Inter-Basin Comparison of Sedimentary dynamics and Diagenetic Evolution of the Middle Buntsandstein: Insights from Outcrop Samples (Vosges and Trier) and Subsurface Data (Southern Netherlands)

Inter-Basin Comparison of Sedimentary dynamics and Diagenetic Evolution of the Middle Buntsandstein: Insights from Outcrop Samples (Vosges and Trier) and Subsurface Data (Southern Netherlands) | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Inter-Basin Comparison of Sedimentary dynamics and Diagenetic Evolution of the Middle Buntsandstein: Insights from Outcrop Samples (Vosges and Trier) and Subsurface Data (Southern Netherlands) Husnain Yousaf, Hannes Claes, Gert Jan Weltje, Jean-Marie Mengus, and 4 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6264155/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Revision Version 1 posted 12 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study explores the depositional and diagenetic evolution of the Lower Triassic Middle Buntsandstein exposed in the Vosges and Trier areas and subsurface strata from released wells in the southern Netherlands. Analysis of sedimentological and petrographical properties reveals marked dissimilarities in lithostratigraphic units, despite shared tectonic and climatic settings. The stratigraphic successions reveal the evidence of climate change throughout the deposition of Middle Buntsandstein within and across the basins. The sedimentary structures and detrital compositions are matched well between the outcrops and subsurface samples, indicating analogous source rock types. Eodiagenetic processes, predominantly controlled by depositional environments and climatic conditions, exhibit similarities in both sample series. Subsurface samples, however, display higher concentration of mesodiagenetic cements (e.g., (non-) ferroan calcite/dolomite, siderite and anhydrite). In addition, extensive quartz overgrowths also suggest a higher thermal exposure than outcrop samples. In outcrop samples, telodiagenetic processes have significantly altered the grain framework because of the dissolution of carbonate nodules/cements and the precipitation of Fe- and Mn- oxides. Moreover, bleaching processes are a function of the interaction of reducing and/or acidic fluids, which depends on the basin evolution and thus differs within and across the basins. Main Buntsandstein Subgroup Grès Vosgiens sedimentology depositional environments diagenesis bleaching Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 1 Introduction The growing importance of sustainable energy necessitates a detailed analysis of Middle Buntsandstein sandstones to assess their economic viability and potential risks. Buntsandstein rock successions seem to occur relatively uniform and widespread across the west European regions (Mader, 1983 ; Aigner and Bachmann, 1992 ; Muchez et al., 1992 ; Fontaine et al., 1993 ; Ames and Farfan, 1996 ; Geluk et al., 1996 ; Purvis & Okkerman, 1996 ; Geluk and Röhling, 1997 , 1999 ; Gaupp, 1998 ; Geluk, 2005 ; Tesmer et al., 2007; Bryant & Flint, 2009 ; Bourquin et al. 2009 , 2011 ; Bachmann et al., 2010 ; De Jager et al., 2010; Röhling & Lepper, 2013 ; Böcker et al., 2015 ; Haffen, 2012 ; Hilse et al., 2014 ; Soyk, 2015 ; Griffiths et al., 2016 ; Heap et al., 2017 , Kunkel et al., 2018 ; Ursem, 2018; Mijnlieff, ( 2020 ); Schmidt et al., 2020a &b; Aehnelt et al., 2021 ; Bertier et al., 2022 ; Busch et al., 2022 ; Quandt et al., 2022 ; Yousaf et al., 2023 ). In fact, it consists of several geological formations of different ages with variable depositional and diagenetic histories. Terms like Lower, Middle, and Upper Buntsandstein have been parallelly introduced in different regions, and so do not necessarily correlate perfectly between different basins, i.e. the Lower Buntsandstein does not correlate lithologically or chronologically to Lower Buntsandstein strata in another basins. Steady progress has been made, e.g., by Geluk and Röhling ( 1997 ), Bourquin et al. ( 2011 ) and others, by using techniques like cyclo-stratigraphy and magneto-stratigraphy (Kozur, 1998 ; Szurlies et al., 2003 , Szurlies, 2004 ; Kozur and Bachmann, 2008 ) refining regional correlation efforts. In addition, claystone and sandstone markers also helped to correlate strata between basins, but because of the scarcity of bio-stratigraphic data in these intracratonic continental deposits, their subdivision and correlation remain challenging. Several studies have explored the lithology and reservoir characteristics of Middle Buntsandstein formations, but most of these studies have concentrated on intra-basinal features (e.g., Bourquin et al., 2009 ; Haffen, 2012 ; Kunkel et al., 2018 ; Busch et al., 2022 ). In addition, Péron et al. ( 2005 ) and Bourquin et al. ( 2006 , 2009 , 2011 ) investigated the possible paleoclimatic settings within the Germanic Basin with special emphasis on the France region. Researchers like Purvis & Okkerman ( 1996 ), Geluk ( 2005 ), Matev ( 2011 ), among others, have dedicated their research to describe the depositional conditions specific to the Netherlands. Studies by Soyk ( 2015 ), Heap et al. ( 2017 ), Schmidt et al. ( 2020a , b ), Quandt et al. ( 2022 ), Busch et al. ( 2022 ) have delved into various diagenetic processes and petrophysical characteristics of the Buntsandstein mainly from the Upper Rhine Graben (URG) areas (e.g., SW Germany). Similarly, notable contributions have been made by G.A.P.S. Nederland B.V. (1991, 1992, 1993), De Reuver (1992), Schobel ( 1993 ). Bost and Pagnier (1993), Greenwood ( 1997 ), Clement and Conybeare ( 1998 ), Conybeare and MacPherson (1999), Conybeare et al. ( 1999 ) on the sedimentology, petrography and reservoir quality using subsurface wells from the southern Netherlands. Despite lithostratigraphic discrepancies, the nearby exposed Buntsandstein units may be considered as outcrop analogues for the subsurface strata in the southern Netherlands. Outcrop analogue studies have been recognized as a valuable tool for subsurface reservoir characterization (Miall, 1978 , 1996 ; Alexander, 1993 ; Bryant & Flint, 1993, Pringle et al., 2006 ; Ajdukiewicz and Lander, 2010; Jung and Aigner, 2012; Henares et al., 2014a ; Busch et al., 2022 ). However, it should be critically evaluated to what extent sedimentological, diagenetic, and ultimately petrophysical properties of outcrops represent their equivalents in the subsurface. In this context, this study investigates the main depositional environments to establish temporal and inter-basin correlations of lithofacies and their diagenetic characteristics. This comparison is essential for evaluating the reliability of studied outcrop sections as analogues for deeper subsurface strata within the southern Netherlands. 2 Regional geology The Germanic Basin was located between 20° and 30°N during the Triassic period (Bachmann et al., 2010 ). These intracratonic basins were surrounded by several massifs (Ziegler, 1992 ; Péron et al., 2005 ; Bourquin et al., 2011 ; Röhling & Lepper, 2013 ). Buntsandstein deposits were deposited in an arid to semi-arid climate, primarily controlled by Milankovitch cycles (wet and dry periods with ~ 100 ka periodicity) driven by orbital variations (Röhling, 1991 ; Geluk and Röhling, 1997 ; Kozur & Bachmann, 2008 ; Roman, 2004 ; Bourquin et al., 2009 ). Tensional and transnational stresses created NNE-WNW trending highs and lows, resulted is a variable amount of subsidence during deposition. The coarse-grained clastics of the Main Buntsandstein overlie the fine-grained sediments of Lower Buntsandstein (e.g., Geluk & Röhling, 1997 ). In these land-locked basins, sediments were sourced from the persisting Armorican and London-Brabant Massifs, which were transported basin-ward primarily by fluvial and subordinately aeolian systems (Mader, 1983 ; Geluk, 2005 ; Bourquin et al., 2009 ; Augustsson et al., 2018 ). Consequently, depositional facies and sedimentary thicknesses exhibit variability between the central and marginal parts of the basin. The basins centre is often characterized by the deposition of thick successions of fine-grained clastics with prominent oolitic carbonate beds while marginal basin facies comprise relatively coarse-grained clastic units alternating with sandstones and clay-siltstones (e.g., Bourquin et al., 2009 ). 3 Stratigraphic framework Variations in the stratigraphic nomenclature of the Buntsandstein are observed across international borders. The Lower, Middle, and Upper subdivision, however, was recognised throughout the Germanic Basin. The oldest undated fluvial deposits above the Permian-Triassic unconformity are interbedded with aeolian deposits or exhibit indicators of aridity, such as ventifacts or reworked aeolian sediments. Detailed stratigraphic analysis (e.g., Kozur, 1998 ; Kozur & Bachmann, 2008 ; Geluk and Röhling, 1997 , 1999 ; Geluk, 2005 ; De Jager, 2007 ; Bourquin et al., 2007 , 2009 , 2011 ) allow to compare and correlate the Lower Triassic formations at the regional scale (Fig. 2 ). The Lower Triassic Buntsandstein is classified into three groups: The Lower Buntsandstein consisting of fine-grained clastics with prominent claystone and some places oolitic carbonate beds. The Middle Buntsandstein mainly comprising fine, medium to coarse-grained sandstones with intercalation of siltstones and/or claystones. The Upper Buntsandstein succession corresponding to a major unconformity and marine transition in some places. 3.1 Vosges and Trier areas At the beginning of the Early Triassic, the sedimentation area was restricted to the Germanic Basin (Aigner and Bachmann, 1992 ). The Calvorde and Bernburg Formations in NW Germany, and Rogenstein and Main Claystone in the southern Netherlands, correspond to the Lower Buntsandstein. These successions are missing along the western shoulder of Upper Rhine Graben (URG) (Bourquin et al., 2007 ), and the Middle Buntsandstein unconformably overlie Permian sediments (Bourquin et al., 2009 ) in the study area (Fig. 2 ). The Middle Buntsandstein Formations (Conglomerate basal, Grès Vosgiens and Conglomerate Principal) of the Vosges and Trier areas (associated with the Paris Basin) exhibit correlations with the Volpriehausen, Detfurth, and Hardegsen Formations deposited in the West Netherlands and Broad Fourteens Basins. Deposition of the Middle Buntsandstein predominantly occurred in braided fluvial systems. Paleo-current orientations were towards the north-northeast, indicating that river catchment areas were primarily within the present-day Armorican Massif (e.g., Bourquin et al., 2009 ). The co-occurrence of reworked and in situ sand dunes, wind-worn pebbles, and lack of paleosol remnants supports the intercalation of aeolian sediments (Durand, 1972 , 1978 ; Durand et al., 1994 ; Geluk and Röhling, 1997 , 1999 ; Geluk, 2005 ; Bourquin et al., 2009 , 2011 ; Matev, 2011 ). In the west of the Vosges area (Lorraine), the top of the Lower Triassic is marked by a major sedimentary break associated with a period of by-pass or development of the earliest paleosol, originally defined as Zone Limite Violette (ZLV). This episode could be coeval with the deposition of the Detfurth and Hardegsen Formation in the southern Netherlands (e.g., Szurlies, 2004 ; Bourquin et al., 2009 ). 3.2 Southern Netherlands In the southern Netherlands, the Lower Germanic Trias Group consists of the Lower Buntsandstein Formation and the Main Buntsandstein Subgroup. The Lower Buntsandstein Formation comprises Rogenstein and Main Claystone Members. Whereas, the Main Buntsandstein Subgroup consists of the Volpriehausen, Detfurth and Hardegsen Formations. The Volpriehausen Formation is composed of fluvial-aeolian deposits (Geluk and Röhling, 1997 , 1999 ; Geluk, 2005 ; De Jager, 2007 ; Matev, 2011 ) which graded northward into predominantly aeolian deposits (Fontaine et al., 1993 ; Ames & Farfan, 1996 ). The Volpriehausen and Detfurth Formations display a cyclic alternation of sandstones and clay-siltstones and are further subdivided into the sub-members. Differential subsidence can be observed during the deposition of Detfurth and Hardegsen sandstones, equivalent to the Zone limite violette (below the Hardegsen unconformity) in the France region. The Hardegsen Formation predominantly consists of aeolian sediments, particularly along the southern margin of the WNB. It is present at the top of Middle Buntsandstein successions and exhibits a significant erosion (cutting down locally to the Induan deposits or even Permian levels). The Middle Buntsandstein thickness ranges from a few hundreds to thousands of meters in the study areas. This variation in thickness reflects a combination of enhanced subsidence in the grabens, as well as erosion in uplifted areas (Geluk et al., 1996 ; Geluk and Röhling, 1997 ; Bourquin et al., 2009 ; Matev, 2011 , among others). 4 Material and Methods To ensure the comprehensive representation of Middle Buntsandstein sandstones, sixty samples were collected from diverse natural outcrops and quarries within the Vosges and Trier regions. Total 122 subsurface samples from released wells ( https://www.nlog.nl/ ) also incorporated in this study (Supplementary data). In addition, supplementary information from a newly drilled Well-X also incorporated in this study (Yousaf et al., under review). Sedimentological characterization was performed by examining the main sedimentary features on both outcrops and subsurface specimens. Newly acquired samples were cut perpendicularly to bedding plane, to prepare the thin sections which were polished for petrographic analysis. The samples were vacuum impregnated with blue dyed epoxy resin to aid in porosity determination. Samples were stained with Alizarin red-S and potassium ferricyanide to examine the carbonates (Dickson, 1965 ). Conventional optical microscopy (Olympus BX60 with Zeiss Axiocam 305 colour digital camera) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM-BSE, EDS) were utilized for petrographical analysis. A Nikon Optiphot microscope (Nikon Corporation, Tokyo, Japan), equipped with a modified Technosyn Model 8200 MkII stage and a cold cathodoluminescence (CL) system (600 µA, 3-3.30 kV), was employed to identify carbonate zonation and generations and to conduct qualitative and quantitative analyses of detrital quartz and feldspar (e.g., Bernet and Bassett, 2005 ). Quantification of mineral constituents was performed by counting 1000 points per thin section (Dickinson, 1985 ), using JMicroVision software (Roduit, 2017 ). The examined sandstones were classified using a QFR ternary diagram (Folk, 1980 ). Average grain size measurements were obtained using the method described by Bush et al. (2018). 5 Results 5.1 Macroscopic observation Middle Buntsandstein outcrop sections and their subsurface correlatives, Main Buntsandstein Subgroup, exhibit almost similar sedimentological characteristics. The presence of planar to trough cross bedding, horizontal laminations to structureless bodies, occasionally lenticular to wavy bedding, abundant pebbles and mud clasts, strongly amalgamated sand bodies, erosive basal boundaries and fining upward sequences suggests that deposition predominantly occurred within braided and ephemeral fluvial systems. Whereas occurrence of high-angle dipping foresets (typically 20 to 30°), bimodal lamination, wavy bedding and adhesion ripples, inverse grading, abrasive grains and a paucity of mica and clay in some places, suggesting the intercalations of aeolian deposits. However, the latter features are not commonly observed in outcrops compared to subsurface sections. The climate shift from semi-arid to arid conditions is evident in the transition from the fluvial-dominated Volpriehausen Formation to the more aeolian Hardegsen Formation, particularly in the southern part of the West Netherlands Basin. Analogous patterns observed in the vertical sequence of the Middle Buntsandstein formations in the Vosges and Trier regions. The lower portion of the Grès Vosgiens primarily comprises a braided river system depositional setting within an arid alluvial plain, while the upper portion reflects aeolian deposition (see Bourquin et al., 2009 ). The Hardegsen unconformity signifies a significant hiatus in deposition and/or erosion, probably extending throughout the Germanic Basin. A lithofacies classification of interpreted sedimentological features from outcrop and subsurface samples is presented in Fig. 3 and described as: Braided Fluvial Channel facies are characterized by the presence of medium to coarse-grained sandstones to cobble-rich strata, along with high angle planar to trough cross-bedding, with erosive base boundaries and rip-up clasts (Figs. 5.3A, B & J). Ephemeral Fluvial Channels or Proximal Floodplain facies are composed of fine to medium-grained sandstone with low-angle cross-bedding to (sub) horizontal to structureless-bedded sandstones, occasionally exhibiting erosive base boundaries and fining upward sequences (Figs. 5.3C-H, K). Sheet Flood facies comprise siltstone and very fine-grained sandstone with sub-angular to angular framework and (sub) horizontal bedding (Figs. 5.3I, L). Aeolian facies display common textural (bimodal) lamination, adhesion ripples, no grain > 2 mm, no detrital clays and mica, suggesting deposition in aeolian conditions (Figs. 5.3M-O). These features are not observed in the studied outcrop samples. 