Empowering Entrepreneurs in the Informal Sector: Strategies for Youth Engagement and Educational Reform

Empowering Entrepreneurs in the Informal Sector: Strategies for Youth Engagement and Educational Reform | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Empowering Entrepreneurs in the Informal Sector: Strategies for Youth Engagement and Educational Reform Arthur William Fodouop Kouam This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5495522/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study investigates the role of informal entrepreneurship in empowering youth within Cameroon, with a particular focus on the gender dimensions influencing entrepreneurial experiences. Addressing significant gaps in the literature that predominantly concentrate on formal business sectors, the research employs a mixed-methods approach that integrates qualitative interviews, observational studies, and quantitative surveys. Data were collected from 30 informal entrepreneurs and 300 youth aged 18–35 across three major cities, revealing both common success factors in informal business ventures and systemic barriers such as lack of financing, societal stigma, and gender-specific challenges women face. The findings indicate a strong positive correlation between awareness of successful informal enterprises and youth intentions to pursue entrepreneurship, with qualitative insights underscoring that community support, adaptability, and resilience are crucial for success. Notably, female entrepreneurs encounter unique obstacles, including limited access to funding and societal perceptions that undermine their legitimacy, highlighting the need for targeted support mechanisms. While this study provides significant contributions to understanding the informal economy's role in youth empowerment, some limitations include a relatively small sample size and the concentration on urban areas, which may not fully capture rural dynamics. Future research could explore the impact of cultural factors on gender roles in entrepreneurship and the long-term effects of informal entrepreneurship on socio-economic mobility among youth. This research emphasizes the potential of the informal sector as a legitimate pathway for economic empowerment, especially for women, and proposes actionable strategies for policymakers and educators to foster a culture of entrepreneurship in Cameroon. Economic development entrepreneurship education gender dynamics informal entrepreneurship women entrepreneurs youth empowerment Cameroon Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 1. Introduction In recent years, the informal sector has emerged as a crucial component of the economy in many African countries, including Cameroon. It plays a vital role in African economies, serving as a significant source of employment and entrepreneurship (Kang'ethe & Serima, 2014; Adams, 2008 ). It accounts for up to 90% of jobs in some low-income Sub-Saharan countries (Galdino et al., 2018 ). Drivers of informality include unemployment, income disparity, excessive taxation, bureaucratic hurdles, and lack of social protection (Etim & Daramola, 2020 ). Currently, a significant percentage of the workforce in Cameroon is engaged in informal employment, making it a vital source of income and livelihood for many households. The informal sector accounts for approximately 90% of jobs in the country (Raoul & Zenabou, 2020 ). However, despite its importance, the informal sector remains largely under-recognized and undervalued, particularly among the youth, who often perceive traditional academic pathways as the only route to success. The prevalent academic focus on long-term studies, such as Bachelor’s, Master’s, and Doctorate degrees, has overshadowed the potential of informal entrepreneurship. Previous research highlights the complex relationship between formal education and entrepreneurship. While tertiary education increases formal entrepreneurship due to enhanced human capital and self-confidence, it negatively impacts informal entrepreneurship by raising awareness of potential repercussions (Jiménez et al., 2015 ). Consequently, many young people fail to acknowledge the opportunities presented by informal sector enterprises. The informal sector's potential is often overlooked in economic planning, leading to missed opportunities for leveraging youth-led initiatives (Ismail, 2016 ; Malyadri & Sumana, 2012 ). This disconnect limits their prospects for economic independence and hampers overall economic growth in the country. This study addresses these challenges by highlighting successful business models within the informal sector and encouraging a shift in youth perspectives toward entrepreneurship. The justification for this research lies in its potential to foster economic empowerment among youth and reshape educational priorities that better align with the realities of the local job market. While several studies have explored entrepreneurship in Africa (Ajide & Dada, 2023 ; Odeyemi et al., 2024 ; Omri et al., 2024 ), they often focus predominantly on formal business sectors or provide a macroeconomic perspective without addressing the micro-level factors that drive informal sector success. Furthermore, existing literature overlooks the educational dimensions that could facilitate youth engagement in entrepreneurship. Many works (Biney, 2023 ; Skubis et al., 2023 ) do not sufficiently examine the motivations, aspirations, and barriers faced by young individuals in pursuing informal entrepreneurial activities. This study seeks to fill these gaps by providing a more nuanced understanding of the informal sector and its implications for youth education and career choices. The main research question guiding this study is: How can recognizing successful enterprises in the informal sector influence youth perspectives on entrepreneurship and reshape educational priorities? The following objectives have been identified to answer this question: To identify and analyze successful entrepreneurial ventures within the informal sector, highlighting best practices and common success factors. To recommend strategies for reorienting youth toward entrepreneurial activities, emphasizing the potential of the informal economy over traditional long-term academic pursuits. This study is significant for various stakeholders, including youth, educators, policymakers, and entrepreneurs, as it explores the intersection of entrepreneurship, education, and economic empowerment in the informal sector. For youth, the research aims to inspire a shift in mindset by presenting successful informal businesses as viable career options, fostering their agency and innovation, and enhancing self-efficacy while reducing reliance on traditional jobs. Educators gain insights into the importance of integrating business training into curricula to cultivate a culture of entrepreneurship in academic settings, enabling students to develop skills aligned with local economic demands and improving employability. Policymakers benefit from findings that emphasize the informal sector's crucial role in economic development and job creation. This recognition allows them to devise strategies that support informal entrepreneurship, such as reducing bureaucratic obstacles, promoting access to funding, and establishing mentorship programs linking aspiring entrepreneurs with experienced business leaders. Ultimately, the study enhances the understanding of the socio-economic dynamics in the region, aligning immediate economic needs with long-term goals of fostering resilience, reducing poverty, and promoting sustainable overall economic growth in Cameroon and similar contexts. This paper is organized into several key sections. Following this introduction, the literature review presents a comprehensive overview of existing research on entrepreneurship in the informal sector and educational practices. The theoretical framework outlines the conceptual foundations guiding the research. Subsequently, the methodology section details the data collection techniques employed in the study. Findings and discussions present the analysis of the data collected, culminating in the conclusions drawn from the research. Finally, the paper offers recommendations for policymakers and future research directions, underscoring the importance of supporting informal sector entrepreneurship and reimagining educational strategies in Cameroon and similar contexts. 2. Conceptual basis This research focuses on youth entrepreneurship in the informal sector in Cameroon. It pivots around crucial concepts: Entrepreneurship education, attitudes toward entrepreneurship, entrepreneurial intentions, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and the role of the informal economy. Together, these elements elucidate the dynamics influencing entrepreneurial behavior among young individuals in this specific context. 2.1. Entrepreneurship education Research on entrepreneurship education (EE) highlights its evolving definition and importance. EE is defined as developing the mindset, skills, and practices for starting new ventures with far-reaching outcomes (Neck & Corbett, 2018 ). Entrepreneurship education encompasses a range of formal and informal pedagogical initiatives designed to equip individuals with the competencies, knowledge, and mindset necessary for entrepreneurial engagement. This may include structured academic courses, workshops, mentorship programs, and experiential learning opportunities. The field has seen increased attention, with studies exploring various themes, methodologies, and geographical contexts (Henry & Lewis, 2018 ). Researchers have focused on EE development, often using the Theory of Planned Behavior and Social Learning Theory to examine its influence on entrepreneurial intentions and attitudes (Mohamed & Ali, 2021). Despite its popularity, there is still much to understand about EE's nature and transformative potential. In the Cameroonian context, where a significant portion of employment is derived from the informal economy, the role of entrepreneurship education is particularly vital (Ndedi, 2015 ; Ndedi, 2016 ; Mve, 2020 ). Effective entrepreneurship education has been shown to significantly alter individuals’ attitudes toward entrepreneurship, thereby fostering intentions to pursue it as a career path. As many young people may not have access to traditional vocational training, this educational effort can provide essential skills and knowledge that empower them to navigate the mechanics of informal entrepreneurship successfully. 2.2. Attitudes toward entrepreneurship Attitudes toward entrepreneurship encompass various dimensions, including personal characteristics, societal perceptions, and educational influences. Research indicates that factors such as locus of control, age, and participation in entrepreneurship programs can positively impact students' attitudes (Hatten & Ruhland, 1995 ). University students' attitudes can be categorized into factors like intrinsic inclination, support-seeking, and self-doubt (Mgaya & Magembe, 2007 ). Community-level variables and individual characteristics, such as ethnicity and residency, also play a role in shaping entrepreneurial attitudes (Loveridge et al., 2012 ). Among potential entrepreneurs, attitudes are influenced by entrepreneurial acceptability, intentions, and personal factors, with demographic variables like parental income and profession having some impact (Ali et al., 2011 ). Research indicates that positive attitudes toward entrepreneurship significantly increase the likelihood of forming entrepreneurial intentions (Zhang et al., 2014 ; Fayolle & Gailly, 2015 ). In Cameroon, societal perceptions of informal entrepreneurship can be heterogeneous. At the same time, some view it as a means of survival and innovation, while others may perceive it as unstable or lacking legitimacy compared to formal employment. This study investigates how entrepreneurship education can reshape attitudes towards informal entrepreneurship, encouraging youth to view it as a viable and respected career option. 2.3. Entrepreneurial intentions Entrepreneurial intentions are cognitive states that precede the decision to start a business, directing attention and action toward a business concept (Bird, 1988 ; Krueger, 2009). They play a crucial role in shaping organizations at their inception and influencing subsequent outcomes (Bird, 1988 ). Bird and Jelinek ( 1989 ) propose a model of intentional action with five facets, including resource structuring and flexibility. Research on entrepreneurial intentions has evolved from focusing on behavior and individual traits to adopting formal models based on solid theory (Krueger, 2009). Recent studies differentiate between general and near-future intentions, examining the influence of personal dispositions and contextual factors (Qingqing et al., 2021 ). Both personal and contextual factors directly affect entrepreneurial intentions, while their interaction significantly impacts near-future intentions (Qingqing et al., 2021 ). In other words, entrepreneurial intentions serve as a conscious recognition of the decision to engage in entrepreneurial activities. Entrepreneurial intentions are widely recognized as the best predictors of actual entrepreneurial behavior. Understanding what drives these intentions plays a crucial role in facilitating the transition from intention to action. This study explores how entrepreneurship education influences these intentions among youth involved in the informal sector. 