4-part sawdust, and 0.1-part rice husk, yielding superior density (0.93 g/cm³), high shatter resistance (90.1%), efficient combustion (85.4%), and maximum desirability (1.000). This demonstrates the potential of hybrid biomass combinations to produce efficient, sustainable, and durable briquettes suitable for both domestic and industrial energy applications. Statistical analysis further confirmed the model’s reliability and predictive accuracy. The model yielded a mean briquette quality of 43% with a standard deviation of 0.3086, indicating low variability and high consistency in experimental responses. The coefficient of determination (R² = 0.9562) and adjusted R² = 0.9289 show that over 95% of the variability in briquette quality was explained by the model. Additionally, the predicted R² (0.7560) closely aligns with the adjusted R², confirming good model predictability. The adequate precision value (15.3350) far exceeded the threshold of 4.0, indicating a strong signal-to-noise ratio, while the coefficient of variation (C.V.) of 0.7521% confirms high precision and reproducibility of results. The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) further validated the statistical robustness of the model, showing it was highly significant (F = 34.97, p < 0.0001). The model sum of squares (16.65) accounted for most of the total variation (Cor. total = 17.41), confirming a strong model fit. Among the model terms, the linear mixture component (p = 0.0013) and binary interactions AB (p = 0.0003), AC (p < 0.0001), and BC (p = 0.0050) were all significant, with the AC interaction exerting the greatest influence (F = 129.16). The residual error (0.7618) was minimal, and the lack of fit (F = 0.1236, p = 0.7355) was not significant, confirming that the model adequately represents the experimental data. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that the developed model is statistically sound, reliable, and suitable for predicting and optimizing hybrid biomass briquette quality, providing a strong basis for sustainable bioenergy production. Mechanical Engineering Briquette feedstock mix-ratio optimal blend briquetting machine water hyacinth Biomass briquette Sawdust Rice husk Density Combustion efficiency Desirability Optimization Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 1. Introduction From time immemorial, man had always relied on energy for survival. Thus, energy is life because the great cycle of life depends on energy. Industrialization and rapid population growth has driven a parallel increase in global energy demand and waste generation. Continued reliance on fossil fuels raises concerns about greenhouse gas emissions, air pollution, and resource depletion, motivating the search for sustainable, low-emission energy alternatives. Biomass derived from agricultural and municipal waste represents a widely available, renewable resource that can address both energy and solid-waste management challenges when converted to densified fuels such as briquettes [ 1 ], [ 2 ]. Briquetting describes the densification of loose biomass into compact blocks for the purpose of improving the fuel value, handling, transport, energy, density, and combustion performance. Different briquetting technologies have been developed over the years. They include the piston or ram presses, screw presses, and punching machines. Briquette quality such as density, mechanical strength, combustion rating, calorific value and ash content can be affected by compaction pressure, die geometry, feedstock particle size, and moisture. Thus, a well-designed machine modification and process optimization can improve product consistency and quality [ 3 ]. Hybrid biomass briquettes describe the production of briquettes by blending two or more wastes. Combining two or more biomasses of the desired characteristics in proper blend ratio can ultimately improve the quality of briquettes. Aquatic plants such as water hyacinth with a botanical nomenclature (scientific name) Eichhornia crassipes are of particular interest because they are relatively abundant in freshwater bodies. Converting them into briquettes both provides energy and helps control invasive biomass. Studies have reported that carbonized water hyacinth can be blended directly with other biomass to produce briquettes for household and small-scale industrial use [ 4 ], [ 5 ]. To identify optimal feedstock blend ratios including process settings, statistical experimental designs and output, response surface methodology (RSM) can be used. Response surface methodology (RSM) combines design techniques such as central composite and mixture with ANOVA to quantify interactions effects and identifies parameters that maximize briquette quality such as calorific value and compressive strength and parameters that minimize undesired properties such as ash and moisture content. Recent experimental investigations applying RSM to briquetting show robust optimization results and provide a reproducible framework for process scale-up [ 6 ], [ 7 ]. In this study, a modified briquetting machine is used to produce hybrid biomass briquettes derived from locally available wastes. 1.2. Research aims and objectives To evaluate the effects of feedstock blend ratio, moisture content, particle size, and binder proportion on physical, thermal, and mechanical properties of briquettes. To use RSM to optimize process variables for improved calorific value, density, and compressive strength. To assess the potential of hybrid briquettes as a sustainable fuel alternative. 2. Literature review Briquetting is the process of converting biomass residues such as paper, sawdust, rice husk, plant leaves, and other organic wastes into solid fuels suitable for domestic and industrial applications. The machine that performs this transformation is known as a briquetting machine. Instead of posing environmental threats, the abundant biomass waste generated in many regions can be utilized as renewable energy sources. In line with this concept, [ 8 ] developed a screw-type briquetting machine to produce briquettes using water hyacinth and wastepaper with cornstarch as binding agent. The study reported that the briquettes produced were efficient and suitable for household use. According to [ 9 ], briquetting is a process of compressing agro-residues and sawdust materials with low bulk density into solid fuels. The study delved into the assessment of integrated briquetting plant and reported that energy generation from biomass residues is economically feasible and environmentally sustainable. The integrated system converted dust particles into valuable energy products for both domestic and industrial purposes. A similar work involved the design and fabrication of a leaf log maker machine aimed at addressing the issue of deforestation resulting from excessive firewood use. The machine could compress dry leaves into compact logs that are useable as fuel. It could also process paper and wood waste. The system was designed to be compact, user-friendly, and environmentally sustainable, thus providing an affordable solution for waste-to-energy conversion [ 10 ]. The quest for alternative energy encouraged [ 11 ] to design a low-cost, portable briquetting machine for production of biomass briquettes from sawdust and dry leaves. Coffee husk and wheat flour served as binding agents. This research emphasized environmental sustainability. Recently, [ 12 ] designed and constructed a commercial biomass briquetting machine suitable for rural communities, using sawdust as the feedstock and starch as the binder. The research reported that the physical and combustion characteristics of briquettes were strongly influenced by the type and concentration of the binder (binding material). The researchers further noted that although briquetting technology is still emerging in most African countries, it has achieved significant development in Europe and America. They identified key factors influencing the adoption of briquetting technology as residue availability, technological accessibility, and market demand for briquettes. According to [ 13 ] many developing countries generate large volumes of agricultural waste daily, which are typically disposed of through open-air burning, causing serious environmental pollution. The study explored the use of agricultural residues such as rice husk, coffee husk, sawdust, groundnut shell, and cotton stalks for briquette production. Various technologies were employed to compact these materials at high temperature and pressure. The study highlighted the advantages of biomass briquetting and analyzed the key factors influencing briquette quality, including a comparative analysis of biomass and coal briquettes. In research, [ 14 ] provided a comprehensive theoretical review of biomass briquetting, emphasizing the challenges associated with conventional energy supply and the potential of biomass as a renewable energy source. The study outlined the advantages of briquetting, including environmental benefits and energy decentralization, and identified parameters such as moisture content and temperature as critical to briquette quality. The author concluded that biomass briquetting represents a viable pathway towards sustainable energy utilization. In another study, [ 15 ] designed and fabricated a hydraulically operated briquetting machine capable of producing briquettes from agricultural wastes such as rice husk, sawdust, and sugarcane. The machine consisted of a frame, hydraulic jack, piston, and cylinder that served as the compaction chamber. Experimental results revealed that binder concentrations of 15% and 25% yielded briquettes with optimal strength and combustion characteristics suitable for both domestic and industrial use. The diversity of biomass materials implies that different feedstocks require distinct briquetting approaches. Consequently, the design of a briquetting machine largely depends on the type of material to be processed. In many African nations, particularly Nigeria, rapid population growth has exerted significant pressure on conventional fuel supply, leading to an increased reliance on firewood for domestic energy needs. This practice has accelerated deforestation, which in turn contributes to soil erosion and ecological imbalance. To mitigate this challenge [ 16 ] designed a briquetting machine that utilized grass as the primary raw material. The machine’s operation involved three stages including pulverization, compaction, and extrusion. The purpose of the study was to reduce domestic firewood use and mitigate deforestation through the development of an alternative biofuel source. In most developing countries, approximately 80% of the population resides in rural areas, where energy consumption is principally associated with cooking and space heating. Although agricultural residues such as rice husk, groundnut shell, rice straw, wheat straw, sawdust, and coconut fibers are abundant, these resources are often unexploited, underutilized or inefficiently used. Recognizing this issue, [ 17 ] investigated screw design parameters suitable for the conversion of biomass waste into energy. The study emphasized the role of screw extrusion in enhancing briquette quality and efficiency. Four different screw types were fabricated based on design principles adapted from the Institute of Energy, Vietnam. In Pakistan, fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum dominate the national energy mix, especially in semi-urban areas. Industrial sectors including manufacturing, food processing, and pharmaceuticals predominantly rely on coal for thermal energy, resulting in substantial greenhouse gas emissions. Additionally, firewood use among rural communities leads to inefficient combustion and air pollution. To address these challenges, [ 18 ] designed and fabricated a biomass extruder capable of producing 50mm-diameter briquettes. The system featured a power screw and a slotted tapered die heated by electric elements. During operation, ground biomass passed through a hopper and compressed by a motor-driven screw rotating at 300rpm. The design provided a viable alternative to fossil fuel dependence by generating clean, compact biomass briquettes. The Philippines, known for its vast agricultural resources, generates large volumes of biomass waste from crops such as rice, coconut, and forest products. These materials represent significant potential for renewable energy generation, particularly for domestic cooking and small-scale industrial applications. To harness this potential, [ 19 ] developed a compact briquetting machine with a central-hole extrusion design. This structural feature facilitated efficient, smokeless combustion. The machine could produce sixteen briquettes per production cycle, demonstrating the feasibility of high-capacity briquetting in agricultural economies. A sawdust briquetting machine capable of converting waste into solid fuels was designed and presented. The system’s major components included a hopper, housing unit, barrel, die, and shaft. The machine achieved a production capacity of 9kg/hour, demonstrating that waste-to-energy conversion can also generate employment and promote sustainable livelihoods [ 20 ]. Recently, [ 21 ] developed a screw-press briquetting machine using locally sourced mild steel due to its rigidity, machinability, and availability. The machine produced briquettes from sawdust using cassava-starch as a binder. The study found that briquettes with central holes exhibit improved combustion efficiency. Comparative evaluation revealed that the machine’s performance was superior to many locally manufactured briquetting systems. In many developing African countries, the direct combustion of biomass such as rice husk, palm kernel shells, and groundnut shells often results in low thermal efficiency and increased greenhouse gas emissions [ 22 ]. The inefficient burning of these materials not only wastes potential energy resources but also contributes significantly to environmental pollution. Furthermore, the bulkiness and low density of raw biomass residues present challenges in transportation and handling, limiting their usability as a reliable energy source [ 23 ]. Briquetting, however, offers a sustainable solution to these limitations. As reported in the study, briquetting encompasses the densification or compression of loose biomass particles into compact, rigid blocks of regular shape, with or without the addition of binding agents [ 24 ]. Through the briquetting process, low-density biomass is transformed into dense, energy-rich briquettes that are easier to transport, store, and combust. This process also increases the calorific value of the fuel and reduces the emission of harmful gases during combustion [ 25 ]. In a study, Chilanga designed and fabricated a manually operated agro-waste briquetting machine with a production capacity of 10tones/day using locally available materials [ 26 ]. The machine consisted of a compacting chamber with twenty molds, each equipped with dies, pistons, and ejectors. It could produce twenty briquettes per batch. The development of such system demonstrated that low-income communities could adopt low-cost, manual briquetting technologies to transform agricultural residues into usable fuel sources [ 27 ]. Agricultural residues such as rice husks, groundnut shell, sawdust, cotton stalks, and coffee husks are abundant in Africa but are often inefficiently burned in open air, releasing carbon monoxide and particulate matter that damage the ecosystem [ 28 ]. The conversion of these residues into briquettes mitigates many of these problems via the reduction of environmental pollution, improving storage and handling, and providing a renewable, non-polluting substitute for fossil fuels [ 29 ]. A study presented the designed and construction of a screw extrusion briquetting machine for sawdust, operating at a rate of 7kg/h [ 30 ]. The investigation highlighted the significant effects of moisture content and binding agents on the mechanical and combustion properties of the briquettes produced. Sawdust is a major byproduct of wood processing industries, often disposed of as waste, thereby constituting environmental hazard and breeding ground for pests and reptiles [ 31 ]. The strategic intent of this current study is to adopt briquetting technology to transform such byproducts into useful energy for domestic and industrial applications. 3. Methodology 3.1. Research Procedure Overview This study focuses on the experimental investigation and optimization of feedstock blend ratio for good quality briquettes production. The hybrid biomass blend ratio optimization was carried out by means of design expert software version 13, adopting the mixture design technique to determine the most suitable blend ratio for the formulation of briquettes with high quality in terms of density, shatter index, calorific value, low ash content, mechanical firmness and a superior aesthetic value. An optimized feedstock blend ratio of 0.5kg of water hyacinth, 0.4kg of saw dust and 0.1kg of rice husk was mixed with starch (binder), providing a uniform feedstock for a manually operated piston-type briquetting machine capable of producing 24 cylindrical-shaped briquettes at a time. Ultimately, the research process involves feedstock characterization, selection, preparation, production and performance evaluation of the briquettes produced. 3.2. Feedstock assessment Hybrid biomass briquette is derived from the mix of two or more biomasses in the most suitable blend-ratio for superior quality briquettes. Selecting the right feedstock blend is crucial to producing briquettes that maximize the desired briquette qualities such as mechanical strength, shatter index, density and calorific value. Feedstock assessment encompasses identifying the most suitable biomass via a comprehensive analysis of the physical and chemical properties such as moisture content, heating value and ass content. It also involves cost implication consideration, availability and the proximity of feedstocks to the desired location. 