High-Performance, Temperature Retardant and Hydrophobic BiCoO₃:PDMS Piezoelectric Nanogenerator for Effective Energy Harvesting in Harsh Environments

High-Performance, Temperature Retardant and Hydrophobic BiCoO₃:PDMS Piezoelectric Nanogenerator for Effective Energy Harvesting in Harsh Environments | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article High-Performance, Temperature Retardant and Hydrophobic BiCoO₃:PDMS Piezoelectric Nanogenerator for Effective Energy Harvesting in Harsh Environments Dhiraj Bharti, Sandeep Kumar, Jitendra Singh This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7666722/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 14 Mar, 2026 Read the published version in Chemical Engineering Journal → Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Multifunctional nanogenerators are advanced nanoscale devices designed to harvest various forms of waste energy from the environment and convert it into usable electrical energy. In this study, non-centrosymmetric highly crystalline BiCoO₃ nanocubes are synthesized using the hydrothermal method. The average particle size approximately 80 nm of nanocubes are calculated through High-Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy. Piezoelectric Force Microscopy analysis revealed a piezoelectric charge coefficient of 330.41 pm/V for the BiCoO₃ nanocubes. The high output voltage of 44.8 V and an output current density of 9.2 µA/cm², with a quick response time of 40 ms, high sensitivity (298.66 V/kgf) and high energy conversion efficiency of 33.75% are achieved. The nanogenerator is performed under extreme environmental conditions, including elevated temperatures upto 120°C and heavy rainfall, ensuring sustained performance and extended operational lifespan. The demonstration of charging multiple capacitors and simultaneously illuminating 10 LED’s underscores the significant potential of the nanogenerator for next-generation flexible sensor applications. This capability underscores its exceptional robustness and adaptability, positioning it as a highly promising solution in future for sustainable energy harvesting and real-time monitoring applications, particularly in extreme environmental conditions such as high temperatures and heavy rainfall. Physical sciences/Nanoscience and technology/Nanoscale devices/NEMS Physical sciences/Engineering/Electrical and electronic engineering Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Introduction Rapid robust energy-harvesting technology development has highlighted the need for novel materials that can meet the growing demand for effective, long-lasting, and adaptable solutions. Piezoelectric nanogenerators (PENGs) have become a game-changing technology among the many approaches to producing endless renewable energy 1 , 2 . The need for energy harvesting solutions independent of conventional power networks and batteries is growing as the globe moves toward greener technologies 3 . PENGs are particularly well-suited for applications such as wearable electronics, remote sensors, and biomedical equipment where small quantities of energy are needed but conventional power sources are limited 4 , 5 . PENGs has a strong history for replacing conventional energy sources due to their compact size, adaptability, and capacity to run on ambient mechanical energy. PENGs have the potential to power a wide range of low-energy devices, sensors, and wearable electronics since they work by transforming mechanical energy from ambient vibrations, movements, or stresses into electrical energy 6 . High-performance, hydrophobicity and temperature-retardant piezoelectric nanogenerators offer a revolutionary way to overcome the difficulties associated with energy harvesting in harsh environments. The need for dependable, sustainable, and efficient energy sources around the world has fueled the creation of cutting-edge materials that can overcome the drawbacks of traditional systems. Though they are good at turning mechanical energy into electrical power, traditional piezoelectric materials sometimes perform poorly in hot and humid conditions, necessitating the development of new novel materials with multifunctional properties. Temperature-retardant piezoelectric nanogenerators are specifically designed to operate in high-temperature locations, such as industrial, geothermal sites 7 . The performance of many traditional piezoelectric materials, such as lead zirconate titanate (PZT), BiFeO₃, GaN, SnO₂-based nanowires, Gallium arsenide (GaAs), Na 0.5 K 0.5 NbO 3 (NKN), PDMS-ZnO, PDMS-BiFeO₃, degrades when heated, mostly because of their poor thermal stability and susceptibility to environmental stress 8 , 9 . The fusion of high Curie temperatures and excellent thermal stability materials in high-performance nanogenerators fill the gap and is a promising energy harvester, even in harsh temperature conditions. Because of this, they are especially helpful in energy-intensive industries where heat and vibrations generated during operations can be captured to produce sustainable energy. Further, the reliability and efficiency of these nanogenerators are improved by the hydrophobic qualities of the device. For many energy-harvesting systems, water-induced degradation is a prevalent issue, particularly in humid, rainy, or maritime conditions. Conventional materials frequently perform worse as a result of moisture intrusion, endangering the device's electrical and structural integrity. In order to get over this restriction, water-resistant materials including polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and polystyrene (PS) used for hydrophobic piezoelectric nanogenerators 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 . These materials provide a barrier that keeps water from damaging the essential parts and guarantees reliable operation even under harsh conditions. Wearable electronics that need to endure perspiration and unintentional water exposure, as well as marine energy harvesting applications where devices are exposed to seawater or high humidity levels, will especially benefit from this capacity. These devices can generate renewable energy by harnessing mechanical energy from tides, ocean waves, or underwater currents, which is very advantageous for marine applications. Similarly, these nanogenerators can be utilized in industrial settings to capture energy from high-temperature processes or vibrations in machinery, allowing wireless sensors and monitoring systems to function without the need for conventional power sources 14 . Finding materials with excellent piezoelectric performance that are also flexible, durable, and resistant to external influences like humidity and temperature is one of the most important difficulties in the development of PENGs. Because of its exceptional ferroelectric qualities, high dielectric constant, and excellent thermal stability, bismuth cobaltite (BiCoO 3 ) nanoparticles have recently drawn interest 15 , 16 . Bismuth cobaltite is especially well-suited for use in industrial, geothermal, and aerospace settings since it maintains its functionality at high temperatures, in contrast to traditional piezoelectric materials that frequently experience performance loss under harsh conditions 17 . In difficult environments, places where mechanical and thermal energy are plentiful but underutilized, strong crystal structure and high Curie temperature of BiCoO 3 nanoparticle offer a crucial basis for energy harvesting. BiCoO 3 nanoparticles are integrated with PDMS to overcome significant drawbacks of conventional piezoelectric materials, namely concerning mechanical flexibility, hydrophobicity, and resistance to environmental wear. PDMS is a multipurpose silicone-based polymer known for its durability, chemical inertness, and mechanical flexibility. The silicone-based elastomer PDMS has demonstrated exceptional flexibility, hydrophobic qualities, and biocompatibility, making it a perfect matrix for combining with piezoelectric devices. A new class of piezoelectric nanogenerators that are not only mechanically flexible but also resistant to extreme environmental factors like high temperatures and moisture can be created by combining PDMS with high-performance piezoelectric materials like BiCoO 3 nanoparticles. High-performance BiCoO 3 :PDMS based piezoelectric nanogenerators hold great promise for the industrial, aerospace, and wearable electronics industries. Wireless sensors, monitoring systems, and even small-scale electronic equipment can be powered without the need for traditional power sources as new class of self-powered devices whose capacity to capture energy from vibrations, shocks, and mechanical stresses will be adopted. In this study, BiCoO 3 piezoelectric nanomaterial synthesized using a low-cost hydrothermal method was reported as a base material in the PENG for the first time. The piezoelectric charge coefficient (330.41 pm/V) of the BiCoO 3 nanostructure was investigated using a piezoelectric force microscope. Using the device architecture of Ag coated PET/(BiCoO 3 : PDMS)/ITO coated PET, a flexible piezoelectric nanogenerator was designed. With a very low compression force of 0.15 kgf, a high output voltage of 44.8 V and current density of 9.2 µA/cm 2 were achieved without electrical poling with a quick response time of 40 ms, high sensitivity (298.66 V/kgf) and high energy conversion efficiency of 33.75% was observed. These robustness and lightweight design offer a clear advantage in healthcare, electronics, automotive, environmental monitoring, defense, and infrastructure sectors where weight and dependability are crucial. Results Hydrothermal synthesis was used to create highly crystalline nanocubes BiCoO 3 nanocubes. BiCoO 3 nanocubes that had been manufactured were structurally analyzed using XRD study and the corresponding recorded phase data of the nanomaterials is displayed in Fig. 1 a. The distinctive peak of BiCoO 3 nanocubes is visible in the XRD plot, and all the diffraction peaks were accurately indexed using the ICSD-194644. The cubic phase of BiCoO 3 corresponds to the space group (I23 (197)) with lattice parameters a = b = c = 1.019 nm, α = β = γ = 90°. The Williamson-Hall (W-H) technique was utilized to examine the crystallite size and micro strain inside the crystal. The following equation is applied: $$\:\beta\:\text{cos}\theta\:=\frac{k\lambda\:}{D}+\epsilon\:4\text{sin}\theta\:$$ 1 where λ is the X-ray wavelength, β is the full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the diffraction peak, θ is the Bragg angle, D is the crystallite size, K is the form factor (usually 0.9) and the lattice strain is denoted by \(\:\epsilon\:\) . We plotted a graph between β Cosθ versus 4 Sinθ and the resultant pattern is shown in Fig. S1 , and the determination of crystallite size using the y-intercept and strain from the slope. An observed low lattice strain 0.00034 in the Fig. indicated a well-ordered highly crystalline structure and the average crystallite size (D = 0.9λ / βCosθ) of Bi 2 CoO 3 nanocubes at θ = 27.028°, β = 0.11 was calculated as 77.64 nm for (130) plane. A high degree of crystallinity and a well-ordered lattice structure are indicated by the computed crystallite size of 73.63 nm, which will affect the functional and physical characteristics of the material 18 . The highly crystalline nature of BiCoO₃ nanocubes indicates large crystallite size, which enhances magnetoelectric coupling, strong ferroelectricity, and structural stability. The designed crystal structure at different orientation plane such as (001) and (111) are displayed in Fig. 1 b & 2 c respectively. The crystal structure includes the two unequal cobalt atoms (Co²⁺, Co 3 ⁺) occupy the (2a) tetrahedral site and the remaining Bi cations occupy the octahedral site positions (24f). Co atoms are occupied by oxygen anions: one-third are at 24f sites and the other two-thirds are at 8c sites, where they are fully occupied in each phase 19 . Bismuth (Bi³⁺;1.03 Å (in 8-fold coordination) has a larger ionic radius compared to Cobalt (Co²⁺; 0.73 Å (in 6-fold coordination) Co³⁺; 0.65 Å (in 6-fold coordination) and this size mismatch leads to distortions in the octahedral coordination of CoO 6 and the coordination of BiO8 20, 21, 22 . The large variations in ionic sizes of Bi and Co results in the distortion in the crystal structure and a development of non-centrosymmetric configuration results in a polarization response under an electric field. The micrographs from the HR-TEM microstructural analysis of the produced nanocubes, were displayed in Fig. 1 (d-f) . The high-size agglomerated nanocubes shown was formed due to the Ostwald ripening that occurred during the nucleation process. Figure 1 (d-f) depicts the low magnification TEM micrographs at different magnifications with 3D cubical-shaped nanocubes with side length of 75 ± 5 nm. The nanocube morphology is indexed as the dotted nanocubes of blue and red color in Fig. 1 f and no evidence of additional morphology is present. The elevated temperature and pressure in a hydrothermal environment can achieve high supersaturation levels, promoting rapid nucleation results in better ion mobility, leading to form uniform crystallization noncubic structures of BiCoO 3 nanocubes 23 . The corresponding SAED pattern of BiCoO 3 nanocubes are recorded and the SAED pattern is shown in Fig. 1 g. Obtained bright spots in SAED pattern are well indexed with the (hkl) places and correlated with the XRD spectra which validates the formation of highly crystalline nanocubes. High crystallinity is a result of uniform nucleation, which forms numerous nucleation sites simultaneously under controlled nucleation circumstances including homogenous surroundings and appropriate supersaturation 24 . This consistent nucleation at lowest surface energy aids highly crystalline crystal structure. BiCoO 3 nanocubes were subjected to FESEM elemental analysis, and the different color mapping micrographs of respective elements was shown in Fig. 1 (h-k) which confirms the presence of Bismuth (Bi: green), Cobalt (Co: blue) and Oxygen (O: red) elements and the resulting EDS mapping spectra was recorded as shown in Fig. 1 l. Figure 1 l shows the low intensity peak at 0.5249 eV, 0.7762 eV and 2.422 eV, corresponds to O Kα1, Co Lα1, Bi M α1 and the high intense peak position at 6.930 eV and 7.649 eV attributes to the X-ray emission from Co Kα1, Co Kβ1. These spectra confirm the purity of the BiCoO 3 nanocubes with zero foreign elements. The atomic percent and weight percent of elements exist in the system are also obtained and data is shown in the inset table of Fig. 1 l which supports the successful synthesis of the nanocubes and confirms the uniformity, purity, and intended stoichiometry of the crystal system. The particle size was determined using the dynamic light scattering (DLS) experiment, by measuring the hydrodynamic diameter of BiCoO 3 nanocubes and the grain size vs counts spectra was shown in Fig. 1 m. The hydrodynamic diameters, 80 + 5 nm, which are derived from DLS measurements, are somewhat bigger than those found by TEM observations, as would be predicted which might be due to the inclusion of solvation layers and possible nanoparticle aggregation in solution 25 . The synthesized BiCoO 3 nanocubes was further examined for the piezoelectric charge coefficient parameter using Piezoelectric Force Microscope (PFM). The BiCoO 3 nanocubes was dispersed over the conductive Cu foil and place on the stage of PFM instrument where it is examined with conductive tip and the deflection on the tip was recorded using the laser and photodetector tip as shown in Fig. 2 a. The zone was scanned over the range of (2x2) mm and the topographical view of BiCoO 3 nanocubes on Cu foil is shown in Fig. 2 b. The amplitude contrast image shown in Fig. 2 c depicts the agglomerated BiCoO 3 nanocubes with average particle size of ~ 80 nm as per the TEM images in Fig. 1 f was validated. The PFM phase image recorded over the AC drive voltage of 5 V prophesies the induced confined polarization and piezoelectric force response of BiCoO 3 nanocubes as shown in Fig. 2 d. This 180 politization arises due to the switching of nanodipoles under the influence of driven electric field. The local piezoelectric response was evaluated by scanning the sample at five different data points marked as red in topographical, amplitude and phase diagram. The phase reversal study is also performed and the applied voltage vs phase spectra is recorded as illustrated in Fig. 2 e. The piezoelectric nature is reflected from the obtained PFM hysteresis loop of BiCoO 3 nanocubes with phase reversal of 180° which confirms its piezoelectric domain switching. The asymmetric is due to the internal biased field caused by the inbuild potential difference between the tip and nanocubes. Furthermore, it might be possible that the polarization shift does not happen consistently throughout the sample because of changes in internal tensions, crystal orientation, or local electric fields, some areas may transition sooner or later. The phase response may exhibit anomalies due to this non-uniformity, resulting in split or distorted peaks 26 . This reversible polarization switching also highlights the inherent ferroelectric effect, where spontaneous dipole alignment can be modulated by external bias. The coexistence of ferroelectric and piezoelectric responses, accompanied by the enhancement of local nano-dipoles, further validates the multifunctional nature of BiCoO 3 nanocubes. The effect of applied voltage on the contraction and relaxation of BiCoO 3 nanocubes was studied and the amplitude-voltage butterfly loop spectra is obtained (Fig. 2 f). The piezoelectric charge coefficient (d 33 ) of 330.41 pm/V is obtained from the tangent of the slope of the butterfly loop of BiCoO 3 nanocubes. In recent report, surface modified BiCoO 3 films was fabricated using metal organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) and observed that the different concentration hybrid films has d 33 value in the range of 28 pm/V and 63 pm/V. Changes in the crystal structure and thickness of film due to doping is the cause of the d 33 rises 17 . It is noteworthy to mention that this is the first report on the used for piezo-catalysis of BiCoO 3 due to the very high values of 330.41 pm/V for high performance, flexible nanogenerator. Further, these nanocubes was mixed via ultrasonication method with the PDMS matrix to fabricate hybrid composite film using cost effective spin coater technique on ITO/PET substrate. The thickness of hybrid composite film and the distribution BiCoO 3 nanocubes in the PDMS matrix was examined. Morphological study of BiCoO 3 :PDMS composite film was carried out using FE-SEM and micrographs are shown in Fig. 3ai, 4a(ii) & 4a(ii) illustrate the surface morphology of the BiCoO 3 :PDMS composite film from the top and bottom perspectives, respectively. The images confirm a uniform dispersion (15 wt.