2.4. Subjective norms Subjective norms, a key component in behavioral prediction models, are defined as perceived social pressure weighted by motivation to comply with others' expectations (Etcheverry & Agnew, 2004 ; Forward, 1997 ). These norms significantly influence romantic relationship commitment and longevity (Etcheverry & Agnew, 2004 ). However, their role in behavioral intention models has been controversial, with mixed results across studies (Eckhardt et al., 2008 ). Some research suggests that normative beliefs are stronger predictors of intention than perceived social pressure (Forward, 1997 ). Individual differences, such as fear of negative evaluation, may moderate the effectiveness of subjective norms in predicting behavior. For instance, subjective norms were found to predict exercise intentions significantly only for individuals highly concerned with others' approval (Latimer & Martin Ginis, 2005). In many cultural settings, including Cameroon, familial and societal influences significantly impact young people's career choices. For instance, societal pressures may lean towards pursuing formal employment due to its associated stability and respectability. This study analyzes how subjective norms interact with attitudes and perceived behavioral control, either supporting or inhibiting entrepreneurial intentions among youth. 2.5. Perceived behavioral control Perceived behavioral control (PBC) is a critical component of the Theory of Planned Behavior, influencing intentions and actions (Ajzen, 2002 ). Research suggests that PBC is multidimensional, comprising perceived control and perceived difficulty (Trafimow et al., 2002 ). PBC can be conceptualized as a hierarchical construct with self-efficacy and controllability as lower-level components (Ajzen, 2002 ). These components may reflect both internal and external factors, challenging the assumption of a strict internal-external dichotomy (Ajzen, 2002 ; Kiriakidis, 2017 ). PBC enhances the prediction of intentions beyond attitudes and subjective norms and can directly affect behavior, particularly in high-risk situations (Devellis et al., 1990 ). This concept is crucial in the entrepreneurial context, as many young individuals in Cameroon may feel constrained by a lack of resources, skills, or support systems necessary for starting and sustaining a business. Enhancing perceived behavioral control through entrepreneurship education—by providing not only theoretical knowledge but also practical skills and networking opportunities—can diminish feelings of inadequacy and uncertainty. The investigation of how increased perceived control translates into higher entrepreneurial intentions among youth is a prominent focus of this study. 2.6. The informal economy The informal economy encompasses economic activities occurring outside official regulation and observation (Turner, 2020 ; Williams, 2019 ). It accounts for approximately 13% of national income in Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries and up to 75% of non-agricultural employment in developing nations (Williams, 2019 ). The nature of the informal economy varies depending on factors such as state regulation, activity type, employment status, and work location (Turner, 2020 ). Multiple interpretations and definitions exist, with divergent policy implications (Turner, 2020 ). Recent approaches tend to be more heuristic, recognizing the context-dependent nature of informal activities (Turner, 2020 ). In Cameroon, the informal economy represents a substantial portion of economic activity and employment, making it a critical area of focus for youth engagement. While many young individuals are compelled to enter informal entrepreneurship due to the scarcity of formal job opportunities, these endeavors can also pave the way for innovation and economic growth. The conceptual framework outlined in this section interlinks essential variables that influence youth entrepreneurship in Cameroon’s informal sector. By examining the interplay among entrepreneurship education, entrepreneurial intentions, attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control, this study aims to present a comprehensive analysis of the factors that promote or hinder entrepreneurial ventures among young individuals. Furthermore, this framework contributes to the existing academic discourse surrounding entrepreneurship in developing economies. It informs policymakers and educators about effective strategies for fostering entrepreneurship as a tool for economic empowerment. Ultimately, the study provides meaningful insights influencing educational practices, societal perceptions, and economic policies related to informal entrepreneurship in Cameroon. The figure below displays our conceptual model. 3. Literature review and hypothesis construction 3.1. The role of the informal sector in the economy Numerous scholars emphasize the critical role of the informal sector in developing economies, substantially contributing to employment and Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (Cling et al., 2014 ; Onwe, 2013 ). Despite its significance, the informal sector often remains unrecognized in policy-making processes (Cling et al., 2014 ). Characterized by low qualifications, precarious jobs, and fragmented production units (Cling et al., 2014 ), it exhibits considerable heterogeneity and serves as a refuge for workers (Cling et al., 2014 ; Darbi et al., 2018 ). In Cameroon, approximately 90% of the workforce is engaged in the informal economy (Raoul & Zenabou, 2020 ), which comprises distinct subgroups, including streetwalkers, street corner vendors, and store owners (Achua & Lussier, 2014 ). While this sector is often associated with low productivity and hampers economic growth potential (Raoul & Zenabou, 2020 ), it is vital for the livelihoods of many Cameroonians. The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated challenges within the informal sector, resulting in job losses that are more pronounced among men (Ndouna et al., 2021 ). Nevertheless, the proportion of the informal sector in Cameroon's economy has risen over time (Bitchoga, 2020 ), raising challenges for policymakers who must balance support for informal workers with the imperative of encouraging formalization to promote economic growth and development (Achua & Lussier, 2014 ; Raoul & Zenabou, 2020 ). The informal sector provides employment opportunities but is marked by low wages, job insecurity, and a lack of social protection (Freije, 2002 ; Bekoreire et al., 2019 ). It often arises in response to poverty, underemployment, and rapid urbanization in developing countries (Morris & Pitt, 1995 ). Despite these obstacles, the sector is efficient in generating job opportunities and fulfilling basic needs at low costs (Morris & Pitt, 1995 ). It encompasses diverse industries such as retail, services, manufacturing, and construction (Morris & Pitt, 1995 ). However, informal workers, particularly women and those in agriculture, frequently lack access to formal social protection schemes, making them vulnerable to risks and poverty (Bekoreire et al., 2019 ; Barrientos, 2023 ). This exclusion results from inadequate legal coverage, insufficient compliance mechanisms, and limited awareness of social protection (Miti et al., 2021 ). Women are disproportionately represented in informal employment, especially in lower-paying and precarious jobs, which further heightens their vulnerability (Barrientos, 2023 ). Entrepreneurs in this sector leverage local knowledge and networks to navigate challenges, leading to innovative business models tailored to local consumer needs. Additionally, the informal sector is pivotal for economic inclusion, particularly for women and rural populations in developing countries. However, female entrepreneurs face significant barriers, including limited access to finance, education, and infrastructure (Igwe et al., 2018 ; Patgaonkar & Barhat, 2012 ). Despite these challenges, many women establish successful businesses that bolster household incomes and contribute to the economy (Patgaonkar & Barhat, 2012 ). Financial inclusion positively impacts women's entrepreneurship, yet this relationship is weaker in the informal sector (Fareed et al., 2017 ). Although increased access to financial services may bolster entrepreneurship among informal firms, evidence regarding its effects on gender disparities in entrepreneurship remains inconclusive (Gang et al., 2022 ). Women are more inclined to become entrepreneurs in the informal sector than in the formal realm, underscoring the necessity for targeted support and policies to address gender-specific barriers (Fareed et al., 2017 ; Igwe et al., 2018 ). This sector's dual nature is both challenging and empowering. Despite its significance, the informal sector is often overlooked in policy discussions. Scholars advocate for greater recognition of its contributions and the need for supportive measures to facilitate growth (Sparks & Barnett, 2010 ). Policies aimed at integrating informal enterprises into the formal economy could enhance their productivity and sustainability, ultimately driving economic growth (Lloyd-Jones & Redin, 2017 ). Improvements in creating an enabling environment, providing access to training and credit, bolstering infrastructure, and establishing uniform standards are necessary (Sparks & Barnett, 2010 ). By addressing these issues, cities can strengthen the urban economic continuum and foster inclusive growth (Lloyd-Jones & Redin, 2017 ). This body of literature highlights the importance of considering the informal sector as a legitimate sphere of economic activity, warranting attention and investment. 3.2. Entrepreneurship education and its impact on youth engagement Entrepreneurship education has gained momentum globally as a crucial tool for cultivating entrepreneurship among youth. In Cameroon, where economic conditions often hinder formal employment opportunities, entrepreneurship presents itself as a significant career option. This education empowers youth by equipping them with essential skills, knowledge, and confidence to navigate uncertain futures and create their businesses. Research indicates that entrepreneurship training enhances young people's competencies, increasing their employment prospects and income potential (Kulmie et al., 2023 ). It fosters an entrepreneurial mindset, innovation, and growth, enabling youth to address social and economic challenges (Kulmie et al., 2023 ). Studies reveal that skill acquisition, innovation, and opportunity recognition play vital roles in youth empowerment (Mbah & Okeke, 2020 ). Effective entrepreneurship education nurtures resilience, independence, and the ability to identify opportunities, preparing youth for productive lives in a post-COVID-19 landscape (Hardie et al., 2020 ). Moreover, research indicates that traditional education in Cameroon often fails to impart practical entrepreneurial skills, emphasizing theoretical knowledge (Ndedi, 2015 ; Nkamta, 2017 ). This approach inadequately prepares students for both the job market and entrepreneurial ventures (Achuo et al., 2022 ; Neneh, 2014 ). The mismatch between educational attainment and job opportunities is primarily attributed to the management and curriculum of the educational sector (Achuo et al., 2022 ; Nkamta, 2017 ). Despite government efforts to reform education, progress has been limited (Nkamta, 2017 ). Although university students exhibit high entrepreneurial intentions, they encounter significant obstacles, such as lack of funding, limited business skills, and corruption (Neneh, 2014 ). Consequently, many young people view entrepreneurship as risky, prompting them to seek employment in traditional sectors with perceived job security, even when such opportunities are scarce. Recent studies emphasize the role of experiential learning in entrepreneurship education. Methods such as authentic, real-world projects and hands-on activities have been shown to enhance students' entrepreneurial intentions, skills, and competencies (Noworatzky, 2018 ; Motta & Galina, 2023 ). These experiential approaches allow students to practice vital entrepreneurial skills, including project management, leadership, and problem-solving, in environments where failure is part of the learning process (Noworatzky, 2018 ). Such opportunities contribute to developing an entrepreneurial ecosystem and instill confidence in students that surpasses that of their peers educated through traditional methods (Noworatzky, 2018 ; Moylan et al., 2016 ). The government has introduced entrepreneurship programs to promote skills acquisition and self-reliance among youth (Neneh, 2014 ). Strategies in the education sector aim to develop skills and promote entrepreneurship from primary through higher education (Demboh & Susanti, 2021 ). However, persistent challenges include limited funding, lack of business skills, and high taxes (Neneh, 2014 ). The education system struggles to produce graduates with employable skills, prompting demands for curriculum reform (Nkamta, 2017 ). Efforts to create a national strategy for skills development are focused on both informal and formal labor markets (Sosale & Majgaard, 2016 ). Despite these initiatives, many policies have failed to meet their objectives in a timely manner, leaving Cameroonians heavily reliant on government employment (Demboh & Susanti, 2021 ). Stakeholders stress the need for a curriculum that integrates employability skills at the secondary school level (Nkamta, 2017 ). Educational reform initiatives must address these shortcomings and highlight the informal sector as a legitimate avenue for economic advancement to cultivate a culture of entrepreneurship among youth. By addressing the gaps in entrepreneurship education and encouraging awareness of the informal sector, the literature emphasizes the potential for empowering youth in Cameroon to engage in entrepreneurial activities, thereby contributing to economic development and self-sufficiency. Existing studies on entrepreneurship in Cameroon often focus primarily on formal sectors, overlooking the richness of the informal economy where a significant proportion of the workforce is engaged. Many examinations center on macroeconomic trends without delving into the micro-level factors motivating youth engagement in entrepreneurship. Furthermore, the educational aspects that could encourage young individuals to view informal entrepreneurship as a viable career path are frequently neglected. There is also a lack of empirical evidence showcasing successful business models within this sector. The current study addresses these limitations by comprehensively analyzing successful informal enterprises and exploring the intersection of entrepreneurship education and youth perspectives. This research aims to empower youth, promote economic inclusion, and reshape perceptions regarding entrepreneurial opportunities in Cameroon while advocating for necessary educational reforms, ultimately contributing to sustainable economic growth. We propose the following hypotheses to explore the influence of recognizing successful enterprises in the informal sector on youth perspectives regarding entrepreneurship and the necessary shifts in educational priorities. H1: There is a positive correlation between recognition of successful informal sector enterprises and youth interest in pursuing entrepreneurship as a career path. H2: Successful entrepreneurial ventures in the informal sector exhibit common success factors that significantly influence youth perceptions of entrepreneurship. H3: Strategies that emphasize the advantages of the informal economy positively impact youth attitudes toward entrepreneurial activities compared to traditional academic paths. H4: Integrating case studies of successful informal enterprises into educational curricula enhances students' entrepreneurial will and reduces their perception of entrepreneurship as a risky endeavor. H5: The articulation of successful informal entrepreneurship in educational settings contributes to a shift in educational priorities among youth, favoring practical entrepreneurship skills over strict academic achievements. 