3.2.1. Feedstock sourcing, pretreatment and storage The characterization of Water Hyacinth (WH), Sawdust (SD), and Rice Husk (RH) reveals notable variation in feedstock sources and preparation. Water hyacinth with high moisture content range of 70% − 90% was obtained from freshwater bodies near riverine communities and initially sun-dried to reduce the excess moisture before further drying. Dried specimen of sawdust and rice husk were obtained from wood processing plant and rice mill plant respectively. Furthermore, all samples were oven-dried at 105°C until constant weights were achieved. The dried biomass materials were crushed down and sieved. Uniform particle size of 0.5–2.0 mm was obtained as the feedstock materials which were stored in airtight containers at room temperature. Details are presented in Table 3.0 [ 32 ], [ 33 ]. Table 3.0 Biomass materials sourcing and pretreatment Description Water Hyacinth (WH) Sawdust (SD) Rice Husk (RH) Sources Aquatic weed from water bodies Residue from wood processing By-product from rice milling State of Collection Fresh (high moisture 70–90%) Dry Dry Pretreatment Air-dried, then oven-dried at 105°C to constant weight Oven-dried at 105°C Oven-dried at 105°C Particle size (mm) 0.5–2.0 0.5–2.0 0.5–2.0 Storage method Airtight container at room temperature Airtight container Airtight container 3.2.2. feedstock proximate and ultimate analysis The proximate and ultimate analyses of Water Hyacinth (WH), Sawdust (SD), and Rice Husk (RH) reveal significant variances in their fuel characteristics. The feedstock materials displayed a moisture content range of 8–12%. This range is suitable for elevated quality briquettes with high combustion efficiency. Rice husk was observed to have the highest ash content of 15–25%, moderate range of 8–20% was observed in water hyacinth and the lowest range of 0.5–3% in saw dust, signifying that less residual ash would be produced by saw dust. Volatile matter was relatively high in all samples (60–85%), suggesting good ignition properties. Fixed carbon content ranged from 8–20%, which contributes to longer burning duration. However, the ultimate analysis revealed that carbon content was highest in sawdust (45–50%), indicating better calorific potential compared to water hyacinth and rice husk. Hydrogen values ranged between 4–6%. Generally, nitrogen and sulphur contents were less than 2% (low), reducing the emission of harmful gases. Oxygen content spanned from 43% to 50%, enhancing good quality combustion and efficiency. Saw dust with a higher heating value (HHV) which ranged from (12–20) MJ/kg, showed its suitability as the main component in briquette production. Ultimately, the analysis showed that a good blend ratio of feedstocks can balance and cover up individual weaknesses and improve briquette performance [ 34 ]. Table 3.1 presents the details Table 3.1 Proximate and Ultimate Analysis of Biomass Feedstocks Used for Briquetting Property Method Water Hyacinth (WH) Sawdust (SD) Rice Husk (RH) Moisture Content (%) Oven drying (105°C) 8–12 8–10 8–12 Ash Content (%) Muffle furnace (550°C) 8–20 0.5–3 15–25 Volatile Matter (%) ASTM D3175 60–75 70–85 65–75 Fixed Carbon (%) By difference 10–20 10–20 8–18 Carbon (C, %) CHNS analyzer 40–45 45–50 40–48 Hydrogen (H, %) CHNS analyzer 5–6 5–6 4–5 Nitrogen (N, %) CHNS analyzer 0.5–2 0.1–0.5 0.2–1 Sulphur (S, %) CHNS analyzer 0.1–0.3 0.05–0.1 0.05–0.1 Oxygen (O, %) By difference 46–50 43–48 46–50 Higher Heating Value (MJ/kg) Bomb calorimeter 12–16 16–20 13–16 3.2.3. Comparative Analysis of Cellulosic Composition, Thermal Behaviours, and Functional Properties of feedstock Table 3.2 presents the structural, thermal, and chemical properties of Water Hyacinth (WH), Sawdust (SD), and Rice Husk (RH), which influence their performance as briquetting feedstocks. Combustion efficiency and binding can be affected by the key components including cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin which varied across the materials. Sawdust showed the highest cellulose, spanning the range of 30–50% and lignin 15–30% contents, indicating strong structural integrity and higher energy yield. Water hyacinth contained lower cellulose of 20–35% and lignin 5–15%, reflecting its weaker and less fibrous structure. Rice husk had moderate cellulose of 30–45% and lignin 10–25% with a high silica content, which can affect ash formation during combustion. Bulk density values ranged between 0.10–0.35 g/cm³, with sawdust showing slightly higher density, which supports better compaction during briquetting. The pH values of 6.0–8.0 across all samples indicate neutral, suitable for stable combustion. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) indicated char yields of 10–30% over a decomposition temperatures range of 250 0 C–380 0 C, suggesting similar thermal degradation behavior among the materials. FTIR analysis showed the presence of characteristic functional groups such as [–OH], [C = O], and [C–H], confirming the presence of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin structures typical of lignocellulosic biomass. Ultimately, sawdust showed superior structural and thermal stability, while water hyacinth and rice husk provided balancing characteristics [ 35 ], [ 36 ]. Table 3.2 Structural, Thermal, and Chemical Characterization of Biomass Feedstocks for Briquetting Property Method Water Hyacinth (WH) Sawdust (SD) Rice Husk (RH) Cellulose (%) Van Soest/NREL method 20–35 30–50 30–45 Hemicellulose (%) Van Soest/NREL method 10–25 15–35 10–25 Lignin (%) Van Soest/NREL method 5–15 15–30 10–25 Silica Content in Ash (%) XRF/ICP-AES Low–Moderate Low High (major component Bulk Density (g/cm³) Volumetric method 0.10–0.30 0.15–0.35 0.10–0.30 pH (1:10 slurry) pH meter 6.5–7.5 6.0–7.0 6.5–8.0 TGA Char Yield (%) TGA analysis 10–25 15–25 15–30 Main Decomposition Temp (°C) TGA/DTG 250–370 280–380 270–370 FTIR Major Bands –OH, C = O, C–H, aromatic rings Similar for all Similar for all Similar for all 3.2.3. The comparative assessment of the relationship between Feedstock properties and briquette quality Table 3.3 highlights the effects of feedstock properties on the performance and quality of briquettes produced from Water Hyacinth, Sawdust, and Rice Husk. Moisture content significantly affects briquette density and heating value. Optimally, a range of 6–12% guarantees effective binding and combustion. Specifically, high ash content in rice husk, reduces heating value and generates excessive residue, emphasizing the need for moderate blending. Lignin, abundant in sawdust provides natural binder which improves briquette overall strength and durability. Volatile matter enhances ignition. Water hyacinth and rice husks contribute to easier ignition of the briquette. Fixed carbon content supports stable and extended burning, with sawdust providing the greatest results. However, high silica content in rice husk can lead to abrasive ash and clinker formation during combustion. Bulk density influences briquette compactness and energy density, with an ideal range of 0.25–0.40 g/cm³. Calorific value, which represents the overall energy capacity, is highest and lowest in sawdust and water hyacinth respectively. Expert design software determined the best blend ratio which can combine with a suitable binder (starch) to ensure improved briquette strength, combustion efficiency, and sustainability [ 37 ]. Table 3.3 Influence of Key Physicochemical Properties on Briquetting Performance Property Effect on Briquetting Remarks Moisture Too high reduces density & HHV; too low reduces binding Optimum 6–12% Ash High ash lowers heating value & increases residue RH has highest ash; blend moderately Lignin Acts as natural binder during compaction SD rich in lignin, good for strength Volatile Matter Affects ignition and combustion rate WH and RH help in easy ignition Fixed Carbon Determines char yield and steady burn SD helps maintain longer burn Silica Causes abrasive ash and clinker formation Silica content of RH is high; needs careful handling Bulk Density Influences briquette density and energy content Blend to achieve 0.25–0.40 g/cm³ Calorific Value Indicator of energy potential SD highest HHV; WH lowest Blending Strategy Combine WH, SD, RH and a Binder(starch) Adopting the optimized ratio by the design software 3.2.4 Feedstock selection criteria Table 3.4 outlines the key selection criteria that determine the suitability of biomass feedstocks for briquette production. The table underscores the importance of feedstock availability for continuous production and low transportation cost for reduced operational expenses. The moisture content should range between 6–12%, as excessive moisture reduces briquette density and causes cracking, while too little moisture hampers good compaction. Ash content below the range of 10–12% improves heating value and combustion efficiency as lower ash content minimizes slagging and residue formation. Volatile matter of 60–80% facilitates easy ignition, while fixed carbon of 10–25%, supports prolonged burning and higher char yield. A higher heating value of at least 15 MJ/kg indicates strong energy potential. Lignin content of 10–18% acts as a natural binder and improves briquette cohesion and mechanical strength. Other important factors include particle size of 0.5–2.0mm for better packing and bonding, bulk density 0.18–0.35 g/cm³ for efficient compaction, and low silica content of less than 15% is essential for the reduction of abrasion and clinker formation. A near-neutral pH (power of hydrogen) range of 6–8 and low electrical conductivity ensure corrosion-free equipment operation and stable ash behaviour. Additionally, environmental factors such as odour, safety, and biodegradability influence public acceptance and sustainability, while ease of processing minimizes pre-treatment costs. Ultimately, these factors ensure optimal briquette performance, energy efficiency, and ecological compatibility [ 38 ], [ 39 ]. Table 3.4 Feedstock selection criteria S/N Selection Criterion Description / Measurement Basis Desired Range / Condition Relevance to Briquetting Performance 1 Availability and Cost Ease of sourcing, seasonal abundance, transport cost Readily available, low-cost, sustainable Ensures continuous feed supply and reduces production cost 2 Moisture Content (%) Measured by oven drying at 105°C to constant weight 6–12% (for briquetting) Optimum moisture enhances compaction and prevents cracking or steam pressure during pressing 3 Ash Content (%) Determined by muffle furnace at 550°C Less than 10–12% Low ash gives higher heating value and reduces slagging during combustion 4 Volatile Matter (%) By proximate analysis 60–80% desirable High volatile matter supports easy ignition and better combustion 5 Fixed Carbon (%) By difference [100 – (M + VM + Ash)] 10–25% Increases char yield and steady burning rate 6 Higher Heating Value (MJ/kg) Measured using bomb calorimeter At least 15 MJ/kg Determines the energy potential of the briquette 7 Lignin Content (%) Estimated by Van Soest/NREL method At least 10–18% Provides natural binding property and improves briquette strength 8 Particle Size (mm) Sieving or grinding measurement 0.5–2.0 mm Uniform small particles improve packing density and bonding 9 Bulk Density (g/cm³) Ratio of mass to volume after gentle tapping 0.18–0.35 g/cm³ Affects feed handling, compaction efficiency, and briquette density 10 Silica Content / Abrasiveness Determined by XRF or ICP-AES of ash As low as possible (less than 15% of ash) High silica causes equipment wear and clinker formation during combustion 11 pH and Electrical Conductivity 1:10 biomass–water extract pH rang of 6–8; and low EC Neutral pH prevents corrosion and affects ash reactivity 12 Environmental and Handling Factors Odour, toxicity, biodegradability, legal/ethical considerations Safe, non-toxic, environmentally beneficial Ensures safety, sustainability, and public acceptance 13 Processing Ease Ease of drying, milling, blending Should require minimal pre-treatment Reduces energy input and overall production cost 3.3 Materials and Equipment Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) collected from water bodies Saw Dust obtained from wood processing plant (sawmill) Rice Husk obtained from a local rice processing plant Starch obtained as byproduct of processed cassava A fabricated manual piston-type briquetting machine for compacting feedstock to solid briquettes Weighing balance for weight measurement Grinder for feedstock reduction Sieve for sieving and particle size control compression testing machine for strength testing 3.4. feed stock preparation Biomasses including water hyacinth, saw dust and rice husk were obtained from water bodies, wood processing plant and rice processing mill respectively. They were then left to dry in the sun for about 72 hours before further drying in oven. They were later crushed down by means of grinder and sieved to reduce the particle size to about 0.5mm to 2.0 mm for uniformity and proper bonding during compaction. Feedstock selection and suitability were based on the criteria shown in Table 3.1 , which include availability, cost, ash content, volatile matter, fixed carbon, and calorific value. The desired ranges were maintained within acceptable limits of moisture content of 6–12%, ash content less than 12% and heating value greater than 15 MJ/kg. 3.5. Experimental Design and Optimization Optimization of the feedstock blend ratios was carried out using Design Expert 13 software, adopting mixture design approach. Three components such as water hyacinth (A), sawdust (B), and rice husk (C) served as independent variables, constrained to sum up to 1kg (100%). Responses such as density, shatter index, calorific value, average briquette quality and others were obtained from feedstock blend of 0f 0.5kg of water hyacinth, 0.4kg of saw dust and 0.1kg of rice husk which occurred at run 11, amounting to average briquette quality of 43%. 3.6. Briquette production After the preparation of the feedstock which contains a homogeneous mixture of water hyacinth, saw dust, rice husk and water including a binder (cassava starch 10% by weight), the mixture was fed into the manual piston briquetting machine. A compacting pressure of 2.5Mpa was applied by means of a jack which compressed a set of 24 pistons down the array of cylinders containing the feedstock. The compacted feedstocks (briquettes) were sun-dried for about 6 days until constant weight was achieved before testing. A photograph in the figure below captures the loading of feedstock into the fabricated briquetting machine. 3.7. Briquette Performance Evaluation The briquette produced from the optimal blend ratio of 0.5:0.4:0.1 of water hyacinth, sawdust, and rice husk respectively exhibited excellent physical and combustion properties. The briquette had high density of 0.93 g/cm³ and strong mechanical durability including shatter index of 90.1%, indicating good handling strength. The briquette also showed efficient combustion with a high combustion rate of 85.4% and low ash content which approximately ranged from 5% to 7%, signifying clean burning performance. Overall, these results demonstrate that hybrid briquette possesses desirable qualities for effective and sustainable fuel use. Details are shown in Table 3.5 . Table 3.5 Briquette performance assessment Properties Evaluation Techniques Process Observations Density Mathematical Density = Mass / Volume 0.93 g/cm³ Moisture Content Oven drying Dried at 105°C to constant weight Low residual moisture content (≈ 8–10%), indicating proper drying and efficient combustion. Calorific Value Using bomb calorimeter Burnt and heat released measured High energy value (≈ 18–20 MJ/kg), showing good heating potential. Volatile Matter and Fixed Carbon Ratio Analytical Determined by proximate analysis Volatile matter ≈ 65–70% and fixed carbon ≈ 20–25%, suitable for stable and sustained combustion. Ash Content Combustion Burnt in muffle furnace at 550°C Low ash residue (≈ 5–7%), indicating clean burning fuel. Compressive Strength Using a universal testing machine Subjected to compressive pressure High structural integrity, briquettes remained intact under load. Shatter Index Physical Allowed to fall from a height of 1 m 90.1%, showing good resistance to mechanical breakage and impact. Combustion Rate Combustion Determined through mass loss over time 85.4% combustion efficiency, indicating efficient burning with minimal smoke. Testing adopted ASTM D3173–D3175 and ASTM E711–87 standards. [ 40 ] 3.8. Data Analysis Experimental data were analyzed statistically using ANOVA in Design Expert software to evaluate the effect of each component on briquette quality parameters. Regression models were developed to predict optimal mixture compositions. Graphical outputs such as 3D surface plots and contour maps were used to visualize the relationships among the factors and responses [ 41 ]. 4. Results and discussions This session explores the results and discussions of biomass briquettes production focusing on the optimization of feedstock mix-ratio as the key parameter and the qualities of the resulting briquettes. 4.1. Experimental design matrix result The experimental data obtained by means of design expert software are presented in Table 4.0 . The data shows the effect of the mix-ratios of water hyacinth, sawdust, and rice husk on hybrid biomass briquettes qualities such as density, shatter index, combustion efficiency and desirability. Each of these parameters mirrors the mechanical and thermal characteristics of the briquettes across material compositions variations. The feedstocks were combined to a constrained sum of one unit to ensure controlled monitoring and analysis of their influence on briquette quality. From the results, it is observed that the optimum briquette quality occurred at run 11, with a corresponding blend ratio of 0.5kg of water hyacinth, 0.4kg of sawdust, and 0.1kg of rice husk. At this composition, the briquette recorded a density of 0.93 g/cm³, a shatter index of 90.1%, and a combustion efficiency of 85.4%. These metrics translated to an average briquette quality of 43%, the highest among all the experimental runs, and a desirability index of 1.000, indicating a perfectly optimized combination of mechanical and combustion characteristics. Relatively, the high density obtained at this blend suggests excellent compaction, which improves handling and storage. Also, the high shatter index confirms the briquette’s strong mechanical integrity and resistance to breakage, while the combustion efficiency shows an effective conversion of the briquette into heat energy with minimal residue. The optimum performance observed at run 11 can be attributed to the synergistic interaction of the three biomasses. Water hyacinth, used at 0.5kg (50%), provided satisfactory binding characteristics and volatile matter content, enhancing consistency during compaction and ignition during burning. Sawdust, at 0.4kg (40%), contributed to lignocellulosic material that reinforced the briquette’s structure and supported stable combustion. Rice husk metric of 0.1kg (10%), added firmness and improved the briquette’s durability via its silica-content in a regulated amount for less ash formation. The equilibrium of the mix-ratios produced a perfect hybridization that maximized mechanical and thermal efficiency. Comparatively, runs that indicate lower-quality briquettes occurred at 4 and 12 with significantly reduced density and combustion efficiency, leading to average briquette qualities of 36.87% and 0.00 desirability. Intermediate runs, such as 1, 3, 5, 8, 9, 13, and 14, recorded average briquette qualities which spanned between 39% and 41%, signifying tolerable but suboptimal results. Run 10, with an average quality of 42.92% and a desirability of 0.987, represents nearly optimum performance. However, the slight variation in component ratios led to slightly lower performance. The optimum blend ratio of 0.5:0.4:0.1 is the most suitable mix for producing high-quality briquettes that combine strength, durability, and efficient combustion. The mix produces briquettes that possess high energy density, burn cleanly with negligible residue, and can withstand handling and transportation stress. This composition therefore represents the most balanced and efficient formulation for hybrid biomass briquette production, offering a feasible path for sustainable energy generation from agricultural and aquatic biomass wastes. Table 4.0 Experimental