5.2 Microscopic observation 5.2.1 Texture and composition The average grain sizes (AGS) and sorting vary significantly throughout the examined samples. Overall, AGS ranges from very fine (62–125 µm) to fine (125–250 µm) to medium (250–500 µm) and occasionally coarse (500 µm to 2mm) (Fig. 4 A). The outcrop samples display predominantly moderately well to well-sorted samples and are composed of sub-angular to rounded grains. In contrast, subsurface samples largely consist of (very-) fine to medium-grained sediments. The angularity varying from sub-angular to rounded (e.g., fluvial) and well-rounded (e.g., aeolian). Outcrop samples were classified as subarkose to lithic arkose, according to the Folk ( 1980 ) diagram. While subsurface samples predominantly consist of quartzarenite, subarkose, sublitharenite and litharenite quartzarenite to subarkose, with some samples exhibit feldspathic litharenite to litharenite composition (Fig. 4 B). 5.2.2 Detrital composition The Buntsandstein sandstones are predominantly composed of quartz (mono- and polycrystalline) grains (Figs. 5 &.6), ranging from 41 to 69% in the outcrop samples, which are relatively lower than subsurface sample series (35 to 80%). Quartz exhibits mostly light blue or (dark) violet luminescence, suggesting a medium to high grade metamorphic or a plutonic origin (Fig. 5 L). Brownish and bright red luminescence quartz grains indicate a volcanic origin. The latter are less common in examined samples. Feldspar emerges as the second most abundant detrital component in both studied basins, with K-feldspar being the predominant type. The outcrop samples exhibit relatively higher concentration of K-feldspar, ranging from 6 to 15% in contrast to the subsurface sample (1 to 14%). Plagioclase is not present in outcrop samples compared to subsurface samples, where its occurrence is less frequent and displays mainly albite twinning. Detrital K-feldspar exhibits blue luminescence, whereas plagioclase shows green luminescence. Feldspar dissolution and alteration are common and partially dissolved K-feldspar exhibits blotchy blue luminescence under CL (Fig. 5 L). Rock fragments are predominant in both outcrop and subsurface samples, consisting of ductile and rigid fragments. The ductile components are easy to differentiate from others due to their deformed nature. The rigid fragments include sedimentary rocks (siltstone, sandstone), metamorphic rocks (quartzite, schist) and plutonic rocks. In outcrop samples, their abundance ranges from 0.1 to 12%, whereas they are more abundant in subsurface samples (0.1 to 19%). Ooids and carbonate nodules are obvious in some of the subsurface samples as compared to outcrop samples, where these fragments are completely absent or possibly dissolved. The mica content (mainly muscovite) is approximately 2.0% in the subsurface samples, whereas it rarely exceeds 1.0% in outcrop samples. Detrital clay matrix is locally present in low amounts only in subsurface samples. Furthermore, low amounts of heavy ultrastable minerals, including tourmaline, zircon, rutile, and opaque minerals, were observed in some subsurface samples. 5.2.3 Authigenic composition The main authigenic components in outcrop samples primarily consist of Fe-oxides/hydroxides, Mn-oxides, and overgrowths of quartz and K-feldspar, along with illite and kaolinite. In contrast, subsurface samples comprise ferroan and non-ferroan calcite/dolomite, siderite, anhydrite cements, syntaxial quartz and K-feldspar overgrowths, and precipitates of kaolinite, illite, and opaque minerals (e.g., Fe-oxide and pyrite). Syntaxial quartz overgrowth contents in outcrop samples (0 to 5%) are relatively lower than subsurface samples ranging from 1 to 8%. Syntaxial quartz overgrowths mainly developed along the pore spaces and are absent at contacts with detrital grains and carbonate nodule/cements (Figs. 5 E, G). K-feldspar overgrowths in outcrop samples are more abundant, ranging from 0 to 2%, in contrast to subsurface samples (0 to 0.3%). Kaolinite occurrences are limited to a few locations and are mainly observed as pore filling kaolinite cements (Fig. 6 F). In outcrop samples, it ranges from 0 to 0.7%, while subsurface samples exhibiting concentrations ranging from 0 to 5%. Tangential illite present around the detrital grains often displays a reddish appearance because of the presence of Fe-oxides/hydroxides, particularly in red bed sandstones. Pore filling phases show typical radial, platy to fibrous illite textures (Figs. 5 I, J, K). The overall abundance varies from 0 to 4% in outcrop samples and from 0 to 6% in subsurface samples. The concentration of Fe-oxides/hydroxides in outcrop samples (0–26%) is considerably greater than in the subsurface samples (0-2.3%), exhibiting a reddish-orange to dark brown coloration. The observed Fe-oxides/hydroxides present textural bimodality, occurring as dust rims around the detrital grains (Figs. 5 A, B) and as pore-filling cement (Figs. 5 A, B, C, G). Mn-oxides only observed in outcrop samples, exhibiting a concentration range of 0 to 13% (Fig. 5 H). Carbonate and anhydrite cements are observed only in subsurface samples. The presence of calcite (0–22%) and siderite (0–0.7%) is noted in some sandstone samples (supplementary materials). Calcite cement is mainly present as sparry cement and sometimes pore filling poikilotopic cement (Fig. 6 A). Non-ferroan dolomite is the predominant carbonate cement, exhibiting an abundance ranging from 0 to 39%. Ferroan dolomite only observed in a few subsurface samples ranges from 0–3%. The presence of substantial dolomite is characterized by its concentrated appearance as poikilotopic patches. It also appears as small aggregates or clusters of subhedral crystals and fine-to-medium rhombohedral crystals within intragranular pore spaces (Figs. 6 C, E). Dolomite exhibits bright yellowish-orange luminescence under CL (e.g., Well-X). In some samples, ooids and clay nodules have been recrystallized into carbonate (calcite and dolomite) and concentric structures are preserved (see Fig. 7 in Yousaf et al., 2023 and Yousaf et al., under review). Anhydrite cement is absent in outcrop samples. Whereas in subsurface samples, its occurrence is local and ranges from 0 to 23% (Figs. 6 C, E). 5.2.4 Compaction The nature of grain-to-grain contacts varies from partly floating to point to long or concave-convex contacts, primarily depending on the type of grains present in both outcrop and subsurface samples (Figs. 5 & 6 ). The coarser-grained sandstone samples exhibit weak compaction and often contain floating grains (Figs. 5 A, B, F, H & 6 C, H). Whereas high compaction is often noticed in fine-grained sandstones where grains show long to concave-convex grain contacts (Figs. 5 D, E & 6 A, C, E) and sometimes slightly sutured grain contacts. In both outcrop and subsurface samples, the relatively lower compaction is supported by the floating to point contacts between the rigid grains. 6 Discussion 6.1 Depositional environment The lithostratigraphic units reveal the interplay of tectonic and climatic conditions within and across the basins. Earlier established lithostratigraphic divisions of the Middle Buntsandstein successions (e.g., Geluk and Röhling, 1997 ; Geluk, 2005 ; De Jager, 2007 ; Bourquin et al., 2009 ; Bachmann et al., 2010 ), combined with a thorough lithofacies analysis of both surface and subsurface samples (this study), offers a good understanding of climate change. The Vosges outcrops predominantly correspond to basinal marginal facies and subsurface samples from southern Netherlands represent the entire basin (e.g., WNB & BFB). While the outcrops in the Trier embayment matches well with the subsurface developments of the WNB (e.g., Mader, 1983 ). Integrated sedimentological and petrographical analysis of the dataset present in this study indicates three major depositional phases across the studied basins. These findings align with the observations documented by Mader ( 1983 ), Aigner and Bachmann ( 1992 ); Fontaine et al. ( 1993 ), Geluk and Röhling ( 1997 , 1999 ), Kozur and Bachmann (2004), Ziegler (2004), Roman ( 2004 ), Geluk ( 2005 ), Bourquin et al. ( 2009 ), Matev ( 2011 ) and others. Phase 1: At the onset of the Olenekian or Late Induan, a surge in precipitation rate within the surrounding massifs sparked intense fluvial activity, leaving a permanent sedimentation record marked by the deposition of conglomerates in the French region. These conglomeratic beds range from a few meters to tens of meters in thickness. Large-braided fluvial systems originated from the orogenic belt (e.g., Armorican Massif) and adjacent highs entered via the Roer Valley Graben into the WNB and BFB, as illustrated in Fig. 7 . The deposition of the Buntsandstein in the studied basins can be attributed to these fluvial systems that were responsible for the sediment transport and its deposition. The presence of aeolian deposits in the southern Netherlands likely corresponds to uplifted parts within the basins (e.g., Ursem, 2018). The typical diagnostic features of aeolian deposits are not observed in the studied outcrop sections; however, Bourquin et al. ( 2009 ) documented their occurrence at various intervals within the France region. Phase 1 likely corresponds to the conglomerate basal and lower part of the Grès Vosgiens Formation in northeastern France (e.g., Vosges area) and the lower successions of Volpriehausen Formation in the southern Netherlands. Phase 2: During the Olenekian, the shift to ephemeral fluvial systems (Fig. 7 ) is marked by laterally and vertically amalgamated sandstone bodies, indicative of increased humidity. The lithofacies (Fig. 3 C-I, K & L) likely represent the ephemeral fluvial channel and sheet flood deposits. It is difficult to differentiate ephemeral fluvial lithofacies from fluvial sheet floods lithofacies. For the Lower Triassic in Central Germany, Kunkel et al. ( 2018 ) argued that cross-bedded sandstones can be interpreted as sand sheet or channel fill facies. However, careful observations of the distinct features like decimetre to centimetre scale lamination of sand, silt or clay reveals that these are most likely low energy sheet floods deposits (Fig. 3 I). These sheet floods are mainly deposited away from the confined channel pathways, resulting in the accumulation of comparatively fine sediments. The analysis of facies changes throughout time gives rise to the stratigraphic cycles that can be correlated at a regional scale (e.g., Bourquin et al., 2009 ). Fluvial activity persisted but with a relative increase of humid conditions, which resulted in an abundance of ephemeral fluvial channel and sheet flood deposits across the basins (Fig. 7 ). Playa deposits are dominant in the central part of the basins. Aeolian facies may have been deposited locally. This phase likely represents a major portion of the Grès Vosgiens and Volpriehausen Formations of NE France and the southern parts of the Netherlands, respectively. Phase 3: Differential subsidence during the deposition of Detfurth and Hardegsen sandstones being equivalent to the Zone Limite Violette (below the Hardegsen unconformity) may correlate with the change in flow direction in fluvial systems. Decrease in fluvial activity and the predominance of aeolian deposition indicates a shift in paleogeographic settings, likely because of the development of a new fluvial system from NNW to NE and/or south (e.g., Bourquin et al., 2009 ; Fig. 7 ). The significant occurrence of aeolian facies (Figs. 5.3M-O) at the southern margin of the WNB support a change in depositional conditions from primarily fluvial to aeolian (Yousaf et al., 2023 ). This phase also coincides with significant erosion and/or non-deposition at a regional scale. 6.2 Diagenesis The major paragenetic sequence interfered in outcrop and subsurface samples is shown in Fig. 8 for comparison. 6.2.1 Eogenesis The initial stage of paragenesis in both outcrops and subsurface sample series is marked by sandstone reddening. The reddening of sandstone was caused by the precipitation of Fe-oxides/hydroxides within clay-rims. Iron is primarily derived from minerals like pyroxenes, micas and amphiboles, which are chemically less stable under near surface weathering conditions (Walker, 1967; Folk, 1976 ; Muchez et al., 1992 ; Aehnelt et al., 2021 ; Bertier et al., 2022 , among others). According to Cornell and Schwertmann ( 2003 ), Fe-oxides/hydroxides in recent soils precipitate initially as ferrihydrite, which alters to goethite (Fe-hydroxide) and hematite (Fe-oxide) under warm and wet conditions. Similar, red-coloured continental sandstones that formed during early diagenesis have been documented in other parts of the world (e.g., Chan et al., 2000 ; Beitler et al., 2003, 2005; Parry et al., 2004 ; Zhang et al., 2022 and others). The formation of carbonate nodules and spheroids, oncoids and ooids in subsurface samples (e.g., Yousaf et al., 2023 ) is widely debated in the literature. They are often known as early diagenetic chemically grown carbonates (Wright and Tucker, 1991 ; Milnes, 1992 ; Morad, 1998 ; Purvis and Okkerman, 1996 ; Blackbourn and Robertson, 2014 ; Bertier et al., 2022 ). The concentric lamination around the nucleus, however, indicates that these are transported and/or reworked carbonate constituents (e.g., Olivarius, 2015 ; Rushton et al., 2025 ). Subsurface samples often exhibit similar nodules and concentric textural features which have undergone subsequent replacement or displacement mainly by calcite/dolomite cements. These fabrics are overgrown during shallow burial and are often characterized by floating to point grain contacts (Rushton et al., 2025 , Yousaf et al., under review). In contrast, carbonate nodules and cements are completely absent from the outcrop samples. However, the previous existence of nodules and/or cements are implied by the presence of Fe- and Mn-oxides, typically formed after dissolution of dolomite or siderite in outcrop samples (e.g., Bauer, 1994 ). The crystallographic continuity between K-feldspar overgrowths and detrital K-feldspar grains suggests that their formation before or during the precipitation of pore-filling (carbonate) cements and prior to mechanical compaction. K-feldspar overgrowths along the open pores are interpreted as an early diagenetic event. Early diagenetic overgrowths were likely sourced by the dissolution of detrital K-feldspar (Füchtbauer, 1967 ). Tatsumoto and Patterson ( 1980 ) documented the process of detrital feldspar dissolution and re-precipitation as authigenic feldspar based on the similar composition of lead isotopes in detrital grains and feldspar overgrowths. Similar observations have been reported by various authors (Gaupp et al., 1993 ; Beyer et al., 2014 ; Soyk, 2015 ; Schmidt et al., 2020b ; Bertier et al., 2022 ; Busch et al., 2022 ; Quandt et al., 2022 ) from the Buntsandstein Formation in the region. Furthermore, 40 Ar/ 39 Ar-dating of K-feldspar overgrowth cements in the Buntsandstein samples from the SW Germany supports an early diagenetic formation (Bossennec et al., 2015 ). 