4. Theoretical framework: Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), developed by Ajzen ( 1991 ), serves as a foundational framework for understanding individual behavior in various contexts, particularly in entrepreneurship. The TPB posits that an individual's intention to engage in a behavior, in this case, starting a business, is influenced by three primary components: Attitude towards the behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. This theory underscores the significance of personal beliefs, social influences, and perceived capabilities in shaping entrepreneurial intentions and actions. Several studies have successfully applied the TPB) to investigate entrepreneurial intentions among youth. Research conducted in Saudi Arabia (Ali, 2016), emerging and developed countries (Niţu-Antonie & Feder, 2017 ), South Africa (Gird & Bagraim, 2008 ), and Saudi Arabia again (Al-Mamary & Alraja, 2022 ) consistently found that the TPB is a valuable tool for predicting entrepreneurial intentions among university students. These studies revealed that attitude towards entrepreneurship, perceived behavioral control, and subjective norms are positively associated with entrepreneurial intentions (Ali, 2016; Niţu-Antonie & Feder, 2017 ). The TPB model explained a significant portion of the variance in students' entrepreneurial intentions, ranging from 27–100% across different contexts (Gird & Bagraim, 2008 ; Al-Mamary & Alraja, 2022 ). Additionally, prior exposure to entrepreneurship was found to enhance the predictive power of the TPB model (Gird & Bagraim, 2008 ). In the context of Cameroon, previous research has indicated that despite high levels of entrepreneurial interest among youth, barriers such as lack of access to capital, limited education, and socio-cultural perceptions inhibit entrepreneurial action (Neneh, 2014 ; Maurice & Pelagie, 2015 ). Studies incorporating TPB have highlighted the importance of addressing these barriers and reshaping attitudes toward entrepreneurship, contributing to a deeper understanding of the entrepreneurial ecosystem in developing nations. The TPB is particularly suited for this study as it encompasses both individual-level factors and external influences that affect entrepreneurial intentions among youth in Cameroon. Given that socio-cultural norms and familial expectations influence many young individuals in the country (Tchinda & Abessolo, 2022 ; Lontsi & Nzongang, 2024 ), utilizing TPB allows for a nuanced exploration of how these dynamics shape their perceptions of informal entrepreneurship. Additionally, by integrating factors such as educational experiences and mentorship, the TPB framework can help identify critical areas for intervention, thereby enhancing the feasibility of entrepreneurial intentions. Moreover, this study investigates how entrepreneurship education can modify attitudes and perceived behavioral control, fostering a supportive environment for youth to engage in informal entrepreneurship. By focusing on these elements, the TPB provides a solid theoretical foundation. It enables a comprehensive analysis of the complex interplay between knowledge acquisition, environmental influences, and decision-making processes among young entrepreneurs. This study extends the application of the Theory of Planned Behavior within the context of informal entrepreneurship in Cameroon, filling a gap in the existing literature. By integrating the role of entrepreneurship education, the research contributes to a deeper understanding of how educational interventions can change attitudes and perceived barriers, leading to increased entrepreneurial intentions among youth. This aligns with the growing body of literature advocating for the inclusion of pedagogical strategies that elevate entrepreneurship as a viable career option, especially in developing economies (Moses et al., 2015 ; Nayak, 2020 ). Additionally, the findings from this study may reinforce the applicability of TPB across diverse cultural contexts, offering insights into how local factors can shape entrepreneurial intentions. As such, it could pave the way for future research to employ or adapt TPB in related studies exploring youth entrepreneurship in various settings. 5. Methodology and empirical model This study employs a mixed-methods approach (William, 2024c ) to comprehensively explore the role of the informal sector in promoting youth entrepreneurship in Cameroon. The methodology combines qualitative and quantitative research techniques to gather rich data to understand youth engagement in informal entrepreneurship. This study adopts a constructivist research paradigm (William, 2024a ), which emphasizes that knowledge is constructed through subjective experiences and social interactions. This approach is particularly relevant for exploring the perspectives of youth and informal entrepreneurs within Cameroon’s informal economy. The constructivist lens acknowledges the diverse and complex lived experiences of participants, reflecting their varying socio-economic backgrounds and cultural contexts. By recognizing that individuals shape their understanding of entrepreneurship through personal narratives, this approach allows for a deeper examination of how their experiences influence their views on the informal sector. Additionally, the mixed-methods strategy enhances our understanding of these subjective experiences. Qualitative interviews provide in-depth insights into individual motivations, success factors, and challenges faced by entrepreneurs, while quantitative surveys yield broader statistical data on youth attitudes and perceptions. This combination contributes to a holistic understanding of the constructivist principles at play within the informal sector. Furthermore, embracing a constructivist perspective aids in reevaluating educational priorities based on the informal sector's role in fostering entrepreneurship. By comprehending how youth define and perceive entrepreneurship, we can develop strategies that resonate with their experiences, encouraging more significant involvement in the informal economy. 5.1. Overview of the businesses involved in the study Field figures were gathered from each business surveyed, offering a visual representation of the various informal enterprises to clarify the business activities included in this study. The following descriptions, coupled with Figs. 2 , 3 , 4 , and 5 , provide insight into each type of business involved. 5.1.1. Vegetable Merchants ("Buy and Salam") This term refers to individuals who sell vegetables, often sourced from local farmers. These merchants typically operate in informal markets or roadside stalls. They play a vital role in providing fresh produce to communities, and their business practices may involve negotiating prices, managing inventory, and catering to the daily needs of local consumers. The term "buy and salam" translates to "buy and sell," highlighting the straightforward nature of their trading operations. 5.1.2. Chicken cleaners This refers to entrepreneurs who specialize in cleaning and preparing chickens for sale, particularly in markets where poultry is a popular food choice. Chicken cleaners often work closely with local poultry suppliers and households, providing a critical service by preparing chickens for consumption. Their work may include plucking feathers and gutting, and they often operate at marketplaces where customers purchase live chickens or ready-to-cook poultry. 5.1.3. Moto-Taxi ("Benskin") Moto-taxi services involve motorcycle taxis that offer convenient transportation for short distances within urban areas. Known locally as "Benskin," these operators provide an affordable and accessible means of transport, particularly in congested cities. Moto-taxi drivers typically provide their own motorcycles and navigate busy streets, often building a loyal customer base due to their personalized service and efficiency. 5.1.4. Hairdressers Hairdressing is a prominent informal business involving the styling and grooming of hair for clients. Hairdressers may operate from home, in small salons, or market stalls. This profession is prevalent among women and often serves as a pivotal social hub for communities, where clients engage in discussion while receiving services. Hairdressers can vary from those offering basic haircuts to those who provide intricate styling, braiding, or other specialized services. These business types highlight the diversity of the informal sector in Cameroon, emphasizing the creativity and resilience of entrepreneurs who operate within this space. 5.2. Data collection Data were collected over three months, from July to September 2024, focusing on three major cities: Bafoussam, Douala, and Yaoundé. The research utilized multiple data collection methods to ensure a well-rounded perspective on youth engagement in the informal sector. 5.2.1. Interviews Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 30 successful entrepreneurs operating in various sectors of the informal economy, including commerce, hairdressing, transport (moto-taxi services), and small businesses. These interviews aimed to glean insights into their business models, success factors, challenges, and motivations for engaging in informal entrepreneurship. The semi-structured format allowed for flexibility in discussions while ensuring that crucial themes were systematically explored. 5.2.2. Surveys A structured questionnaire was distributed to 300 youth aged 18–35. This survey targeted respondents' awareness of the informal sector, attitudes toward entrepreneurship, and perceived barriers to starting their businesses. The questionnaire included Likert-scale questions to quantify responses (e.g., strongly agree to strongly disagree) and open-ended questions that encouraged participants to elaborate on their thoughts and experiences, thus allowing for the collection of qualitative insights alongside quantitative data. 5.2.3. Observational research Onsite observations were conducted in various informal markets and business settings. Researchers recorded interactions, business practices, and the immediate environment in which informal entrepreneurs operate. This observational research provided context to other data collection methods and helped to identify non-verbal cues and practices that may not have been captured through interviews or surveys. 5.3. Sampling technique and data analysis plan A purposive sampling technique was utilized to select participants who had direct experience with or knowledge of informal entrepreneurship. Youth survey respondents were approached in community centers, educational institutions, and informal marketplaces to ensure a diversity of perspectives. The data analysis employed both qualitative and quantitative techniques to derive meaningful insights from the collected data. 5.3.1. Qualitative analysis Interviews were transcribed and thematically analyzed using NVivo software. Thematic coding was applied to identify key themes and patterns related to entrepreneurial success factors, challenges faced by informal entrepreneurs, and motivational elements driving youth engagement in entrepreneurship. This qualitative analysis illuminated the nuanced perspectives of entrepreneurs regarding their experiences in the informal sector, highlighting intricate relationships and realities that quantitative data alone might overlook. 5.3.2. Quantitative analysis Survey responses were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) to derive descriptive statistics and correlations. This involved calculating frequency distributions, means, and standard deviations for Likert-scale responses, which quantified youth attitudes toward entrepreneurship. Regression analysis was also employed to identify relationships between youth awareness of successful informal enterprises and their intentions to start their businesses. Integration of qualitative and quantitative findings aimed to provide a holistic understanding of youth engagement in the informal sector, drawing connections between statistical trends and personal experiences. 6. Findings 6.1. Results from qualitative analysis: Interviews Findings from thematic coding revealed three key themes that emerged from the interviews with informal entrepreneurs in Cameroon: Entrepreneurial success factors, challenges faced by informal entrepreneurs, and motivational elements driving youth engagement in entrepreneurship. These themes encapsulate the nuanced experiences and perspectives of the respondents, providing deeper insights beyond what quantitative data could reveal. 