% concentration) of BiCoO 3 nanocubes throughout the PDMS matrix, indicating successful integration during synthesis. This homogeneous distribution across both surfaces plays a key role in ensuring stable mechanical flexibility and consistent piezoelectric performance, which are essential for device-level applications. Figure 3 a (iii) shows the cross section view of BiCoO 3 :PDMS composite film and it is evidenced that the (99.65 ± 2) µm thickness BiCoO 3 :PDMS composite film is strongly attached on the (127 ± 2) µm ITO coated on a PET substrate. Thereafter, highly conductive Ag coated PET substrate was placed on the BiCoO 3 :PDMS coated ITO/PET substrate and the Fig. 3 b depicts a picture of a nanogenerator with dimension of (2x4) cm. The ultra-flexible property of PENG was shown in Fig. 3 c which makes it a potential candidate for flexible electronics applications. The PENG is equipped with high conductive Ag electrode with high sheet resistances value of 6 Ω/sq. The deposited Ag layer retained good conductivity, adhesion and flexibility and cracking during repeated mechanical bending. The layout of simple visual representation of as synthesized BiCoO 3 PENG is provided in Fig. 3 d. An (ITO/PET)/(BiCoO 3 :PDMS)/(Cu/PET) nanogenerator diagram typically describes a three-layer nanogenerator with ITO as the one electrode, BiCoO 3 incorporated PDMS as a semiconducting piezoelectric material, and silver (Ag) as other electrode. Energy harvesting via mechanical vibrations or pressure changes is a common use for this type of device. Ag is a highly conductive metal often used as the top electrode in many nanogenerators. The inset in Fig. 3 d shows that the BiCoO 3 nanocubes were embedded in a PDMS matrix. The working mechanism of BiCoO 3 PENG was explained using a three-step process as shown in Fig. 3 e. When mechanical stress (such as compression, bending, or release) is applied to the BiCoO₃/PDMS composite, the BiCoO₃ nanocubical particles experience deformation as shown in inset of Fig. 3 e. The force/pressure breaks charge neutrality and creates polarization by dislodging positive and negative ions in the crystal lattice, which results in a piezoelectric potential as shown in the inset of Fig. 3 e. Due to the piezoelectric effect of BiCoO₃, the deformation causes an electrical charge to accumulate at the surfaces of the particles. This electrical charge can be collected by electrodes attached to the surface of the PDMS layer. In our composite system, the embedded BiCoO 3 nanocubes act as localized piezoelectric charge centers. Upon mechanical deformation, charges generated at the BiCoO 3 –PDMS interfaces are transmitted via interfacial polarization and localized tunneling between neighboring nanocubes, creating effective charge pathways despite the insulating host. These charges are subsequently collected by the top and bottom electrodes through percolative networks 27 . The vertical pressure applied over the BiCoO 3 PENG using functional generator-controlled dynamic shakers was used to record the short circuit current (I SC ) and open circuit voltage (V OC ). The impact of various ratio concentrations of BiCoO 3 nanocubes inside the PDMS matrix was examined and the output voltage of BiCoO 3 PENG was recorded. Under the application of mechanical pressure, the BiCoO 3 PENG produces an electrical charge, and different positive and negative peak voltages of 13.5 V, 20.0 V, 25.5 V, and 19.5 V was measured at different concentrations of 5 wt.%, 10 wt.%, 15 wt.%, and 20 wt.% respectively (Fig. S2) . Further, the voltage vs wt% concentration relation shown in Fig. 4 a depicts that the percentage of BiCoO 3 nanocubes in the PDMS matrix increases (< 15 wt.%) the number of nanodipoles per unit volume increases which leads to a rise in Maxwell-Wagner-Sillars polarization and overall piezoelectric output. Additionally, when the percentage of BiCoO 3 nanocubes increases, the weak insulation within the active layer causes an electric breakdown, and the output voltage begins to drop 28 . Thereafter, all the performance was evaluated at 15 wt.% concentration, as this composition yielded the highest output response. The fabricated PENG undergo at different pressure conditions to study the effect of different forced and the data is recorded as shown in Fig. 4 b & 5 c. The function generator-controlled pressure exerted by dynamic shaker on PENG is shown in Fig. 4 b and the voltage of 25.5 V, 36.2 V, 44.8 V, and 44.7 V was recorded at different force pressure of 0.05 kgf, 0.10 kgf, 0.15 kgf and 0.20 kgf respectively. As we increase the force, number of dipoles per unit area also increases thereby increasing the overall output. As force/pressure increases on the PENG, the nanocubes deforms or shifts more and there is an alignment of more nanodipoles in the response of external force resulting more polarization effect. This enhancement of polarization effect creates the greater electric potential across the electrodes due to high nanodipoles per unit area results in the high output at 0.15 kgf. While further increase in force limits the output response of a PENG due to elastic limitations of the material. Moreover, an excessive number of stored charges on the electrodes prevented the electrodes from completely separating them, which might lead to output saturation. The PENG terminal connection was interchanged among themselves to do the polarity test where the equal and opposite peaks was observed and the data plotted at different force conditions in Fig. 4 c. Likewise, the current density also one of the key parameters in evaluating the efficiency of PENG and it was investigated as shown in Fig. 4 d & 5 e. Figure 4 d shows the forward connection current density of PENG \(\:\left(J=\raisebox{1ex}{$I$}\!\left/\:\!\raisebox{-1ex}{$A$}\right.;I\:\text{i}\text{s}\:\text{o}\text{u}\text{t}\text{p}\text{u}\text{t}\:\text{c}\text{u}\text{r}\text{r}\text{e}\text{n}\text{t}\:\text{a}\text{n}\text{d}\:\text{A}\:\text{i}\text{s}\:\text{a}\text{r}\text{e}\text{a}\:\text{u}\text{n}\text{d}\text{e}\text{r}\:\text{f}\text{o}\text{r}\text{c}\text{e}\right)\) at 0.15 kgf force and the date was recorded upto 15000 cycles to study the durability of the device. The inset of Fig. 4 d shows the magnified view of current density and very high output respace of 9.2 µA/cm 2 was achieved. With a stability upto 25000 sec polarity check was also performed and equal and opposite current density of 9.2 µA/cm 2 was recorded as illustrated in Fig. 4 e. The output response of the PENG with 15 wt% concentration of BiCoO 3 in PDMS and ITO/PET as a counter electrode was also recorded for comparison and very less ( Fig. S3a ) output voltage of 22.5 V and ( Fig. S3b ) current density of 4.4 µA/cm 2 and was recorded under the 0.15 kgf force due to higher sheet resistance and lower work function. The best power transmission, energy conversion efficiency, and device stability are shown by the analysis of voltage and current density at various resistance loads as shown in Fig. 4 (f-h) . Figure 4 f & 5 g exhibit the changes in output voltage and current density with resistance, respectively. I SC falls from 5.5 µA/cm −2 to 0.4 nA/cm − 2 , and V OC rises from 0.1 V to 25 V when the resistance increases from 0.1 KΩ to 10 MΩ. This pattern illustrates the inverse connection between voltage and current as per Ohm's law. Thereafter, the instantaneous power density was computed using the formula, $$\:P=\frac{{V}_{OC}^{2}}{AR}$$ 2 where A is the effective surface area, R is the external load resistance attached and V OC is the output voltage. The variation of power density at different load resistance was plotted as shown in Fig. 4 h and the highest power density of 1414 mW/cm 2 was shown at 0.1 MΩ. In energy harvesting applications, this study is essential for improving the efficiency of the nanogenerator and optimizing load conditions at 0.1 MΩ. The device under observation for 1 month with proves its durability and proves its application for self-powered wearable systems. Flexible nature of nanogenerator was also studied at different bending conditions from the bending angle of -120° to + 120°. Output voltage and current density are recorded before bending and after 10 cycles of bending and there is no change in the performance of nanogenerator which confirms its flexible nature as shown in Fig. 4 i & 5 j respectively. Additionally, the PENG swift time of response of 40 ms was calculated for one complete voltage response cycle as illustrated in Fig. S4 . The high sensitivity (298.66 V/kgf), flexibility, and stability (more than 15,000 cycles) and fast response time confirms BiCoO 3 PENG an excellent possibility for wearable sensor applications and validate its use in rough conditions. The investigation of the material to store charge is measured from the impedance analyzer at room temperature was recorded. Figure 4 k shows the dielectric constant at different frequencies of BiCoO 3 nanocubes and the 15 wt.% concentration of BiCoO 3 nanocubes incorporated inside the PDMS matrix. The high dielectric constant of BiCoO 3 nanocubes was recorded as 186.21 at 20Hz, which further decreases and reaches its minimum value of 9.93 at 2 MHz. These nanocubes are used as a filler in the PDMS matrix and the dielectric of BiCoO 3 :PDMS nanocomposite film was also recorded with the dielectric constant value of 27.21 at 20 Hz. With increased frequency, the dielectric constant value decreases and reaches its minimum value of 3.51 at 2 MHz. At high frequencies, the dielectric constant drops because the nanodipoles cannot respond swiftly to the alternating electric field, leading to reduced dielectric polarization. The mechanical vertical force-derived electrical energy (Ee) and the stored mechanical energy (Em) within the nanogenerator were used to calculate the efficiency of the BiCoO3 PENG. The mathematical expression for the piezoelectric voltage constant (g33) in terms of the dielectric constant k, the permittivity of free space (εo), and piezoelectric charge constant (d33) is expressed as g 33 = d 33 /(ε o K), (3) According to this equation, a reduction in the dielectric constant will cause a sudden increase in the value of g 33 . The device's output voltage (V) is influenced by the piezoelectric voltage constant in terms of strain (ε), and the active materials' Young's modulus (Y) may be found as V = g 33 εYL. (4) Concerning effective area a and thickness l, the mechanical energy (E m ) stored in the nanogenerator as strain (ε) under vertical compression pressure may be shown as 29 𝐸𝑚 = (1/2)YAL𝜀 2 (5) The Young's modulus of composite film is determined to be 40.20 GPa by calculating the Young's modulus of PDMS (0.00026 GPa) and BiCoO 3 (268 GPa) 30 . Stress (σ) induced strain was also computed and may be expressed as ε = σ/E m (6) It was determined that the mechanical stored strain energy was approximately 9.27 x 10 − 8 J. At a single cycle interval time (t), the E e of the BiCoO 3 PENG at a certain V OC voltage and I SC current was computed from Ee= ∫ 𝑉 OC 𝐼 SC 𝑑𝑡, (7) It was determined that the electrical energy produced for a single cycle interval was roughly 27.47 x 10 − 8 J. The BiCoO 3 PENG energy conversion efficiency (𝜂) was determined to be 29, 31 𝜂=(E e /E m ) (8) The calculated efficiency of the fabricated flexible BiCoO 3 PENG is 33.75%, significantly greater than that of recently published self-powered high-performance portable nanogenerators 29 , 32 . To investigate the capacitive nature of the produced BiCoO 3 :PDMS hybrid composite film, the Bode plots electrical impedance was determined within the frequency spectrum of 100 Hz to 25 kHz to confirm the device internal electrical impedance. Fig. S5a & S5b display a logarithm plot between the Z modulus vs applied frequency and a logarithmic graph between the Z phase vs applied frequency respectively. The Z phase of -90° verified the BiCoO 3 PENG optimal capacitive behaviour. The capacitive behaviour of the PENG is confirmed by the linear response of the impedance slope value (R 2 = 0.99). These findings are in good agreement with the piezoelectric nanogenerator research that has already been published 5 , 33 . Table.1 Comparing the output voltage and current produced by the composite nanogenerators that have been reported so far Sr. No. Materials Electrode Synthesis Process Harvesting Technique/ Force/ Pressure Output performance References Voltage (Open Circuit) Current / Current Density (Short Circuit) 1. Zn 2 SiO 4 Nanorods Graphene Hydrothermal Bending 5.5 V 0.5 µA 5 2. ZnS nanowire Si CVD Pushing (0.117 N) 0.83 V 40 nA 34 3. ZnO/Yb 2 O 3 Au Spin coating Pushing 5 V 60 nA 35 4. MoS 2 nanosheet Al Chemical exfoliation Pushing 4 V 210 nA 36 5. MAPbI 3 Au Spincoating Bending 3.71 V 0.203 µA /cm 2 6 6. BaTiO3 Ti/Au Hydrothermal Pushing 14 V 190 nA/cm 2 37 7. 4H-SiC nanowire Al, Ag Anodic oxidation Pushing 3 V 200 nA 38 8. ZnO nanowire/nanowall Graphene, Au CVD Pushing 0.020 V 500 nA/cm 2 39 9. 