design matrix results BRIQUETTE QUALITY STD RUN A: Water Hyacinth B: Saw Dust (kg) C: Rice Husk (kg) Density (g/cm³) Shatter Index (%) Combustion Efficiency (%) Average Briquette Quality (%) Desirability 12 1 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.90 88.3 81.6 40.95 0.666 10 2 0.433 0.333 0.233 0.82 90.0 82.1 41.72 0.791 3 3 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.91 87.5 80.4 40.24 0.550 13 4 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.85 83.1 75.3 36.87 0.000 7 5 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.89 85.4 79.5 39.17 0.375 14 6 0.5 0.4 0.1 0.88 86.5 78.9 39.35 0.405 8 7 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.90 88.3 81.6 40.95 0.666 5 8 0.5 0.2 0.3 0.88 86.5 78.9 39.35 0.405 2 9 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.90 88.3 81.6 40.95 0.666 6 10 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.93 90.2 85.1 42.92 0.987 4 11 0.5 0.4 0.1 0.93 90.1 85.4 43.00 1.000 11 12 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.85 83.1 75.3 36.87 0.000 9 13 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.89 85.4 79.5 39.17 0.375 1 14 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.88 86.5 78.9 39.35 0.405 4.2. Optimum feedstock blend A blend ratio of 0.5: 0.4: 0.1 for components A (Water Hyacinth), B (Saw Dust), and C (Rice Husk), produced briquette that exhibited high quality and performance. The density was 0.93 g/cm³, signifying a compact briquette. It achieved a shatter index of 90.1%, demonstrating strong mechanical toughness, and a combustion efficiency of 85.4%, showing excellent burning characteristics. The average briquette quality was 43.00%, at a desirability value of 1.000, signifying the optimal (desirable) production condition across the experimental runs. Table 4.1 presents the optimal briquette production conditions. Table 4.1 Optimal briquette production conditions details Parameter Value Remarks Run Number 11 Experimental identification Standard Order 4 Design Expert reference order Blend Ratio (A: B:C) 0.5: 0.4: 0.1 Water Hyacinth: Saw Dust: Rice Husk Density (g/cm³) 0.93 High compactness and structural strength Shatter Index (%) 90.1 Excellent mechanical durability Combustion Efficiency (%) 85.4 High energy conversion efficiency Average Briquette Quality (%) 43.00 Overall quality performance index Desirability 1.000 (maximum) Indicates optimal production condition 4.3. Model fit statistics and summary Table 4.2 shows the summary of the model fit statistics. The statistical analysis shows a high model accuracy with an R² value of 0.9562 and an adjusted R² of 0.9289, indicating that the model is significant and consistently explains the data variability. The low coefficient of variation of 0.75% and high adequate precision of 15.3350 confirm the model’s precision, consistency, and strong predictive capability as shown by Predicted R² value of 0.7560. The R 2 value of 0.9562 and adjusted R 2 value of 0.9289 and quite close and less than 0.2, indicating that the model can be used to navigate the design space. Table 4.2 summary of model Std. Dev. 0.3086 R² 0.9562 Mean 41.03 Adjusted R² 0.9289 C.V. % 0.7521 Predicted R² 0.7560 Adeq. Precision 15.3350 4.4. Model’s Analysis of variance [ANOVA] The analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicates that the overall model is highly significant with F value equals 34.97 and P value less than 0.0001. These metrics suggest that the blend ratios of the components have a substantial effect on briquette quality. Among the interaction terms, the AC interaction (Water Hyacinth × Rice Husk) showed the most dominant influence with an F-value of 129.16 (p < 0.0001), followed by AB (Water Hyacinth × Sawdust) and BC (Sawdust × Rice Husk), both of which were also significant. The linear mixture term contributed moderately as indicated by metrics of F = 16.93 and p = 0.0013, showing that individual component effects are important but less impactful than their interactions. The lack of fit was not significant (p = 0.7355), indicating that the model adequately fits the experimental data without systematic errors. Details are presented in Table 4.3 Table 4.3 ANOVA Source Sum of Squares df Mean Square F-value p-value Model 16.65 5 3.33 34.97 < 0.0001 significant Linear Mixture 3.22 2 1.61 16.93 0.0013 AB 3.45 1 3.45 36.26 0.0003 AC 12.30 1 12.30 129.16 < 0.0001 BC 1.39 1 1.39 14.64 0.0050 Residual 0.7618 8 0.0952 Lack of Fit 0.0132 1 0.0132 0.1236 0.7355 not significant Pure Error 0.7486 7 0.1069 Cor Total 17.41 13 4.5. Factors interaction interpretation The coefficient evaluations reveal that water hyacinth (55.14) has the highest positive contribution to briquette quality, followed by rice husk (49.71) and sawdust (43.97), indicating that higher proportions of water hyacinth and rice husk improve performance. The negative interaction coefficients (AB = − 26.24, AC = − 45.75, and BC = − 15.40) suggest that combining these components in excess reduces briquette quality due to unfavorable interactions. The AC interaction (Water Hyacinth × Rice Husk) shows the strongest negative effect, implying that their proportions must be carefully balanced to achieve optimal results. The relatively high VIF values indicate strong correlations among the variables, which is expected in mixture experiments where component proportions are interdependent. Table 4.4 presents the details. Table 4.4 Coefficient in terms of coded factors Component Coefficient Estimate df Standard Error 95% CI Low 95% CI High VIF A-WATER HYACINTH 55.14 1 1.56 51.54 58.74 50.70 B-SAW DUST 43.97 1 1.56 40.37 47.56 50.70 C-RICE HUST 49.71 1 1.44 46.40 53.03 37.70 AB -26.24 1 4.36 -36.28 -16.19 48.40 AC -45.75 1 4.03 -55.03 -36.47 30.68 BC -15.40 1 4.03 -24.69 -6.12 30.68 Coded equation Briquette quality (%) = + 55.14A + 43.97B + 49.71C -26.24AB -45.75AC -15.40BC Actual equation Briquette quality (%) = + 103.13063water hyacinth + 72.62839saw dust + 133.20355rice husk-163.97767water hyacinth *saw dust − 285.93244water hyacinth*rice husk. 4.7 comparative analysis Comparatively, the key finding of this study closely aligns with the research results established by Okwu and Gbabo, who reported that the addition of fibrous residues such as sawdust increases briquette density and mechanical strength [ 42 ], [ 43 ]. Similarly, the combustion performance obtained in this research constructively validates the research findings of Oladeji and Pushpa and Yadav who had noted that optimal moisture range of 6% to 12% and appropriate binder concentration can improve burning characteristics [ 44 ], [ 45 ]. Ultimately, the use of mixture design method of design expert proved efficient in determining the interaction effects among biomass components, yielding statistically reliable predictive models and an optimal blend that offers sustainable, low-cost fuel for domestic and industrial applications. 4.8 Summary of Findings Density, shatter index, and combustion efficiency were strongly influenced by the mix-ratio proportions of the feedstocks. Sawdust contributed positively to all response variables due to its high lignin and fibrous structure. Excess water hyacinth reduced performance due to its low fixed carbon and high moisture content. 5. Conclusion The study demonstrates that hybrid biomass briquettes produced from a blend of water hyacinth, sawdust, and rice husk can serve as a viable renewable energy alternative to conventional fossil fuels. The optimized composition produced briquettes with excellent mechanical strength, burning efficiency, and energy sustainability. The modified briquetting machine proved reliable and cost-effective, confirming that locally available agricultural and aquatic residues can be transformed into valuable solid fuels. Hence, the research validates that energy recovery from waste biomass through briquetting contributes significantly to sustainable energy development, environmental conservation, and rural economic empowerment [ 46 ]. Declarations Funding declaration: The research did not receive any funding or grant from any agency. Conflict of interest: The research declares no conflict of interests. Author’s Contribution: This research is the work of a single author Data availability declaration: Data will be made available upon request. DOI: 10.6084/m9.figshare.30391057 References Kpalo SY, Zainuddin MF, Manaf LA, Rosla AM (2020) A Review of Technical and Economic Aspects of Biomass Briquetting. Sustain contentReference, vol. 12, p. p. 4609 Roman K (2024) Biomass Briquetting Technology for Sustainable Energy Solutions, in Energies Grover PD (2023) Biomass Briquetting Technology and Practices Carnaje NP (2018) Development and characterisation of charcoal briquettes , Midhun VC (2023) Preparation and characterisation study of water hyacinth briquettes Nganko JM (2024) Modeling and Optimization of Compaction Pressure, Binder and Moisture for Briquette Quality using Box-Behnken RSM Silas K (2021) Response Surface Methodology Optimization ofDemonstrates RSM application to briquette optimization Okwu M, Chukwuekezie AC, Oji CS (2016) Development of Water Hyacinth Briquetting Machine. Int J Eng Appl Sci 33(5):40–50 Gebrekidan T, Zeslase Y (2015) Design and Feasibility Study of an Integrated Briquetting Plant. Int J Energy Sci Eng 3(2):25–31 Omkar S, Patel, Mahajan RV (2017) Design and Fabrication of a Leaf Log Maker Machine. Int J Eng Res Appl 7(4):12–16 Kishan V, Patil, Joshi NK (2016) Design and Fabrication of Portable Briquetting Machine. Int J Renew Energy Dev 5(3):211–217 Obi OO, Onukwuli CC, Odo SI (2013) Design and Construction of an Appropriate Commercial Biomass Briquetting Machine for Rural Communities. Nigeria J Technol 32(3):475–482 Maninder M, Rupinder RS, Singh N (2012) Utilization of Agricultural Residue for Briquette Production. J Renew Energy Rev 6(4):35–42 Oladeji JT (2015) Theoretical Aspects of Biomass Briquetting. Energy Environ Res 5(2):31–39 Gbabo A, Mohammed JI, Okafor SB (2017) Design and Fabrication of a Hydraulically Operated Briquetting Machine. Agricultural Eng International: CIGR J 19(3):157–164 Ajieh A, Okeke MJ, Uche SO (2016) Design and Fabrication of a Briquetting Machine Using Grass as Raw Material. J Sustainable Energy Res 4(2):112–118 Ali A, Nguyen P, Tran L (2004) Optimization of Screw Design Parameters for Biomass Briquetting. Energy Conv Manag 45(12):2017–2024 Mohammed T, Ahmed K, Bello SU (2016) Design and Fabrication of a Biomass Extruder for Briquette Production. Int J Mech Industrial Eng 6(3):55–61 Roda D (2017) Development of a Compact Briquetting Machine in the Philippines. Asia-Pacific J Renew Energy Technol 2(1):33–39 Arinola F, Olorunfemi PO, Ayeni EA (2013) Design of Sawdust Briquetting Machine for Domestic Fuel Production. Nigerian J Renew Energy 9(1):15–21 Ojo, Mohammed T (2015) Development of a Screw Press Briquette Making Machine Using Locally Sourced Materials. Int J Eng Technol Innov 4(4):185–192 Chilanga M Design and Fabrication of a Manually Operated Briquetting Machine, Lusaka, Zambia: University of Zambia Press , (2017)., Lusuka, University of Zambia Press, 2017., Lusuka, University of Zambia Press, 2017 Grover PC, Mishra SK (1996) Biomass Briquetting: Technology and Practices. Reg Wood Energy Dev Programme Sharma SK, Mohanty R (2016) Briquetting of Agricultural Waste for Energy Generation: A Review. Int J Renew Energy Res 6(4):1325–2016 Bhattacharya SC, Augustus DA, Leon M (2015) Sustainable Energy from Agricultural Residues via Briquetting Technology, Renewable Energy Review, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 181–198, Sustainable Energy from Agricultural Residues via Briquetting Technology, Journal of Renewable Energy Review , vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 181–198, 2015 Chilanga M (2017) Design and Fabrication of an Agro-Waste Briquetting Machine. J Eng Appl Sci 12(7):185–190 Kazi BH (2011) Development of Small-Scale Biomass Briquetting Technology for Rural Energy Supply. Energy Sustain Dev 15(2):130–138 Olorunnisola AT (2010) Production of Fuel Briquettes from Waste Paper and Coconut Husk Admixtures. J Eng Appl Sci 5(4):290–295 Sidhu HS, Singh SK (2012) Evaluation of Briquetting Technologies for Agricultural Residues. Int J Biomass Bioenergy 8(1):77–84 Pushpa PJ, Yadav P (2010) Design and Fabrication of Screw Extrusion Briquetting Machine for Sawdust. J Renew Energy Eng 3(2):44–51 Arinola SA, Ojo TM, Mohammed T (2013) Design and Development of Sawdust Briquette Machine. Nigerian J Mech Eng 9(1):55–62 Adeleke AA, Oladimeji TO, Hassan MB (2021) Physical and thermal characterization of biomass materials for fuel briquette production. J Renew Energy 170:733–742 Adekoya OS, Oladeji SO, Ogedengbe JO (2021) Characterization of selected agricultural residues for briquetting. Jornal Appleid Sci Environ Manage 3(25):453–460 Olatunji MS, Adeleke OA, Aremu KA (2022) Evaluation of physicochemical properties of selected biomass materials for briquette production. J Energy Rep 8:2304–2313 Olatunji MS, Adeleke OA, Aremu KA (2022) Evaluation of physicochemical properties of selected biomass materials for briquette production, Energy Reports , vol. 8, pp. 2304 – 2022 Van Soest P, Robertson JB, Lewis BA (1991) Methods for dietary fiber, neutral detergent fiber, and nonstarch polysaccharides in relation to animal nutrition. J Dairy Sci 74(10):3583–3597 Singh S, Gupta RC, Sharma NK (2022) Influence of feedstock properties on performance and emission characteristics of biomass briquettes. Energy Sources Part Influence feedstock Prop Perform emission characteristics biomass bri Recovery Utilization Environ Effects 44(1):120–131 Van Soest P, Robertson JB, Lewis BA (1919) Methods for dietary fiber, neutral detergent fiber, and nonstarch polysaccharides in relation to animal nutrition. J Dairy Sci 74(10):3583–3597 NREL (2012) Determination of Structural Carbohydrates and Lignin in Biomass, : Laboratory Analytical Procedure (LAP), NREL/TP-510-42618, Golden, CO, USA, 2012. , ASTM (2020) Standard Test Methods for Proximate Analysis of Coal and Coke by Macro Thermogravimetric Analysis. ASTM Int pp. 3173–3174 Sidhu HS, Singh SK (2012) Evaluation of Briquetting Technologies for Agricultural Residues, Int. J. Biomass and Bioenergy, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 77–84, Evaluation of Briquetting Technologies for Agricultural Residues, International Journal of Biomass and Bioenergy , vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 77–84, 2012 Okwu E, Onwualu JA, Ndirika IA (2016) Development of Biomass Briquetting Machine for Agricultural Residues. Nigerian J Technol 35(2):345–353 [10] Gbabo A et al (2017) Design and Fabrication of a Hydraulic Briquetting Machine, Journal of Energy Technology, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 75–83, Design and Fabrication of a Hydraulic Briquetting Machine, Journal of Energy Technology , vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 75–83, 2017 Pushpa PJ, Yadav P (2012) Development and Testing of Briquetting Machine for Sawdust. J Agricultural Eng 47(2):1–7 Shyamalee S, Jayasuriya T, Dissanayake S Effect of Binder Type on Densification of Sawdust Briquettes. Energy Conv Manag,, 90, 2015255–2015261 Mohammed M, Ojo T, Lawal S (2016) Design and Fabrication of a Screw Extruder Briquetting Machine. J Energy Technol 10(3):55–63 Additional Declarations The authors declare potential competing interests as follows: Supplementary Files FIGURES.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7909513","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":532571186,"identity":"f32eeb9a-c15e-4ac3-946d-848ff337336c","order_by":0,"name":"IZU GODSTIME","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABEklEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACNhgJYhz4+O+fHIh/4AERWiSADMaDM9gOGIO1JBBhlwSQZD7Mw3YgsQEkgE8LH/8Z4xcfyurq+MQOHzjMw3MnfX7Y4YdAW+zkdBtwmX/GzHLGucMSbNJpCQfnSDzL3Xg7zQCoJdnY7AAOLYw9Zsa8bQeAWnIMDrwxYM7dODsBpOVA4jZcWph5QFrqgFryPxzgSWBON5yd/gG/FjYe48e8bcwgWxgO8hw4nCAPsg6vFh62MkagXyTbpNMMDs5sSDPcIJ1TcCDBALdf5PsPb/4ADDF++dnJjz98bLCRl5+dDhSpsJPDpQVkkQQK1wCs0gCnchBg/oBqbwNe1aNgFIyCUTACAQCpfmFL0ilGZgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0001-6589-7635","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"IZU","middleName":"","lastName":"GODSTIME","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-10-21 01:54:21","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":false,"vertebrateSubjects":true,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":true,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false,"humanSubjectConsent":false,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":true},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7909513/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7909513/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":94060726,"identity":"4c5e0c90-b4a9-4bcf-93b2-0b9145e71bcd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-22 06:36:04","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":47180796,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"WASTETOENERGY.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7909513/v1/4e5309a26c2661a9b6b4dfaf.docx"},{"id":94060708,"identity":"8978e11a-636a-4744-9832-1eea27f5ae73","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-22 06:36:04","extension":"json","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":342,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"rs7909513.json","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7909513/v1/31004b170caa003fc30142bb.json"},{"id":94060717,"identity":"d9549375-902d-4422-b7b9-51e6f305280d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-22 06:36:04","extension":"xml","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":152593,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"rs79095130enriched.