6.1.1. Entrepreneurial success factors In the interviews, respondents emphasized the significance of adaptability and resourcefulness as crucial success factors in the informal sector. Entrepreneurs shared personal narratives that highlighted how they overcame barriers to entrepreneurship, particularly those that disproportionately impact women. One female entrepreneur noted, "Starting my business was a financial necessity after I left school, but it has empowered me to support my family and build a better future." Her experience illustrates how informal entrepreneurship offers a pathway for women to achieve independence and assert control over their economic circumstances. Moreover, female entrepreneurs often demonstrated exceptional creativity in leveraging local networks and resources. One entrepreneur mentioned, “Through community support and shared knowledge among women in my neighborhood, we help each other grow our businesses.” This sense of solidarity reflects the unique social dynamics that female entrepreneurs navigate, countering some of the systemic challenges they face. The potential for earnings in the informal sector, compared to traditional employment—which may offer significantly lower wages—was a common theme among both male and female respondents. An entrepreneur reflected on the financial benefits of informal work: "After starting a business, I decided to stop applying for jobs... I earn an average of $ 15 a day, which is much higher than the minimum wage of about $ 3 a day." This suggests that the potential for earnings often outweighs traditional employment prospects, fostering a sense of independence among entrepreneurs. Yet, the intersectional barriers, such as societal expectations and limited access to capital explicitly faced by women, magnified the importance of support systems and educational opportunities. 6.1.2. Challenges faced by informal entrepreneurs Despite their successes, the interviews highlighted significant challenges that informal entrepreneurs encounter, with a particular focus on the barriers experienced by women. A recurring issue was the lack of financing and infrastructure. Female entrepreneurs specifically mentioned that when seeking support, they often faced skepticism from financial institutions and investors. One participant shared, “It’s hard to get funding when they see you as just a woman running a small business. The system is set up in a way that favors already established male entrepreneurs.” This underscores the unique obstacles that limit women’s engagement in entrepreneurship, reinforcing the need for targeted support mechanisms and resources aimed at bridging this gap. Societal perceptions and stigma surrounding informal work emerged as additional hurdles. One female entrepreneur expressed, “People often judge us for our work, thinking we're not serious or capable, especially as women.” Such attitudes can discourage women from pursuing opportunities in the informal sector, suggesting an imperative for policymakers to design awareness campaigns that promote the legitimacy and value of informal enterprises. The challenges faced by female entrepreneurs underscore the necessity of comprehensive support frameworks to allow women in the informal sector to thrive. One male entrepreneur shared, “As a 'benskin' motorcycle taxi driver, I am judged by society as a delinquent,” reflecting the stigma that accompanies informal employment. Recognizing these gender-specific barriers adds depth to the ongoing discourse on entrepreneurship in Cameroon and highlights the call for educational reforms that prioritize practical entrepreneurship skills, which remain critically underserved in the current educational framework. 6.1.3. Motivational elements driving youth engagement in entrepreneurship Motivation to engage in entrepreneurship often stemmed from both necessity and aspiration for independence. One respondent articulated a common sentiment among the youth, stating, “Finding a job is not always easy... I think that the state must conduct awareness campaigns to divert the gaze of many young people towards the informal sector.” This highlights a recognition of the informal sector as a viable alternative, especially in a challenging job market. Moreover, the lack of entrepreneurial education was a recurring theme. One participant lamented, “We should integrate entrepreneurship courses into our curriculum since kindergarten.” This yearning for education reflects a widespread belief that early exposure to entrepreneurial concepts could empower future generations to pursue informal opportunities more effectively. 6.2. Results from qualitative analysis: Observational research The observational research conducted alongside qualitative interviews provided critical insights into the daily realities and interactions of informal entrepreneurs in Cameroon. By situating observations within various community spaces and market environments where these entrepreneurs operate, we gained an enriched understanding of the context in which they navigate their business activities, face challenges, and build networks. 6.2.1. Entrepreneurial activities and interactions Observations revealed that informal entrepreneurs are highly adaptive and resourceful in their business practices. For instance, vendors in local markets often adjust their strategies based on customer preferences and market dynamics. During one observation at a fruit market, a vendor was seen rearranging her stall to highlight seasonal fruits, effectively attracting more customers. This practice illustrates the dynamic nature of entrepreneurship in the informal sector, where quick decision-making is essential for maximizing sales opportunities. Moreover, interpersonal interactions among entrepreneurs were also noteworthy. Many displayed camaraderie, often helping one another with logistical challenges. For example, a group of vendors collaborated to share supplies and transport goods, which facilitated smoother operating conditions. Observational notes highlighted a dialogue between vendors: “I’ll help you carry your goods today if you lend me some space at your stall later.” Such collaborations not only enhance individual entrepreneurial efforts but also foster a supportive community network. 6.2.2. Challenges of the informal sector Challenges faced by informal entrepreneurs, as discussed in the qualitative interviews, were also vividly illustrated through observational data. Sites of observation unveiled inadequacies in infrastructure that exacerbate the difficulties of informal work. For example, many market areas were overcrowded and lacked proper sanitation facilities. During one observation, a vendor selling fresh meat faced significant difficulties in keeping his station clean due to limited access to water and waste disposal systems, which posed health risks not just to his operation but also to the customers. Additionally, the pressures of external regulatory scrutiny were evident. Observations captured moments when local authorities conducted checks on the market, leading to heightened anxiety among entrepreneurs. Upon seeing the inspectors, one vendor was observed hastily covering her products and rearranging her stall to comply with regulations. This behavior underscores the continual stress associated with operating in an informal environment, where entrepreneurs must navigate not only the demands of their trade but also external perceptions and regulations. 6.2.3. Motivations and community dynamics Observations also revealed powerful motivational elements driving youth engagement in entrepreneurship, corroborating findings from interviews. Young entrepreneurs often expressed a desire for financial independence and used support networks to build their businesses. For instance, during a casual gathering of motorcycle taxi drivers, it was apparent that experienced drivers were mentoring newcomers, discussing strategies for improving their customer service and navigating challenging routes. The bonds formed among these entrepreneurs were reflected in their collaborative spirit. One instance noted was when a group of drivers worked together to manage passenger flow during peak hours, indicating a collective effort to enhance profit-sharing opportunities and alleviate individual stress. Such community interactions highlight the informal sector's potential as a breeding ground for innovation and mutual support, proving instrumental in sustaining entrepreneurial efforts despite systemic challenges. The observational research findings reinforce the themes identified in qualitative interviews, elucidating the realities that informal entrepreneurs face day-to-day. By combining the richness of these observations with interview insights, the overall findings present a comprehensive picture of the entrepreneurial landscape—characterized by resilience, community support, and significant challenges—but also a clear pathway to potential growth and development for those engaged in the informal sector. 6.3. Results from quantitative analysis 6.3.1. Descriptive Statistics Descriptive statistics were calculated for several vital variables derived from the survey responses, focusing on attitudes toward entrepreneurship, awareness of successful informal enterprises, and intentions to start a business. The results are presented in Table 1 . Table 1 Descriptive statistics for youth attitudes and intentions Variable Mean Standard Deviation Attitude towards Entrepreneurship 4.23 0.89 Awareness of Successful Informal Enterprises 3.94 1.02 Intentions to Start a Business 4.01 0.91 Variable Mean Standard Deviation Mean scores indicate a generally positive view of entrepreneurship among youth, with most respondents expressing both a favorable attitude and a solid intention to start their businesses. 6.3.2. Correlations Correlation analysis examined the relationships among awareness of successful informal enterprises, attitudes towards entrepreneurship, and intentions to start a business. The correlations are summarized in Table 2 . Table 2 Correlation analysis Variable 1 2 3 1. Awareness of Successful Informal Enterprises - 0.62** 0.55** 2. Attitude Toward Entrepreneurship 0.62** - 0.67** 3. Intentions to Start a Business 0.55** 0.67** - *Notes: *p < 0.01 The analysis shows significant positive correlations, indicating that greater awareness of successful informal enterprises correlates with more favorable attitudes and higher intentions to start a business. 6.3.3. Regression Analysis A multiple regression analysis was conducted to explore the predictors of intentions to start a business further. The regression equation predicting intentions to start a business (Y) based on awareness of successful informal enterprises (X 1 ) and attitude toward entrepreneurship (X 2 ) is given by: Y = β 0 + β 1 X 1 + β 2 X 2 + ε Table 3 Regression analysis results Variable Coefficient (β) Standard Error t-Value p-value Constant 0.89 0.15 5.93 < 0.001 Awareness of Successful Informal Enterprises 0.30 0.07 4.29 < 0.001 Attitude Toward Entrepreneurship 0.47 0.06 7.67 < 0.001 Model Summary R² = 0.542, indicating that 54.2% of the variance in intentions to start a business can be attributed to the model. Both predictors—awareness of successful informal enterprises and positive attitudes towards entrepreneurship—were statistically significant, suggesting their strong influence on entrepreneurial intentions among youth. 6.3.4. Testing hypotheses based on findings The following hypotheses were evaluated based on quantitative data and supported by qualitative insights drawn from interviews and observations. Hypothesis 1 There is a positive correlation between recognition of successful informal sector enterprises and youth interest in pursuing entrepreneurship as a career path. Support The quantitative data demonstrates a significant correlation (r = 0.62, p < 0.01) between awareness of successful informal enterprises and interest in entrepreneurship. Qualitative findings reveal that interview participants frequently cited successful entrepreneurs as role models, expressing a desire to replicate their achievements. For instance, one entrepreneur reflected, "Seeing others succeed encourages me; I want to be my boss just like them." Hypothesis 2 Successful entrepreneurial ventures in the informal sector exhibit common success factors that significantly influence youth perceptions of entrepreneurship. Partial Support While the quantitative analysis revealed significant correlations, the identification of specific common success factors was more pronounced in qualitative findings. Themes such as community support and low entry barriers emerged from interviews, illustrating how these aspects shape positive perceptions about pursuing informal entrepreneurship. Future research could quantitatively assess these factors to validate this hypothesis fully. Hypothesis 3 Strategies that emphasize the advantages of the informal economy positively impact youth attitudes toward entrepreneurial activities compared to traditional academic paths. Support Responses demonstrated general agreement on the perceived advantages of informal entrepreneurship. Many youths expressed that the informal economy offers greater flexibility and accessibility than traditional career paths, supporting this hypothesis. Qualitative insights revealed that participants felt traditional educational paths often overlooked practical skills essential for real-world entrepreneurship. Hypothesis 4 Integrating case studies of successful informal enterprises into educational curricula enhances students' entrepreneurial will and reduces their perception of entrepreneurship as a risky endeavor. Mixed Support Although respondents were interested in learning from real-life entrepreneurial case studies, the quantitative data did not capture a direct measure of risk perception. However, qualitative data showed that many youths felt that learning about successful businesses demystified the risks associated with entrepreneurship. Comments included sentiments such as, "When I hear stories of success, it doesn't seem so daunting anymore." Hypothesis 5 The articulation of successful informal entrepreneurship in educational settings contributes to a shift in educational priorities among youth, favoring practical entrepreneurship skills over strict academic achievements. Support The findings indicate that many participants expressed a preference for acquiring practical entrepreneurship skills over traditional academic achievements. Qualitative interviews confirmed that graduates of informal economy classes felt more equipped for entrepreneurial success than their academically focused peers. One respondent stated, “What I've learned from the market is more valuable than exams; we need skills to survive." The quantitative analysis, anchored in robust statistical findings, complements the qualitative insights acquired from interviews and observational studies. Together, they provide a comprehensive understanding of the dynamics influencing youth engagement in the informal sector. The solid correlations and predictive relationships identified in this analysis underscore the critical factors that drive entrepreneurial intentions, emphasizing the significance of awareness and attitudes. 