6.2.2 Mesogenesis The earliest mesodiagenetic event is likely the recrystallization of illite grain coatings, as they are encased in later syntaxial quartz overgrowths. The tangential illite coatings are normally the transformation product of smectite coatings (e.g., McKinley et al., 2003 ). The continuous illite coatings on detrital quartz grain surfaces often inhibited quartz overgrowths. The quartz overgrowths postdate K-feldspar, illite and carbonate cements and are interpreted as a mesodiagenetic event. Discontinuous and anhedral quartz overgrowths likely formed in competitive environments where K-feldspar or dolomite or locally anhydrite had already precipitated. The different diagenetic processes, such as recrystallization of clay minerals, dissolution of K-feldspar, enhanced chemical compaction at grain contacts covered by illite and in-contact with mica, can be the source for quartz overgrowths (Worden and Morad, 2003; Kristiansen et al., 2011 ; Monsees et al., 2020). The presence of remnants of clay coatings between detrital quartz grains and syntaxial overgrowths provides compelling evidence that quartz overgrowths postdate to some of the bleaching processes (Figs. 5.5F & 5.6G). Carbonate cements, including (non-) ferroan calcite and dolomite, as well as siderite, are prevalent in most subsurface samples. Their concentration is locally abundant. Ferroan dolomite is present either as intergranular cement or as overgrowth of rhombic crystals in the pores. However, the outer rims of some of these zoned carbonates (dolomite) have low iron concentrations (e.g., Well-X). In addition, it replaces eodiagenetic non-ferroan dolomite fabrics locally and can be seen filling the framework grain dissolution pores after detrital feldspar and lithic grains. These features suggest that these ferroan dolomites formed during mesogenesis. Anhydrite occurs as poikilotopic intergranular cement in subsurface samples (Figs. 6 C, E). Their coarse crystalline structure (e.g., Well-X) suggests a mesodiagenetic origin. The coarser grain size crystals typically develop under higher temperatures (80–100°C) and longer crystallization periods (e.g., Morad et al., 2010 ). The localized abundance (e.g., Q13-04 well) may be attributed to brine infiltration from the overlying evaporite formations. Watson (1983) reported the gypcretes as a common feature in arid and semi-arid environments. Dissolution of these components during burial diagenesis may plausibly account for subsequent anhydrite cementation (e.g., Olivarius, 2015 ; Rushton et al., 2025 ). Kaolinite is present in both uncompacted inter- and intragranular pores (Fig. 6 F). Its presence in intergranular pores suggests that it may have formed during early diagenesis due to the dissolution of igneous plagioclase (Füchtbauer, 1974 ). However, its occurrence as a replacive phase suggests it formed most likely after the dissolution of K-feldspar during burial diagenesis (Gaupp et al., 1993 ). 6.2.3 Telogenesis Telodiagenetic modifications are confined to the outcrop sample series. The solubility of carbonate minerals increases through interaction with meteoric fluids (e.g., Monsees et al., 2021 ). The dissolution of carbonate nodules and cements released the Fe and Mn, which then precipitate as oxide phases resulting in the formation of concretions (Wadflecken) (Figs. 5 C, H). Bauer ( 1994 ) also reported nodular to rhombohedral Fe- and Mn-oxide replacements after dolomite or siderite in the outcrop samples. In addition, kaolinite formation during eogenesis and mesogenesis it may also originate from the interaction of feldspar with meteoric fluids at lower temperatures during telogenesis, as reported by Lanson et al. ( 2002 ). However, since the concentration of K-feldspar in our outcrop samples is relatively high, as well as kaolinite content is relatively low, the significance of the latter event is not likely. 6.3 Bleaching The diverse bleaching patterns observed in both outcrop and subsurface samples relate to various localized and regional scale diagenetic processes over geological times. An attempt is made to infer the possible mechanisms in each location by observing their sedimentary and diagenetic features along with post-depositional burial history. A comprehensive analysis of bleaching mechanisms in the outcrop samples was presented in Yousaf et al. (under review). However, a concise summary is provided herein to facilitate a comparative analysis of bleaching mechanisms across the studied basins. Lamina-bound bleaching (LBBS) predominantly corresponds to top sets of the fluvial deposits, imply the near surface processes, likely driven by the infiltration of acidic (meteoric) fluids along the lamina and sedimentary structures. Bleaching preferentially in less permeable laminae, where restricted fluid flow allowed prolonged reaction times, enabled the complete removal of Fe-oxide/hydroxide coatings. These patterns are not observed in subsurface samples. Patchy bleached sandstones (PBS) are characterized by mm-cm sized isolated white spots within red bed sandstones. The latter are more apparent in outcrop sections as compared to subsurface samples. Maniar (2019) and Aehnelt et al. ( 2021 ) reported presence of bleached corner around clay clasts in subsurface successions in the region. However, their identification is difficult in the examined core photographs. The patchy bleached spots may be related with the transformation of (?organic-rich) sedimentary clay-clasts likely generating localized reducing conditions, leading to the removal of Fe-oxides/hydroxides in and around these spots. Stratiform bleached sandstones (SBS) are characterized by a pervasive bleaching from bed scale to formation scale. This bleaching mechanism related to migration of reducing or acidic fluids along the individual beds or complete formation through faults and fractures. The most commonly reported reducing agents are organic acids, hydrocarbons, methane, and hydrogen sulphides (Muchez et al., 1992 ; Chan et al., 2000 ; Aehnelt et al., 2021 ; Bertier et al., 2022 and many others). The absence of hydrocarbon residue in outcrop samples suggests hydrocarbons are improbable contributors to the bleaching observed in these outcrops. While in subsurface samples, widespread SBS is mainly associated with hydrocarbon migration. The Buntsandstein sandstones are recognized as the second most important hydrocarbon-bearing reservoirs in the southern Netherlands (Ames and Farfan, 1996 ; de Jager, 2007 ; Geluk, 2005 ). Alternatively, the absence of underlying Permian Zechstein sulphates in the Vosges area (Wendler et al., 2012 ) and the southern Netherlands (Geluk, 2005 ; Bachmann et al., 2010 ), also ruling out their possible involvement in the bleaching processes in the studied locations. While, Purvis and Okkerman ( 1996 ) reported the influence of Permian Zechstein sulphates in the north of BFB. Wendler et al. ( 2012 ) proposed the involvement of volcanic and meteoric acidic fluids in the outcrop sections from SW Germany. Reported pervasive bleaching in Cleebourg and Neustadt an der Weinstraße (Soyk, 2015 ) is closely associated with fault-related acidic fluid migration into these formations (Bauer, 1994 ; Busch et al. 2022 ). The observations provide compelling evidence of a bleaching process similar to those documented in other nearby studied sections. Thus, pervasive SBS in the studied outcrops might be related to H 2 S and CO 2 rich acidic fluid migration through faults along the individual beds and formation. The precise timing of the bleaching is often difficult to be constrained. However, the remnants of Fe-oxides/hydroxides coatings between the detrital grains and authigenic quartz overgrowths indicate partial bleaching processes might have occurred before quartz overgrowth. In addition, the presence of fibrous and meshwork illite obstruct the pore throats and can prevent efficient fluid (e.g. hydrocarbon) migration. Therefore, perhaps these bleaching processes in the subsurface samples likely occurred before their precipitation in these sandstones. 7 Conclusion Inter-basinal comparison of the Middle Buntsandstein successions reveals the interplay of tectonics (e.g., subsidence and uplift) and climate conditions during the sediment accumulation processes. Lithofacies architecture indicates a shift in paleoclimatic conditions throughout the studied regions. Thus, establishing direct reservoir analogies between the Vosges and Trier outcrop sections and Southern Netherlands subsurface successions for 3D subsurface models will not be straightforward. Regardless of stratigraphic sequences, the sedimentary structures and detrital composition derived from outcrops samples are comparable to subsurface samples. Most of the eodiagenetic events are comparable in both outcrops and subsurface sample series. Subsurface samples, however, display mesodiagenetic cements (e.g., Fe-dolomite, siderite, anhydrite) and extensive quartz overgrowths, suggesting a more thermal exposure than outcrop samples. Telodiagenetic alterations like dissolution of carbonates minerals and precipitation of Fe-oxides/hydroxides and Mn-oxides present a major difference between the outcrop and subsurface samples. The bleaching processes are a function of the interaction of reducing (CO 2 rich) fluids, which depends on the depositional lithofacies characteristics and basin evolution and thus differs within and across the basins. Declarations Supplementary Data Supplementary Data for this study can be found in Appendix A. Author Contribution Author Contributions: "Conceptualization, Husnain Yousaf; method, Husnain Yousaf; software, Husnain Yousaf; validation, Husnain Yousaf, Dr. Hannes Claes and Dr. Rudy Swennen; formal analysis, Husnain Yousaf, Dr. Hannes Claes; investigation, Husnain Yousaf; resources, Dr. Fadi Henri Nader, Dr. Rudy Swennen; data curation, Husnain Yousaf, Dr. Hannes Claes, Dr. Fadi Henri Nader, Dr. Rudy Swennen, Dr. Jean-Marie Mengus, Dr. Remy Deschamps; writing, Husnain Yousaf; writing-review and editing, Dr. Hannes Claes and Dr. Rudy Swennen, Dr. Gert Jan Weltje; visualization, Husnain Yousaf; supervision, Dr. Rudy Swennen and Dr. Gert Jan Weltje; project administration, Husnain Yousaf, Dr. Rudy Swennen; All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. 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Batjes, & W. H. Nieuwenhuijs (Eds.), Geology of Gas and Oil under the Netherlands (pp. 179–189). Springer. Parry, W. T., Chan, M. A., & Beitler, B. (2004). Chemical bleaching indicates episodes of fluid flow in deformation bands in sandstone. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin , 88 , 175–191. Péron, S., Bourquin, S., Fluteau, F., & Guillocheau, F. (2005). Paleoenvironment reconstructions and climate simulations of the Early Triassic: impact of the water and sediment supply on the preservation of fluvial system. Geodinamica Acta , 18 (6), 431–446. Pringle, J. K., Howell, J. A., Hodgetts, D., Westerman, A. R., & Hodgson, D. M. (2006). Virtual outcrop models of petroleum reservoir analogues: a review of the current state-of-the-art. First break , 24 , 3. Quandt, D., Busch, B., Schmidt, C., & Hilgers, C. (2022). Diagenesis and controls on reservoir quality of Lower Triassic red bed sandstones (Buntsandstein) from a marginal basin facies, southwest Germany. Marine and Petroleum Geology , 142 , 105–744. Röhling, H. G. (1991). A Lithostratigraphic subdivision of the Early Triassic in the Northwest German Lowlands and the German Sector of the North Sea, based on Gamma Ray and Sonic Logs. Geologisches Jahrbuch A , 119 , 3–23. Roman, A. (2004). Sequenzstratigraphie und Fazies des Unteren und Mittleren Buntsandsteins imostlichen Teile des Germanischen Beckens (Deutschland, Polen). PhD thesis, University of Halle-Wittemberg, 144. Röhling, H. G., & Lepper, J. (2013). Paläogeographie des Mitteleuropäischen Beckens während der tieferen Trias (Buntsandstein). Schriftenreihe der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Geowissenschaften Heft , 69 , 43–67. Roduit, N. (2017). JMicroVision: Image analysis toolbox for measuring and quantifying components of high-definition images. Version 1.3.1. Rushton, J. C., Hannis, S., Pearce, J., Williams, J., & Milodowski, A. E. (2025). Diagenetic evolution of the Bunter Sandstone Formation and its controls on reservoir quality: Implications for CO2 injectivity and storage. Geoenergy, 2024-023. Schobel., M. (1993). sedimentology, petrography and reservoir properties of Triassic Bunter Deposits in cores 1, 2and 3 from well RDK-01 Report no G73-2. Szurlies, M., Bachmann, G. H., Menning, M., Nowaczyk, N. R., & Käding, K. C. (2003). Magnetostratigraphy and high-resolution lithostratigraphy of the Permian–Triassic boundary interval in Central Germany. Earth and Planetary Science Letters , 212 (3–4), 263–278. Szurlies, M. (2004). Magnetostratigraphy: the key to a global correlation of the classic Germanic Trias — case study Volpriehausen Formation Middle Buntsandstein, Central Germany. Earth Planetary Science , 227 , 395–410. Soyk, D. (2015). Diagenesis and Reservoir Quality of the Lower and Middle Buntsandstein (Lower Triassic), SW Germany (Doctoral dissertation). Universitat Heidelberg, Germany. Schmidt, C., Busch, B., & Hilgers, C. (2020a). Compaction and cementation control on bleaching in Triassic fluvial red beds. S-Germany Zeitschrift der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Geowissenschaften , 172 (4), 523–539. Schmidt, C., Busch, B., & Hilgers, C. (2020b). Lateral variations of detrital, authigenic and petrophysical properties in an outcrop analog of the fluvial Plattensandstein, Lower Triassic, S-Germany. Zeitschrift der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Geowissenschaften , 172 (4), 541–564. Tatsumoto, M., & Patterson, C. (1980). Age studies of zircon and feldspar concentrates from the Franconia sandstone. Journal of Geology v , 72 , 232–242. Walker, T. R. (1976). Diagenetic origin of continental red beds. In H. Falkered The Continental Permian in West, Central and South Europe (Vol. 22, pp. 240–282). D. Reidel Pub. Co.. (NATO Advanced Study Institute Series. Wendler, J., Köster, J., Götze, J., Kasch, N., Zisser, N., Kley, J., Pudlo, D., Nover, G., & Gaupp, R. (2012). Carbonate diagenesis and feldspar alteration in fracture-related bleaching zones (Buntsandstein, central Germany): possible link to CO2-influenced fluid–mineral reactions. International Journal of Earth Sciences , 101 , 159–176. Wright, V. P., & Tucker, M. E. (1991). Calcretes. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Carlton, Australia. 352. Watson, A. (1988). Desert gypsum crusts as palaeoenvironmental indicators: a micropetrographic study of crusts from southern Tunisia and the central Namib Desert. Journal of Arid Environments , 15 (1), 19–42. Worden, R. H., Burley, S. D., & Blackwell (2003). Oxford, Reprint Series of the International Association of Sedimentologists, v. 4, 3–44. Yousaf, H., Amjad, M., Claes, H., Swennen, R., & Weltje, G. J. (2023). Assessment of reservoir quality and heterogeneity in Middle Buntsandstein Sandstones of Southern Netherlands for deep geothermal exploration. GeoConvention2023 Conference Proceeding, Calgary, Canada. Ziegler, P. A. (1992). European Cenozoic rift system. Tectonophysics , 208 (1–3), 91–111. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files SupplementaryDatainterBasinComparison.xlsx Supplementary Data: Supplementary Data for this study can be found in Appendix A. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Revision Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 22 May, 2025 Reviews received at journal 17 May, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 07 May, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 05 May, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 04 May, 2025 Reviews received at journal 20 Apr, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 31 Mar, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 30 Mar, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 30 Mar, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 30 Mar, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 21 Mar, 2025 First submitted to journal 19 Mar, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6264155","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":432317687,"identity":"ab8d6d7d-835a-4862-93fc-61ec50f3ef4b","order_by":0,"name":"Husnain Yousaf","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABDUlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACgwNgEsa1sTFgYIdJEaclLc2AgZkoLXCQdpgILTfSnz34UXCHweB4j/GHHwnnjQ0OMx+T5qm4w2DO3oBVi/2NHHPDHoNnDAZnzphJ9iTcNjM4zJYmzXPmGYNlzwGsWgxu5LBJ8BgcBjHMGHh/3LYxOMxjJjmzDSSSgNNhkn8gWow//kk4B9TC/01y5j+gyP0HOLQkmElDbTGQ5kk4AHQYD5vExwaQCA7vn3ljJi0DVCZ55liZtExCsrHkYTZjiw/HDvNY9uBw2HGgw978OSzHd7x588c3CXaGfcebH95IqDksZ86O3fswwKOALs+DVz0IyDcQVDIKRsEoGAUjFQAAzWdjxhiuJIwAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"KU Leuven","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Husnain","middleName":"","lastName":"Yousaf","suffix":""},{"id":432317688,"identity":"af45ef0d-473a-44fc-8899-8a4c58cac802","order_by":1,"name":"Hannes Claes","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"KU Leuven","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Hannes","middleName":"","lastName":"Claes","suffix":""},{"id":432317689,"identity":"8d29ef35-ce9c-4562-aa37-50fc86c94d7b","order_by":2,"name":"Gert Jan Weltje","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"KU Leuven","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Gert","middleName":"Jan","lastName":"Weltje","suffix":""},{"id":432317690,"identity":"987fde55-2997-45f5-aa39-8fd34384a4c2","order_by":3,"name":"Jean-Marie Mengus","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"IFP Energies nouvelles","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jean-Marie","middleName":"","lastName":"Mengus","suffix":""},{"id":432317691,"identity":"627a6a76-28fd-4de0-8ab0-de10bc23bbfd","order_by":4,"name":"Remy Deschamps","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"IFP Energies nouvelles","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Remy","middleName":"","lastName":"Deschamps","suffix":""},{"id":432317692,"identity":"5b9f1806-ced8-4c35-a28c-44a000b99a3d","order_by":5,"name":"Fadi Henri Nader","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"IFP Energies nouvelles","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Fadi","middleName":"Henri","lastName":"Nader","suffix":""},{"id":432317693,"identity":"e362213a-560c-4c1b-9fa9-19d0f48498cd","order_by":6,"name":"Solène Didi","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"IFP Energies nouvelles","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Solène","middleName":"","lastName":"Didi","suffix":""},{"id":432317694,"identity":"6b719016-63f7-4c4a-bf99-c977c07172df","order_by":7,"name":"Rudy Swennen","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"KU Leuven","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Rudy","middleName":"","lastName":"Swennen","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-03-19 19:38:06","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6264155/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6264155/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":79462978,"identity":"e29e94a5-2158-449d-a14a-3bdb068938aa","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-28 17:54:29","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":92405,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEarly Triassic paleogeographic map of Western Europe (modified from Ziegler, 1992; de Jager, 2007; Röhling \u0026amp; Lepper, 2013). Geographical location of studied outcrop sections (green triangles) and wells (red circles).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6264155/v1/bf78a8c78ff71e3fa020d6b5.jpeg"},{"id":79462532,"identity":"ca6e66c2-1787-4418-be48-e3851473c5b2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-28 17:46:29","extension":"jpeg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":99504,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eStratigraphic correlation of Lower Triassic formations (compiled from NAM \u0026amp; RGD, 1980; Aigner and Bachmann, 1992; Geluk, 2005; Bourquin et al., 2011). The stratigraphical interval of interest in the studied successions is indicated by dashed orange lines. Vertical lines represent hiatus or non-deposition. ZLV= Zone Limite Violette.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6264155/v1/717f79ca1ed57840ff66ed83.jpeg"},{"id":79462534,"identity":"34fd9cfe-e04b-4925-9df0-0186a678ae10","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-28 17:46:29","extension":"jpeg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":679462,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSedimentary characteristics of the outcrop lithofacies (upper case letter) and subsurface lithofacies (lower case letter). \u003cstrong\u003e(A and B)\u003c/strong\u003e represent the fluvial channel deposits, characterized by medium to coarse-grained sandstone to cobbles with intercalation of fine layers, showing planar to trough cross bedded, as well as erosive base boundaries.\u003cstrong\u003e (C - H) \u003c/strong\u003eFacies composed of fine to medium-grained sandstone with low-angle cross-bedding to (sub) horizontal to structureless-bedded sandstones, occasionally exhibiting erosive base boundaries and fining upward sequences corresponding to ephemeral fluvial channels or proximal floodplain settings. \u003cstrong\u003e(I)\u003c/strong\u003e sandstone facies comprising siltstone and (very) fine-grained sandstone, with (sub) horizontal bedding suggesting sheet flood deposits. \u003cstrong\u003e(J)\u003c/strong\u003e Fine to coarse-grained sandstone sometimes containing intra- or extra-clasts with occasionally high angle planar and trough cross-bedding, strongly scoured base, and finning upward successions which are characteristics of fluvial channel deposits. \u003cstrong\u003e(K)\u003c/strong\u003eVery fine to medium-grained sandstone with low-angle cross-bedding or occasionally (sub) horizontal with strongly scoured base and finning upward sequence supporting deposition in ephemeral fluvial channels or proximal floodplain settings. \u003cstrong\u003e(L)\u003c/strong\u003e Very fine-grained sandstone to siltstone with (sub) horizontal to structureless bedding, often exhibiting wavy bedding, burrows and root structure representing sheet flood deposits. \u003cstrong\u003e(M \u0026amp;N) \u003c/strong\u003eFine to medium-grained sandstone facies with bimodal lamination, Dm-m scale thick bedding, no grain \u0026gt;2 mm, no detrital clays \u0026amp; mica, common textural lamination, low angle planer cross-bedding with tangential foresets, steepening up to as high as \u0026gt;30°, interpreted to represent aeolian dune or dry aeolian sand flat deposits. \u003cstrong\u003e(O) \u003c/strong\u003eFine to medium-grained sandstone with admixed and/or interbedded clays, sub-horizontal or wavy bedding, adhesion ripples indicating deposition occurring in a damp desert plain settings.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6264155/v1/b77a1f9346e708f3bb7dc622.jpeg"},{"id":79462980,"identity":"94341fde-c261-4f86-a534-81f5468f1cb7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-28 17:54:29","extension":"jpeg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":138463,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(A)\u003c/strong\u003e Violin plot showing the average grain sizes of outcrop and subsurface samples (n = number of samples).\u003cstrong\u003e (B) \u003c/strong\u003eCompositional classification of the samples as determined by plotting them on a ternary diagram by Folk (1980) showing the relative proportions of quartz (Q), feldspar (F), and rock fragments (R) in the sandstones.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6264155/v1/88b79a65936736878630724b.jpeg"},{"id":79462983,"identity":"9a292119-b115-4540-a2d8-06e28afb4b28","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-28 17:54:29","extension":"jpeg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":986459,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(A and B)\u003c/strong\u003eMedium-grained sandstones consisting of detrital quartz (Qz) with typical Fe-oxide/hydroxide coatings (dark colour) around the grains. K-Feldspar (Fsp) is the secondary dominant mineral and often exhibits partial dissolution (green arrows). Quartz overgrowth (black arrows) is identifiable by Fe-oxide/hydroxide rims around the detrital quartz grains. Rock fragments (Rf) are also present. Secondary porosity (P) developed due to dissolution of cements and grains. Floating to point contacts between the grains can be observed. \u003cstrong\u003e(C)\u003c/strong\u003e Dark brownish Fe-oxides/hydroxides (orange arrow) precipitated in pore spaces. Blue arrow showing the relic of rhombohedral dolomite/siderite. \u003cstrong\u003e(D)\u003c/strong\u003eFine-grained sandstone with dark brownish Fe-oxide/hydroxide coatings around the grains and also occluding pores (black arrows). Long to concave-convex contact between the grains can be observed. \u003cstrong\u003e(E)\u003c/strong\u003e Fine-grained sandstone with faded Fe-oxide/hydroxide coatings around the detrital grains. \u003cstrong\u003e(F)\u003c/strong\u003eMedium-grained sandstone with no clear Fe-oxide/hydroxide coatings around detrital grains. The remnants of Fe-oxide/hydroxide coatings can be observed between the quartz overgrowths (black arrows) and detrital quartz grains (Qz). Floating to point contact between the grains can be observed. \u003cstrong\u003e(G)\u003c/strong\u003e Pore occluding Fe-oxide/hydroxide (black arrows) and relic of rhombohedral dolomite/siderite (red arrows) are present in the pores. \u003cstrong\u003e(H)\u003c/strong\u003e SEM image showing pore occluding Fe-oxide/hydroxide (FeOx) and Mn-oxide (MnOx) cements. Sharp contacts with secondary pore (P) indicate that these phases formed before secondary porosity development. \u003cstrong\u003e(I) \u003c/strong\u003eTangential illite (black arrow) surrounding the detrital grains, fibrous bladed illite (white arrow) and meshwork illite (green arrow) present in the pore space. \u003cstrong\u003e(J)\u003c/strong\u003e Partially leached K-Feldspar (Fsp) grain, most likely partially replaced by illite. Tangential illite (white arrows) occurring around quartz (Qz) grains inhibiting quartz overgrowth. \u003cstrong\u003e(K)\u003c/strong\u003e Fibrous bladed illite (white arrows) is present around the detrital quartz grains (Qz) and tangential illite (black arrow) can also observe between the grain contacts. \u003cstrong\u003e(L) \u003c/strong\u003eCL image showing a light-dark violet luminescence of quartz grains (Qz) and K-feldspar (Fsp) shows blue shades that have been slightly etched/altered. (A-G) Thin section microphotographs under transmitted light (blue colour - pore space/resin: P), (H-K) Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) Images and (I) Cathodoluminescence (CL) microphotograph (colour corrections applied to enhance the image quality).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6264155/v1/76bea8d5a38ba1920751792f.jpeg"},{"id":79463161,"identity":"d8c91ba6-06a0-45ba-8448-66d8c0306acd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-28 18:02:29","extension":"jpeg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":740121,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(A)\u003c/strong\u003e Fine-grained sandstone shows that calcite nodules (C) are the main pore occluding cement, infilling porosity developed by partial dissolution of K-Feldspar (Fsp; stained by the thin section preparator), and replacing ooids, often preserving relict concentric textures. Calcite (C) cement is commonly rimmed by later ferroan calcite. Ferroan and non-ferroan dolomite (D) crystals are rare and commonly rhombic. Opaque minerals, most likely pyrite (P) also infill the pores. Concave-convex contacts and pressure dissolution at the contact between ooids and silicate framework grains are common, reflecting high compaction (Well Noorwijk-2 2592.60 m; Conybeare and MacPherson, 1998). \u003cstrong\u003e(B)\u003c/strong\u003e Calcite (C) occluding primary pores, often as sparry pore filling masses. Dolomite (D) is locally important and commonly rhombic. K-feldspar (Fsp) occasionally exhibits cleavage controlled partial dissolution (Well Noorwijk-2 2592.60 m; Conybeare and MacPherson, 1998). \u003cstrong\u003e(C)\u003c/strong\u003e Fine-grained, bimodal lamination. Rhombic dolomite is the principle authigenic mineral mainly consisting of non-ferroan dolomite commonly overgrown by later ferroan dolomite (D). Dolomite cementation occasionally exhibits relict concentric structures indicating replacement of ooids. Anhydrite (An) is locally important and rarely poikilotopic. Quartz overgrowths (black arrows) are incipient and confined to exposed detrital quartz grain surfaces in primary macropores (Well Valkenburg-1 2870.15 m; Conybeare and MacPherson, 1998). \u003cstrong\u003e(D)\u003c/strong\u003e Quartz overgrowths (Qo) are common, locally enclosing earlier kaolinite booklets (K) (Well Valkenburg-1 2837.20 m; Conybeare and MacPherson, 1998). \u003cstrong\u003e(E)\u003c/strong\u003e Dolomite (D) infilling porosity and replaces/displaces matrix material in fine to medium-grained sandstone. Poikilotopic anhydrite (An) is locally abundant. Quartz overgrowths are ubiquitous and occasionally well developed with reddish brown dust rims. Pyrite (P) is associated with matrix material and partially replaces K-feldspar (Fsp). Long contacts between the grains and preservation of primary porosity indicate a moderate compaction (Well Q13-6 2755.60 m; Conybeare and MacPherson, 1998). \u003cstrong\u003e(F)\u003c/strong\u003ePorosity occluding matrix clays and authigenic minerals. Kaolinite booklets are the dominant diagenetic mineral which infill mainly primary porosity (Well Q13-6 2755.60 m; Conybeare and MacPherson, 1998). \u003cstrong\u003e(G)\u003c/strong\u003e Non-ferroan dolomite (D) occurs as a patchy pore filling cement and is often overgrown by later ferroan dolomite. Pyrite (P) occurs as a minor cement or replaces feldspar grains. Quartz overgrowths (black arrows) are common. Long contacts between the grains indicate moderate compaction (Well Kijkduin Zee-2A 3262.30 m; Conybeare et al., 1999). \u003cstrong\u003e(H)\u003c/strong\u003e Medium-grained, well sorted quartz arenite. Non-ferroan dolomite (D) occurs as anhedral crystal aggregates, with some crystals displaying a spherulitic fabric (Well Kijkduin Zee-2A 3265.90 m; Conybeare et al., 1999). (A, C, E, G, H): Thin section microphotographs under transmitted light (blue colour - pore space/resin), (B, D, F): Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) image.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6264155/v1/da368d745b4f43dc05b4d1c5.jpeg"},{"id":79462539,"identity":"433c1e88-2e2d-4482-9101-d3b6ce81a046","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-28 17:46:29","extension":"jpeg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1188267,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eConceptual depositional models showing the climate change throughout the Middle Buntsandstein deposits across the studied areas (modified from Bourquin et al., 2009 and Bachmann et al., 2010). Phase 1: Showing significant fluvial activity originated in the French region, extending northward into West Netherlands and Broad Fourteens Basins. Phase 2: Displaying the transition to ephemeral fluvial systems, extending northward into playa lakes. Phase 3: Showing the shift in fluvial style and increase in aeolian activity in the south Netherlands parts. See text for explanations.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage7.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6264155/v1/6e2f1ad22c0a086b158dc637.jpeg"},{"id":79463159,"identity":"4a9128ef-b8d0-4e42-b234-96f7f9aa4b62","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-28 18:02:29","extension":"jpeg","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":147145,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSummary of the main paragenetic processes observed in outcrop and subsurface samples. Inferred diagenetic events and their possible mineral products are represented by light grey lines.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage8.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6264155/v1/55168bbd333f6c6777436f1a.jpeg"},{"id":79463510,"identity":"d456b23f-0aa4-458c-be82-c3fb651c952d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-28 18:10:30","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":4994917,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6264155/v1/55b9ba11-080f-4be6-97cd-a60f4ba77ea4.pdf"},{"id":79462536,"identity":"7d7f6369-b453-4119-a298-f582bb2fb07e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-28 17:46:29","extension":"xlsx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":47667,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSupplementary Data: \u003c/strong\u003eSupplementary Data for this study can be found in Appendix A.