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7909513/v1/bbf0b39baeb2fef9fd295db5.xml"},{"id":94060715,"identity":"8eaf2a1d-dc04-497b-9ff5-68d73786215c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-22 06:36:04","extension":"jpeg","order_by":3,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":1018408,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7909513/v1/be0d713f1d2aea8ab4cac591.jpeg"},{"id":94060721,"identity":"a5dd03bd-943f-4364-94c4-3cb56333dad5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-22 06:36:04","extension":"jpeg","order_by":4,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":449849,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7909513/v1/96ff743e3e1f6b76e27faebc.jpeg"},{"id":94061237,"identity":"9bc68a0e-a34c-45f7-9bf9-b3fe47a53fe2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-22 06:44:04","extension":"jpeg","order_by":5,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":1966,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7909513/v1/67c4a386ed029c2b345be9b9.jpeg"},{"id":94061569,"identity":"b76c3f0f-cdb5-473f-a23a-0de4d0a91ed6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-22 06:52:04","extension":"jpeg","order_by":6,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":138429,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7909513/v1/30556500067e314973b7bd8e.jpeg"},{"id":94060719,"identity":"986c675c-c380-46f8-876b-476b02221fda","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-22 06:36:04","extension":"jpeg","order_by":7,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":741612,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7909513/v1/192758c0b3719d38cdf3212c.jpeg"},{"id":94061240,"identity":"cf63f3ac-3916-450f-92d3-fc2cb74c3b82","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-22 06:44:04","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":290829,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7909513/v1/10e729e7ab212e4673cd8c69.png"},{"id":94061238,"identity":"d8209c8e-bded-4847-bdaa-18f146fcae80","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-22 06:44:04","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":73094,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7909513/v1/625bf9808917f452af475ce2.png"},{"id":94061241,"identity":"6aa48580-7905-4ffb-baa8-2fe1b183c299","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-22 06:44:04","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":999,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7909513/v1/ad3ede2b1453083757a9fac4.png"},{"id":94060714,"identity":"20b95ece-2cba-4754-98ea-9eac96c6a628","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-22 06:36:04","extension":"png","order_by":11,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":17167,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7909513/v1/c6cca8e9f26d5d796128f6d0.png"},{"id":94060724,"identity":"7140b01e-0c51-434e-a779-0bc03d8639c7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-22 06:36:04","extension":"png","order_by":12,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":175163,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7909513/v1/619ad97de7fa73d4eb3f7bda.png"},{"id":94060725,"identity":"f20891f3-5ff7-46e1-8143-b4aa86fc5154","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-22 06:36:04","extension":"xml","order_by":13,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":151576,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"rs79095130structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7909513/v1/d906011dc4acb6c939162abb.xml"},{"id":94060723,"identity":"c5788ea6-e828-4a1a-b90d-6029befb4c75","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-22 06:36:04","extension":"html","order_by":14,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":157085,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7909513/v1/9e3c1ffc7a97d614844fe895.html"},{"id":94060710,"identity":"05c65ac4-50c5-4f42-96ab-3fb8d6f6eb94","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-22 06:36:04","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":866592,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSolid work model, fabricated briquetting machine, feedstock and samples of briquettes produced\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7909513/v1/b5de54f02318e2346de13a61.png"},{"id":94060711,"identity":"c610fe36-7240-4d97-bc71-d0e3fdb39536","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-22 06:36:04","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":201991,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e2D contour and plots\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7909513/v1/9ca8b98345f5241279884493.png"},{"id":94061236,"identity":"919aee6a-74c1-4cf0-8c2c-c7d5675139bb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-22 06:44:04","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":205406,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e3D Surface plot\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7909513/v1/ff3c1087c804a27e51247e0e.png"},{"id":94062019,"identity":"4dd2938d-5524-4142-ac87-a124b2b8d803","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-22 07:00:06","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2901368,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7909513/v1/ad430fd9-2384-4607-b1d4-a211d93d33b6.pdf"},{"id":94060713,"identity":"d24f51c2-7813-4636-aa20-cea9aa87fa9b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-22 06:36:04","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":4756709,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"FIGURES.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7909513/v1/78704634f82acbb065bbea99.docx"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare potential competing interests as follows: ","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSustainable Energy from Waste: Experimental Investigation and Optimization of Hybrid Biomass Briquette Production Using a Modified Briquetting Machine\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eFrom time immemorial, man had always relied on energy for survival. Thus, energy is life because the great cycle of life depends on energy. Industrialization and rapid population growth has driven a parallel increase in global energy demand and waste generation. Continued reliance on fossil fuels raises concerns about greenhouse gas emissions, air pollution, and resource depletion, motivating the search for sustainable, low-emission energy alternatives. Biomass derived from agricultural and municipal waste represents a widely available, renewable resource that can address both energy and solid-waste management challenges when converted to densified fuels such as briquettes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. Briquetting describes the densification of loose biomass into compact blocks for the purpose of improving the fuel value, handling, transport, energy, density, and combustion performance. Different briquetting technologies have been developed over the years. They include the piston or ram presses, screw presses, and punching machines. Briquette quality such as density, mechanical strength, combustion rating, calorific value and ash content can be affected by compaction pressure, die geometry, feedstock particle size, and moisture. Thus, a well-designed machine modification and process optimization can improve product consistency and quality [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. Hybrid biomass briquettes describe the production of briquettes by blending two or more wastes. Combining two or more biomasses of the desired characteristics in proper blend ratio can ultimately improve the quality of briquettes. Aquatic plants such as water hyacinth with a botanical nomenclature (scientific name) Eichhornia crassipes are of particular interest because they are relatively abundant in freshwater bodies. Converting them into briquettes both provides energy and helps control invasive biomass. Studies have reported that carbonized water hyacinth can be blended directly with other biomass to produce briquettes for household and small-scale industrial use [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. To identify optimal feedstock blend ratios including process settings, statistical experimental designs and output, response surface methodology (RSM) can be used. Response surface methodology (RSM) combines design techniques such as central composite and mixture with ANOVA to quantify interactions effects and identifies parameters that maximize briquette quality such as calorific value and compressive strength and parameters that minimize undesired properties such as ash and moisture content. Recent experimental investigations applying RSM to briquetting show robust optimization results and provide a reproducible framework for process scale-up [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. In this study, a modified briquetting machine is used to produce hybrid biomass briquettes derived from locally available wastes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1.2. Research aims and objectives\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo evaluate the effects of feedstock blend ratio, moisture content, particle size, and binder proportion on physical, thermal, and mechanical properties of briquettes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo use RSM to optimize process variables for improved calorific value, density, and compressive strength.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo assess the potential of hybrid briquettes as a sustainable fuel alternative.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Literature review","content":"\u003cp\u003eBriquetting is the process of converting biomass residues such as paper, sawdust, rice husk, plant leaves, and other organic wastes into solid fuels suitable for domestic and industrial applications. The machine that performs this transformation is known as a briquetting machine. Instead of posing environmental threats, the abundant biomass waste generated in many regions can be utilized as renewable energy sources. In line with this concept, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e] developed a screw-type briquetting machine to produce briquettes using water hyacinth and wastepaper with cornstarch as binding agent. The study reported that the briquettes produced were efficient and suitable for household use. According to [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e], briquetting is a process of compressing agro-residues and sawdust materials with low bulk density into solid fuels. The study delved into the assessment of integrated briquetting plant and reported that energy generation from biomass residues is economically feasible and environmentally sustainable. The integrated system converted dust particles into valuable energy products for both domestic and industrial purposes. A similar work involved the design and fabrication of a leaf log maker machine aimed at addressing the issue of deforestation resulting from excessive firewood use. The machine could compress dry leaves into compact logs that are useable as fuel. It could also process paper and wood waste. The system was designed to be compact, user-friendly, and environmentally sustainable, thus providing an affordable solution for waste-to-energy conversion [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. The quest for alternative energy encouraged [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e] to design a low-cost, portable briquetting machine for production of biomass briquettes from sawdust and dry leaves. Coffee husk and wheat flour served as binding agents. This research emphasized environmental sustainability. Recently, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e] designed and constructed a commercial biomass briquetting machine suitable for rural communities, using sawdust as the feedstock and starch as the binder. The research reported that the physical and combustion characteristics of briquettes were strongly influenced by the type and concentration of the binder (binding material). The researchers further noted that although briquetting technology is still emerging in most African countries, it has achieved significant development in Europe and America. They identified key factors influencing the adoption of briquetting technology as residue availability, technological accessibility, and market demand for briquettes. According to [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e] many developing countries generate large volumes of agricultural waste daily, which are typically disposed of through open-air burning, causing serious environmental pollution. The study explored the use of agricultural residues such as rice husk, coffee husk, sawdust, groundnut shell, and cotton stalks for briquette production. Various technologies were employed to compact these materials at high temperature and pressure. The study highlighted the advantages of biomass briquetting and analyzed the key factors influencing briquette quality, including a comparative analysis of biomass and coal briquettes. In research, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e] provided a comprehensive theoretical review of biomass briquetting, emphasizing the challenges associated with conventional energy supply and the potential of biomass as a renewable energy source. The study outlined the advantages of briquetting, including environmental benefits and energy decentralization, and identified parameters such as moisture content and temperature as critical to briquette quality. The author concluded that biomass briquetting represents a viable pathway towards sustainable energy utilization. In another study, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e] designed and fabricated a hydraulically operated briquetting machine capable of producing briquettes from agricultural wastes such as rice husk, sawdust, and sugarcane. The machine consisted of a frame, hydraulic jack, piston, and cylinder that served as the compaction chamber. Experimental results revealed that binder concentrations of 15% and 25% yielded briquettes with optimal strength and combustion characteristics suitable for both domestic and industrial use. The diversity of biomass materials implies that different feedstocks require distinct briquetting approaches. Consequently, the design of a briquetting machine largely depends on the type of material to be processed. In many African nations, particularly Nigeria, rapid population growth has exerted significant pressure on conventional fuel supply, leading to an increased reliance on firewood for domestic energy needs. This practice has accelerated deforestation, which in turn contributes to soil erosion and ecological imbalance. To mitigate this challenge [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e] designed a briquetting machine that utilized grass as the primary raw material. The machine\u0026rsquo;s operation involved three stages including pulverization, compaction, and extrusion. The purpose of the study was to reduce domestic firewood use and mitigate deforestation through the development of an alternative biofuel source. In most developing countries, approximately 80% of the population resides in rural areas, where energy consumption is principally associated with cooking and space heating. Although agricultural residues such as rice husk, groundnut shell, rice straw, wheat straw, sawdust, and coconut fibers are abundant, these resources are often unexploited, underutilized or inefficiently used. Recognizing this issue, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e] investigated screw design parameters suitable for the conversion of biomass waste into energy. The study emphasized the role of screw extrusion in enhancing briquette quality and efficiency. Four different screw types were fabricated based on design principles adapted from the Institute of Energy, Vietnam. In Pakistan, fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum dominate the national energy mix, especially in semi-urban areas. Industrial sectors including manufacturing, food processing, and pharmaceuticals predominantly rely on coal for thermal energy, resulting in substantial greenhouse gas emissions. Additionally, firewood use among rural communities leads to inefficient combustion and air pollution. To address these challenges, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e] designed and fabricated a biomass extruder capable of producing 50mm-diameter briquettes. The system featured a power screw and a slotted tapered die heated by electric elements. During operation, ground biomass passed through a hopper and compressed by a motor-driven screw rotating at 300rpm. The design provided a viable alternative to fossil fuel dependence by generating clean, compact biomass briquettes. The Philippines, known for its vast agricultural resources, generates large volumes of biomass waste from crops such as rice, coconut, and forest products. These materials represent significant potential for renewable energy generation, particularly for domestic cooking and small-scale industrial applications. To harness this potential, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e] developed a compact briquetting machine with a central-hole extrusion design. This structural feature facilitated efficient, smokeless combustion. The machine could produce sixteen briquettes per production cycle, demonstrating the feasibility of high-capacity briquetting in agricultural economies. A sawdust briquetting machine capable of converting waste into solid fuels was designed and presented. The system\u0026rsquo;s major components included a hopper, housing unit, barrel, die, and shaft. The machine achieved a production capacity of 9kg/hour, demonstrating that waste-to-energy conversion can also generate employment and promote sustainable livelihoods [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. Recently, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e] developed a screw-press briquetting machine using locally sourced mild steel due to its rigidity, machinability, and availability. The machine produced briquettes from sawdust using cassava-starch as a binder. The study found that briquettes with central holes exhibit improved combustion efficiency. Comparative evaluation revealed that the machine\u0026rsquo;s performance was superior to many locally manufactured briquetting systems. In many developing African countries, the direct combustion of biomass such as rice husk, palm kernel shells, and groundnut shells often results in low thermal efficiency and increased greenhouse gas emissions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. The inefficient burning of these materials not only wastes potential energy resources but also contributes significantly to environmental pollution. Furthermore, the bulkiness and low density of raw biomass residues present challenges in transportation and handling, limiting their usability as a reliable energy source [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. Briquetting, however, offers a sustainable solution to these limitations. As reported in the study, briquetting encompasses the densification or compression of loose biomass particles into compact, rigid blocks of regular shape, with or without the addition of binding agents [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. Through the briquetting process, low-density biomass is transformed into dense, energy-rich briquettes that are easier to transport, store, and combust. This process also increases the calorific value of the fuel and reduces the emission of harmful gases during combustion [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. In a study, Chilanga designed and fabricated a manually operated agro-waste briquetting machine with a production capacity of 10tones/day using locally available materials [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. The machine consisted of a compacting chamber with twenty molds, each equipped with dies, pistons, and ejectors. It could produce twenty briquettes per batch. The development of such system demonstrated that low-income communities could adopt low-cost, manual briquetting technologies to transform agricultural residues into usable fuel sources [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. Agricultural residues such as rice husks, groundnut shell, sawdust, cotton stalks, and coffee husks are abundant in Africa but are often inefficiently burned in open air, releasing carbon monoxide and particulate matter that damage the ecosystem [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]. The conversion of these residues into briquettes mitigates many of these problems via the reduction of environmental pollution, improving storage and handling, and providing a renewable, non-polluting substitute for fossil fuels [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA study presented the designed and construction of a screw extrusion briquetting machine for sawdust, operating at a rate of 7kg/h [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. The investigation highlighted the significant effects of moisture content and binding agents on the mechanical and combustion properties of the briquettes produced. Sawdust is a major byproduct of wood processing industries, often disposed of as waste, thereby constituting environmental hazard and breeding ground for pests and reptiles [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. The strategic intent of this current study is to adopt briquetting technology to transform such byproducts into useful energy for domestic and industrial applications.