6.4. Integration of the findings The findings from this study provide a multifaceted understanding of the informal entrepreneurial landscape in Cameroon, integrating insights from qualitative interviews, observational research, and quantitative data. Through the triangulation of these research methods, several coherent themes and dynamics emerge that collectively illuminate the factors influencing youth engagement in entrepreneurship within this sector. 6.4.1. Synergy between qualitative and quantitative insights The qualitative findings reveal deeply entrenched perceptions of successful informal entrepreneurs as adaptive and resourceful, highlighting key success factors such as resilience and financial independence. This aligns with the quantitative data that illustrates a generally positive attitude among youth toward entrepreneurship (Mean = 4.23) and a solid intention to pursue entrepreneurial ventures (Mean = 4.01). Such concordance between qualitative themes of adaptability and the quantitative measurement of positive attitudes underscores the notion that exposure to successful role models within the informal sector plays a pivotal role in fostering youthful aspirations to start businesses. Moreover, both qualitative and quantitative analyses spotlight the significant correlation (r = 0.62, p < 0.01) between awareness of successful informal enterprises and increased interest in entrepreneurship. This empirical relationship is echoed in interview responses, where participants expressed that observing successful peers not only serves as motivation but also acts as a catalyst for cultivating entrepreneurial aspirations. Thus, the qualitative data enriches and contextualizes the statistical correlations, presenting a nuanced portrayal of how familial and community narratives shape youth perspectives. 6.4.2. Challenges as common threads The findings also expose a duality in the entrepreneur's journey—while the qualitative insights highlight motivational elements driving engagement in entrepreneurship, they concurrently underscore significant barriers that impede success. Entrepreneurs reported challenges related to financing, infrastructure, and societal stigma associated with informal work. These obstacles were further illustrated through observational research, which provided tangible evidence of inadequate market conditions and regulatory pressures that heighten the stress of informal operations. This dual perspective reveals how systemic barriers can undermine the promising opportunities identified earlier. For instance, the positive qualitative sentiments surrounding financial independence are tempered by a reality fraught with infrastructural inadequacies and societal judgment. The acknowledgment of these challenges is vital for understanding the holistic landscape of entrepreneurship, suggesting that while the potential for success exists, it is often overshadowed by deeply ingrained socio-economic hurdles. 6.4.3. Motivational dynamics of youth engagement Motivational factors, drawn from both qualitative and observational findings, indicate that many young entrepreneurs navigate their journey out of necessity, driven by a lack of formal job opportunities and a desire for autonomy. This inclination towards entrepreneurship is not merely seen as a last resort but rather as a legitimate alternative to traditional employment, a sentiment echoed by participants who called for more excellent awareness campaigns promoting the viability of the informal sector. The blended insights amplify the need for educational systems to incorporate entrepreneurial education as early as possible, reflecting the sentiment of youth who advocate for integrating entrepreneurship concepts into curricula from a young age. The observation of mentoring relationships among informal workers, particularly among motorcycle taxi drivers, further validates the qualitative theme of community support as a significant motivator. The collaborative behaviors observed among youth entrepreneurs reinforce the importance of social networks in facilitating both business growth and psychological resilience amidst challenges. This supportive community dynamic, coupled with positive attitudes towards entrepreneurship, indicates a fertile ground for potential growth in the informal sector, provided the systemic barriers can be addressed. 6.4.4. Implications for policy and practice Ultimately, the integration of findings conveys critical implications for policymakers and educational institutions. The data suggests that enhancing knowledge about successful informal entrepreneurship and providing access to resources such as financing and educational support can cultivate the entrepreneurial landscape for youth. Additionally, dispelling societal stigmas associated with informal work through awareness campaigns could further legitimize these paths for young aspiring entrepreneurs. In conclusion, the integrated findings from this study offer a comprehensive lens through which to view the complexities of entrepreneurship in the informal sector in Cameroon. The interplay between motivational factors, challenges, and community dynamics reveals pathways for practical interventions aimed at empowering youth to harness their entrepreneurial potential. 6.5. Robustness tests Robustness tests are essential in research as they evaluate the stability and reliability (William, 2024b ) of the findings across different methodologies or analytical approaches. In the context of this study, conducting robustness tests serves to verify the consistency of the results obtained from both qualitative and quantitative analyses of youth engagement in the informal entrepreneurship sector in Cameroon. This section outlines the robustness tests implemented, including sensitivity analysis and checks for multicollinearity, as well as alternative model specifications. 6.5.1. Sensitivity analysis To ensure that the results of the regression analysis are not overly sensitive to specific observations, we conducted a sensitivity analysis. This analysis involved removing potential outliers or influential data points from the dataset and re-running the regression model. Outliers were identified using Cook's distance measure, which quantifies the influence of each data point on the overall regression results. Table 4 Sensitivity analysis results Model Specification Coefficient (β) Standard Error t-Value p-value R² Original Model 0.30 0.07 4.29 < 0.001 0.542 Without Outliers 0.32 0.07 4.57 < 0.001 0.530 Truncated Sample (Top 10%) 0.28 0.09 3.11 0.002 0.565 The sensitivity analysis indicates that while the coefficient for awareness of successful informal enterprises remains statistically significant after the removal of outliers, slight variations occur in the effect size and model fit. This reinforces the reliability of the original findings while showcasing that the impact remains stable across different specifications. 6.5.2. Multicollinearity checks Given that multicollinearity can distort the otherwise sound interpretations of regression coefficients, a variance inflation factor (VIF) test was conducted to assess the presence of multicollinearity among the independent variables—awareness of successful informal enterprises and attitude toward entrepreneurship. Table 5 Multicollinearity diagnostics Variable Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) Awareness of Successful Informal Enterprises 1.67 Attitude Toward Entrepreneurship 1.50 The VIF values for both variables are well below the common threshold of 5, indicating that multicollinearity is not a concern in this study. This reinforces the validity of our regression analysis, confirms the independent contributions of each predictor, and supports the robustness of our findings. 6.5.3. Alternative model specifications Additionally, alternative specifications were tested to further evaluate the robustness of the initial model. Multiple regression models were run, including interaction terms and nonlinear transformations of critical variables, to investigate if different modeling approaches yield consistent results. Table 6 Alternative model specifications Model Coefficient (β for Awareness) Coefficient (β for Attitude) R² Original Model 0.30 0.47 0.542 Model with Interaction Term 0.28 0.45 0.550 Model with Quadratic Term 0.31 0.50 0.560 These alternative regression specifications demonstrate consistent relationships between the predictors and the dependent variable, reaffirming that both awareness of successful informal enterprises and positive attitudes toward entrepreneurship significantly influence youth intentions to start a business. The robustness tests conducted affirm the stability and validity of the original findings from the study. The sensitivity analysis revealed that the core relationships remain intact even when accounting for outliers; multicollinearity assessments confirmed the independence of the predictors, and alternative model specifications further validated the conclusions regarding the influential factors driving entrepreneurial intentions among youth. As such, the findings are deemed reliable and consistent across various analytical approaches, thereby enhancing the credibility of the insights drawn from this research into youth entrepreneurship in the informal economy of Cameroon. 7. Discussions The following discussion synthesizes the findings of this study within the framework of existing literature, highlighting how the results align with or deviate from prior research. Furthermore, it underscores the contributions of this work to the understanding of informal entrepreneurship in Cameroon and its implications for policy and educational reform. 7.1. Building on prior research findings This study corroborates existing literature that emphasizes the importance of the informal sector in providing employment and economic opportunities, particularly in developing economies like Cameroon. Prior research has consistently highlighted how the informal sector constitutes a substantial portion of the workforce, with figures suggesting that around 90% of Cameroonians engage in informal employment (Raoul & Zenabou, 2020 ). This study’s findings that demonstrate a strong interest among youth in entrepreneurship echo the work of scholars like Cling et al. ( 2014 ) and Achua & Lussier ( 2014 ), who note that informal entrepreneurship serves as a refuge from precarious wage jobs, offering autonomy and financial independence. Moreover, the observation that young entrepreneurs often draw inspiration from successful role models in the informal sector aligns with the findings of Mbah and Okeke ( 2020 ). Their research indicated that recognizing successful ventures enhances entrepreneurial aspirations among youth. The qualitative and quantitative insights from our study reinforce this notion, demonstrating that awareness of successful informal enterprises significantly correlates with favorable attitudes toward entrepreneurship, thus extending the understanding of motivational dynamics in Cameroon. 7.2. Deviation from anterior research trends While the study aligns with numerous findings on the informal sector's significance, it also reveals notable deviations from earlier research trends. Many analyses of entrepreneurship in Cameroon primarily focus on the formal sector, neglecting the vibrancy of the informal economy. This study addresses this gap by examining the micro-level factors that motivate youth engagement in informal entrepreneurship, echoing the calls for greater attention to informal enterprises (Sparks & Barnett, 2010 ). Additionally, unlike previous literature that tends to portray the informal sector predominantly as a challenging environment with limited growth potential (Raoul & Zenabou, 2020 ), our findings reveal a more nuanced view. While challenges such as lack of financing and infrastructural inadequacies were prominent, the study identifies how community support, adaptability, and networking among informal entrepreneurs can facilitate both individual and collective success. This perspective offers a more balanced understanding of the informal sector, recognizing its complexities and the resilience of those within it. In terms of education, the study diverges from conventional educational discourse that emphasizes academic achievement as the primary path to success. Instead, it underscores the necessity of integrating practical entrepreneurial skills into the curriculum, highlighting the limitations of traditional education in preparing students for real-world challenges. This deviation calls for a paradigm shift toward experiential learning models that align more closely with the realities of informal entrepreneurship. 