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"SupplementaryDatainterBasinComparison.xlsx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6264155/v1/fc891e2d879045a403d46a94.xlsx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Inter-Basin Comparison of Sedimentary dynamics and Diagenetic Evolution of the Middle Buntsandstein: Insights from Outcrop Samples (Vosges and Trier) and Subsurface Data (Southern Netherlands)","fulltext":[{"header":"1 Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe growing importance of sustainable energy necessitates a detailed analysis of Middle Buntsandstein sandstones to assess their economic viability and potential risks. Buntsandstein rock successions seem to occur relatively uniform and widespread across the west European regions (Mader, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e; Aigner and Bachmann, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e; Muchez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e; Fontaine et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e; Ames and Farfan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e; Geluk et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e; Purvis \u0026amp; Okkerman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e; Geluk and R\u0026ouml;hling, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e; Gaupp, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e; Geluk, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Tesmer et al., 2007; Bryant \u0026amp; Flint, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Bourquin et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Bachmann et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; De Jager et al., 2010; R\u0026ouml;hling \u0026amp; Lepper, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; B\u0026ouml;cker et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Haffen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Hilse et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Soyk, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR89\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Griffiths et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Heap et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e, Kunkel et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Ursem, 2018; Mijnlieff, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e); Schmidt et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR90\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020a\u003c/span\u003e \u0026amp;b; Aehnelt et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Bertier et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Busch et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Quandt et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Yousaf et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR98\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). In fact, it consists of several geological formations of different ages with variable depositional and diagenetic histories. Terms like Lower, Middle, and Upper Buntsandstein have been parallelly introduced in different regions, and so do not necessarily correlate perfectly between different basins, i.e. the Lower Buntsandstein does not correlate lithologically or chronologically to Lower Buntsandstein strata in another basins. Steady progress has been made, e.g., by Geluk and R\u0026ouml;hling (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e), Bourquin et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) and others, by using techniques like cyclo-stratigraphy and magneto-stratigraphy (Kozur, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e; Szurlies et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e, Szurlies, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR88\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Kozur and Bachmann, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e) refining regional correlation efforts. In addition, claystone and sandstone markers also helped to correlate strata between basins, but because of the scarcity of bio-stratigraphic data in these intracratonic continental deposits, their subdivision and correlation remain challenging.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral studies have explored the lithology and reservoir characteristics of Middle Buntsandstein formations, but most of these studies have concentrated on intra-basinal features (e.g., Bourquin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Haffen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Kunkel et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Busch et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In addition, P\u0026eacute;ron et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e) and Bourquin et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) investigated the possible paleoclimatic settings within the Germanic Basin with special emphasis on the France region. Researchers like Purvis \u0026amp; Okkerman (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e), Geluk (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e), Matev (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), among others, have dedicated their research to describe the depositional conditions specific to the Netherlands. Studies by Soyk (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR89\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), Heap et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), Schmidt et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR90\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020a\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR91\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003eb\u003c/span\u003e), Quandt et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), Busch et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) have delved into various diagenetic processes and petrophysical characteristics of the Buntsandstein mainly from the Upper Rhine Graben (URG) areas (e.g., SW Germany). Similarly, notable contributions have been made by G.A.P.S. Nederland B.V. (1991, 1992, 1993), De Reuver (1992), Schobel (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e). Bost and Pagnier (1993), Greenwood (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e), Clement and Conybeare (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e), Conybeare and MacPherson (1999), Conybeare et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e) on the sedimentology, petrography and reservoir quality using subsurface wells from the southern Netherlands.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite lithostratigraphic discrepancies, the nearby exposed Buntsandstein units may be considered as outcrop analogues for the subsurface strata in the southern Netherlands. Outcrop analogue studies have been recognized as a valuable tool for subsurface reservoir characterization (Miall, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1978\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e; Alexander, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e; Bryant \u0026amp; Flint, 1993, Pringle et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Ajdukiewicz and Lander, 2010; Jung and Aigner, 2012; Henares et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014a\u003c/span\u003e; Busch et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). However, it should be critically evaluated to what extent sedimentological, diagenetic, and ultimately petrophysical properties of outcrops represent their equivalents in the subsurface. In this context, this study investigates the main depositional environments to establish temporal and inter-basin correlations of lithofacies and their diagenetic characteristics. This comparison is essential for evaluating the reliability of studied outcrop sections as analogues for deeper subsurface strata within the southern Netherlands.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2 Regional geology","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe Germanic Basin was located between 20\u0026deg; and 30\u0026deg;N during the Triassic period (Bachmann et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). These intracratonic basins were surrounded by several massifs (Ziegler, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR99\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e; P\u0026eacute;ron et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Bourquin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; R\u0026ouml;hling \u0026amp; Lepper, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Buntsandstein deposits were deposited in an arid to semi-arid climate, primarily controlled by Milankovitch cycles (wet and dry periods with ~\u0026thinsp;100 ka periodicity) driven by orbital variations (R\u0026ouml;hling, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e; Geluk and R\u0026ouml;hling, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e; Kozur \u0026amp; Bachmann, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Roman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Bourquin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Tensional and transnational stresses created NNE-WNW trending highs and lows, resulted is a variable amount of subsidence during deposition. The coarse-grained clastics of the Main Buntsandstein overlie the fine-grained sediments of Lower Buntsandstein (e.g., Geluk \u0026amp; R\u0026ouml;hling, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn these land-locked basins, sediments were sourced from the persisting Armorican and London-Brabant Massifs, which were transported basin-ward primarily by fluvial and subordinately aeolian systems (Mader, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e; Geluk, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Bourquin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Augustsson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, depositional facies and sedimentary thicknesses exhibit variability between the central and marginal parts of the basin. The basins centre is often characterized by the deposition of thick successions of fine-grained clastics with prominent oolitic carbonate beds while marginal basin facies comprise relatively coarse-grained clastic units alternating with sandstones and clay-siltstones (e.g., Bourquin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3 Stratigraphic framework","content":"\u003cp\u003eVariations in the stratigraphic nomenclature of the Buntsandstein are observed across international borders. The Lower, Middle, and Upper subdivision, however, was recognised throughout the Germanic Basin. The oldest undated fluvial deposits above the Permian-Triassic unconformity are interbedded with aeolian deposits or exhibit indicators of aridity, such as ventifacts or reworked aeolian sediments. Detailed stratigraphic analysis (e.g., Kozur, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e; Kozur \u0026amp; Bachmann, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Geluk and R\u0026ouml;hling, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e; Geluk, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; De Jager, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Bourquin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) allow to compare and correlate the Lower Triassic formations at the regional scale (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Lower Triassic Buntsandstein is classified into three groups:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Lower Buntsandstein consisting of fine-grained clastics with prominent claystone and some places oolitic carbonate beds.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Middle Buntsandstein mainly comprising fine, medium to coarse-grained sandstones with intercalation of siltstones and/or claystones.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Upper Buntsandstein succession corresponding to a major unconformity and marine transition in some places.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Vosges and Trier areas\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt the beginning of the Early Triassic, the sedimentation area was restricted to the Germanic Basin (Aigner and Bachmann, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e). The Calvorde and Bernburg Formations in NW Germany, and Rogenstein and Main Claystone in the southern Netherlands, correspond to the Lower Buntsandstein. These successions are missing along the western shoulder of Upper Rhine Graben (URG) (Bourquin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e), and the Middle Buntsandstein unconformably overlie Permian sediments (Bourquin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) in the study area (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Middle Buntsandstein Formations (Conglomerate basal, Gr\u0026egrave;s Vosgiens and Conglomerate Principal) of the Vosges and Trier areas (associated with the Paris Basin) exhibit correlations with the Volpriehausen, Detfurth, and Hardegsen Formations deposited in the West Netherlands and Broad Fourteens Basins. Deposition of the Middle Buntsandstein predominantly occurred in braided fluvial systems. Paleo-current orientations were towards the north-northeast, indicating that river catchment areas were primarily within the present-day Armorican Massif (e.g., Bourquin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). The co-occurrence of reworked and in situ sand dunes, wind-worn pebbles, and lack of paleosol remnants supports the intercalation of aeolian sediments (Durand, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1972\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1978\u003c/span\u003e; Durand et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e; Geluk and R\u0026ouml;hling, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e; Geluk, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Bourquin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Matev, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). In the west of the Vosges area (Lorraine), the top of the Lower Triassic is marked by a major sedimentary break associated with a period of by-pass or development of the earliest paleosol, originally defined as Zone Limite Violette (ZLV). This episode could be coeval with the deposition of the Detfurth and Hardegsen Formation in the southern Netherlands (e.g., Szurlies, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR88\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Bourquin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Southern Netherlands\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the southern Netherlands, the Lower Germanic Trias Group consists of the Lower Buntsandstein Formation and the Main Buntsandstein Subgroup. The Lower Buntsandstein Formation comprises Rogenstein and Main Claystone Members. Whereas, the Main Buntsandstein Subgroup consists of the Volpriehausen, Detfurth and Hardegsen Formations. The Volpriehausen Formation is composed of fluvial-aeolian deposits (Geluk and R\u0026ouml;hling, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e; Geluk, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; De Jager, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Matev, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) which graded northward into predominantly aeolian deposits (Fontaine et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e; Ames \u0026amp; Farfan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e). The Volpriehausen and Detfurth Formations display a cyclic alternation of sandstones and clay-siltstones and are further subdivided into the sub-members. Differential subsidence can be observed during the deposition of Detfurth and Hardegsen sandstones, equivalent to the Zone limite violette (below the Hardegsen unconformity) in the France region. The Hardegsen Formation predominantly consists of aeolian sediments, particularly along the southern margin of the WNB. It is present at the top of Middle Buntsandstein successions and exhibits a significant erosion (cutting down locally to the Induan deposits or even Permian levels). The Middle Buntsandstein thickness ranges from a few hundreds to thousands of meters in the study areas. This variation in thickness reflects a combination of enhanced subsidence in the grabens, as well as erosion in uplifted areas (Geluk et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e; Geluk and R\u0026ouml;hling, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e; Bourquin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Matev, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e, among others).