2D Bi 2 O 2 Se Au CVD Pushing 40 mV 2 nA 2 10. ZnO Nanowires Pd Sputtering Pushing 1.8 mV 4.8 pA 40 11. NbOI 2 Cr and Ag ME and CVT Bending –– 140pA 41 12. PZT nanowire Ag Electrospining Bending 0.24 V 2.5 nA 42 13. BiCoO 3 nanocubes Ag Hydrothermal Pushing (~ 0.15 kgf) 44.8 V 9.2 µA/cm 2 Our work CVD – Chemical Vapor Deposition; ME – Mechanically Exfoliated; CVT – Chemical Vapor Transport; Au - Gold; Ag - Silver; Ti – Titanium; Pd – Palladium; Cr – Chromium; Si – Silicon; Pt – Platinum. Table 1. provides a thorough comparison of our work with earlier reported research. Attempts were made to improve the output performance of the piezoelectric nanogenerator by altering the surface morphology via doping, annealing, ion beam etching, and other techniques for scavenging mechanical energy. In one report, it was claimed that MoS 2 nanosheets were created via chemical exfoliation and then processed for energy harvesting. The flexible cellulose nanofiber-embedded MoS 2 nanosheet-based piezoelectric nanogenerator has a high mechanical strength and an output voltage is 4V and current of 0.21 µA 36 . Piezoelectric nanogenerators based on N-doped 4H-SiC nanowire arrays have been created with outstanding performance, exhibiting an output voltage and circuit current density of 3.0 V and 0.2 µA cm − 2 , respectively 38 . Two-dimensional NbOI₂ based PENG emphasizing its potential for adaptable energy harvestor due to its special properties makes it a promising option for nanogenerators and next-generation piezotronic devices 41 . Additionally, a flexible Zn 2 SiO 4 nanorod PDMS PENG based on graphene electrodes was created and was capable of producing an output voltage and current of 5.5 V and 0.5 𝜇A/cm 2 respectively 5 . Our produced BiCoO 3 nanocubes: PDMS based hybrid composites with silver electrode developed at low pressure (0.15 kgf) demonstrated extremely high output voltage and current on average, according to previously published work shown in Table.1 . The high piezoelectric output arises from strong interfacial adhesion between the composite layer and top electrode, which ensures efficient mechanical stress propagation, minimizes interfacial slippage, and enhances the generation and transport of piezo-induced charges by maintaining consistent electric field distribution across the interface. For energy harvesting in harsh conditions where traditional devices malfunction, hydrophobic and high-temperature nanogenerators are essential. They can function in geothermal systems, industrial environments, moist industrial settings, maritime energy harvesting and aerospace applications. The fabricated PENG was designed to work under harsh weathering conditions. Several important testing parameters must be taken into consideration when designing a PENG to function in extreme weather conditions, such as high temperatures and heavy rain fall, to guarantee performance and longevity. The performance of PENG at high temperature from 30°C to 180°C was recorded and the setup for the measurement is shown in Fig. 5 a. The PENG was kept at temperature controlled hot plate and the function generator-controlled force of 0.15 kgf was applied. The oscilloscope was used to measure the ( Fig. 5 b ) forward connection and ( Fig. 5 c ) reverse connection output voltage and there is an increment and decrement in the output voltage from 30°C to 90°C and from 90°C to 120°C respectively. At moderate increases in temperature from 30°C to 90°C, the intrinsic electrical impedance of piezoelectric materials (BiCoO 3 ) decreases, improving the transfer of charge, boost ion mobility and nonodipole orientation, resulting in a temporary increase in the piezoelectric coefficient which improves the output voltage of PENG upto 48 V 43 . Further, increment in the temperature, increase the mobility of intrinsic charge carriers (electrons and ions) in the nanomaterial leads to the increase in leakage currents and dielectric losses, the output performance continuously decaying upto 38 V despite of its high curie temperature (400°C) of BiCoO 3 . In this situation where moisture or water exposure is unavoidable, hydrophobic piezoelectric nanogenerators are crucial for effective energy harvesting. By incorporating hydrophobic characteristics, these nanogenerators aid in the creation of dependable and sustainable energy solutions for a variety of practical uses. The hydrophobic nature of BiCoO 3 : PDMS hybrid composite film was measured and the different contact angle of water with the nanocomposite film versus waiting time of water droplet on nanocomposite film at room temperature was plotted as shown in Fig. S6 . Water was drop cast over the film with the drop size of 1 µL at the 0.2µL/sec using a syringe and the contact angle at different waiting time was observed and hydrophobic contact angle above 90° is observed in all the time intervals which indicates a non-absorptive or non-reactive surface with respect to water. The mean contact angle of water with BiCoO 3 : PDMS hybrid composite film was observed and the pictorial representation of the hydrophobic contact angle of 105.4° was shown in Fig. 6 d. Therefore, the fabricated device can work as a rainwater piezoelectric nanogenerator to generate an electric charge when deformed by the impact of raindrops. The measurement setup was made where slightly tilted PENG was kept under an automatic syringe and the water flow rate was controlled using a Drop Shape Analyzer as shown in Fig. 5 e. Two syringes of 0.5 mm and 1.8 mm diameter were used to generate the water drop of 1µL and 4 µL. The PENG experienced the impact of water drop at regular intervals and the output voltage was recorded as shown in Fig. 5 f. It is evidenced that the alternative positive and negative piezoelectric peaks are generated with a peak intensity of 17.5 V and 28.0 V from the continuous drops of 1µL and 4 µL respectively. The chemical formula for PDMS is (C 2 H 6 OSi) n and is made up of a silicon-oxygen backbone (Si–O–Si) n in which each silicon atom has two non-polar methyl groups (–CH 3 ) linked to it. Because of their dominance on the surface, these (–CH 3 ) groups repel polar molecules like water and inhibit hydrogen bonding 44 . The performance of the BiCoO 3 nanogenerator before and after water treatment was also conducted and the functioning of the nanogenerator was studied. The nanogenerator was dipped inside the DI water for 1h, 2h, 3h, 4h & 5h and the output voltage of the nanogenerator was recorded before and after dipping under 0.15kgf vertical force. The voltage response at different waiting time was shown in Fig. 5 g, which proves that the water has no effect on the performance of nanogenerator at different dipping time due to its hydrophobic nature of the fabricated device. This water resistive nature of nanogenerator helps him to use in the harsh humid conditions and water harvesting application. The synergistic interaction among the two materials enhances the BiCoO 3 :PDMS piezoelectric performance. While the flexibility and elasticity of PDMS allow the device to withstand mechanical stress without experiencing considerable wear or fatigue, the high dielectric constant of bismuth cobaltite promotes efficient charge production. This interaction not only increases the device overall energy conversion efficiency but also prolongs its useful life. Additionally, even under challenging circumstances, the composite resilience to environmental and thermal deterioration ensures steady performance over time. Because of these characteristics, the nanogenerator is a dependable option for a variety of energy-harvesting uses. To authenticate the ability of PENG as a biocompatible flexible energy harvester, the fabricated PENG was attached to the human body. The demonstration of harvest human body motion using the flexible PENG was shown in Fig. 6 (a-b) . Figure 6 a displays the full wave voltage of ~ 14 V for several up-down bending cycles from elbow motions. Likewise, to examine the electrical current generated by human feet, we also attached the device underneath the shoe sole. Figure 6 b shows the electrical responses of the sensor and the output value that was created while walking and running was around 36 V and 25 V, respectively. Moreover, energy-harvesting systems are using these devices to charge capacitors for later use of storage energy. This process can be improved by a Wheatstone bridge circuit, which guarantees an effective and balanced energy distribution to the capacitor. As evidenced in output response of PENG, an alternating current (AC) signal is generated and needs to be rectified before it fed to the storage units. Using rectifying components like diodes and a Wheatstone bridge ( Fig. 6 c ) , the AC output is transformed into a direct current (DC) signal that is used for charging the series of capacitor. With the help of piezoelectric nanogenerators (PENGs), capacitors with capacities of 1.0 µF, 2.2 µF, 4.7 µF, 10.0 µF, 33.0 µF, and 47.0 µF can be efficiently charged from upto the voltage of 4.4 V, 3.9 V, 3.4 V, 3.0 V, 2.7 V and 2.3 V respectively as depicted in Fig. 6 d. The smaller capacitors of value 1.0 µF and 2.2 µF, charge faster since they require less energy storage and on the other hand larger capacitors of value 33.0 µF and 47.0 µF require more time to charge but can store more energy as observed in the spectra. By storing the electrical energy produced by the PENG, these capacitors serve as energy storage components that bridge between modern electrical gadgets and mechanical energy sources, which can subsequently be used to power nanosensors or low-energy devices making them essential components of self-sufficient and sustainable energy systems. Lastly, it was determined that the manufacture of the nanogenerator (4 cm x 2 cm) would cost $ 1.2 (details in Section S7 ). PENGs were also utilized to activate 10 light-emitting diodes (LED’s) using a 1µF capacitor shown in the experimental setup (inset of Fig. 6 e) and the demonstration their effectiveness in energy conversion and harvesting. The ability of PENGs to generate enough electrical energy to run several LED’s at once has been proven as shown in Fig. 6 e. The promise of PENGs for low-power applications is demonstrated by their capacity to power 10 LED’s using finger tapping in Supplementary Video (Video V1) . The effectiveness of these demonstrations shows how well-suited they are for self-powered devices like portable illumination, environmental sensors, and wearable electronics. In addition to showcasing their technological innovations, PENGs encourage eco-friendly substitutes for traditional power sources in contemporary electronics by utilizing ambient mechanical energy. This invention advances the creation of energy-efficient, self-sufficient systems. Discussion This study presents the fabrication and characterization of a hydrophobic, high-temperature stable, and high-performance piezoelectric nanogenerator (PENG) based on BiCoO₃ nanocubes embedded in a PDMS matrix. The non-centrosymmetric crystal structure of hydrothermally synthesized BiCoO₃ nanocubes was confirmed using X-ray diffraction (XRD) spectroscopy, revealing a cubic oxide structure (space group I23), crucial for inducing piezoelectricity. Under a low vertical pressure of 0.15 kgf, applied using a precision-controlled dynamic shaker without external electrical poling, the PENG demonstrated a stable output current density of 9.2 µA/cm² and an output voltage of 44.8 V. The PENG was performed under extreme environmental conditions, including elevated temperatures upto 120°C and heavy rainfall, ensuring sustained performance and extended operational lifespan. The PENG was also utilized to generate the energy from the force exerted by the water drop. The nanogenerator exhibited an energy conversion efficiency of 33.75% and a rapid response time of 40 ms, highlighting its efficiency in extreme environmental conditions. The incorporation of BiCoO₃ nanocubes significantly enhanced the electromechanical coupling coefficient, ensuring superior operational stability and cyclic loading performance. Real-time demonstrations showcased the ability of PENG to power 10 LED’s with minimal tapping force. These results underscore the potential of this lead-free, eco-friendly piezoelectric nanogenerator as a transformative technology for sustainable energy harvesting and self-powered electronics. This research paves the way for the development of scalable, high-performance piezoelectric systems suitable for biomedical monitoring, human-machine interfacing, and intelligent infrastructure applications. Methods Materials. Cobalt nitrate (Co(NO 3 ) 2 ·9H 2 O; 99.99%), bismuth nitrate (Bi(NO 3 ) 3 ·5H 2 O; 99.99%), Silver nitrate (AgNO 3 ; 99.99%) and Copper foil (0.25 mm, 99.98%) were procured from Sigma Aldrich. Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS; Sylgard 184; Dow Corning) was procured from, GmbH. All of the received materials and chemicals were utilized without any further purification. Millipore water purification system was adopted to generate the Deionized (DI) water for experimental purpose. Synthesis of BiCoO 3 nanocubes. Cost effective hydrothermal technique was adopted for the synthesis of highly crystalline BiCoO 3 nanocubes. Figure 7 a depicts the synthesis procedure where two separate 10 ml aqueous solution of 2M of Co(NO 3 ) 2 ·9H 2 O and 1M of Bi(NO 3 ) 3 ·5H 2 O was prepared. Solution of Bi(NO) 3 ·5H 2 O was added dropwise into the constantly stirred (200 rpm) Co(NO 3 ) 2 ·9H 2 O solution and kept for 1 hour. Resultant solution was transferred to a Teflon lined autoclaved and kept in a furnace at 200°C for 24 h. Constant heating and cooling rate of 10°C/min is adopted for the crystalline growth. Finally, the centrifugation with ethanol was prepared to cleanse the resulting white solution and the last of the leftover powder was dried overnight at 120°C in the oven. Fabrication of Silver electrode. Conductive silver was deposited via a single dip-and-pull step photochemical process that was extremely easy to use and inexpensive. For 3 sec, the semiconductor films were submerged in an AgNO 3 aqueous solution. The films did not change color even after being completely cleaned with DI water and dried in desiccator under N 2 environment. Further, the deposited film was exposed for 2 h under 254 nm UV light in the presence of oxygen (atmospheric) results in the darkening of the film and confirms the formation of silver deposition. UV treatment enhances adhesion by activating the PET surface and enabling intimate bonding with Ag nuclei. Prior to deposition, the PET surface was thoroughly cleaned which reduces PET substrate interfacial impurities, contributing to film stability. 45 . Fabrication of BiCoO 3 : PDMS nanogenerator. As shown in Fig. 7 b, a straight forward device design of Ag coated PET / (BiCoO 3 :PDMS) /ITO coated PET was used to create the flexible piezoelectric BiCoO 3 :PDMS nanogenerator. Cubical BiCoO 3 nanocubes were first mixed uniformly with the PDMS polymer to create the BiCoO 3 :PDMS composite layer. Three steps were used to create the homogeneous combination of BiCoO 3 nanocubes with PDMS (density of 1.102 gcm − 3 ). Using a magnetic stirrer, BiCoO 3 nanocubes were first dispersed in a toluene solvent at 100 rpm for 1 h. The solution is then moved into an ultrasonication bath and left there for at least 30 min for proper mixing/dispersion. Subsequently, a magnetically agitated PDMS polymer was filled with drop by drop of uniformly distributed BiCoO 3 nanocubes in toluene solution. For optimal mixing, the resulting mixture was ultrasonicated for 30 min after being held for an hour on a magnetic stirrer. After that, the composite mixture was heated to 60°C for one hour in order to eliminate bubbles. Using a spin coater set to 500 rpm for 30 seconds, hybrid composite films with varying weight ratios of BiCoO 3 nanocubes in PDMS polymer matrix (2 wt.%, 5 wt.%, 10 wt.%, and 15 wt.%) were coated on an ITO/PET substrate using glass slide as a supporting film. To create a piezoelectric nanogenerator, a Ag-coated PET counter electrode was physically positioned above the BiCoO 3 :PDMS hybrid composite layer. For comparison, an identical device with ITO/PET electrodes on both sides (without Ag coating) was created. Measurement and Characterization. Using a Cu Kα (λ = 0.154 nm) energy source, Japan made Rigaku Ultima-IV X-ray diffractometer was used to analyze the structure of as-grown BiCoO 3 nanocubes. Hitachi Tabletop Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) TM3030 Plus was used for the microstructural examination and attached energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (EDAX) was employed for the elemental investigation. Particle size distribution was performed using Malvern Zetasizer Nano ZS-90 (Malvern Instruments) dynamic light scattering (DLS) measurements instrument. USA make Keithley source meter (SMU 2450) was used to measure the piezoelectric output short circuit current (I SC ) and the sheet resistance of the Ag thin film. Asylum Research, USA make piezoelectric force microscope (AFM) equipped with platinum/iridium (PtIr5) treated silicon tip was utilized using a to examine the inherent piezoelectric property of BiCoO 3 nanocubes. AFM tips were calibrated for Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy (KPFM) using highly oriented pyrolytic graphite, which has a stable surface and a known work function of about 4.6 eV. London, UK based PiezoMeter System (PM300, Piezotest) was adopted to examine the composite film's piezoelectric coefficient (d 33 ) values. Contact Angle Analysis of BiCoO 3 :PDMS hybrid nanocomposite film was performed to study the hydrophilic and hydrophobic nature. Contact Angle analysis of nanocomposite film was conducted using Drop Shape Analyser, DSA 25 (KRÜSS GmbH, Germany) with water as a liquid and air as a medium at room temperature. Without applying any external electrical DC poling, the nanogenerator's output voltage response was monitored using an USA make Agilent Technology Oscilloscope (DSO3062A). The consistent vertical force was applied using a USA make dynamic shaker (The Model Shop) controlled by functional generator to study the output response of the nanogenerator. Declarations Data Availability Statement Research data are not shared. Supporting Information Supporting Information is available from the Wiley Online Library or from the author. Acknowledgments DKB acknowledges financial assistance from the Council of Scientific & Industrial Research Pool Scientist Scheme and research facility assistance from the Nanoscale Research Facility. SK acknowledges BRICS research funding for financial assistance from the Department of Science and Technology (DST), India. Author contributions Dhiraj Kumar Bharti: Conceptualization, Methodology, Data curation, Writing - original draft. Sandeep Kumar: Methodology, Data curation, Writing - review & editing. Jitendra Pratap Singh: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Supervision, Writing - review & editing. Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. References Deng H-T, Xia Y-X, Liu Y-C, Kim B, Zhang X-S. 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Recent developments and applications of surface enhanced Raman scattering spectroscopy in safety detection of fruits and vegetables. Food Chemistry 434 , 137469 (2024). Arabatzis IM, Stergiopoulos T, Bernard MC, Labou D, Neophytides SG, Falaras P. Silver-modified titanium dioxide thin films for efficient photodegradation of methyl orange. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental 42 , 187-201 (2003). Additional Declarations There is no conflict of interest Supplementary Files ManuscriptSIMN.docx Supplementary information VideoV1.mp4 Video V1 GraphicalAbstract.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 14 Mar, 2026 Read the published version in Chemical Engineering Journal → Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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nanocubes and crystal structure of cubic BiCoO\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e3\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e nanostructure at different \u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eb\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e 001 and \u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ec\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e 111 orientation planes. \u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ed\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e Low magnification and \u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(e \u0026amp; f)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e high magnification HR-TEM micrographs \u003c/em\u003ewith \u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eg\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e SAED pattern of synthesized BiCoO\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e3\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e nanostructure with a nanocubical shape. 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film.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7666722/v1/a3f94d0fd7388078642dde30.png"},{"id":93693136,"identity":"b334b6ce-e6b6-42da-a83f-81b5739c5aa3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-16 14:20:54","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1015547,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRegulations of BiCoO\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e: PDMS PENG output performance in harsh conditions a\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e Setup for the measuring of PENG at high temperature. \u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eb\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e Forward and \u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ec\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e reverse connection temperature dependent output voltage from the range of 30 °C to 120 °C. \u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ed\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e Pictorial representation of the hydrophobic contact angle of BiCoO\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e3\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e: PDMS composite film. \u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ee\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e Setup for the measurement of PENG response using a water drop. \u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ef\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e voltage response of the impact of water drop and \u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eg\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e voltage response at different water dipping waiting times of PENG was recorded.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7666722/v1/f7aa5e38704ef13557dfac5b.png"},{"id":93693139,"identity":"14a7e7a3-1252-473a-a3ea-4e06ae19ebfc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-16 14:20:54","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1517653,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eApplication demonstration of BiCoO\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e: PDMS PENG. \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe demonstration of harvest human body motion from \u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ea\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e elbow motions and \u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eb\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e foot motion using PENG. \u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ec\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e Setup for charging a different series of capacitors and the \u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ed\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e exponential charging of capacitors to power sensors using PENG is performed. \u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ee \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe schematic and real picture of powering setup of 10 LED’s from 1µF charged capacitor using PENG.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7666722/v1/b5ce906a05d60a4919a2e65e.png"},{"id":93695820,"identity":"371d4aaf-42d4-443f-8fe7-3ec01e13bb53","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-16 14:44:54","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":417499,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSynthesis and Fabrication of BiCoO\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e PENG. a\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e Synthesis steps of BiCoO\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e3\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e nanocubes. \u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eb\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e Fabrication steps of BiCoO\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e3\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e:PDMS piezoelectric nanogenerator device.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7666722/v1/57ec17e7988add6bcda2174f.png"},{"id":104267249,"identity":"7408a612-8dda-47df-90d8-8a88de6c0669","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-09 20:48:32","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":12453538,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7666722/v1/4da9b67f-eb66-4a9d-a785-951bdb320fb0.pdf"},{"id":93693131,"identity":"308fda67-a028-429a-9067-62d26ef8ab93","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-16 14:20:54","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":391809,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"Supplementary information","description":"","filename":"ManuscriptSIMN.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7666722/v1/2e233c916a10720fe8b13fac.docx"},{"id":93693143,"identity":"bffa0efd-588e-4fe8-b28a-8cd4bf917304","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-16 14:20:54","extension":"mp4","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":2672368,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eVideo V1\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"VideoV1.mp4","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7666722/v1/5fc7239612046bded5e9676e.mp4"},{"id":93694371,"identity":"4e2291cb-1504-4af2-b096-49d61257f10d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-16 14:28:54","extension":"docx","order_by":3,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":719379,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"GraphicalAbstract.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7666722/v1/a290244feb5563efab290b2d.docx"}],"financialInterests":"There is no conflict of interest","formattedTitle":"High-Performance, Temperature Retardant and Hydrophobic BiCoO₃:PDMS Piezoelectric Nanogenerator for Effective Energy Harvesting in Harsh Environments","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eRapid robust energy-harvesting technology development has highlighted the need for novel materials that can meet the growing demand for effective, long-lasting, and adaptable solutions. Piezoelectric nanogenerators (PENGs) have become a game-changing technology among the many approaches to producing endless renewable energy \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The need for energy harvesting solutions independent of conventional power networks and batteries is growing as the globe moves toward greener technologies \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. PENGs are particularly well-suited for applications such as wearable electronics, remote sensors, and biomedical equipment where small quantities of energy are needed but conventional power sources are limited \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. PENGs has a strong history for replacing conventional energy sources due to their compact size, adaptability, and capacity to run on ambient mechanical energy. PENGs have the potential to power a wide range of low-energy devices, sensors, and wearable electronics since they work by transforming mechanical energy from ambient vibrations, movements, or stresses into electrical energy \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. High-performance, hydrophobicity and temperature-retardant piezoelectric nanogenerators offer a revolutionary way to overcome the difficulties associated with energy harvesting in harsh environments. The need for dependable, sustainable, and efficient energy sources around the world has fueled the creation of cutting-edge materials that can overcome the drawbacks of traditional systems. Though they are good at turning mechanical energy into electrical power, traditional piezoelectric materials sometimes perform poorly in hot and humid conditions, necessitating the development of new novel materials with multifunctional properties.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTemperature-retardant piezoelectric nanogenerators are specifically designed to operate in high-temperature locations, such as industrial, geothermal sites \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The performance of many traditional piezoelectric materials, such as lead zirconate titanate (PZT), BiFeO₃, GaN, SnO₂-based nanowires, Gallium arsenide (GaAs), Na\u003csub\u003e0.5\u003c/sub\u003eK\u003csub\u003e0.5\u003c/sub\u003eNbO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e (NKN), PDMS-ZnO, PDMS-BiFeO₃, degrades when heated, mostly because of their poor thermal stability and susceptibility to environmental stress \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The fusion of high Curie temperatures and excellent thermal stability materials in high-performance nanogenerators fill the gap and is a promising energy harvester, even in harsh temperature conditions. Because of this, they are especially helpful in energy-intensive industries where heat and vibrations generated during operations can be captured to produce sustainable energy.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFurther, the reliability and efficiency of these nanogenerators are improved by the hydrophobic qualities of the device. For many energy-harvesting systems, water-induced degradation is a prevalent issue, particularly in humid, rainy, or maritime conditions. Conventional materials frequently perform worse as a result of moisture intrusion, endangering the device's electrical and structural integrity. In order to get over this restriction, water-resistant materials including polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and polystyrene (PS) used for hydrophobic piezoelectric nanogenerators \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. These materials provide a barrier that keeps water from damaging the essential parts and guarantees reliable operation even under harsh conditions. Wearable electronics that need to endure perspiration and unintentional water exposure, as well as marine energy harvesting applications where devices are exposed to seawater or high humidity levels, will especially benefit from this capacity. These devices can generate renewable energy by harnessing mechanical energy from tides, ocean waves, or underwater currents, which is very advantageous for marine applications. Similarly, these nanogenerators can be utilized in industrial settings to capture energy from high-temperature processes or vibrations in machinery, allowing wireless sensors and monitoring systems to function without the need for conventional power sources \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFinding materials with excellent piezoelectric performance that are also flexible, durable, and resistant to external influences like humidity and temperature is one of the most important difficulties in the development of PENGs. Because of its exceptional ferroelectric qualities, high dielectric constant, and excellent thermal stability, bismuth cobaltite (BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e) nanoparticles have recently drawn interest \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Bismuth cobaltite is especially well-suited for use in industrial, geothermal, and aerospace settings since it maintains its functionality at high temperatures, in contrast to traditional piezoelectric materials that frequently experience performance loss under harsh conditions \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In difficult environments, places where mechanical and thermal energy are plentiful but underutilized, strong crystal structure and high Curie temperature of BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e nanoparticle offer a crucial basis for energy harvesting. BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e nanoparticles are integrated with PDMS to overcome significant drawbacks of conventional piezoelectric materials, namely concerning mechanical flexibility, hydrophobicity, and resistance to environmental wear. PDMS is a multipurpose silicone-based polymer known for its durability, chemical inertness, and mechanical flexibility. The silicone-based elastomer PDMS has demonstrated exceptional flexibility, hydrophobic qualities, and biocompatibility, making it a perfect matrix for combining with piezoelectric devices. A new class of piezoelectric nanogenerators that are not only mechanically flexible but also resistant to extreme environmental factors like high temperatures and moisture can be created by combining PDMS with high-performance piezoelectric materials like BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e nanoparticles. High-performance BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e:PDMS based piezoelectric nanogenerators hold great promise for the industrial, aerospace, and wearable electronics industries. Wireless sensors, monitoring systems, and even small-scale electronic equipment can be powered without the need for traditional power sources as new class of self-powered devices whose capacity to capture energy from vibrations, shocks, and mechanical stresses will be adopted.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn this study, BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e piezoelectric nanomaterial synthesized using a low-cost hydrothermal method was reported as a base material in the PENG for the first time. The piezoelectric charge coefficient (330.41 pm/V) of the BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e nanostructure was investigated using a piezoelectric force microscope. Using the device architecture of Ag coated PET/(BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e: PDMS)/ITO coated PET, a flexible piezoelectric nanogenerator was designed. With a very low compression force of 0.15 kgf, a high output voltage of 44.8 V and current density of 9.2 \u0026micro;A/cm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e were achieved without electrical poling with a quick response time of 40 ms, high sensitivity (298.66 V/kgf) and high energy conversion efficiency of 33.75% was observed. These robustness and lightweight design offer a clear advantage in healthcare, electronics, automotive, environmental monitoring, defense, and infrastructure sectors where weight and dependability are crucial.