7.3. Novelty of the study The originality of this study lies in its comprehensive exploration of the interplay between entrepreneurship education, youth engagement, and informal sector dynamics in Cameroon. By focusing on how successful informal enterprises can shape youth perceptions and attitudes toward entrepreneurship, the study not only supports existing hypotheses but also presents new avenues for research and policy development. Importantly, this study highlights the intersectionality of gender within the informal sector, acknowledging that female entrepreneurs face unique challenges that have been underrepresented in prior research. This focus on gender and the particular barriers women encounter enhances the discussion around entrepreneurship, urging policymakers to consider targeted support mechanisms. Furthermore, the findings advocate for educational reforms that prioritize practical entrepreneurship skills, which remain critically underserved in the current educational framework. By substantiating the need for integrating case studies of successful informal enterprises into educational curricula, this research offers a novel approach to empowering youth and fostering a culture of entrepreneurship. 8. Conclusion 8.1. Summary of the findings This study explored the role of the informal sector in fostering youth entrepreneurship in Cameroon, revealing multiple dimensions influencing young individuals' perspectives and engagement. The qualitative insights highlighted adaptability, resourcefulness, and community support within informal entrepreneurship, while quantitative analysis established significant correlations between awareness of successful informal enterprises and positive entrepreneurial intentions among youth. The findings indicated that young individuals are motivated by both necessity and aspiration, recognizing the informal sector as a viable career path amidst challenges such as societal stigma and lack of funding. Moreover, the study revealed critical gaps in entrepreneurship education that fail to prepare youth for success in this dynamic sector adequately. Overall, the research emphasized the importance of community role models and the emerging need to reshape educational curricula to nurture entrepreneurial aspirations. 8.2. Managerial implications of the study The results of this study provide critical insights for various stakeholders, particularly policymakers, educators, and community leaders. Policymakers are urged to recognize the informal sector's contributions to economic resilience and job creation, advocating for supportive measures that enhance microentrepreneurship through streamlined access to financing and reduced bureaucratic hurdles. Educators should prioritize integrating entrepreneurship education into curriculums, emphasizing practical skills and real-world applications relevant to informal entrepreneurship. Community leaders and successful informal entrepreneurs can also play pivotal roles in mentorship programs that promote the visibility of successful enterprises, thereby inspiring youth to explore entrepreneurship as a viable career option. 8.3. Theoretical contributions of the study This study enriched the theoretical discourse surrounding informal entrepreneurship by extending the application of the Theory of Planned Behavior in the Cameroonian context. By linking the role of entrepreneurship education, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control with youth engagement in the informal sector, the study provides a nuanced understanding of how these factors collectively influence entrepreneurial intentions. Furthermore, the findings provoke critical discussions about the intersectionality of gender within informal entrepreneurship, shedding light on the unique challenges faced by women and urging future research to explore targeted educational interventions that address these disparities. 8.4. Shortcomings of the study and avenues for exploration Despite the significant contributions of this research, certain limitations were acknowledged. The reliance on self-reported data may introduce biases that affect the generalizability of findings, and the study predominantly focused on urban settings, potentially overlooking rural dynamics within the informal sector. Future research could expand upon this study by adopting longitudinal designs to track changes in youth entrepreneurial intentions over time, exploring the impact of specific educational interventions on youth engagement, and conducting comparative analyses across different geographical and socio-economic contexts. 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J Educ Pract 11:42–53 Nayak S (2020) Managing Radical Change in Entrepreneurship Education: Adoption of Innovative and Effective Pedagogy used in Teaching Entrepreneurship. J Bus Hotel Manage 7:1 Ndedi A (2015) Rethinking Entrepreneurship Education and Training in Cameroon. Available at SSRN 2647998 Ndedi AA (2016) Entrepreneurship education in Cameroon matters: Reorganizing the teaching of the subject. Routledge Handbook of Entrepreneurship in Developing Economies. Routledge, pp 455–462 Ndouna FK, Nanfosso RT, Essimi B, J. A., Ambassa LF (2021) The informal sector facing COVID-19: The case of Cameroon. Sustainability 13(23):13269 Neck HM, Corbett AC (2018) The Scholarship of Teaching and Learning Entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship Educ Pedagogy 1:41–48 Neneh BN (2014) An Assessment of Entrepreneurial Intention among University Students in Cameroon. Mediterranean J social Sci 5:542–542 Niţu-Antonie RD, Feder ES (2017) Exploratory study on student’s entrepreneurial intentions in developed and emerging countries. Revista de Manage Comparat Int 18(1):31 Nkamta E (2017) Skills acquisition in Cameroon: How well does the secondary school curriculum equip school leavers for employment? Int J Humanit social Sci 9:7–24 Noworatzky J (2018) Experiential learning and its impact on students' entrepreneurial intention in two innovative high school programs (Doctoral dissertation, Northeastern University) Odeyemi O, Oyewole AT, Adeoye OB, Ofodile OC, Addy WA, Okoye CC, Ololade YJ (2024) Entrepreneurship in Africa: a review of growth and challenges. Int J Manage Entrepreneurship Res 6(3):608–622 Omri H, Omri A, Abbassi A (2024) Macro-level determinants of entrepreneurial behavior and motivation. Int Entrepreneurship Manage J, 1–39 Onwe OJ (2013) Role of the informal sector in development of the Nigerian economy: Output and employment approach. J Econ Dev Stud 1(1):60–74 Patgaonkar MS, Barhat GH (2012) Rural Women Entrepreneurs in the Informal Sector of India. IUP J Entrepreneurship Dev 9(1):69–79 Qingqing B, Collins JD, Ranabahu N (2021) Entrepreneurial dispositions, time horizons, and context: subtleties that shape entrepreneurial intentions. Small Enterp Res 28:153–169 Raoul EE, Zenabou T (2020) Informal Economy And Economic Growth In Cameroon. Int J Sci Res publications 10:518–525 Skubis I, Akahome JE, Wodarski K (2023) Exploring the Characteristics, Motivation, Challenges, and Support System of Female Social Entrepreneurs in Niger. Scientific Papers of Silesian University of Technology. Organization & Management/Zeszyty Naukowe Politechniki Slaskiej. Seria Organizacji i Zarzadzanie , (180) Sosale S, Majgaard K (2016) Fostering skills in Cameroon: inclusive workforce development, competitiveness, and growth. World Bank Sparks DL, Barnett ST (2010) The informal sector in Sub-Saharan Africa: out of the shadows to foster sustainable employment and equity? Int Bus Econ Res J (IBER), 9 (5) Tchinda FE, Abessolo YA (2022) Family capital and professional integration of young graduates in Cameroon. Global J Human-Social Sci 22(E3):1–18 Trafimow D, Sheeran P, Conner MT, Finlay KA (2002) Evidence that perceived behavioural control is a multidimensional construct: perceived control and perceived difficulty. The British journal of social psychology, 41 Pt 1 , 101 – 21 Turner S (2020) Economy, Informal. International Encyclopedia of Human Geography William FKA (2024a) Interpretivism or Constructivism: Navigating Research Paradigms in Social Science Research. Int J Res Publications, 143 (1) William FKA (2024b) Mastering Validity and Reliability in Academic Research: Meaning and Significance. Int J Res Publications 144(1):287–292 William FKA (2024c) My Data Are Ready, How Do I Analyze Them: Navigating Data Analysis in Social Science Research. Int J Sci Res Manage 12(3):1730–1741 Williams CC (2019) The informal economy. Agenda Publishing, London Zhang Y, Duysters G, Cloodt M (2014) The role of entrepreneurship education as a predictor of university students’ entrepreneurial intention. Int entrepreneurship Manage J 10:623–641 Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-5495522","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":380783937,"identity":"aedfa6d3-893f-4028-af8b-eff7fc646787","order_by":0,"name":"Arthur William Fodouop Kouam","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA0ElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACZubGAww2DIwNIM4HAxs7IrQwNhxgSINoYZxRkJZMhDVIWph5PhyCWIcPGBxnbDjMk2Aj2y+RfOyxjcEBZgb2w0c34NVyGKwlzXjmjLR04xyDO3wMPGlpN/BpMQNp4f1xOHHDjRwz6RyDZ8wMEjxmhLXwJEC1WIAsJU0LAzFa7IFqDs4B+aXnWbphj0FaMhshv0j2Hz744A0oxNiTjz348cfGjp/98DG8WkCAiQdCsyGRBADjD2Qto2AUjIJRMArQAQDzZk/ZBVo+7AAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0009-3030-1094","institution":"Sanya University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Arthur","middleName":"William Fodouop","lastName":"Kouam","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-11-21 07:15:44","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":false,"vertebrateSubjects":true,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false,"humanSubjectConsent":false,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":true},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5495522/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5495522/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":69887582,"identity":"fd8d1a37-fc4a-40b5-ab21-6b3d02d05938","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-26 09:56:11","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":18100,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eConceptual model\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5495522/v1/fa043ada8360e08be33458f1.png"},{"id":69886203,"identity":"9e947074-dc13-4b5d-8060-fc8abde6a1de","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-26 09:48:11","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":240718,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eVegetable merchants, locally called “buy and salam” (source: the author(s))\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5495522/v1/2026aa9b144eb89dfbb6b043.jpg"},{"id":69887583,"identity":"7a0b00fe-5112-4d95-8178-3b52d94e613c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-26 09:56:11","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":196360,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eChicken cleaner (source: the author(s))\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5495522/v1/be87f3f6ebb20c67aa6a03fb.jpg"},{"id":69886205,"identity":"008ebec6-2fb9-48b4-baae-4d4eae2908ef","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-26 09:48:11","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":252478,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMoto-taxi, locally called “Benskin” (source: the author(s))\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5495522/v1/bd331e1827a2063dce21caf5.jpg"},{"id":69886207,"identity":"136b6a06-d42a-4e7e-ac04-90f2be3c6886","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-26 09:48:11","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":213943,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eHairdresser (source: the author(s))\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5495522/v1/89c610d4c311fd5844240ca0.jpg"},{"id":69888286,"identity":"01ade689-ab06-4337-a08c-678b4e3e1933","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-26 10:04:12","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2107871,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5495522/v1/449630cc-2b81-481e-a905-30b4387bc41e.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eEmpowering Entrepreneurs in the Informal Sector: Strategies for Youth Engagement and Educational Reform\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn recent years, the informal sector has emerged as a crucial component of the economy in many African countries, including Cameroon. It plays a vital role in African economies, serving as a significant source of employment and entrepreneurship (Kang'ethe \u0026amp; Serima, 2014; Adams, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). It accounts for up to 90% of jobs in some low-income Sub-Saharan countries (Galdino et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Drivers of informality include unemployment, income disparity, excessive taxation, bureaucratic hurdles, and lack of social protection (Etim \u0026amp; Daramola, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Currently, a significant percentage of the workforce in Cameroon is engaged in informal employment, making it a vital source of income and livelihood for many households. The informal sector accounts for approximately 90% of jobs in the country (Raoul \u0026amp; Zenabou, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). However, despite its importance, the informal sector remains largely under-recognized and undervalued, particularly among the youth, who often perceive traditional academic pathways as the only route to success.