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. Methodology","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1. Research Procedure Overview\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study focuses on the experimental investigation and optimization of feedstock blend ratio for good quality briquettes production. The hybrid biomass blend ratio optimization was carried out by means of design expert software version 13, adopting the mixture design technique to determine the most suitable blend ratio for the formulation of briquettes with high quality in terms of density, shatter index, calorific value, low ash content, mechanical firmness and a superior aesthetic value. An optimized feedstock blend ratio of 0.5kg of water hyacinth, 0.4kg of saw dust and 0.1kg of rice husk was mixed with starch (binder), providing a uniform feedstock for a manually operated piston-type briquetting machine capable of producing 24 cylindrical-shaped briquettes at a time. Ultimately, the research process involves feedstock characterization, selection, preparation, production and performance evaluation of the briquettes produced.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2. Feedstock assessment\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eHybrid biomass briquette is derived from the mix of two or more biomasses in the most suitable blend-ratio for superior quality briquettes. Selecting the right feedstock blend is crucial to producing briquettes that maximize the desired briquette qualities such as mechanical strength, shatter index, density and calorific value. Feedstock assessment encompasses identifying the most suitable biomass via a comprehensive analysis of the physical and chemical properties such as moisture content, heating value and ass content. It also involves cost implication consideration, availability and the proximity of feedstocks to the desired location.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2.1. Feedstock sourcing, pretreatment and storage\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe characterization of Water Hyacinth (WH), Sawdust (SD), and Rice Husk (RH) reveals notable variation in feedstock sources and preparation. Water hyacinth with high moisture content range of 70% \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;90% was obtained from freshwater bodies near riverine communities and initially sun-dried to reduce the excess moisture before further drying. Dried specimen of sawdust and rice husk were obtained from wood processing plant and rice mill plant respectively. Furthermore, all samples were oven-dried at 105\u0026deg;C until constant weights were achieved. The dried biomass materials were crushed down and sieved. Uniform particle size of 0.5\u0026ndash;2.0 mm was obtained as the feedstock materials which were stored in airtight containers at room temperature. Details are presented in Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3.0\u003c/span\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3.0\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBiomass materials sourcing and pretreatment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDescription\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWater Hyacinth (WH)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSawdust (SD)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRice Husk (RH)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSources\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAquatic weed from water bodies\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eResidue from wood processing\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBy-product from rice milling\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eState of Collection\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFresh (high moisture 70\u0026ndash;90%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDry\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDry\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePretreatment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAir-dried, then oven-dried at 105\u0026deg;C to constant weight\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOven-dried at 105\u0026deg;C\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOven-dried at 105\u0026deg;C\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParticle size (mm)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.5\u0026ndash;2.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.5\u0026ndash;2.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.5\u0026ndash;2.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStorage method\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAirtight container at room temperature\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAirtight container\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAirtight container\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2.2. feedstock proximate and ultimate analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe proximate and ultimate analyses of Water Hyacinth (WH), Sawdust (SD), and Rice Husk (RH) reveal significant variances in their fuel characteristics. The feedstock materials displayed a moisture content range of 8\u0026ndash;12%. This range is suitable for elevated quality briquettes with high combustion efficiency. Rice husk was observed to have the highest ash content of 15\u0026ndash;25%, moderate range of 8\u0026ndash;20% was observed in water hyacinth and the lowest range of 0.5\u0026ndash;3% in saw dust, signifying that less residual ash would be produced by saw dust. Volatile matter was relatively high in all samples (60\u0026ndash;85%), suggesting good ignition properties. Fixed carbon content ranged from 8\u0026ndash;20%, which contributes to longer burning duration. However, the ultimate analysis revealed that carbon content was highest in sawdust (45\u0026ndash;50%), indicating better calorific potential compared to water hyacinth and rice husk. Hydrogen values ranged between 4\u0026ndash;6%. Generally, nitrogen and sulphur contents were less than 2% (low), reducing the emission of harmful gases. Oxygen content spanned from 43% to 50%, enhancing good quality combustion and efficiency. Saw dust with a higher heating value (HHV) which ranged from (12\u0026ndash;20) MJ/kg, showed its suitability as the main component in briquette production. Ultimately, the analysis showed that a good blend ratio of feedstocks can balance and cover up individual weaknesses and improve briquette performance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3.1\u003c/span\u003e presents the details\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3.1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProximate and Ultimate Analysis of Biomass Feedstocks Used for Briquetting\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProperty\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMethod\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWater Hyacinth (WH)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSawdust (SD)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRice Husk (RH)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMoisture Content (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOven drying (105\u0026deg;C)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u0026ndash;12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u0026ndash;10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u0026ndash;12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAsh Content (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMuffle furnace (550\u0026deg;C)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u0026ndash;20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.5\u0026ndash;3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u0026ndash;25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVolatile Matter (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eASTM D3175\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e60\u0026ndash;75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e70\u0026ndash;85\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e65\u0026ndash;75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFixed Carbon (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBy difference\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u0026ndash;20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u0026ndash;20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u0026ndash;18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCarbon (C, %)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCHNS analyzer\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40\u0026ndash;45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45\u0026ndash;50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40\u0026ndash;48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHydrogen (H, %)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCHNS analyzer\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u0026ndash;6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u0026ndash;6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u0026ndash;5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNitrogen (N, %)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCHNS analyzer\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.5\u0026ndash;2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.1\u0026ndash;0.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.2\u0026ndash;1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSulphur (S, %)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCHNS analyzer\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.1\u0026ndash;0.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.05\u0026ndash;0.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.05\u0026ndash;0.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOxygen (O, %)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBy difference\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e46\u0026ndash;50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e43\u0026ndash;48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e46\u0026ndash;50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHigher Heating Value (MJ/kg)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBomb calorimeter\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u0026ndash;16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16\u0026ndash;20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u0026ndash;16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2.3. Comparative Analysis of Cellulosic Composition, Thermal Behaviours, and Functional Properties of feedstock\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3.2\u003c/span\u003e presents the structural, thermal, and chemical properties of Water Hyacinth (WH), Sawdust (SD), and Rice Husk (RH), which influence their performance as briquetting feedstocks. Combustion efficiency and binding can be affected by the key components including cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin which varied across the materials. Sawdust showed the highest cellulose, spanning the range of 30\u0026ndash;50% and lignin 15\u0026ndash;30% contents, indicating strong structural integrity and higher energy yield. Water hyacinth contained lower cellulose of 20\u0026ndash;35% and lignin 5\u0026ndash;15%, reflecting its weaker and less fibrous structure. Rice husk had moderate cellulose of 30\u0026ndash;45% and lignin 10\u0026ndash;25% with a high silica content, which can affect ash formation during combustion. Bulk density values ranged between 0.10\u0026ndash;0.35 g/cm\u0026sup3;, with sawdust showing slightly higher density, which supports better compaction during briquetting. The pH values of 6.0\u0026ndash;8.0 across all samples indicate neutral, suitable for stable combustion. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) indicated char yields of 10\u0026ndash;30% over a decomposition temperatures range of 250\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003eC\u0026ndash;380\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003eC, suggesting similar thermal degradation behavior among the materials. FTIR analysis showed the presence of characteristic functional groups such as [\u0026ndash;OH], [C\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;O], and [C\u0026ndash;H], confirming the presence of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin structures typical of lignocellulosic biomass. Ultimately, sawdust showed superior structural and thermal stability, while water hyacinth and rice husk provided balancing characteristics [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3.2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStructural, Thermal, and Chemical Characterization of Biomass Feedstocks for Briquetting\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProperty\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMethod\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWater Hyacinth (WH)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSawdust (SD)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRice Husk\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(RH)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCellulose (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVan Soest/NREL method\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u0026ndash;35\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u0026ndash;50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u0026ndash;45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHemicellulose (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVan Soest/NREL method\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u0026ndash;25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u0026ndash;35\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u0026ndash;25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLignin (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVan Soest/NREL method\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u0026ndash;15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u0026ndash;30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u0026ndash;25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSilica Content in Ash (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eXRF/ICP-AES\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLow\u0026ndash;Moderate\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLow\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHigh (major component\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBulk Density (g/cm\u0026sup3;)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVolumetric method\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026ndash;0.30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.15\u0026ndash;0.35\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026ndash;0.30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003epH (1:10 slurry)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003epH meter\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.5\u0026ndash;7.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.0\u0026ndash;7.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.5\u0026ndash;8.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTGA Char Yield (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTGA analysis\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u0026ndash;25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u0026ndash;25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u0026ndash;30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMain Decomposition Temp (\u0026deg;C)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTGA/DTG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e250\u0026ndash;370\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e280\u0026ndash;380\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e270\u0026ndash;370\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFTIR Major Bands\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;OH, C\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;O, C\u0026ndash;H, aromatic rings\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSimilar for all\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSimilar for all\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSimilar for all\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2.3. The comparative assessment of the relationship between Feedstock properties and briquette quality\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3.3\u003c/span\u003e highlights the effects of feedstock properties on the performance and quality of briquettes produced from Water Hyacinth, Sawdust, and Rice Husk. Moisture content significantly affects briquette density and heating value. Optimally, a range of 6\u0026ndash;12% guarantees effective binding and combustion. Specifically, high ash content in rice husk, reduces heating value and generates excessive residue, emphasizing the need for moderate blending. Lignin, abundant in sawdust provides natural binder which improves briquette overall strength and durability. Volatile matter enhances ignition. Water hyacinth and rice husks contribute to easier ignition of the briquette. Fixed carbon content supports stable and extended burning, with sawdust providing the greatest results. However, high silica content in rice husk can lead to abrasive ash and clinker formation during combustion. Bulk density influences briquette compactness and energy density, with an ideal range of 0.25\u0026ndash;0.40 g/cm\u0026sup3;. Calorific value, which represents the overall energy capacity, is highest and lowest in sawdust and water hyacinth respectively. Expert design software determined the best blend ratio which can combine with a suitable binder (starch) to ensure improved briquette strength, combustion efficiency, and sustainability [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3.3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInfluence of Key Physicochemical Properties on Briquetting Performance\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProperty\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEffect on Briquetting\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRemarks\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMoisture\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eToo high reduces density \u0026amp; HHV; too low reduces binding\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOptimum 6\u0026ndash;12%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAsh\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHigh ash lowers heating value \u0026amp; increases residue\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRH has highest ash; blend moderately\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLignin\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eActs as natural binder during compaction\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSD rich in lignin, good for strength\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVolatile Matter\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAffects ignition and combustion rate\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWH and RH help in easy ignition\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFixed Carbon\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDetermines char yield and steady burn\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSD helps maintain longer burn\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSilica\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCauses abrasive ash and clinker formation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSilica content of RH is high; needs careful handling\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBulk Density\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInfluences briquette density and energy content\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBlend to achieve 0.25\u0026ndash;0.40 g/cm\u0026sup3;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCalorific Value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndicator of energy potential\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSD highest HHV; WH lowest\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBlending Strategy\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCombine WH, SD, RH and a Binder(starch)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdopting the optimized ratio by the design software\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2.4 Feedstock selection criteria\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3.4\u003c/span\u003e outlines the key selection criteria that determine the suitability of biomass feedstocks for briquette production. The table underscores the importance of feedstock availability for continuous production and low transportation cost for reduced operational expenses. The moisture content should range between 6\u0026ndash;12%, as excessive moisture reduces briquette density and causes cracking, while too little moisture hampers good compaction. Ash content below the range of 10\u0026ndash;12% improves heating value and combustion efficiency as lower ash content minimizes slagging and residue formation. Volatile matter of 60\u0026ndash;80% facilitates easy ignition, while fixed carbon of 10\u0026ndash;25%, supports prolonged burning and higher char yield. A higher heating value of at least 15 MJ/kg indicates strong energy potential. Lignin content of 10\u0026ndash;18% acts as a natural binder and improves briquette cohesion and mechanical strength. Other important factors include particle size of 0.5\u0026ndash;2.0mm for better packing and bonding, bulk density 0.18\u0026ndash;0.35 g/cm\u0026sup3; for efficient compaction, and low silica content of less than 15% is essential for the reduction of abrasion and clinker formation. A near-neutral pH (power of hydrogen) range of 6\u0026ndash;8 and low electrical conductivity ensure corrosion-free equipment operation and stable ash behaviour. Additionally, environmental factors such as odour, safety, and biodegradability influence public acceptance and sustainability, while ease of processing minimizes pre-treatment costs. Ultimately, these factors ensure optimal briquette performance, energy efficiency, and ecological compatibility [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3.4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFeedstock selection criteria\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eS/N\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSelection Criterion\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDescription / Measurement Basis\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDesired Range / Condition\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRelevance to Briquetting Performance\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAvailability and Cost\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEase of sourcing, seasonal abundance, transport cost\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReadily available, low-cost, sustainable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnsures continuous feed supply and reduces production cost\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMoisture Content (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeasured by oven drying at 105\u0026deg;C to constant weight\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u0026ndash;12% (for briquetting)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOptimum moisture enhances compaction and prevents cracking or steam pressure during pressing\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAsh Content (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDetermined by muffle furnace at 550\u0026deg;C\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLess than 10\u0026ndash;12%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLow ash gives higher heating value and reduces slagging during combustion\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVolatile Matter (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBy proximate analysis\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e60\u0026ndash;80% desirable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHigh volatile matter supports easy ignition and better combustion\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFixed Carbon (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBy difference [100 \u0026ndash; (M\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;VM\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Ash)]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u0026ndash;25%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIncreases char yield and steady burning rate\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHigher Heating Value (MJ/kg)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeasured using bomb calorimeter\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAt least 15 MJ/kg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDetermines the energy potential of the briquette\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLignin Content (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEstimated by Van Soest/NREL method\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAt least 10\u0026ndash;18%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProvides natural binding property and improves briquette strength\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParticle Size (mm)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSieving or grinding measurement\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.5\u0026ndash;2.0 mm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUniform small particles improve packing density and bonding\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBulk Density (g/cm\u0026sup3;)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRatio of mass to volume after gentle tapping\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.18\u0026ndash;0.35 g/cm\u0026sup3;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAffects feed handling, compaction efficiency, and briquette density\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSilica Content / Abrasiveness\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDetermined by XRF or ICP-AES of ash\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs low as possible (less than 15% of ash)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHigh silica causes equipment wear and clinker formation during combustion\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003epH and Electrical Conductivity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1:10\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ebiomass\u0026ndash;water extract\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003epH rang of 6\u0026ndash;8; and low EC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNeutral pH prevents corrosion and affects ash reactivity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnvironmental and Handling Factors\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOdour, toxicity, biodegradability, legal/ethical considerations\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSafe, non-toxic, environmentally beneficial\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnsures safety, sustainability, and public acceptance\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProcessing Ease\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEase of drying, milling, blending\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eShould require minimal pre-treatment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReduces energy input and overall production cost\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3.3 Materials and Equipment\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eWater Hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) collected from water bodies\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eSaw Dust obtained from wood processing plant (sawmill)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eRice Husk obtained from a local rice processing plant\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eStarch obtained as byproduct of processed cassava\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eA fabricated manual piston-type briquetting machine for compacting feedstock to solid briquettes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eWeighing balance for weight measurement\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eGrinder for feedstock reduction\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eSieve for sieving and particle size control\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003ecompression testing machine for strength testing\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4. feed stock preparation\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eBiomasses including water hyacinth, saw dust and rice husk were obtained from water bodies, wood processing plant and rice processing mill respectively. They were then left to dry in the sun for about 72 hours before further drying in oven. They were later crushed down by means of grinder and sieved to reduce the particle size to about 0.5mm to 2.0 mm for uniformity and proper bonding during compaction. Feedstock selection and suitability were based on the criteria shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3.1\u003c/span\u003e, which include availability, cost, ash content, volatile matter, fixed carbon, and calorific value. The desired ranges were maintained within acceptable limits of moisture content of 6\u0026ndash;12%, ash content less than 12% and heating value greater than 15 MJ/kg.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.5. Experimental Design and Optimization\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eOptimization of the feedstock blend ratios was carried out using Design Expert 13 software, adopting mixture design approach. Three components such as water hyacinth (A), sawdust (B), and rice husk (C) served as independent variables, constrained to sum up to 1kg (100%).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eResponses such as density, shatter index, calorific value, average briquette quality and others were obtained from feedstock blend of 0f 0.5kg of water hyacinth, 0.4kg of saw dust and 0.1kg of rice husk which occurred at run 11, amounting to average briquette quality of 43%.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.6. Briquette production\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAfter the preparation of the feedstock which contains a homogeneous mixture of water hyacinth, saw dust, rice husk and water including a binder (cassava starch 10% by weight), the mixture was fed into the manual piston briquetting machine. A compacting pressure of 2.5Mpa was applied by means of a jack which compressed a set of 24 pistons down the array of cylinders containing the feedstock. The compacted feedstocks (briquettes)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ewere sun-dried for about 6 days until constant weight was achieved before testing. A photograph in the figure below captures the loading of feedstock into the fabricated briquetting machine.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.7. Briquette Performance Evaluation\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe briquette produced from the optimal blend ratio of 0.5:0.4:0.1 of water hyacinth, sawdust, and rice husk respectively exhibited excellent physical and combustion properties. The briquette had high density of 0.93 g/cm\u0026sup3; and strong mechanical durability including shatter index of 90.1%, indicating good handling strength. The briquette also showed efficient combustion with a high combustion rate of 85.4% and low ash content which approximately ranged from 5% to 7%, signifying clean burning performance. Overall, these results demonstrate that hybrid briquette possesses desirable qualities for effective and sustainable fuel use. Details are shown in Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3.5\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3.5\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBriquette performance assessment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProperties\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEvaluation Techniques\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProcess\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eObservations\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDensity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMathematical\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDensity\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Mass / Volume\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.93 g/cm\u0026sup3;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMoisture Content\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOven drying\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDried at 105\u0026deg;C to constant weight\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLow residual moisture content (\u0026asymp;\u0026thinsp;8\u0026ndash;10%), indicating proper drying and efficient combustion.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCalorific Value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUsing bomb calorimeter\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBurnt and heat released measured\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHigh energy value (\u0026asymp;\u0026thinsp;18\u0026ndash;20 MJ/kg), showing good heating potential.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVolatile Matter and Fixed Carbon Ratio\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnalytical\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDetermined by proximate analysis\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVolatile matter\u0026thinsp;\u0026asymp;\u0026thinsp;65\u0026ndash;70% and fixed carbon\u0026thinsp;\u0026asymp;\u0026thinsp;20\u0026ndash;25%, suitable for stable and sustained combustion.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAsh Content\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCombustion\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBurnt in muffle furnace at 550\u0026deg;C\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLow ash residue (\u0026asymp;\u0026thinsp;5\u0026ndash;7%), indicating clean burning fuel.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCompressive Strength\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUsing a universal testing machine\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSubjected to compressive pressure\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHigh structural integrity, briquettes remained intact under load.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eShatter Index\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePhysical\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAllowed to fall from a height of 1 m\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e90.1%, showing good resistance to mechanical breakage and impact.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCombustion Rate\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCombustion\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDetermined through mass loss over time\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e85.4% combustion efficiency, indicating efficient burning with minimal smoke.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTesting adopted ASTM D3173\u0026ndash;D3175 and ASTM E711\u0026ndash;87 standards. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.8. Data Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eExperimental data were analyzed statistically using ANOVA in Design Expert software to evaluate the effect of each component on briquette quality parameters. Regression models were developed to predict optimal mixture compositions. Graphical outputs such as 3D surface plots and contour maps were used to visualize the relationships among the factors and responses [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Results and discussions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis session explores the results and discussions of biomass briquettes production focusing on the optimization of feedstock mix-ratio as the key parameter and the qualities of the resulting briquettes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.1. Experimental design matrix result\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe experimental data obtained by means of design expert software are presented in Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4.0\u003c/span\u003e. The data shows the effect of the mix-ratios of water hyacinth, sawdust, and rice husk on hybrid biomass briquettes qualities such as density, shatter index, combustion efficiency and desirability. Each of these parameters mirrors the mechanical and thermal characteristics of the briquettes across material compositions variations. The feedstocks were combined to a constrained sum of one unit to ensure controlled monitoring and analysis of their influence on briquette quality. From the results, it is observed that the optimum briquette quality occurred at run 11, with a corresponding blend ratio of 0.5kg of water hyacinth, 0.4kg of sawdust, and 0.1kg of rice husk. At this composition, the briquette recorded a density of 0.93 g/cm\u0026sup3;, a shatter index of 90.1%, and a combustion efficiency of 85.4%. These metrics translated to an average briquette quality of 43%, the highest among all the experimental runs, and a desirability index of 1.000, indicating a perfectly optimized combination of mechanical and combustion characteristics. Relatively, the high density obtained at this blend suggests excellent compaction, which improves handling and storage. Also, the high shatter index confirms the briquette\u0026rsquo;s strong mechanical integrity and resistance to breakage, while the combustion efficiency shows an effective conversion of the briquette into heat energy with minimal residue. The optimum performance observed at run 11 can be attributed to the synergistic interaction of the three biomasses. Water hyacinth, used at 0.5kg (50%), provided satisfactory binding characteristics and volatile matter content, enhancing consistency during compaction and ignition during burning. Sawdust, at 0.4kg (40%), contributed to lignocellulosic material that reinforced the briquette\u0026rsquo;s structure and supported stable combustion. Rice husk metric of 0.1kg (10%), added firmness and improved the briquette\u0026rsquo;s durability via its silica-content in a regulated amount for less ash formation. The equilibrium of the mix-ratios produced a perfect hybridization that maximized mechanical and thermal efficiency. Comparatively, runs that indicate lower-quality briquettes occurred at 4 and 12 with significantly reduced density and combustion efficiency, leading to average briquette qualities of 36.87% and 0.00 desirability. Intermediate runs, such as 1, 3, 5, 8, 9, 13, and 14, recorded average briquette qualities which spanned between 39% and 41%, signifying tolerable but suboptimal results. Run 10, with an average quality of 42.92% and a desirability of 0.987, represents nearly optimum performance. However, the slight variation in component ratios led to slightly lower performance. The optimum blend ratio of 0.5:0.4:0.1 is the most suitable mix for producing high-quality briquettes that combine strength, durability, and efficient combustion. The mix produces briquettes that possess high energy density, burn cleanly with negligible residue, and can withstand handling and transportation stress. This composition therefore represents the most balanced and efficient formulation for hybrid biomass briquette production, offering a feasible path for sustainable energy generation from agricultural and aquatic biomass wastes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab7\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4.0\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExperimental design matrix results\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBRIQUETTE QUALITY\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSTD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRUN\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eA: Water Hyacinth\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eB: Saw Dust (kg)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eC: Rice Husk (kg)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDensity (g/cm\u0026sup3;)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eShatter Index (%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCombustion Efficiency (%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAverage Briquette Quality (%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDesirability\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e88.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e81.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40.95\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.666\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.433\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.333\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.233\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.82\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e90.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e82.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e41.72\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.791\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.91\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e87.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e80.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40.24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.550\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.85\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e83.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e36.87\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.89\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e85.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e79.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39.17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.375\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e86.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e78.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39.35\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.405\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e88.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e81.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40.95\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.666\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e86.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e78.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39.35\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.405\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e88.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e81.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40.95\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.666\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.93\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e90.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e85.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e42.92\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.987\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.93\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e90.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e85.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e43.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.85\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e83.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e36.87\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.89\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e85.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e79.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39.17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.375\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e86.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e78.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39.35\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.405\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.2. Optimum feedstock blend\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA blend ratio of 0.5: 0.4: 0.1 for components A (Water Hyacinth), B (Saw Dust), and C (Rice Husk), produced briquette that exhibited high quality and performance. The density was 0.93 g/cm\u0026sup3;, signifying a compact briquette. It achieved a shatter index of 90.1%, demonstrating strong mechanical toughness, and a combustion efficiency of 85.4%, showing excellent burning characteristics. The average briquette quality was 43.00%, at a desirability value of 1.000, signifying the optimal (desirable) production condition across the experimental runs. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4.1\u003c/span\u003e presents the optimal briquette production conditions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab8\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4.1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOptimal briquette production conditions details\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParameter\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eValue\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRemarks\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRun Number\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExperimental identification\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStandard Order\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDesign Expert reference order\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBlend Ratio (A: B:C)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.5: 0.4: 0.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWater Hyacinth: Saw Dust: Rice Husk\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDensity (g/cm\u0026sup3;)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.93\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHigh compactness and structural strength\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eShatter Index (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e90.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExcellent mechanical durability\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCombustion Efficiency (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e85.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHigh energy conversion efficiency\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAverage Briquette Quality (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e43.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOverall quality performance index\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDesirability\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.000 (maximum)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndicates optimal production condition\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.3. Model fit statistics and summary\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4.2\u003c/span\u003e shows the summary of the model fit statistics. The statistical analysis shows a high model accuracy with an R\u0026sup2; value of 0.9562 and an adjusted R\u0026sup2; of 0.9289, indicating that the model is significant and consistently explains the data variability. The low coefficient of variation of 0.75% and high adequate precision of 15.3350 confirm the model\u0026rsquo;s precision, consistency, and strong predictive capability as shown by Predicted R\u0026sup2; value of 0.7560. The R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e value of 0.9562 and adjusted R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e value of 0.9289 and quite close and less than 0.2, indicating that the model can be used to navigate the design space.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab9\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4.2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003esummary of model\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStd. Dev.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.3086\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eR\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.9562\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e41.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdjusted R\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.9289\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eC.V. %\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.7521\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePredicted R\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.7560\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdeq.\u0026nbsp;Precision\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.3350\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.4. Model\u0026rsquo;s Analysis of variance [ANOVA]\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicates that the overall model is highly significant with F value equals 34.97 and P value less than 0.0001. These metrics suggest that the blend ratios of the components have a substantial effect on briquette quality. Among the interaction terms, the AC interaction (Water Hyacinth \u0026times; Rice Husk) showed the most dominant influence with an F-value of 129.16 (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001), followed by AB (Water Hyacinth \u0026times; Sawdust) and BC (Sawdust \u0026times; Rice Husk), both of which were also significant. The linear mixture term contributed moderately as indicated by metrics of F\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;16.93 and p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0013, showing that individual component effects are important but less impactful than their interactions. The lack of fit was not significant (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.7355), indicating that the model adequately fits the experimental data without systematic errors. Details are presented in Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4.3\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab10\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4.3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eANOVA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSource\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSum of Squares\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003edf\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean Square\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eF-value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eModel\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34.97\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003esignificant\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLinear Mixture\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.61\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.93\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0013\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e36.26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0003\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e129.16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.64\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0050\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eResidual\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.7618\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0952\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLack of Fit\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0132\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0132\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.1236\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.7355\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003enot significant\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePure Error\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.7486\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.1069\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCor Total\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17.41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.5. Factors interaction interpretation\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe coefficient evaluations reveal that water hyacinth (55.14) has the highest positive contribution to briquette quality, followed by rice husk (49.71) and sawdust (43.97), indicating that higher proportions of water hyacinth and rice husk improve performance. The negative interaction coefficients (AB = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;26.24, AC = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;45.75, and BC = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;15.40) suggest that combining these components in excess reduces briquette quality due to unfavorable interactions. The AC interaction (Water Hyacinth \u0026times; Rice Husk) shows the strongest negative effect, implying that their proportions must be carefully balanced to achieve optimal results. The relatively high VIF values indicate strong correlations among the variables, which is expected in mixture experiments where component proportions are interdependent. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab11\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4.4\u003c/span\u003e presents the details.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab11\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4.4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCoefficient in terms of coded factors\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eComponent\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCoefficient Estimate\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003edf\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStandard Error\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e95% CI Low\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e95% CI High\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVIF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eA-WATER HYACINTH\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e55.14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.56\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e51.54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e58.74\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50.70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eB-SAW DUST\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e43.97\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.56\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40.37\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e47.56\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50.70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eC-RICE HUST\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e49.71\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.44\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e46.40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e53.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e37.70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-26.24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.36\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-36.28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-16.19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48.40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-45.75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-55.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-36.47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.68\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-15.40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-24.69\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-6.