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4 Material and Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eTo ensure the comprehensive representation of Middle Buntsandstein sandstones, sixty samples were collected from diverse natural outcrops and quarries within the Vosges and Trier regions. Total 122 subsurface samples from released wells (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.nlog.nl/\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.nlog.nl/\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e) also incorporated in this study (Supplementary data). In addition, supplementary information from a newly drilled Well-X also incorporated in this study (Yousaf et al., under review).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSedimentological characterization was performed by examining the main sedimentary features on both outcrops and subsurface specimens. Newly acquired samples were cut perpendicularly to bedding plane, to prepare the thin sections which were polished for petrographic analysis. The samples were vacuum impregnated with blue dyed epoxy resin to aid in porosity determination. Samples were stained with Alizarin red-S and potassium ferricyanide to examine the carbonates (Dickson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1965\u003c/span\u003e). Conventional optical microscopy (Olympus BX60 with Zeiss Axiocam 305 colour digital camera) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM-BSE, EDS) were utilized for petrographical analysis. A Nikon Optiphot microscope (Nikon Corporation, Tokyo, Japan), equipped with a modified Technosyn Model 8200 MkII stage and a cold cathodoluminescence (CL) system (600 \u0026micro;A, 3-3.30 kV), was employed to identify carbonate zonation and generations and to conduct qualitative and quantitative analyses of detrital quartz and feldspar (e.g., Bernet and Bassett, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuantification of mineral constituents was performed by counting 1000 points per thin section (Dickinson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e), using JMicroVision software (Roduit, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). The examined sandstones were classified using a QFR ternary diagram (Folk, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1980\u003c/span\u003e). Average grain size measurements were obtained using the method described by Bush et al. (2018).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5 Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.1 Macroscopic observation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMiddle Buntsandstein outcrop sections and their subsurface correlatives, Main Buntsandstein Subgroup, exhibit almost similar sedimentological characteristics. The presence of planar to trough cross bedding, horizontal laminations to structureless bodies, occasionally lenticular to wavy bedding, abundant pebbles and mud clasts, strongly amalgamated sand bodies, erosive basal boundaries and fining upward sequences suggests that deposition predominantly occurred within braided and ephemeral fluvial systems. Whereas occurrence of high-angle dipping foresets (typically 20 to 30\u0026deg;), bimodal lamination, wavy bedding and adhesion ripples, inverse grading, abrasive grains and a paucity of mica and clay in some places, suggesting the intercalations of aeolian deposits. However, the latter features are not commonly observed in outcrops compared to subsurface sections.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe climate shift from semi-arid to arid conditions is evident in the transition from the fluvial-dominated Volpriehausen Formation to the more aeolian Hardegsen Formation, particularly in the southern part of the West Netherlands Basin. Analogous patterns observed in the vertical sequence of the Middle Buntsandstein formations in the Vosges and Trier regions. The lower portion of the Gr\u0026egrave;s Vosgiens primarily comprises a braided river system depositional setting within an arid alluvial plain, while the upper portion reflects aeolian deposition (see Bourquin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). The Hardegsen unconformity signifies a significant hiatus in deposition and/or erosion, probably extending throughout the Germanic Basin.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA lithofacies classification of interpreted sedimentological features from outcrop and subsurface samples is presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e and described as:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eBraided Fluvial Channel facies are characterized by the presence of medium to coarse-grained sandstones to cobble-rich strata, along with high angle planar to trough cross-bedding, with erosive base boundaries and rip-up clasts (Figs.\u0026nbsp;5.3A, B \u0026amp; J).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eEphemeral Fluvial Channels or Proximal Floodplain facies are composed of fine to medium-grained sandstone with low-angle cross-bedding to (sub) horizontal to structureless-bedded sandstones, occasionally exhibiting erosive base boundaries and fining upward sequences (Figs.\u0026nbsp;5.3C-H, K).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eSheet Flood facies comprise siltstone and very fine-grained sandstone with sub-angular to angular framework and (sub) horizontal bedding (Figs.\u0026nbsp;5.3I, L).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eAeolian facies display common textural (bimodal) lamination, adhesion ripples, no grain\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;2 mm, no detrital clays and mica, suggesting deposition in aeolian conditions (Figs.\u0026nbsp;5.3M-O). These features are not observed in the studied outcrop samples.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.2 Microscopic observation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.2.1 Texture and composition\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe average grain sizes (AGS) and sorting vary significantly throughout the examined samples. Overall, AGS ranges from very fine (62\u0026ndash;125 \u0026micro;m) to fine (125\u0026ndash;250 \u0026micro;m) to medium (250\u0026ndash;500 \u0026micro;m) and occasionally coarse (500 \u0026micro;m to 2mm) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eA). The outcrop samples display predominantly moderately well to well-sorted samples and are composed of sub-angular to rounded grains. In contrast, subsurface samples largely consist of (very-) fine to medium-grained sediments. The angularity varying from sub-angular to rounded (e.g., fluvial) and well-rounded (e.g., aeolian).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOutcrop samples were classified as subarkose to lithic arkose, according to the Folk (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1980\u003c/span\u003e) diagram. While subsurface samples predominantly consist of quartzarenite, subarkose, sublitharenite and litharenite quartzarenite to subarkose, with some samples exhibit feldspathic litharenite to litharenite composition (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eB).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.2.2 Detrital composition\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Buntsandstein sandstones are predominantly composed of quartz (mono- and polycrystalline) grains (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e \u0026amp;.6), ranging from 41 to 69% in the outcrop samples, which are relatively lower than subsurface sample series (35 to 80%). Quartz exhibits mostly light blue or (dark) violet luminescence, suggesting a medium to high grade metamorphic or a plutonic origin (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eL). Brownish and bright red luminescence quartz grains indicate a volcanic origin. The latter are less common in examined samples.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFeldspar emerges as the second most abundant detrital component in both studied basins, with K-feldspar being the predominant type. The outcrop samples exhibit relatively higher concentration of K-feldspar, ranging from 6 to 15% in contrast to the subsurface sample (1 to 14%). Plagioclase is not present in outcrop samples compared to subsurface samples, where its occurrence is less frequent and displays mainly albite twinning. Detrital K-feldspar exhibits blue luminescence, whereas plagioclase shows green luminescence. Feldspar dissolution and alteration are common and partially dissolved K-feldspar exhibits blotchy blue luminescence under CL (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eL).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRock fragments are predominant in both outcrop and subsurface samples, consisting of ductile and rigid fragments. The ductile components are easy to differentiate from others due to their deformed nature. The rigid fragments include sedimentary rocks (siltstone, sandstone), metamorphic rocks (quartzite, schist) and plutonic rocks. In outcrop samples, their abundance ranges from 0.1 to 12%, whereas they are more abundant in subsurface samples (0.1 to 19%). Ooids and carbonate nodules are obvious in some of the subsurface samples as compared to outcrop samples, where these fragments are completely absent or possibly dissolved. The mica content (mainly muscovite) is approximately 2.0% in the subsurface samples, whereas it rarely exceeds 1.0% in outcrop samples. Detrital clay matrix is locally present in low amounts only in subsurface samples. Furthermore, low amounts of heavy ultrastable minerals, including tourmaline, zircon, rutile, and opaque minerals, were observed in some subsurface samples.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.2.3 Authigenic composition\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe main authigenic components in outcrop samples primarily consist of Fe-oxides/hydroxides, Mn-oxides, and overgrowths of quartz and K-feldspar, along with illite and kaolinite. In contrast, subsurface samples comprise ferroan and non-ferroan calcite/dolomite, siderite, anhydrite cements, syntaxial quartz and K-feldspar overgrowths, and precipitates of kaolinite, illite, and opaque minerals (e.g., Fe-oxide and pyrite).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSyntaxial quartz overgrowth contents in outcrop samples (0 to 5%) are relatively lower than subsurface samples ranging from 1 to 8%. Syntaxial quartz overgrowths mainly developed along the pore spaces and are absent at contacts with detrital grains and carbonate nodule/cements (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eE, G). K-feldspar overgrowths in outcrop samples are more abundant, ranging from 0 to 2%, in contrast to subsurface samples (0 to 0.3%). Kaolinite occurrences are limited to a few locations and are mainly observed as pore filling kaolinite cements (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eF). In outcrop samples, it ranges from 0 to 0.7%, while subsurface samples exhibiting concentrations ranging from 0 to 5%. Tangential illite present around the detrital grains often displays a reddish appearance because of the presence of Fe-oxides/hydroxides, particularly in red bed sandstones. Pore filling phases show typical radial, platy to fibrous illite textures (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eI, J, K). The overall abundance varies from 0 to 4% in outcrop samples and from 0 to 6% in subsurface samples.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe concentration of Fe-oxides/hydroxides in outcrop samples (0\u0026ndash;26%) is considerably greater than in the subsurface samples (0-2.3%), exhibiting a reddish-orange to dark brown coloration. The observed Fe-oxides/hydroxides present textural bimodality, occurring as dust rims around the detrital grains (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eA, B) and as pore-filling cement (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eA, B, C, G). Mn-oxides only observed in outcrop samples, exhibiting a concentration range of 0 to 13% (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eH).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCarbonate and anhydrite cements are observed only in subsurface samples. The presence of calcite (0\u0026ndash;22%) and siderite (0\u0026ndash;0.7%) is noted in some sandstone samples (supplementary materials). Calcite cement is mainly present as sparry cement and sometimes pore filling poikilotopic cement (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eA). Non-ferroan dolomite is the predominant carbonate cement, exhibiting an abundance ranging from 0 to 39%. Ferroan dolomite only observed in a few subsurface samples ranges from 0\u0026ndash;3%. The presence of substantial dolomite is characterized by its concentrated appearance as poikilotopic patches. It also appears as small aggregates or clusters of subhedral crystals and fine-to-medium rhombohedral crystals within intragranular pore spaces (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eC, E). Dolomite exhibits bright yellowish-orange luminescence under CL (e.g., Well-X). In some samples, ooids and clay nodules have been recrystallized into carbonate (calcite and dolomite) and concentric structures are preserved (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e in Yousaf et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR98\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e and Yousaf et al., under review). Anhydrite cement is absent in outcrop samples. Whereas in subsurface samples, its occurrence is local and ranges from 0 to 23% (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eC, E).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.2.4 Compaction\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe nature of grain-to-grain contacts varies from partly floating to point to long or concave-convex contacts, primarily depending on the type of grains present in both outcrop and subsurface samples (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e \u0026amp; \u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). The coarser-grained sandstone samples exhibit weak compaction and often contain floating grains (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eA, B, F, H \u0026amp; \u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eC, H). Whereas high compaction is often noticed in fine-grained sandstones where grains show long to concave-convex grain contacts (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eD, E \u0026amp; \u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eA, C, E) and sometimes slightly sutured grain contacts. In both outcrop and subsurface samples, the relatively lower compaction is supported by the floating to point contacts between the rigid grains.