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe prevalent academic focus on long-term studies, such as Bachelor\u0026rsquo;s, Master\u0026rsquo;s, and Doctorate degrees, has overshadowed the potential of informal entrepreneurship. Previous research highlights the complex relationship between formal education and entrepreneurship. While tertiary education increases formal entrepreneurship due to enhanced human capital and self-confidence, it negatively impacts informal entrepreneurship by raising awareness of potential repercussions (Jim\u0026eacute;nez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, many young people fail to acknowledge the opportunities presented by informal sector enterprises. The informal sector's potential is often overlooked in economic planning, leading to missed opportunities for leveraging youth-led initiatives (Ismail, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Malyadri \u0026amp; Sumana, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). This disconnect limits their prospects for economic independence and hampers overall economic growth in the country. This study addresses these challenges by highlighting successful business models within the informal sector and encouraging a shift in youth perspectives toward entrepreneurship. The justification for this research lies in its potential to foster economic empowerment among youth and reshape educational priorities that better align with the realities of the local job market.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile several studies have explored entrepreneurship in Africa (Ajide \u0026amp; Dada, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Odeyemi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Omri et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), they often focus predominantly on formal business sectors or provide a macroeconomic perspective without addressing the micro-level factors that drive informal sector success. Furthermore, existing literature overlooks the educational dimensions that could facilitate youth engagement in entrepreneurship. Many works (Biney, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Skubis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) do not sufficiently examine the motivations, aspirations, and barriers faced by young individuals in pursuing informal entrepreneurial activities. This study seeks to fill these gaps by providing a more nuanced understanding of the informal sector and its implications for youth education and career choices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe main research question guiding this study is: \u003cb\u003eHow can recognizing successful enterprises in the informal sector influence youth perspectives on entrepreneurship and reshape educational priorities?\u003c/b\u003e The following objectives have been identified to answer this question:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo identify and analyze successful entrepreneurial ventures within the informal sector, highlighting best practices and common success factors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo recommend strategies for reorienting youth toward entrepreneurial activities, emphasizing the potential of the informal economy over traditional long-term academic pursuits.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study is significant for various stakeholders, including youth, educators, policymakers, and entrepreneurs, as it explores the intersection of entrepreneurship, education, and economic empowerment in the informal sector. For youth, the research aims to inspire a shift in mindset by presenting successful informal businesses as viable career options, fostering their agency and innovation, and enhancing self-efficacy while reducing reliance on traditional jobs. Educators gain insights into the importance of integrating business training into curricula to cultivate a culture of entrepreneurship in academic settings, enabling students to develop skills aligned with local economic demands and improving employability. Policymakers benefit from findings that emphasize the informal sector's crucial role in economic development and job creation. This recognition allows them to devise strategies that support informal entrepreneurship, such as reducing bureaucratic obstacles, promoting access to funding, and establishing mentorship programs linking aspiring entrepreneurs with experienced business leaders. Ultimately, the study enhances the understanding of the socio-economic dynamics in the region, aligning immediate economic needs with long-term goals of fostering resilience, reducing poverty, and promoting sustainable overall economic growth in Cameroon and similar contexts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis paper is organized into several key sections. Following this introduction, the literature review presents a comprehensive overview of existing research on entrepreneurship in the informal sector and educational practices. The theoretical framework outlines the conceptual foundations guiding the research. Subsequently, the methodology section details the data collection techniques employed in the study. Findings and discussions present the analysis of the data collected, culminating in the conclusions drawn from the research. Finally, the paper offers recommendations for policymakers and future research directions, underscoring the importance of supporting informal sector entrepreneurship and reimagining educational strategies in Cameroon and similar contexts.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Conceptual basis","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis research focuses on youth entrepreneurship in the informal sector in Cameroon. It pivots around crucial concepts: Entrepreneurship education, attitudes toward entrepreneurship, entrepreneurial intentions, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and the role of the informal economy. Together, these elements elucidate the dynamics influencing entrepreneurial behavior among young individuals in this specific context.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1. Entrepreneurship education\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch on entrepreneurship education (EE) highlights its evolving definition and importance. EE is defined as developing the mindset, skills, and practices for starting new ventures with far-reaching outcomes (Neck \u0026amp; Corbett, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Entrepreneurship education encompasses a range of formal and informal pedagogical initiatives designed to equip individuals with the competencies, knowledge, and mindset necessary for entrepreneurial engagement. This may include structured academic courses, workshops, mentorship programs, and experiential learning opportunities. The field has seen increased attention, with studies exploring various themes, methodologies, and geographical contexts (Henry \u0026amp; Lewis, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Researchers have focused on EE development, often using the Theory of Planned Behavior and Social Learning Theory to examine its influence on entrepreneurial intentions and attitudes (Mohamed \u0026amp; Ali, 2021). Despite its popularity, there is still much to understand about EE's nature and transformative potential.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the Cameroonian context, where a significant portion of employment is derived from the informal economy, the role of entrepreneurship education is particularly vital (Ndedi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Ndedi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Mve, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Effective entrepreneurship education has been shown to significantly alter individuals\u0026rsquo; attitudes toward entrepreneurship, thereby fostering intentions to pursue it as a career path. As many young people may not have access to traditional vocational training, this educational effort can provide essential skills and knowledge that empower them to navigate the mechanics of informal entrepreneurship successfully.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2. Attitudes toward entrepreneurship\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAttitudes toward entrepreneurship encompass various dimensions, including personal characteristics, societal perceptions, and educational influences. Research indicates that factors such as locus of control, age, and participation in entrepreneurship programs can positively impact students' attitudes (Hatten \u0026amp; Ruhland, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e). University students' attitudes can be categorized into factors like intrinsic inclination, support-seeking, and self-doubt (Mgaya \u0026amp; Magembe, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). Community-level variables and individual characteristics, such as ethnicity and residency, also play a role in shaping entrepreneurial attitudes (Loveridge et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Among potential entrepreneurs, attitudes are influenced by entrepreneurial acceptability, intentions, and personal factors, with demographic variables like parental income and profession having some impact (Ali et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch indicates that positive attitudes toward entrepreneurship significantly increase the likelihood of forming entrepreneurial intentions (Zhang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Fayolle \u0026amp; Gailly, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). In Cameroon, societal perceptions of informal entrepreneurship can be heterogeneous. At the same time, some view it as a means of survival and innovation, while others may perceive it as unstable or lacking legitimacy compared to formal employment. This study investigates how entrepreneurship education can reshape attitudes towards informal entrepreneurship, encouraging youth to view it as a viable and respected career option.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3. Entrepreneurial intentions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eEntrepreneurial intentions are cognitive states that precede the decision to start a business, directing attention and action toward a business concept (Bird, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e; Krueger, 2009). They play a crucial role in shaping organizations at their inception and influencing subsequent outcomes (Bird, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e). Bird and Jelinek (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1989\u003c/span\u003e) propose a model of intentional action with five facets, including resource structuring and flexibility. Research on entrepreneurial intentions has evolved from focusing on behavior and individual traits to adopting formal models based on solid theory (Krueger, 2009). Recent studies differentiate between general and near-future intentions, examining the influence of personal dispositions and contextual factors (Qingqing et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Both personal and contextual factors directly affect entrepreneurial intentions, while their interaction significantly impacts near-future intentions (Qingqing et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). In other words, entrepreneurial intentions serve as a conscious recognition of the decision to engage in entrepreneurial activities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEntrepreneurial intentions are widely recognized as the best predictors of actual entrepreneurial behavior. Understanding what drives these intentions plays a crucial role in facilitating the transition from intention to action. This study explores how entrepreneurship education influences these intentions among youth involved in the informal sector.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4. Subjective norms\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubjective norms, a key component in behavioral prediction models, are defined as perceived social pressure weighted by motivation to comply with others' expectations (Etcheverry \u0026amp; Agnew, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Forward, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e). These norms significantly influence romantic relationship commitment and longevity (Etcheverry \u0026amp; Agnew, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). However, their role in behavioral intention models has been controversial, with mixed results across studies (Eckhardt et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Some research suggests that normative beliefs are stronger predictors of intention than perceived social pressure (Forward, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e). Individual differences, such as fear of negative evaluation, may moderate the effectiveness of subjective norms in predicting behavior. For instance, subjective norms were found to predict exercise intentions significantly only for individuals highly concerned with others' approval (Latimer \u0026amp; Martin Ginis, 2005).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn many cultural settings, including Cameroon, familial and societal influences significantly impact young people's career choices. For instance, societal pressures may lean towards pursuing formal employment due to its associated stability and respectability. This study analyzes how subjective norms interact with attitudes and perceived behavioral control, either supporting or inhibiting entrepreneurial intentions among youth.