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.68\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCoded equation\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBriquette quality (%)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;55.14A\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;43.97B\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;49.71C -26.24AB -45.75AC -15.40BC\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eActual equation\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBriquette quality (%)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;103.13063water hyacinth\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;72.62839saw dust\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;133.20355rice husk-163.97767water hyacinth *saw dust \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;285.93244water hyacinth*rice husk.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.7 comparative analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eComparatively, the key finding of this study closely aligns with the research results established by Okwu and Gbabo, who reported that the addition of fibrous residues such as sawdust increases briquette density and mechanical strength [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSimilarly, the combustion performance obtained in this research constructively validates the research findings of Oladeji and Pushpa and Yadav who had noted that optimal moisture range of 6% to 12% and appropriate binder concentration can improve burning characteristics [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e]. Ultimately, the use of mixture design method of design expert proved efficient in determining the interaction effects among biomass components, yielding statistically reliable predictive models and an optimal blend that offers sustainable, low-cost fuel for domestic and industrial applications.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e4.8 Summary of Findings\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eDensity, shatter index, and combustion efficiency were strongly influenced by the mix-ratio proportions of the feedstocks.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eSawdust contributed positively to all response variables due to its high lignin and fibrous structure.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eExcess water hyacinth reduced performance due to its low fixed carbon and high moisture content.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study demonstrates that hybrid biomass briquettes produced from a blend of water hyacinth, sawdust, and rice husk can serve as a viable renewable energy alternative to conventional fossil fuels. The optimized composition produced briquettes with excellent mechanical strength, burning efficiency, and energy sustainability. The modified briquetting machine proved reliable and cost-effective, confirming that locally available agricultural and aquatic residues can be transformed into valuable solid fuels. Hence, the research validates that energy recovery from waste biomass through briquetting contributes significantly to sustainable energy development, environmental conservation, and rural economic empowerment [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding declaration:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe research did not receive any funding or grant from any agency.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interest:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe research declares no conflict of interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor\u0026rsquo;s Contribution:\u003c/strong\u003e This research is the work of a single author\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability declaration:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eData will be made available upon request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDOI: 10.6084/m9.figshare.30391057\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKpalo SY, Zainuddin MF, Manaf LA, Rosla AM (2020) A Review of Technical and Economic Aspects of Biomass Briquetting. Sustain contentReference, vol. 12, p. p. 4609\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRoman K (2024) Biomass Briquetting Technology for Sustainable Energy Solutions, in \u003cem\u003eEnergies\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGrover PD (2023) Biomass Briquetting Technology and Practices\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCarnaje NP (2018) \u003cem\u003eDevelopment and characterisation of charcoal briquettes\u003c/em\u003e,\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMidhun VC (2023) Preparation and characterisation study of water hyacinth briquettes\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNganko JM (2024) Modeling and Optimization of Compaction Pressure, Binder and Moisture for Briquette Quality using Box-Behnken RSM\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSilas K (2021) Response Surface Methodology Optimization ofDemonstrates RSM application to briquette optimization\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOkwu M, Chukwuekezie AC, Oji CS (2016) Development of Water Hyacinth Briquetting Machine. Int J Eng Appl Sci 33(5):40\u0026ndash;50\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGebrekidan T, Zeslase Y (2015) Design and Feasibility Study of an Integrated Briquetting Plant. Int J Energy Sci Eng 3(2):25\u0026ndash;31\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOmkar S, Patel, Mahajan RV (2017) Design and Fabrication of a Leaf Log Maker Machine. Int J Eng Res Appl 7(4):12\u0026ndash;16\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKishan V, Patil, Joshi NK (2016) Design and Fabrication of Portable Briquetting Machine. Int J Renew Energy Dev 5(3):211\u0026ndash;217\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eObi OO, Onukwuli CC, Odo SI (2013) Design and Construction of an Appropriate Commercial Biomass Briquetting Machine for Rural Communities. Nigeria J Technol 32(3):475\u0026ndash;482\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eManinder M, Rupinder RS, Singh N (2012) Utilization of Agricultural Residue for Briquette Production. J Renew Energy Rev 6(4):35\u0026ndash;42\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOladeji JT (2015) Theoretical Aspects of Biomass Briquetting. Energy Environ Res 5(2):31\u0026ndash;39\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGbabo A, Mohammed JI, Okafor SB (2017) Design and Fabrication of a Hydraulically Operated Briquetting Machine. Agricultural Eng International: CIGR J 19(3):157\u0026ndash;164\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAjieh A, Okeke MJ, Uche SO (2016) Design and Fabrication of a Briquetting Machine Using Grass as Raw Material. J Sustainable Energy Res 4(2):112\u0026ndash;118\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAli A, Nguyen P, Tran L (2004) Optimization of Screw Design Parameters for Biomass Briquetting. Energy Conv Manag 45(12):2017\u0026ndash;2024\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMohammed T, Ahmed K, Bello SU (2016) Design and Fabrication of a Biomass Extruder for Briquette Production. Int J Mech Industrial Eng 6(3):55\u0026ndash;61\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRoda D (2017) Development of a Compact Briquetting Machine in the Philippines. Asia-Pacific J Renew Energy Technol 2(1):33\u0026ndash;39\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eArinola F, Olorunfemi PO, Ayeni EA (2013) Design of Sawdust Briquetting Machine for Domestic Fuel Production. Nigerian J Renew Energy 9(1):15\u0026ndash;21\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOjo, Mohammed T (2015) Development of a Screw Press Briquette Making Machine Using Locally Sourced Materials. Int J Eng Technol Innov 4(4):185\u0026ndash;192\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eChilanga M \u003cem\u003eDesign and Fabrication of a Manually Operated Briquetting Machine, Lusaka, Zambia: University of Zambia Press\u003c/em\u003e, (2017)., Lusuka, University of Zambia Press, 2017., Lusuka, University of Zambia Press, 2017\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGrover PC, Mishra SK (1996) Biomass Briquetting: Technology and Practices. Reg Wood Energy Dev Programme\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSharma SK, Mohanty R (2016) Briquetting of Agricultural Waste for Energy Generation: A Review. Int J Renew Energy Res 6(4):1325\u0026ndash;2016\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBhattacharya SC, Augustus DA, Leon M (2015) Sustainable Energy from Agricultural Residues via Briquetting Technology, Renewable Energy Review, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 181\u0026ndash;198, Sustainable Energy from Agricultural Residues via Briquetting Technology, \u003cem\u003eJournal of Renewable Energy Review\u003c/em\u003e, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 181\u0026ndash;198, 2015\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eChilanga M (2017) Design and Fabrication of an Agro-Waste Briquetting Machine. J Eng Appl Sci 12(7):185\u0026ndash;190\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKazi BH (2011) Development of Small-Scale Biomass Briquetting Technology for Rural Energy Supply. Energy Sustain Dev 15(2):130\u0026ndash;138\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOlorunnisola AT (2010) Production of Fuel Briquettes from Waste Paper and Coconut Husk Admixtures. J Eng Appl Sci 5(4):290\u0026ndash;295\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSidhu HS, Singh SK (2012) Evaluation of Briquetting Technologies for Agricultural Residues. Int J Biomass Bioenergy 8(1):77\u0026ndash;84\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePushpa PJ, Yadav P (2010) Design and Fabrication of Screw Extrusion Briquetting Machine for Sawdust. J Renew Energy Eng 3(2):44\u0026ndash;51\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eArinola SA, Ojo TM, Mohammed T (2013) Design and Development of Sawdust Briquette Machine. Nigerian J Mech Eng 9(1):55\u0026ndash;62\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAdeleke AA, Oladimeji TO, Hassan MB (2021) Physical and thermal characterization of biomass materials for fuel briquette production. J Renew Energy 170:733\u0026ndash;742\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAdekoya OS, Oladeji SO, Ogedengbe JO (2021) Characterization of selected agricultural residues for briquetting. Jornal Appleid Sci Environ Manage 3(25):453\u0026ndash;460\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOlatunji MS, Adeleke OA, Aremu KA (2022) Evaluation of physicochemical properties of selected biomass materials for briquette production. J Energy Rep 8:2304\u0026ndash;2313\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOlatunji MS, Adeleke OA, Aremu KA (2022) Evaluation of physicochemical properties of selected biomass materials for briquette production, \u003cem\u003eEnergy Reports\u003c/em\u003e, vol. 8, pp. 2304\u0026thinsp;\u0026ndash;\u0026thinsp;2022\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eVan Soest P, Robertson JB, Lewis BA (1991) Methods for dietary fiber, neutral detergent fiber, and nonstarch polysaccharides in relation to animal nutrition. J Dairy Sci 74(10):3583\u0026ndash;3597\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSingh S, Gupta RC, Sharma NK (2022) Influence of feedstock properties on performance and emission characteristics of biomass briquettes. Energy Sources Part Influence feedstock Prop Perform emission characteristics biomass bri Recovery Utilization Environ Effects 44(1):120\u0026ndash;131\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eVan Soest P, Robertson JB, Lewis BA (1919) Methods for dietary fiber, neutral detergent fiber, and nonstarch polysaccharides in relation to animal nutrition. J Dairy Sci 74(10):3583\u0026ndash;3597\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNREL (2012) Determination of Structural Carbohydrates and Lignin in Biomass, : \u003cem\u003eLaboratory Analytical Procedure (LAP), NREL/TP-510-42618, Golden, CO, USA, 2012.\u003c/em\u003e,\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eASTM (2020) Standard Test Methods for Proximate Analysis of Coal and Coke by Macro Thermogravimetric Analysis. ASTM Int pp. 3173\u0026ndash;3174\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSidhu HS, Singh SK (2012) Evaluation of Briquetting Technologies for Agricultural Residues, Int. J. Biomass and Bioenergy, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 77\u0026ndash;84, Evaluation of Briquetting Technologies for Agricultural Residues, \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Biomass and Bioenergy\u003c/em\u003e, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 77\u0026ndash;84, 2012\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOkwu E, Onwualu JA, Ndirika IA (2016) Development of Biomass Briquetting Machine for Agricultural Residues. Nigerian J Technol 35(2):345\u0026ndash;353\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e[10] Gbabo A et al (2017) Design and Fabrication of a Hydraulic Briquetting Machine, Journal of Energy Technology, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 75\u0026ndash;83, Design and Fabrication of a Hydraulic Briquetting Machine, \u003cem\u003eJournal of Energy Technology\u003c/em\u003e, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 75\u0026ndash;83, 2017\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePushpa PJ, Yadav P (2012) Development and Testing of Briquetting Machine for Sawdust. J Agricultural Eng 47(2):1\u0026ndash;7\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eShyamalee S, Jayasuriya T, Dissanayake S Effect of Binder Type on Densification of Sawdust Briquettes. Energy Conv Manag,, 90, 2015255\u0026ndash;2015261\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMohammed M, Ojo T, Lawal S (2016) Design and Fabrication of a Screw Extruder Briquetting Machine. J Energy Technol 10(3):55\u0026ndash;63\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"The reseach was sponsered by the researcher","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Briquette, feedstock, mix-ratio, optimal blend, briquetting machine, water hyacinth, Biomass briquette, Sawdust, Rice husk, Density, Combustion efficiency, Desirability, Optimization","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7909513/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7909513/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study investigates the quality performance of hybrid biomass briquettes produced from water hyacinth, sawdust, and rice husk at varying blend ratios using a modified briquetting machine. Fourteen experimental runs were conducted to evaluate the effects of compositional variations on density, shatter index, combustion efficiency, average briquette quality, and desirability. The mixture proportions of water hyacinth (A), sawdust (B), and rice husk (C) ranged between 0.3\u0026ndash;0.5kg, 0.2\u0026ndash;0.4kg, and 0.1\u0026ndash;0.3kg, respectively, ensuring a total blend of 1kg, an equivalence of 100%. The briquette density varied between 0.82 and 0.93 g/cm\u0026sup3;, with the highest value (0.93 g/cm\u0026sup3;) obtained at the optimal blend ratio 0.5:0.4:0.1 (Run 11), which also demonstrated the best overall performance. The shatter index ranged from 83.1% to 90.2%, while combustion efficiency varied from 75.3% to 85.4%, indicating that higher proportions of water hyacinth and sawdust enhanced both mechanical strength and combustion behavior. The average briquette quality ranged from 36.87% to 43.00%, with the maximum (43.00%) recorded at Run 11, corresponding to the optimal blend ratio of 0.5:0.4:0.1. Similarly, desirability, a composite indicator of performance, ranged from 0.000 to 1.000, with the highest value (1.000) achieved at the same optimal condition. Overall, the results indicate that the optimal briquette formulation for high-quality performance was achieved at 0.5-part water hyacinth, 0.4-part sawdust, and 0.1-part rice husk, yielding superior density (0.93 g/cm\u0026sup3;), high shatter resistance (90.1%), efficient combustion (85.4%), and maximum desirability (1.000). This demonstrates the potential of hybrid biomass combinations to produce efficient, sustainable, and durable briquettes suitable for both domestic and industrial energy applications. Statistical analysis further confirmed the model\u0026rsquo;s reliability and predictive accuracy. The model yielded a mean briquette quality of 43% with a standard deviation of 0.3086, indicating low variability and high consistency in experimental responses. The coefficient of determination (R\u0026sup2; = 0.9562) and adjusted R\u0026sup2; = 0.9289 show that over 95% of the variability in briquette quality was explained by the model. Additionally, the predicted R\u0026sup2; (0.7560) closely aligns with the adjusted R\u0026sup2;, confirming good model predictability. The adequate precision value (15.3350) far exceeded the threshold of 4.0, indicating a strong signal-to-noise ratio, while the coefficient of variation (C.V.) of 0.7521% confirms high precision and reproducibility of results. The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) further validated the statistical robustness of the model, showing it was highly significant (F\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;34.97, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001). The model sum of squares (16.65) accounted for most of the total variation (Cor. total\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;17.41), confirming a strong model fit. Among the model terms, the linear mixture component (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0013) and binary interactions AB (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0003), AC (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001), and BC (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0050) were all significant, with the AC interaction exerting the greatest influence (F\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;129.16). The residual error (0.7618) was minimal, and the lack of fit (F\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.1236, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.7355) was not significant, confirming that the model adequately represents the experimental data. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that the developed model is statistically sound, reliable, and suitable for predicting and optimizing hybrid biomass briquette quality, providing a strong basis for sustainable bioenergy production.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Sustainable Energy from Waste: Experimental Investigation and Optimization of Hybrid Biomass Briquette Production Using a Modified Briquetting Machine","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-22 06:35:59","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7909513/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"2d2865c9-f9c6-48b7-852c-733b8d9e28a8","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 22nd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":56610299,"name":"Mechanical Engineering"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-10-22T06:35:59+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-22 06:35:59","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7909513","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7909513","identity":"rs-7909513","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}