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"6 Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.1 Depositional environment\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe lithostratigraphic units reveal the interplay of tectonic and climatic conditions within and across the basins. Earlier established lithostratigraphic divisions of the Middle Buntsandstein successions (e.g., Geluk and R\u0026ouml;hling, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e; Geluk, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; De Jager, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Bourquin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Bachmann et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), combined with a thorough lithofacies analysis of both surface and subsurface samples (this study), offers a good understanding of climate change. The Vosges outcrops predominantly correspond to basinal marginal facies and subsurface samples from southern Netherlands represent the entire basin (e.g., WNB \u0026amp; BFB). While the outcrops in the Trier embayment matches well with the subsurface developments of the WNB (e.g., Mader, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e). Integrated sedimentological and petrographical analysis of the dataset present in this study indicates three major depositional phases across the studied basins. These findings align with the observations documented by Mader (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e), Aigner and Bachmann (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e); Fontaine et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e), Geluk and R\u0026ouml;hling (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e), Kozur and Bachmann (2004), Ziegler (2004), Roman (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e), Geluk (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e), Bourquin et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e), Matev (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) and others.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhase 1: At the onset of the Olenekian or Late Induan, a surge in precipitation rate within the surrounding massifs sparked intense fluvial activity, leaving a permanent sedimentation record marked by the deposition of conglomerates in the French region. These conglomeratic beds range from a few meters to tens of meters in thickness. Large-braided fluvial systems originated from the orogenic belt (e.g., Armorican Massif) and adjacent highs entered via the Roer Valley Graben into the WNB and BFB, as illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e. The deposition of the Buntsandstein in the studied basins can be attributed to these fluvial systems that were responsible for the sediment transport and its deposition. The presence of aeolian deposits in the southern Netherlands likely corresponds to uplifted parts within the basins (e.g., Ursem, 2018). The typical diagnostic features of aeolian deposits are not observed in the studied outcrop sections; however, Bourquin et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) documented their occurrence at various intervals within the France region. Phase 1 likely corresponds to the conglomerate basal and lower part of the Gr\u0026egrave;s Vosgiens Formation in northeastern France (e.g., Vosges area) and the lower successions of Volpriehausen Formation in the southern Netherlands.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhase 2: During the Olenekian, the shift to ephemeral fluvial systems (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e) is marked by laterally and vertically amalgamated sandstone bodies, indicative of increased humidity. The lithofacies (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eC-I, K \u0026amp; L) likely represent the ephemeral fluvial channel and sheet flood deposits. It is difficult to differentiate ephemeral fluvial lithofacies from fluvial sheet floods lithofacies. For the Lower Triassic in Central Germany, Kunkel et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) argued that cross-bedded sandstones can be interpreted as sand sheet or channel fill facies. However, careful observations of the distinct features like decimetre to centimetre scale lamination of sand, silt or clay reveals that these are most likely low energy sheet floods deposits (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eI). These sheet floods are mainly deposited away from the confined channel pathways, resulting in the accumulation of comparatively fine sediments. The analysis of facies changes throughout time gives rise to the stratigraphic cycles that can be correlated at a regional scale (e.g., Bourquin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Fluvial activity persisted but with a relative increase of humid conditions, which resulted in an abundance of ephemeral fluvial channel and sheet flood deposits across the basins (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). Playa deposits are dominant in the central part of the basins. Aeolian facies may have been deposited locally. This phase likely represents a major portion of the Gr\u0026egrave;s Vosgiens and Volpriehausen Formations of NE France and the southern parts of the Netherlands, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhase 3: Differential subsidence during the deposition of Detfurth and Hardegsen sandstones being equivalent to the Zone Limite Violette (below the Hardegsen unconformity) may correlate with the change in flow direction in fluvial systems. Decrease in fluvial activity and the predominance of aeolian deposition indicates a shift in paleogeographic settings, likely because of the development of a new fluvial system from NNW to NE and/or south (e.g., Bourquin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). The significant occurrence of aeolian facies (Figs.\u0026nbsp;5.3M-O) at the southern margin of the WNB support a change in depositional conditions from primarily fluvial to aeolian (Yousaf et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR98\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). This phase also coincides with significant erosion and/or non-deposition at a regional scale.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.2 Diagenesis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe major paragenetic sequence interfered in outcrop and subsurface samples is shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;8 for comparison.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.2.1 Eogenesis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe initial stage of paragenesis in both outcrops and subsurface sample series is marked by sandstone reddening. The reddening of sandstone was caused by the precipitation of Fe-oxides/hydroxides within clay-rims. Iron is primarily derived from minerals like pyroxenes, micas and amphiboles, which are chemically less stable under near surface weathering conditions (Walker, 1967; Folk, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1976\u003c/span\u003e; Muchez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e; Aehnelt et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Bertier et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e, among others). According to Cornell and Schwertmann (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e), Fe-oxides/hydroxides in recent soils precipitate initially as ferrihydrite, which alters to goethite (Fe-hydroxide) and hematite (Fe-oxide) under warm and wet conditions. Similar, red-coloured continental sandstones that formed during early diagenesis have been documented in other parts of the world (e.g., Chan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Beitler et al., 2003, 2005; Parry et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Zhang et al., 2022 and others).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe formation of carbonate nodules and spheroids, oncoids and ooids in subsurface samples (e.g., Yousaf et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR98\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) is widely debated in the literature. They are often known as early diagenetic chemically grown carbonates (Wright and Tucker, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR95\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e; Milnes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e; Morad, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e; Purvis and Okkerman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e; Blackbourn and Robertson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Bertier et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The concentric lamination around the nucleus, however, indicates that these are transported and/or reworked carbonate constituents (e.g., Olivarius, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Rushton et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Subsurface samples often exhibit similar nodules and concentric textural features which have undergone subsequent replacement or displacement mainly by calcite/dolomite cements. These fabrics are overgrown during shallow burial and are often characterized by floating to point grain contacts (Rushton et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e, Yousaf et al., under review). In contrast, carbonate nodules and cements are completely absent from the outcrop samples. However, the previous existence of nodules and/or cements are implied by the presence of Fe- and Mn-oxides, typically formed after dissolution of dolomite or siderite in outcrop samples (e.g., Bauer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe crystallographic continuity between K-feldspar overgrowths and detrital K-feldspar grains suggests that their formation before or during the precipitation of pore-filling (carbonate) cements and prior to mechanical compaction. K-feldspar overgrowths along the open pores are interpreted as an early diagenetic event. Early diagenetic overgrowths were likely sourced by the dissolution of detrital K-feldspar (F\u0026uuml;chtbauer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1967\u003c/span\u003e). Tatsumoto and Patterson (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR92\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1980\u003c/span\u003e) documented the process of detrital feldspar dissolution and re-precipitation as authigenic feldspar based on the similar composition of lead isotopes in detrital grains and feldspar overgrowths. Similar observations have been reported by various authors (Gaupp et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e; Beyer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Soyk, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR89\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Schmidt et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR91\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020b\u003c/span\u003e; Bertier et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Busch et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Quandt et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) from the Buntsandstein Formation in the region. Furthermore, \u003csup\u003e40\u003c/sup\u003eAr/\u003csup\u003e39\u003c/sup\u003eAr-dating of K-feldspar overgrowth cements in the Buntsandstein samples from the SW Germany supports an early diagenetic formation (Bossennec et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.2.2 Mesogenesis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe earliest mesodiagenetic event is likely the recrystallization of illite grain coatings, as they are encased in later syntaxial quartz overgrowths. The tangential illite coatings are normally the transformation product of smectite coatings (e.g., McKinley et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). The continuous illite coatings on detrital quartz grain surfaces often inhibited quartz overgrowths. The quartz overgrowths postdate K-feldspar, illite and carbonate cements and are interpreted as a mesodiagenetic event. Discontinuous and anhedral quartz overgrowths likely formed in competitive environments where K-feldspar or dolomite or locally anhydrite had already precipitated. The different diagenetic processes, such as recrystallization of clay minerals, dissolution of K-feldspar, enhanced chemical compaction at grain contacts covered by illite and in-contact with mica, can be the source for quartz overgrowths (Worden and Morad, 2003; Kristiansen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Monsees et al., 2020). The presence of remnants of clay coatings between detrital quartz grains and syntaxial overgrowths provides compelling evidence that quartz overgrowths postdate to some of the bleaching processes (Figs.\u0026nbsp;5.5F \u0026amp; 5.6G).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCarbonate cements, including (non-) ferroan calcite and dolomite, as well as siderite, are prevalent in most subsurface samples. Their concentration is locally abundant. Ferroan dolomite is present either as intergranular cement or as overgrowth of rhombic crystals in the pores. However, the outer rims of some of these zoned carbonates (dolomite) have low iron concentrations (e.g., Well-X). In addition, it replaces eodiagenetic non-ferroan dolomite fabrics locally and can be seen filling the framework grain dissolution pores after detrital feldspar and lithic grains. These features suggest that these ferroan dolomites formed during mesogenesis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnhydrite occurs as poikilotopic intergranular cement in subsurface samples (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eC, E). Their coarse crystalline structure (e.g., Well-X) suggests a mesodiagenetic origin. The coarser grain size crystals typically develop under higher temperatures (80\u0026ndash;100\u0026deg;C) and longer crystallization periods (e.g., Morad et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). The localized abundance (e.g., Q13-04 well) may be attributed to brine infiltration from the overlying evaporite formations. Watson (1983) reported the gypcretes as a common feature in arid and semi-arid environments. Dissolution of these components during burial diagenesis may plausibly account for subsequent anhydrite cementation (e.g., Olivarius, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Rushton et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eKaolinite is present in both uncompacted inter- and intragranular pores (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eF). Its presence in intergranular pores suggests that it may have formed during early diagenesis due to the dissolution of igneous plagioclase (F\u0026uuml;chtbauer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1974\u003c/span\u003e). However, its occurrence as a replacive phase suggests it formed most likely after the dissolution of K-feldspar during burial diagenesis (Gaupp et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.2.3 Telogenesis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTelodiagenetic modifications are confined to the outcrop sample series. The solubility of carbonate minerals increases through interaction with meteoric fluids (e.g., Monsees et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The dissolution of carbonate nodules and cements released the Fe and Mn, which then precipitate as oxide phases resulting in the formation of concretions (Wadflecken) (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eC, H). Bauer (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e) also reported nodular to rhombohedral Fe- and Mn-oxide replacements after dolomite or siderite in the outcrop samples.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition, kaolinite formation during eogenesis and mesogenesis it may also originate from the interaction of feldspar with meteoric fluids at lower temperatures during telogenesis, as reported by Lanson et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). However, since the concentration of K-feldspar in our outcrop samples is relatively high, as well as kaolinite content is relatively low, the significance of the latter event is not likely.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.3 Bleaching\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe diverse bleaching patterns observed in both outcrop and subsurface samples relate to various localized and regional scale diagenetic processes over geological times. An attempt is made to infer the possible mechanisms in each location by observing their sedimentary and diagenetic features along with post-depositional burial history. A comprehensive analysis of bleaching mechanisms in the outcrop samples was presented in Yousaf et al. (under review). However, a concise summary is provided herein to facilitate a comparative analysis of bleaching mechanisms across the studied basins.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLamina-bound bleaching (LBBS) predominantly corresponds to top sets of the fluvial deposits, imply the near surface processes, likely driven by the infiltration of acidic (meteoric) fluids along the lamina and sedimentary structures. Bleaching preferentially in less permeable laminae, where restricted fluid flow allowed prolonged reaction times, enabled the complete removal of Fe-oxide/hydroxide coatings. These patterns are not observed in subsurface samples.