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eHydrothermal synthesis was used to create highly crystalline nanocubes BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e nanocubes. BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e nanocubes that had been manufactured were structurally analyzed using XRD study and the corresponding recorded phase data of the nanomaterials is displayed in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003ea. The distinctive peak of BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e nanocubes is visible in the XRD plot, and all the diffraction peaks were accurately indexed using the ICSD-194644. The cubic phase of BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e corresponds to the space group (I23 (197)) with lattice parameters a\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;b\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;c\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.019 nm, α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;γ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;90\u0026deg;.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Williamson-Hall (W-H) technique was utilized to examine the crystallite size and micro strain inside the crystal. The following equation is applied:\u003cdiv id=\"Equ1\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ1\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\beta\\:\\text{cos}\\theta\\:=\\frac{k\\lambda\\:}{D}+\\epsilon\\:4\\text{sin}\\theta\\:$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e1\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ewhere λ is the X-ray wavelength, β is the full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the diffraction peak, θ is the Bragg angle, D is the crystallite size, K is the form factor (usually 0.9) and the lattice strain is denoted by \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\epsilon\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe plotted a graph between β Cosθ versus 4 Sinθ and the resultant pattern is shown in \u003cb\u003eFig. \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/b\u003e, and the determination of crystallite size using the y-intercept and strain from the slope. An observed low lattice strain 0.00034 in the Fig. indicated a well-ordered highly crystalline structure and the average crystallite size (D\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.9λ / βCosθ) of Bi\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e nanocubes at θ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;27.028\u0026deg;, β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.11 was calculated as 77.64 nm for (130) plane. A high degree of crystallinity and a well-ordered lattice structure are indicated by the computed crystallite size of 73.63 nm, which will affect the functional and physical characteristics of the material \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The highly crystalline nature of BiCoO₃ nanocubes indicates large crystallite size, which enhances magnetoelectric coupling, strong ferroelectricity, and structural stability. The designed crystal structure at different orientation plane such as (001) and (111) are displayed in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eb \u0026amp; \u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ec respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe crystal structure includes the two unequal cobalt atoms (Co\u0026sup2;⁺, Co\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e⁺) occupy the (2a) tetrahedral site and the remaining Bi cations occupy the octahedral site positions (24f). Co atoms are occupied by oxygen anions: one-third are at 24f sites and the other two-thirds are at 8c sites, where they are fully occupied in each phase \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Bismuth (Bi\u0026sup3;⁺;1.03 \u0026Aring; (in 8-fold coordination) has a larger ionic radius compared to Cobalt (Co\u0026sup2;⁺; 0.73 \u0026Aring; (in 6-fold coordination) Co\u0026sup3;⁺; 0.65 \u0026Aring; (in 6-fold coordination) and this size mismatch leads to distortions in the octahedral coordination of CoO\u003csub\u003e6\u003c/sub\u003e and the coordination of BiO8 \u003csup\u003e20, 21, 22\u003c/sup\u003e. The large variations in ionic sizes of Bi and Co results in the distortion in the crystal structure and a development of non-centrosymmetric configuration results in a polarization response under an electric field.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe micrographs from the HR-TEM microstructural analysis of the produced nanocubes, were displayed in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e(d-f)\u003c/b\u003e. The high-size agglomerated nanocubes shown was formed due to the Ostwald ripening that occurred during the nucleation process. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e(d-f)\u003c/b\u003e depicts the low magnification TEM micrographs at different magnifications with 3D cubical-shaped nanocubes with side length of 75\u0026thinsp;\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e\u0026thinsp;5 nm. The nanocube morphology is indexed as the dotted nanocubes of blue and red color in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003ef and no evidence of additional morphology is present. The elevated temperature and pressure in a hydrothermal environment can achieve high supersaturation levels, promoting rapid nucleation results in better ion mobility, leading to form uniform crystallization noncubic structures of BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e nanocubes\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The corresponding SAED pattern of BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e nanocubes are recorded and the SAED pattern is shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eg. Obtained bright spots in SAED pattern are well indexed with the (hkl) places and correlated with the XRD spectra which validates the formation of highly crystalline nanocubes. High crystallinity is a result of uniform nucleation, which forms numerous nucleation sites simultaneously under controlled nucleation circumstances including homogenous surroundings and appropriate supersaturation \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This consistent nucleation at lowest surface energy aids highly crystalline crystal structure. BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e nanocubes were subjected to FESEM elemental analysis, and the different color mapping micrographs of respective elements was shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e \u003cb\u003e(h-k)\u003c/b\u003e which confirms the presence of Bismuth (Bi: green), Cobalt (Co: blue) and Oxygen (O: red) elements and the resulting EDS mapping spectra was recorded as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003el. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003el shows the low intensity peak at 0.5249 eV, 0.7762 eV and 2.422 eV, corresponds to O Kα1, Co Lα1, Bi M α1 and the high intense peak position at 6.930 eV and 7.649 eV attributes to the X-ray emission from Co Kα1, Co Kβ1. These spectra confirm the purity of the BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e nanocubes with zero foreign elements. The atomic percent and weight percent of elements exist in the system are also obtained and data is shown in the inset table of Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003el which supports the successful synthesis of the nanocubes and confirms the uniformity, purity, and intended stoichiometry of the crystal system. The particle size was determined using the dynamic light scattering (DLS) experiment, by measuring the hydrodynamic diameter of BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e nanocubes and the grain size vs counts spectra was shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003em. The hydrodynamic diameters, 80\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;5 nm, which are derived from DLS measurements, are somewhat bigger than those found by TEM observations, as would be predicted which might be due to the inclusion of solvation layers and possible nanoparticle aggregation in solution \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe synthesized BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e nanocubes was further examined for the piezoelectric charge coefficient parameter using Piezoelectric Force Microscope (PFM). The BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e nanocubes was dispersed over the conductive Cu foil and place on the stage of PFM instrument where it is examined with conductive tip and the deflection on the tip was recorded using the laser and photodetector tip as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ea. The zone was scanned over the range of (2x2) mm and the topographical view of BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e nanocubes on Cu foil is shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eb. The amplitude contrast image shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ec depicts the agglomerated BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e nanocubes with average particle size of ~\u0026thinsp;80 nm as per the TEM images in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003ef was validated. The PFM phase image recorded over the AC drive voltage of 5 V prophesies the induced confined polarization and piezoelectric force response of BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e nanocubes as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ed. This 180 politization arises due to the switching of nanodipoles under the influence of driven electric field. The local piezoelectric response was evaluated by scanning the sample at five different data points marked as red in topographical, amplitude and phase diagram. The phase reversal study is also performed and the applied voltage vs phase spectra is recorded as illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ee. The piezoelectric nature is reflected from the obtained PFM hysteresis loop of BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e nanocubes with phase reversal of 180\u0026deg; which confirms its piezoelectric domain switching. The asymmetric is due to the internal biased field caused by the inbuild potential difference between the tip and nanocubes. Furthermore, it might be possible that the polarization shift does not happen consistently throughout the sample because of changes in internal tensions, crystal orientation, or local electric fields, some areas may transition sooner or later. The phase response may exhibit anomalies due to this non-uniformity, resulting in split or distorted peaks \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This reversible polarization switching also highlights the inherent ferroelectric effect, where spontaneous dipole alignment can be modulated by external bias. The coexistence of ferroelectric and piezoelectric responses, accompanied by the enhancement of local nano-dipoles, further validates the multifunctional nature of BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e nanocubes. The effect of applied voltage on the contraction and relaxation of BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e nanocubes was studied and the amplitude-voltage butterfly loop spectra is obtained (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ef). The piezoelectric charge coefficient (d\u003csub\u003e33\u003c/sub\u003e) of 330.41 pm/V is obtained from the tangent of the slope of the butterfly loop of BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e nanocubes. In recent report, surface modified BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e films was fabricated using metal organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) and observed that the different concentration hybrid films has d\u003csub\u003e33\u003c/sub\u003e value in the range of 28 pm/V and 63 pm/V. Changes in the crystal structure and thickness of film due to doping is the cause of the d\u003csub\u003e33\u003c/sub\u003e rises \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. It is noteworthy to mention that this is the first report on the used for piezo-catalysis of BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e due to the very high values of 330.41 pm/V for high performance, flexible nanogenerator.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFurther, these nanocubes was mixed via ultrasonication method with the PDMS matrix to fabricate hybrid composite film using cost effective spin coater technique on ITO/PET substrate. The thickness of hybrid composite film and the distribution BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e nanocubes in the PDMS matrix was examined. Morphological study of BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e:PDMS composite film was carried out using FE-SEM and micrographs are shown in \u003cb\u003eFig.\u0026nbsp;3ai, 4a(ii)\u003c/b\u003e \u0026amp; \u003cb\u003e4a(ii)\u003c/b\u003e illustrate the surface morphology of the BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e:PDMS composite film from the top and bottom perspectives, respectively. The images confirm a uniform dispersion (15 wt.% concentration) of BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e nanocubes throughout the PDMS matrix, indicating successful integration during synthesis. This homogeneous distribution across both surfaces plays a key role in ensuring stable mechanical flexibility and consistent piezoelectric performance, which are essential for device-level applications. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ea\u003cb\u003e(iii)\u003c/b\u003e shows the cross section view of BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e:PDMS composite film and it is evidenced that the (99.65\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2) \u0026micro;m thickness BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e:PDMS composite film is strongly attached on the (127\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2) \u0026micro;m ITO coated on a PET substrate. Thereafter, highly conductive Ag coated PET substrate was placed on the BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e:PDMS coated ITO/PET substrate and the Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eb depicts a picture of a nanogenerator with dimension of (2x4) cm. The ultra-flexible property of PENG was shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ec which makes it a potential candidate for flexible electronics applications. The PENG is equipped with high conductive Ag electrode with high sheet resistances value of 6 Ω/sq. The deposited Ag layer retained good conductivity, adhesion and flexibility and cracking during repeated mechanical bending. The layout of simple visual representation of as synthesized BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e PENG is provided in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ed. An (ITO/PET)/(BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e:PDMS)/(Cu/PET) nanogenerator diagram typically describes a three-layer nanogenerator with ITO as the one electrode, BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e incorporated PDMS as a semiconducting piezoelectric material, and silver (Ag) as other electrode. Energy harvesting via mechanical vibrations or pressure changes is a common use for this type of device. Ag is a highly conductive metal often used as the top electrode in many nanogenerators. The inset in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ed shows that the BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e nanocubes were embedded in a PDMS matrix. The working mechanism of BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e PENG was explained using a three-step process as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ee. When mechanical stress (such as compression, bending, or release) is applied to the BiCoO₃/PDMS composite, the BiCoO₃ nanocubical particles experience deformation as shown in inset of Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ee. The force/pressure breaks charge neutrality and creates polarization by dislodging positive and negative ions in the crystal lattice, which results in a piezoelectric potential as shown in the inset of Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ee. Due to the piezoelectric effect of BiCoO₃, the deformation causes an electrical charge to accumulate at the surfaces of the particles. This electrical charge can be collected by electrodes attached to the surface of the PDMS layer. In our composite system, the embedded BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e nanocubes act as localized piezoelectric charge centers. Upon mechanical deformation, charges generated at the BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026ndash;PDMS interfaces are transmitted via interfacial polarization and localized tunneling between neighboring nanocubes, creating effective charge pathways despite the insulating host. These charges are subsequently collected by the top and bottom electrodes through percolative networks\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe vertical pressure applied over the BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e PENG using functional generator-controlled dynamic shakers was used to record the short circuit current (I\u003csub\u003eSC\u003c/sub\u003e) and open circuit voltage (V\u003csub\u003eOC\u003c/sub\u003e). The impact of various ratio concentrations of BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e nanocubes inside the PDMS matrix was examined and the output voltage of BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e PENG was recorded. Under the application of mechanical pressure, the BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e PENG produces an electrical charge, and different positive and negative peak voltages of 13.5 V, 20.0 V, 25.5 V, and 19.5 V was measured at different concentrations of 5 wt.