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePatchy bleached sandstones (PBS) are characterized by mm-cm sized isolated white spots within red bed sandstones. The latter are more apparent in outcrop sections as compared to subsurface samples. Maniar (2019) and Aehnelt et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) reported presence of bleached corner around clay clasts in subsurface successions in the region. However, their identification is difficult in the examined core photographs. The patchy bleached spots may be related with the transformation of (?organic-rich) sedimentary clay-clasts likely generating localized reducing conditions, leading to the removal of Fe-oxides/hydroxides in and around these spots.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStratiform bleached sandstones (SBS) are characterized by a pervasive bleaching from bed scale to formation scale. This bleaching mechanism related to migration of reducing or acidic fluids along the individual beds or complete formation through faults and fractures. The most commonly reported reducing agents are organic acids, hydrocarbons, methane, and hydrogen sulphides (Muchez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e; Chan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Aehnelt et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Bertier et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e and many others).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe absence of hydrocarbon residue in outcrop samples suggests hydrocarbons are improbable contributors to the bleaching observed in these outcrops. While in subsurface samples, widespread SBS is mainly associated with hydrocarbon migration. The Buntsandstein sandstones are recognized as the second most important hydrocarbon-bearing reservoirs in the southern Netherlands (Ames and Farfan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e; de Jager, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Geluk, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). Alternatively, the absence of underlying Permian Zechstein sulphates in the Vosges area (Wendler et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR94\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) and the southern Netherlands (Geluk, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Bachmann et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), also ruling out their possible involvement in the bleaching processes in the studied locations. While, Purvis and Okkerman (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e) reported the influence of Permian Zechstein sulphates in the north of BFB. Wendler et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR94\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) proposed the involvement of volcanic and meteoric acidic fluids in the outcrop sections from SW Germany. Reported pervasive bleaching in Cleebourg and Neustadt an der Weinstra\u0026szlig;e (Soyk, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR89\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) is closely associated with fault-related acidic fluid migration into these formations (Bauer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e; Busch et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The observations provide compelling evidence of a bleaching process similar to those documented in other nearby studied sections. Thus, pervasive SBS in the studied outcrops might be related to H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eS and CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e rich acidic fluid migration through faults along the individual beds and formation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe precise timing of the bleaching is often difficult to be constrained. However, the remnants of Fe-oxides/hydroxides coatings between the detrital grains and authigenic quartz overgrowths indicate partial bleaching processes might have occurred before quartz overgrowth. In addition, the presence of fibrous and meshwork illite obstruct the pore throats and can prevent efficient fluid (e.g. hydrocarbon) migration. Therefore, perhaps these bleaching processes in the subsurface samples likely occurred before their precipitation in these sandstones.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"7 Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eInter-basinal comparison of the Middle Buntsandstein successions reveals the interplay of tectonics (e.g., subsidence and uplift) and climate conditions during the sediment accumulation processes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLithofacies architecture indicates a shift in paleoclimatic conditions throughout the studied regions. Thus, establishing direct reservoir analogies between the Vosges and Trier outcrop sections and Southern Netherlands subsurface successions for 3D subsurface models will not be straightforward.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegardless of stratigraphic sequences, the sedimentary structures and detrital composition derived from outcrops samples are comparable to subsurface samples.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost of the eodiagenetic events are comparable in both outcrops and subsurface sample series. Subsurface samples, however, display mesodiagenetic cements (e.g., Fe-dolomite, siderite, anhydrite) and extensive quartz overgrowths, suggesting a more thermal exposure than outcrop samples.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTelodiagenetic alterations like dissolution of carbonates minerals and precipitation of Fe-oxides/hydroxides and Mn-oxides present a major difference between the outcrop and subsurface samples.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe bleaching processes are a function of the interaction of reducing (CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e rich) fluids, which depends on the depositional lithofacies characteristics and basin evolution and thus differs within and across the basins.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSupplementary Data\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSupplementary Data for this study can be found in Appendix A.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAuthor Contributions: \"Conceptualization, Husnain Yousaf; method, Husnain Yousaf; software, Husnain Yousaf; validation, Husnain Yousaf, Dr. Hannes Claes and Dr. Rudy Swennen; formal analysis, Husnain Yousaf, Dr. Hannes Claes; investigation, Husnain Yousaf; resources, Dr. Fadi Henri Nader, Dr. Rudy Swennen; data curation, Husnain Yousaf, Dr. Hannes Claes, Dr. Fadi Henri Nader, Dr. Rudy Swennen, Dr. Jean-Marie Mengus, Dr. Remy Deschamps; writing, Husnain Yousaf; writing-review and editing, Dr. Hannes Claes and Dr. Rudy Swennen, Dr. Gert Jan Weltje; visualization, Husnain Yousaf; supervision, Dr. Rudy Swennen and Dr. Gert Jan Weltje; project administration, Husnain Yousaf, Dr. Rudy Swennen; All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors extend their sincere gratitude to the IFP team for their invaluable support in geological fieldwork and sample collection, as well as for granting permission to publish this study. Special thanks go to reviewers for their expert guidance, constructive discussions, and valuable insights, which have contributed to the quality of this research.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe data supporting this study are provided as a supplementary file.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAigner, T., \u0026amp; Bachmann, G. H. (1992). Sequence-stratigraphic framework of the German Triassic. \u003cem\u003eSedimentary Geology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e80\u003c/em\u003e(1\u0026ndash;2), 115\u0026ndash;135.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAlexander, J. (1993). A discussion on the use of analogues for reservoir geology. Geological Society, London, Special Publications 69, no. 1, 175\u0026ndash;194.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAmes, R., \u0026amp; Farfan, P. F. (1996). 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(2013). Pal\u0026auml;ogeographie des Mitteleurop\u0026auml;ischen Beckens w\u0026auml;hrend der tieferen Trias (Buntsandstein). \u003cem\u003eSchriftenreihe der Deutschen Gesellschaft f\u0026uuml;r Geowissenschaften Heft\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e69\u003c/em\u003e, 43\u0026ndash;67.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRoduit, N. (2017). JMicroVision: Image analysis toolbox for measuring and quantifying components of high-definition images. Version 1.3.1.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRushton, J. C., Hannis, S., Pearce, J., Williams, J., \u0026amp; Milodowski, A. E. (2025). Diagenetic evolution of the Bunter Sandstone Formation and its controls on reservoir quality: Implications for CO2 injectivity and storage. Geoenergy, 2024-023.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSchobel., M. (1993). sedimentology, petrography and reservoir properties of Triassic Bunter Deposits in cores 1, 2and 3 from well RDK-01 Report no G73-2.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSzurlies, M., Bachmann, G. H., Menning, M., Nowaczyk, N. R., \u0026amp; K\u0026auml;ding, K. C. (2003). Magnetostratigraphy and high-resolution lithostratigraphy of the Permian\u0026ndash;Triassic boundary interval in Central Germany. \u003cem\u003eEarth and Planetary Science Letters\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e212\u003c/em\u003e(3\u0026ndash;4), 263\u0026ndash;278.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSzurlies, M. (2004). 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(NATO Advanced Study Institute Series.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWendler, J., K\u0026ouml;ster, J., G\u0026ouml;tze, J., Kasch, N., Zisser, N., Kley, J., Pudlo, D., Nover, G., \u0026amp; Gaupp, R. (2012). Carbonate diagenesis and feldspar alteration in fracture-related bleaching zones (Buntsandstein, central Germany): possible link to CO2-influenced fluid\u0026ndash;mineral reactions. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Earth Sciences\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e101\u003c/em\u003e, 159\u0026ndash;176.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWright, V. P., \u0026amp; Tucker, M. E. (1991). Calcretes. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Carlton, Australia. 352.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWatson, A. (1988). Desert gypsum crusts as palaeoenvironmental indicators: a micropetrographic study of crusts from southern Tunisia and the central Namib Desert. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Arid Environments\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e15\u003c/em\u003e(1), 19\u0026ndash;42.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWorden, R. H., Burley, S. D., \u0026amp; Blackwell (2003). Oxford, Reprint Series of the International Association of Sedimentologists, v. 4, 3\u0026ndash;44.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYousaf, H., Amjad, M., Claes, H., Swennen, R., \u0026amp; Weltje, G. J. (2023). Assessment of reservoir quality and heterogeneity in Middle Buntsandstein Sandstones of Southern Netherlands for deep geothermal exploration. GeoConvention2023 Conference Proceeding, Calgary, Canada.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZiegler, P. A. (1992). European Cenozoic rift system. \u003cem\u003eTectonophysics\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e208\u003c/em\u003e(1\u0026ndash;3), 91\u0026ndash;111.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"journal-of-sedimentary-environments","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"jsev","sideBox":"Learn more about [Journal of Sedimentary Environments](https://link.springer.com/journal/43217)","snPcode":"43217","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/43217/3","title":"Journal of Sedimentary Environments","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Main Buntsandstein Subgroup, Grès Vosgiens, sedimentology, depositional environments, diagenesis, bleaching","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6264155/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6264155/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study explores the depositional and diagenetic evolution of the Lower Triassic Middle Buntsandstein exposed in the Vosges and Trier areas and subsurface strata from released wells in the southern Netherlands. Analysis of sedimentological and petrographical properties reveals marked dissimilarities in lithostratigraphic units, despite shared tectonic and climatic settings. The stratigraphic successions reveal the evidence of climate change throughout the deposition of Middle Buntsandstein within and across the basins. The sedimentary structures and detrital compositions are matched well between the outcrops and subsurface samples, indicating analogous source rock types. Eodiagenetic processes, predominantly controlled by depositional environments and climatic conditions, exhibit similarities in both sample series. Subsurface samples, however, display higher concentration of mesodiagenetic cements (e.g., (non-) ferroan calcite/dolomite, siderite and anhydrite). In addition, extensive quartz overgrowths also suggest a higher thermal exposure than outcrop samples. In outcrop samples, telodiagenetic processes have significantly altered the grain framework because of the dissolution of carbonate nodules/cements and the precipitation of Fe- and Mn- oxides. Moreover, bleaching processes are a function of the interaction of reducing and/or acidic fluids, which depends on the basin evolution and thus differs within and across the basins.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Inter-Basin Comparison of Sedimentary dynamics and Diagenetic Evolution of the Middle Buntsandstein: Insights from Outcrop Samples (Vosges and Trier) and Subsurface Data (Southern Netherlands)","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-03-28 17:46:24","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6264155/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-05-22T11:41:04+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-05-17T18:04:19+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"147683721029791349014477504833390336284","date":"2025-05-07T06:30:52+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"325585408405538239556143551713755743526","date":"2025-05-05T16:16:09+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"316659545826134294011156309432071750592","date":"2025-05-04T20:14:13+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-04-20T09:23:04+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"291091999490381681208412892438864798414","date":"2025-03-31T07:43:07+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"222392064770989029689998385356738629266","date":"2025-03-30T16:32:17+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-03-30T16:27:45+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-03-30T16:24:06+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-03-22T01:24:15+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Journal of Sedimentary Environments","date":"2025-03-19T19:24:52+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"journal-of-sedimentary-environments","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"jsev","sideBox":"Learn more about [Journal of Sedimentary Environments](https://link.springer.com/journal/43217)","snPcode":"43217","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/43217/3","title":"Journal of Sedimentary Environments","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"ddda6543-d255-4be2-b455-9d741e759e3c","owner":[],"postedDate":"March 28th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"in-revision","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-05-22T11:53:53+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-03-28 17:46:24","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6264155","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6264155","identity":"rs-6264155","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}