%, 10 wt.%, 15 wt.%, and 20 wt.% respectively \u003cb\u003e(Fig. S2)\u003c/b\u003e. Further, the voltage vs wt% concentration relation shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ea depicts that the percentage of BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e nanocubes in the PDMS matrix increases (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;15 wt.%) the number of nanodipoles per unit volume increases which leads to a rise in Maxwell-Wagner-Sillars polarization and overall piezoelectric output. Additionally, when the percentage of BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e nanocubes increases, the weak insulation within the active layer causes an electric breakdown, and the output voltage begins to drop \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Thereafter, all the performance was evaluated at 15 wt.% concentration, as this composition yielded the highest output response. The fabricated PENG undergo at different pressure conditions to study the effect of different forced and the data is recorded as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eb \u0026amp; \u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003ec. The function generator-controlled pressure exerted by dynamic shaker on PENG is shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eb and the voltage of 25.5 V, 36.2 V, 44.8 V, and 44.7 V was recorded at different force pressure of 0.05 kgf, 0.10 kgf, 0.15 kgf and 0.20 kgf respectively. As we increase the force, number of dipoles per unit area also increases thereby increasing the overall output. As force/pressure increases on the PENG, the nanocubes deforms or shifts more and there is an alignment of more nanodipoles in the response of external force resulting more polarization effect. This enhancement of polarization effect creates the greater electric potential across the electrodes due to high nanodipoles per unit area results in the high output at 0.15 kgf. While further increase in force limits the output response of a PENG due to elastic limitations of the material. Moreover, an excessive number of stored charges on the electrodes prevented the electrodes from completely separating them, which might lead to output saturation. The PENG terminal connection was interchanged among themselves to do the polarity test where the equal and opposite peaks was observed and the data plotted at different force conditions in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ec. Likewise, the current density also one of the key parameters in evaluating the efficiency of PENG and it was investigated as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ed \u0026amp; \u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003ee. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ed shows the forward connection current density of PENG \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\left(J=\\raisebox{1ex}{$I$}\\!\\left/\\:\\!\\raisebox{-1ex}{$A$}\\right.;I\\:\\text{i}\\text{s}\\:\\text{o}\\text{u}\\text{t}\\text{p}\\text{u}\\text{t}\\:\\text{c}\\text{u}\\text{r}\\text{r}\\text{e}\\text{n}\\text{t}\\:\\text{a}\\text{n}\\text{d}\\:\\text{A}\\:\\text{i}\\text{s}\\:\\text{a}\\text{r}\\text{e}\\text{a}\\:\\text{u}\\text{n}\\text{d}\\text{e}\\text{r}\\:\\text{f}\\text{o}\\text{r}\\text{c}\\text{e}\\right)\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e at 0.15 kgf force and the date was recorded upto 15000 cycles to study the durability of the device. The inset of Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ed shows the magnified view of current density and very high output respace of 9.2 \u0026micro;A/cm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e was achieved. With a stability upto 25000 sec polarity check was also performed and equal and opposite current density of 9.2 \u0026micro;A/cm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e was recorded as illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ee. The output response of the PENG with 15 wt% concentration of BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e in PDMS and ITO/PET as a counter electrode was also recorded for comparison and very less (\u003cb\u003eFig. S3a\u003c/b\u003e) output voltage of 22.5 V and (\u003cb\u003eFig. S3b\u003c/b\u003e) current density of 4.4 \u0026micro;A/cm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e and was recorded under the 0.15 kgf force due to higher sheet resistance and lower work function. The best power transmission, energy conversion efficiency, and device stability are shown by the analysis of voltage and current density at various resistance loads as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e(f-h)\u003c/b\u003e. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ef \u0026amp; \u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eg exhibit the changes in output voltage and current density with resistance, respectively. I\u003csub\u003eSC\u003c/sub\u003e falls from 5.5 \u0026micro;A/cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;2\u003c/sup\u003e to 0.4 nA/cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e, and V\u003csub\u003eOC\u003c/sub\u003e rises from 0.1 V to 25 V when the resistance increases from 0.1 KΩ to 10 MΩ. This pattern illustrates the inverse connection between voltage and current as per Ohm's law. Thereafter, the instantaneous power density was computed using the formula,\u003cdiv id=\"Equ2\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ2\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:P=\\frac{{V}_{OC}^{2}}{AR}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e2\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ewhere A is the effective surface area, R is the external load resistance attached and V\u003csub\u003eOC\u003c/sub\u003e is the output voltage. The variation of power density at different load resistance was plotted as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eh and the highest power density of 1414 mW/cm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e was shown at 0.1 MΩ. In energy harvesting applications, this study is essential for improving the efficiency of the nanogenerator and optimizing load conditions at 0.1 MΩ. The device under observation for 1 month with proves its durability and proves its application for self-powered wearable systems. Flexible nature of nanogenerator was also studied at different bending conditions from the bending angle of -120\u0026deg; to +\u0026thinsp;120\u0026deg;. Output voltage and current density are recorded before bending and after 10 cycles of bending and there is no change in the performance of nanogenerator which confirms its flexible nature as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ei \u0026amp; \u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003ej respectively. Additionally, the PENG swift time of response of 40 ms was calculated for one complete voltage response cycle as illustrated in \u003cb\u003eFig. S4\u003c/b\u003e. The high sensitivity (298.66 V/kgf), flexibility, and stability (more than 15,000 cycles) and fast response time confirms BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e PENG an excellent possibility for wearable sensor applications and validate its use in rough conditions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe investigation of the material to store charge is measured from the impedance analyzer at room temperature was recorded. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ek shows the dielectric constant at different frequencies of BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e nanocubes and the 15 wt.% concentration of BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e nanocubes incorporated inside the PDMS matrix. The high dielectric constant of BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e nanocubes was recorded as 186.21 at 20Hz, which further decreases and reaches its minimum value of 9.93 at 2 MHz. These nanocubes are used as a filler in the PDMS matrix and the dielectric of BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e:PDMS nanocomposite film was also recorded with the dielectric constant value of 27.21 at 20 Hz. With increased frequency, the dielectric constant value decreases and reaches its minimum value of 3.51 at 2 MHz. At high frequencies, the dielectric constant drops because the nanodipoles cannot respond swiftly to the alternating electric field, leading to reduced dielectric polarization.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe mechanical vertical force-derived electrical energy (Ee) and the stored mechanical energy (Em) within the nanogenerator were used to calculate the efficiency of the BiCoO3 PENG. The mathematical expression for the piezoelectric voltage constant (g33) in terms of the dielectric constant k, the permittivity of free space (εo), and piezoelectric charge constant (d33) is expressed as\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eg\u003csub\u003e33\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;d\u003csub\u003e33\u003c/sub\u003e/(ε\u003csub\u003eo\u003c/sub\u003eK), (3)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to this equation, a reduction in the dielectric constant will cause a sudden increase in the value of g\u003csub\u003e33\u003c/sub\u003e. The device's output voltage (V) is influenced by the piezoelectric voltage constant in terms of strain (ε), and the active materials' Young's modulus (Y) may be found as\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eV\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;g\u003csub\u003e33\u003c/sub\u003eεYL. (4)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eConcerning effective area a and thickness l, the mechanical energy (E\u003csub\u003em\u003c/sub\u003e) stored in the nanogenerator as strain (ε) under vertical compression pressure may be shown as \u003csup\u003e29\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e\u0026#119864;\u0026#119898; = (1/2)YAL\u0026#120576;\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e (5)\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Young's modulus of composite film is determined to be 40.20 GPa by calculating the Young's modulus of PDMS (0.00026 GPa) and BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e (268 GPa)\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Stress (σ) induced strain was also computed and may be expressed as\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eε\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;σ/E\u003csub\u003em\u003c/sub\u003e (6)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIt was determined that the mechanical stored strain energy was approximately 9.27 x 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;8\u003c/sup\u003e J. At a single cycle interval time (t), the E\u003csub\u003ee\u003c/sub\u003e of the BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e PENG at a certain V\u003csub\u003eOC\u003c/sub\u003e voltage and I\u003csub\u003eSC\u003c/sub\u003e current was computed from\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEe= \u0026int; \u0026#119881;\u003csub\u003eOC\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026#119868;\u003csub\u003eSC\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026#119889;\u0026#119905;, (7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIt was determined that the electrical energy produced for a single cycle interval was roughly 27.47 x 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;8\u003c/sup\u003e J. The BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e PENG energy conversion efficiency (\u0026#120578;) was determined to be \u003csup\u003e29, 31\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026#120578;=(E\u003csub\u003ee\u003c/sub\u003e/E\u003csub\u003em\u003c/sub\u003e) (8)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe calculated efficiency of the fabricated flexible BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e PENG is 33.75%, significantly greater than that of recently published self-powered high-performance portable nanogenerators \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo investigate the capacitive nature of the produced BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e:PDMS hybrid composite film, the Bode plots electrical impedance was determined within the frequency spectrum of 100 Hz to 25 kHz to confirm the device internal electrical impedance. \u003cb\u003eFig. S5a\u003c/b\u003e \u0026amp; \u003cb\u003eS5b\u003c/b\u003e display a logarithm plot between the Z modulus vs applied frequency and a logarithmic graph between the Z phase vs applied frequency respectively. The Z phase of -90\u0026deg; verified the BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e PENG optimal capacitive behaviour. The capacitive behaviour of the PENG is confirmed by the linear response of the impedance slope value (R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.99). These findings are in good agreement with the piezoelectric nanogenerator research that has already been published \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable.1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eComparing the output voltage and current produced by the composite nanogenerators that have been reported so far\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Taba\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSr. No.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMaterials\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eElectrode\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSynthesis Process\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHarvesting Technique/ Force/\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePressure\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOutput performance\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReferences\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVoltage (Open Circuit)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCurrent / Current Density (Short Circuit)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eZn\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eSiO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e Nanorods\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGraphene\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHydrothermal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBending\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.5 V\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.5 \u0026micro;A\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eZnS nanowire\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSi\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCVD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePushing\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(0.117 N)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.83 V\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40 nA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e34\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eZnO/Yb\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAu\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSpin coating\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePushing\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5 V\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e60 nA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e35\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e4.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMoS\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e nanosheet\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAl\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChemical exfoliation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePushing\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4 V\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e210 nA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e36\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e5.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMAPbI\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAu\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSpincoating\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBending\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.71 V\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.203 \u0026micro;A /cm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e6.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBaTiO3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTi/Au\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHydrothermal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePushing\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14 V\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e190 nA/cm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e37\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e7.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4H-SiC nanowire\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAl, Ag\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnodic oxidation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePushing\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3 V\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e200 nA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e38\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e8.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eZnO nanowire/nanowall\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGraphene, Au\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCVD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePushing\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.020 V\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e500 nA/cm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e39\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e9.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2D Bi\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eSe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAu\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCVD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePushing\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40 mV\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2 nA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e10.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eZnO Nanowires\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePd\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSputtering\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePushing\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.8 mV\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.8 pA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e40\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e11.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNbOI\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCr and Ag\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eME and CVT\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBending\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;\u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e140pA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e41\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e12.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePZT nanowire\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eElectrospining\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBending\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.24 V\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.5 nA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e42\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e13.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBiCoO\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e \u003cb\u003enanocubes\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAg\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHydrothermal\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePushing\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e(~\u0026thinsp;0.15 kgf)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e44.8 V\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e9.2 \u0026micro;A/cm\u003c/b\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOur work\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCVD \u0026ndash; Chemical Vapor Deposition; ME \u0026ndash; Mechanically Exfoliated; CVT \u0026ndash; Chemical Vapor Transport; Au - Gold; Ag - Silver; Ti \u0026ndash; Titanium; Pd \u0026ndash; Palladium; Cr \u0026ndash; Chromium; Si \u0026ndash; Silicon; Pt \u0026ndash; Platinum.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;1.\u003c/b\u003e provides a thorough comparison of our work with earlier reported research. Attempts were made to improve the output performance of the piezoelectric nanogenerator by altering the surface morphology via doping, annealing, ion beam etching, and other techniques for scavenging mechanical energy. In one report, it was claimed that MoS\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e nanosheets were created via chemical exfoliation and then processed for energy harvesting. The flexible cellulose nanofiber-embedded MoS\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e nanosheet-based piezoelectric nanogenerator has a high mechanical strength and an output voltage is 4V and current of 0.21 \u0026micro;A \u003csup\u003e36\u003c/sup\u003e. Piezoelectric nanogenerators based on N-doped 4H-SiC nanowire arrays have been created with outstanding performance, exhibiting an output voltage and circuit current density of 3.0 V and 0.2 \u0026micro;A cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e, respectively \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Two-dimensional NbOI₂ based PENG emphasizing its potential for adaptable energy harvestor due to its special properties makes it a promising option for nanogenerators and next-generation piezotronic devices \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Additionally, a flexible Zn\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eSiO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e nanorod PDMS PENG based on graphene electrodes was created and was capable of producing an output voltage and current of 5.5 V and 0.5 \u0026#120583;A/cm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e respectively \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Our produced BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e nanocubes: PDMS based hybrid composites with silver electrode developed at low pressure (0.15 kgf) demonstrated extremely high output voltage and current on average, according to previously published work shown in \u003cb\u003eTable.1\u003c/b\u003e. The high piezoelectric output arises from strong interfacial adhesion between the composite layer and top electrode, which ensures efficient mechanical stress propagation, minimizes interfacial slippage, and enhances the generation and transport of piezo-induced charges by maintaining consistent electric field distribution across the interface.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor energy harvesting in harsh conditions where traditional devices malfunction, hydrophobic and high-temperature nanogenerators are essential. They can function in geothermal systems, industrial environments, moist industrial settings, maritime energy harvesting and aerospace applications. The fabricated PENG was designed to work under harsh weathering conditions. Several important testing parameters must be taken into consideration when designing a PENG to function in extreme weather conditions, such as high temperatures and heavy rain fall, to guarantee performance and longevity. The performance of PENG at high temperature from 30\u0026deg;C to 180\u0026deg;C was recorded and the setup for the measurement is shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003ea. The PENG was kept at temperature controlled hot plate and the function generator-controlled force of 0.15 kgf was applied. The oscilloscope was used to measure the \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eFig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eb\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e forward connection and \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eFig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003ec\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e reverse connection output voltage and there is an increment and decrement in the output voltage from 30\u0026deg;C to 90\u0026deg;C and from 90\u0026deg;C to 120\u0026deg;C respectively. At moderate increases in temperature from 30\u0026deg;C to 90\u0026deg;C, the intrinsic electrical impedance of piezoelectric materials (BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e) decreases, improving the transfer of charge, boost ion mobility and nonodipole orientation, resulting in a temporary increase in the piezoelectric coefficient which improves the output voltage of PENG upto 48 V \u003csup\u003e43\u003c/sup\u003e. Further, increment in the temperature, increase the mobility of intrinsic charge carriers (electrons and ions) in the nanomaterial leads to the increase in leakage currents and dielectric losses, the output performance continuously decaying upto 38 V despite of its high curie temperature (400\u0026deg;C) of BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e. In this situation where moisture or water exposure is unavoidable, hydrophobic piezoelectric nanogenerators are crucial for effective energy harvesting. By incorporating hydrophobic characteristics, these nanogenerators aid in the creation of dependable and sustainable energy solutions for a variety of practical uses. The hydrophobic nature of BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e: PDMS hybrid composite film was measured and the different contact angle of water with the nanocomposite film versus waiting time of water droplet on nanocomposite film at room temperature was plotted as shown in \u003cb\u003eFig. S6\u003c/b\u003e. Water was drop cast over the film with the drop size of 1 \u0026micro;L at the 0.2\u0026micro;L/sec using a syringe and the contact angle at different waiting time was observed and hydrophobic contact angle above 90\u0026deg; is observed in all the time intervals which indicates a non-absorptive or non-reactive surface with respect to water.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe mean contact angle of water with BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e: PDMS hybrid composite film was observed and the pictorial representation of the hydrophobic contact angle of 105.4\u0026deg; was shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003ed. Therefore, the fabricated device can work as a rainwater piezoelectric nanogenerator to generate an electric charge when deformed by the impact of raindrops. The measurement setup was made where slightly tilted PENG was kept under an automatic syringe and the water flow rate was controlled using a Drop Shape Analyzer as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003ee. Two syringes of 0.5 mm and 1.8 mm diameter were used to generate the water drop of 1\u0026micro;L and 4 \u0026micro;L. The PENG experienced the impact of water drop at regular intervals and the output voltage was recorded as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003ef. It is evidenced that the alternative positive and negative piezoelectric peaks are generated with a peak intensity of 17.5 V and 28.0 V from the continuous drops of 1\u0026micro;L and 4 \u0026micro;L respectively. The chemical formula for PDMS is (C\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e6\u003c/sub\u003eOSi)\u003csub\u003en\u003c/sub\u003e and is made up of a silicon-oxygen backbone (Si\u0026ndash;O\u0026ndash;Si)\u003csub\u003en\u003c/sub\u003e in which each silicon atom has two non-polar methyl groups (\u0026ndash;CH\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e) linked to it. Because of their dominance on the surface, these (\u0026ndash;CH\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e) groups repel polar molecules like water and inhibit hydrogen bonding \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe performance of the BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e nanogenerator before and after water treatment was also conducted and the functioning of the nanogenerator was studied. The nanogenerator was dipped inside the DI water for 1h, 2h, 3h, 4h \u0026amp; 5h and the output voltage of the nanogenerator was recorded before and after dipping under 0.15kgf vertical force. The voltage response at different waiting time was shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eg, which proves that the water has no effect on the performance of nanogenerator at different dipping time due to its hydrophobic nature of the fabricated device. This water resistive nature of nanogenerator helps him to use in the harsh humid conditions and water harvesting application. The synergistic interaction among the two materials enhances the BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e:PDMS piezoelectric performance. While the flexibility and elasticity of PDMS allow the device to withstand mechanical stress without experiencing considerable wear or fatigue, the high dielectric constant of bismuth cobaltite promotes efficient charge production. This interaction not only increases the device overall energy conversion efficiency but also prolongs its useful life. Additionally, even under challenging circumstances, the composite resilience to environmental and thermal deterioration ensures steady performance over time. Because of these characteristics, the nanogenerator is a dependable option for a variety of energy-harvesting uses.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo authenticate the ability of PENG as a biocompatible flexible energy harvester, the fabricated PENG was attached to the human body. The demonstration of harvest human body motion using the flexible PENG was shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e(a-b)\u003c/b\u003e. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003ea displays the full wave voltage of ~\u0026thinsp;14 V for several up-down bending cycles from elbow motions. Likewise, to examine the electrical current generated by human feet, we also attached the device underneath the shoe sole. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eb shows the electrical responses of the sensor and the output value that was created while walking and running was around 36 V and 25 V, respectively. Moreover, energy-harvesting systems are using these devices to charge capacitors for later use of storage energy. This process can be improved by a Wheatstone bridge circuit, which guarantees an effective and balanced energy distribution to the capacitor. As evidenced in output response of PENG, an alternating current (AC) signal is generated and needs to be rectified before it fed to the storage units. Using rectifying components like diodes and a Wheatstone bridge \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eFig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003ec\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e, the AC output is transformed into a direct current (DC) signal that is used for charging the series of capacitor. With the help of piezoelectric nanogenerators (PENGs), capacitors with capacities of 1.0 \u0026micro;F, 2.2 \u0026micro;F, 4.7 \u0026micro;F, 10.0 \u0026micro;F, 33.0 \u0026micro;F, and 47.0 \u0026micro;F can be efficiently charged from upto the voltage of 4.4 V, 3.9 V, 3.4 V, 3.0 V, 2.7 V and 2.3 V respectively as depicted in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003ed. The smaller capacitors of value 1.0 \u0026micro;F and 2.2 \u0026micro;F, charge faster since they require less energy storage and on the other hand larger capacitors of value 33.0 \u0026micro;F and 47.0 \u0026micro;F require more time to charge but can store more energy as observed in the spectra. By storing the electrical energy produced by the PENG, these capacitors serve as energy storage components that bridge between modern electrical gadgets and mechanical energy sources, which can subsequently be used to power nanosensors or low-energy devices making them essential components of self-sufficient and sustainable energy systems. Lastly, it was determined that the manufacture of the nanogenerator (4 cm x 2 cm) would cost \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e1.2 (details in \u003cb\u003eSection S7\u003c/b\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePENGs were also utilized to activate 10 light-emitting diodes (LED\u0026rsquo;s) using a 1\u0026micro;F capacitor shown in the experimental setup (inset of Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003ee) and the demonstration their effectiveness in energy conversion and harvesting. The ability of PENGs to generate enough electrical energy to run several LED\u0026rsquo;s at once has been proven as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003ee. The promise of PENGs for low-power applications is demonstrated by their capacity to power 10 LED\u0026rsquo;s using finger tapping in Supplementary Video \u003cb\u003e(Video V1)\u003c/b\u003e. The effectiveness of these demonstrations shows how well-suited they are for self-powered devices like portable illumination, environmental sensors, and wearable electronics. In addition to showcasing their technological innovations, PENGs encourage eco-friendly substitutes for traditional power sources in contemporary electronics by utilizing ambient mechanical energy. This invention advances the creation of energy-efficient, self-sufficient systems.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study presents the fabrication and characterization of a hydrophobic, high-temperature stable, and high-performance piezoelectric nanogenerator (PENG) based on BiCoO₃ nanocubes embedded in a PDMS matrix. The non-centrosymmetric crystal structure of hydrothermally synthesized BiCoO₃ nanocubes was confirmed using X-ray diffraction (XRD) spectroscopy, revealing a cubic oxide structure (space group I23), crucial for inducing piezoelectricity. Under a low vertical pressure of 0.15 kgf, applied using a precision-controlled dynamic shaker without external electrical poling, the PENG demonstrated a stable output current density of 9.2 \u0026micro;A/cm\u0026sup2; and an output voltage of 44.8 V. The PENG was performed under extreme environmental conditions, including elevated temperatures upto 120\u0026deg;C and heavy rainfall, ensuring sustained performance and extended operational lifespan. The PENG was also utilized to generate the energy from the force exerted by the water drop. The nanogenerator exhibited an energy conversion efficiency of 33.75% and a rapid response time of 40 ms, highlighting its efficiency in extreme environmental conditions. The incorporation of BiCoO₃ nanocubes significantly enhanced the electromechanical coupling coefficient, ensuring superior operational stability and cyclic loading performance. Real-time demonstrations showcased the ability of PENG to power 10 LED\u0026rsquo;s with minimal tapping force. These results underscore the potential of this lead-free, eco-friendly piezoelectric nanogenerator as a transformative technology for sustainable energy harvesting and self-powered electronics. This research paves the way for the development of scalable, high-performance piezoelectric systems suitable for biomedical monitoring, human-machine interfacing, and intelligent infrastructure applications.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMaterials.\u003c/b\u003e Cobalt nitrate (Co(NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026middot;9H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO; 99.99%), bismuth nitrate (Bi(NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026middot;5H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO; 99.99%), Silver nitrate (AgNO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e; 99.99%) and Copper foil (0.25 mm, 99.98%) were procured from Sigma Aldrich. Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS; Sylgard 184; Dow Corning) was procured from, GmbH. All of the received materials and chemicals were utilized without any further purification. Millipore water purification system was adopted to generate the Deionized (DI) water for experimental purpose.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSynthesis of BiCoO\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e \u003cb\u003enanocubes.\u003c/b\u003e Cost effective hydrothermal technique was adopted for the synthesis of highly crystalline BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e nanocubes. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003ea depicts the synthesis procedure where two separate 10 ml aqueous solution of 2M of Co(NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026middot;9H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO and 1M of Bi(NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026middot;5H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO was prepared. Solution of Bi(NO)\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026middot;5H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO was added dropwise into the constantly stirred (200 rpm) Co(NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026middot;9H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO solution and kept for 1 hour. Resultant solution was transferred to a Teflon lined autoclaved and kept in a furnace at 200\u0026deg;C for 24 h. Constant heating and cooling rate of 10\u0026deg;C/min is adopted for the crystalline growth. Finally, the centrifugation with ethanol was prepared to cleanse the resulting white solution and the last of the leftover powder was dried overnight at 120\u0026deg;C in the oven.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFabrication of Silver electrode.\u003c/b\u003e Conductive silver was deposited via a single dip-and-pull step photochemical process that was extremely easy to use and inexpensive. For 3 sec, the semiconductor films were submerged in an AgNO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e aqueous solution. The films did not change color even after being completely cleaned with DI water and dried in desiccator under N\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e environment. Further, the deposited film was exposed for 2 h under 254 nm UV light in the presence of oxygen (atmospheric) results in the darkening of the film and confirms the formation of silver deposition. UV treatment enhances adhesion by activating the PET surface and enabling intimate bonding with Ag nuclei. Prior to deposition, the PET surface was thoroughly cleaned which reduces PET substrate interfacial impurities, contributing to film stability. \u003csup\u003e45\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFabrication of BiCoO\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e: \u003cb\u003ePDMS nanogenerator.\u003c/b\u003e As shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003eb, a straight forward device design of Ag coated PET / (BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e:PDMS) /ITO coated PET was used to create the flexible piezoelectric BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e:PDMS nanogenerator. Cubical BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e nanocubes were first mixed uniformly with the PDMS polymer to create the BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e:PDMS composite layer. Three steps were used to create the homogeneous combination of BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e nanocubes with PDMS (density of 1.102 gcm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e). Using a magnetic stirrer, BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e nanocubes were first dispersed in a toluene solvent at 100 rpm for 1 h. The solution is then moved into an ultrasonication bath and left there for at least 30 min for proper mixing/dispersion. Subsequently, a magnetically agitated PDMS polymer was filled with drop by drop of uniformly distributed BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e nanocubes in toluene solution. For optimal mixing, the resulting mixture was ultrasonicated for 30 min after being held for an hour on a magnetic stirrer. After that, the composite mixture was heated to 60\u0026deg;C for one hour in order to eliminate bubbles. Using a spin coater set to 500 rpm for 30 seconds, hybrid composite films with varying weight ratios of BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e nanocubes in PDMS polymer matrix (2 wt.%, 5 wt.%, 10 wt.%, and 15 wt.%) were coated on an ITO/PET substrate using glass slide as a supporting film. To create a piezoelectric nanogenerator, a Ag-coated PET counter electrode was physically positioned above the BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e:PDMS hybrid composite layer. For comparison, an identical device with ITO/PET electrodes on both sides (without Ag coating) was created.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMeasurement and Characterization.\u003c/b\u003e Using a Cu Kα (λ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.154 nm) energy source, Japan made Rigaku Ultima-IV X-ray diffractometer was used to analyze the structure of as-grown BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e nanocubes. Hitachi Tabletop Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) TM3030 Plus was used for the microstructural examination and attached energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (EDAX) was employed for the elemental investigation. Particle size distribution was performed using Malvern Zetasizer Nano ZS-90 (Malvern Instruments) dynamic light scattering (DLS) measurements instrument. USA make Keithley source meter (SMU 2450) was used to measure the piezoelectric output short circuit current (I\u003csub\u003eSC\u003c/sub\u003e) and the sheet resistance of the Ag thin film. Asylum Research, USA make piezoelectric force microscope (AFM) equipped with platinum/iridium (PtIr5) treated silicon tip was utilized using a to examine the inherent piezoelectric property of BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e nanocubes. AFM tips were calibrated for Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy (KPFM) using highly oriented pyrolytic graphite, which has a stable surface and a known work function of about 4.6 eV. London, UK based PiezoMeter System (PM300, Piezotest) was adopted to examine the composite film's piezoelectric coefficient (d\u003csub\u003e33\u003c/sub\u003e) values. Contact Angle Analysis of BiCoO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e:PDMS hybrid nanocomposite film was performed to study the hydrophilic and hydrophobic nature. Contact Angle analysis of nanocomposite film was conducted using Drop Shape Analyser, DSA 25 (KR\u0026Uuml;SS GmbH, Germany) with water as a liquid and air as a medium at room temperature. Without applying any external electrical DC poling, the nanogenerator's output voltage response was monitored using an USA make Agilent Technology Oscilloscope (DSO3062A). The consistent vertical force was applied using a USA make dynamic shaker (The Model Shop) controlled by functional generator to study the output response of the nanogenerator.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability Statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResearch data are not shared.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSupporting Information\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSupporting Information is available from the Wiley Online Library or from the author.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDKB acknowledges financial assistance from the Council of Scientific \u0026amp; Industrial Research\u0026nbsp;Pool Scientist Scheme and research facility assistance from the Nanoscale Research Facility. SK acknowledges\u0026nbsp;BRICS research funding for financial assistance from the Department of Science and Technology (DST), India.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDhiraj Kumar Bharti: Conceptualization, Methodology, Data curation, Writing - original draft. Sandeep Kumar: Methodology, Data curation, Writing - review \u0026amp; editing. Jitendra Pratap Singh: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Supervision, Writing - review \u0026amp; editing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDeng H-T, Xia Y-X, Liu Y-C, Kim B, Zhang X-S. 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Silver-modified titanium dioxide thin films for efficient photodegradation of methyl orange. \u003cem\u003eApplied Catalysis B: Environmental\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e42\u003c/strong\u003e, 187-201 (2003).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7666722/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7666722/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eMultifunctional nanogenerators are advanced nanoscale devices designed to harvest various forms of waste energy from the environment and convert it into usable electrical energy. In this study, non-centrosymmetric highly crystalline BiCoO₃ nanocubes are synthesized using the hydrothermal method. The average particle size approximately 80 nm of nanocubes are calculated through High-Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy. Piezoelectric Force Microscopy analysis revealed a piezoelectric charge coefficient of 330.41 pm/V for the BiCoO₃ nanocubes. The high output voltage of 44.8 V and an output current density of 9.2 \u0026micro;A/cm\u0026sup2;, with a quick response time of 40 ms, high sensitivity (298.66 V/kgf) and high energy conversion efficiency of 33.75% are achieved. The nanogenerator is performed under extreme environmental conditions, including elevated temperatures upto 120\u0026deg;C and heavy rainfall, ensuring sustained performance and extended operational lifespan. The demonstration of charging multiple capacitors and simultaneously illuminating 10 LED\u0026rsquo;s underscores the significant potential of the nanogenerator for next-generation flexible sensor applications. This capability underscores its exceptional robustness and adaptability, positioning it as a highly promising solution in future for sustainable energy harvesting and real-time monitoring applications, particularly in extreme environmental conditions such as high temperatures and heavy rainfall.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"High-Performance, Temperature Retardant and Hydrophobic BiCoO₃:PDMS Piezoelectric Nanogenerator for Effective Energy Harvesting in Harsh Environments","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-16 14:20:49","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7666722/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"4d71a070-56c7-4578-8d0a-d2bd13da75b9","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 16th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[{"id":55725074,"name":"Physical sciences/Nanoscience and technology/Nanoscale devices/NEMS"},{"id":55725075,"name":"Physical sciences/Engineering/Electrical and electronic engineering"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-09T20:48:20+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-7666722","link":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2026.174311","journal":{"identity":"chemical-engineering-journal","isVorOnly":true,"title":"Chemical Engineering Journal"},"publishedOn":"2026-03-15 00:00:00","publishedOnDateReadable":"March 15th, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-16 14:20:49","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1016/j.cej.2026.174311","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2026.174311","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7666722","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7666722","identity":"rs-7666722","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}