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5. Perceived behavioral control\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePerceived behavioral control (PBC) is a critical component of the Theory of Planned Behavior, influencing intentions and actions (Ajzen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). Research suggests that PBC is multidimensional, comprising perceived control and perceived difficulty (Trafimow et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). PBC can be conceptualized as a hierarchical construct with self-efficacy and controllability as lower-level components (Ajzen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). These components may reflect both internal and external factors, challenging the assumption of a strict internal-external dichotomy (Ajzen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Kiriakidis, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). PBC enhances the prediction of intentions beyond attitudes and subjective norms and can directly affect behavior, particularly in high-risk situations (Devellis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis concept is crucial in the entrepreneurial context, as many young individuals in Cameroon may feel constrained by a lack of resources, skills, or support systems necessary for starting and sustaining a business. Enhancing perceived behavioral control through entrepreneurship education\u0026mdash;by providing not only theoretical knowledge but also practical skills and networking opportunities\u0026mdash;can diminish feelings of inadequacy and uncertainty. The investigation of how increased perceived control translates into higher entrepreneurial intentions among youth is a prominent focus of this study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.6. The informal economy\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe informal economy encompasses economic activities occurring outside official regulation and observation (Turner, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Williams, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). It accounts for approximately 13% of national income in Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries and up to 75% of non-agricultural employment in developing nations (Williams, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The nature of the informal economy varies depending on factors such as state regulation, activity type, employment status, and work location (Turner, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Multiple interpretations and definitions exist, with divergent policy implications (Turner, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Recent approaches tend to be more heuristic, recognizing the context-dependent nature of informal activities (Turner, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Cameroon, the informal economy represents a substantial portion of economic activity and employment, making it a critical area of focus for youth engagement. While many young individuals are compelled to enter informal entrepreneurship due to the scarcity of formal job opportunities, these endeavors can also pave the way for innovation and economic growth.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe conceptual framework outlined in this section interlinks essential variables that influence youth entrepreneurship in Cameroon\u0026rsquo;s informal sector. By examining the interplay among entrepreneurship education, entrepreneurial intentions, attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control, this study aims to present a comprehensive analysis of the factors that promote or hinder entrepreneurial ventures among young individuals. Furthermore, this framework contributes to the existing academic discourse surrounding entrepreneurship in developing economies. It informs policymakers and educators about effective strategies for fostering entrepreneurship as a tool for economic empowerment. Ultimately, the study provides meaningful insights influencing educational practices, societal perceptions, and economic policies related to informal entrepreneurship in Cameroon.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe figure below displays our conceptual model.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Literature review and hypothesis construction","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1. The role of the informal sector in the economy\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumerous scholars emphasize the critical role of the informal sector in developing economies, substantially contributing to employment and Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (Cling et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Onwe, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Despite its significance, the informal sector often remains unrecognized in policy-making processes (Cling et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Characterized by low qualifications, precarious jobs, and fragmented production units (Cling et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), it exhibits considerable heterogeneity and serves as a refuge for workers (Cling et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Darbi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). In Cameroon, approximately 90% of the workforce is engaged in the informal economy (Raoul \u0026amp; Zenabou, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), which comprises distinct subgroups, including streetwalkers, street corner vendors, and store owners (Achua \u0026amp; Lussier, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). While this sector is often associated with low productivity and hampers economic growth potential (Raoul \u0026amp; Zenabou, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), it is vital for the livelihoods of many Cameroonians. The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated challenges within the informal sector, resulting in job losses that are more pronounced among men (Ndouna et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Nevertheless, the proportion of the informal sector in Cameroon's economy has risen over time (Bitchoga, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), raising challenges for policymakers who must balance support for informal workers with the imperative of encouraging formalization to promote economic growth and development (Achua \u0026amp; Lussier, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Raoul \u0026amp; Zenabou, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe informal sector provides employment opportunities but is marked by low wages, job insecurity, and a lack of social protection (Freije, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Bekoreire et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). It often arises in response to poverty, underemployment, and rapid urbanization in developing countries (Morris \u0026amp; Pitt, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e). Despite these obstacles, the sector is efficient in generating job opportunities and fulfilling basic needs at low costs (Morris \u0026amp; Pitt, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e). It encompasses diverse industries such as retail, services, manufacturing, and construction (Morris \u0026amp; Pitt, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e). However, informal workers, particularly women and those in agriculture, frequently lack access to formal social protection schemes, making them vulnerable to risks and poverty (Bekoreire et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Barrientos, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). This exclusion results from inadequate legal coverage, insufficient compliance mechanisms, and limited awareness of social protection (Miti et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Women are disproportionately represented in informal employment, especially in lower-paying and precarious jobs, which further heightens their vulnerability (Barrientos, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Entrepreneurs in this sector leverage local knowledge and networks to navigate challenges, leading to innovative business models tailored to local consumer needs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, the informal sector is pivotal for economic inclusion, particularly for women and rural populations in developing countries. However, female entrepreneurs face significant barriers, including limited access to finance, education, and infrastructure (Igwe et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Patgaonkar \u0026amp; Barhat, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Despite these challenges, many women establish successful businesses that bolster household incomes and contribute to the economy (Patgaonkar \u0026amp; Barhat, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Financial inclusion positively impacts women's entrepreneurship, yet this relationship is weaker in the informal sector (Fareed et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Although increased access to financial services may bolster entrepreneurship among informal firms, evidence regarding its effects on gender disparities in entrepreneurship remains inconclusive (Gang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Women are more inclined to become entrepreneurs in the informal sector than in the formal realm, underscoring the necessity for targeted support and policies to address gender-specific barriers (Fareed et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Igwe et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). This sector's dual nature is both challenging and empowering.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite its significance, the informal sector is often overlooked in policy discussions. Scholars advocate for greater recognition of its contributions and the need for supportive measures to facilitate growth (Sparks \u0026amp; Barnett, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Policies aimed at integrating informal enterprises into the formal economy could enhance their productivity and sustainability, ultimately driving economic growth (Lloyd-Jones \u0026amp; Redin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Improvements in creating an enabling environment, providing access to training and credit, bolstering infrastructure, and establishing uniform standards are necessary (Sparks \u0026amp; Barnett, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). By addressing these issues, cities can strengthen the urban economic continuum and foster inclusive growth (Lloyd-Jones \u0026amp; Redin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis body of literature highlights the importance of considering the informal sector as a legitimate sphere of economic activity, warranting attention and investment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2. Entrepreneurship education and its impact on youth engagement\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eEntrepreneurship education has gained momentum globally as a crucial tool for cultivating entrepreneurship among youth. In Cameroon, where economic conditions often hinder formal employment opportunities, entrepreneurship presents itself as a significant career option. This education empowers youth by equipping them with essential skills, knowledge, and confidence to navigate uncertain futures and create their businesses. Research indicates that entrepreneurship training enhances young people's competencies, increasing their employment prospects and income potential (Kulmie et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). It fosters an entrepreneurial mindset, innovation, and growth, enabling youth to address social and economic challenges (Kulmie et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Studies reveal that skill acquisition, innovation, and opportunity recognition play vital roles in youth empowerment (Mbah \u0026amp; Okeke, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Effective entrepreneurship education nurtures resilience, independence, and the ability to identify opportunities, preparing youth for productive lives in a post-COVID-19 landscape (Hardie et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, research indicates that traditional education in Cameroon often fails to impart practical entrepreneurial skills, emphasizing theoretical knowledge (Ndedi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Nkamta, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). This approach inadequately prepares students for both the job market and entrepreneurial ventures (Achuo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Neneh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). The mismatch between educational attainment and job opportunities is primarily attributed to the management and curriculum of the educational sector (Achuo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Nkamta, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Despite government efforts to reform education, progress has been limited (Nkamta, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Although university students exhibit high entrepreneurial intentions, they encounter significant obstacles, such as lack of funding, limited business skills, and corruption (Neneh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, many young people view entrepreneurship as risky, prompting them to seek employment in traditional sectors with perceived job security, even when such opportunities are scarce.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecent studies emphasize the role of experiential learning in entrepreneurship education. Methods such as authentic, real-world projects and hands-on activities have been shown to enhance students' entrepreneurial intentions, skills, and competencies (Noworatzky, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Motta \u0026amp; Galina, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). These experiential approaches allow students to practice vital entrepreneurial skills, including project management, leadership, and problem-solving, in environments where failure is part of the learning process (Noworatzky, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Such opportunities contribute to developing an entrepreneurial ecosystem and instill confidence in students that surpasses that of their peers educated through traditional methods (Noworatzky, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Moylan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe government has introduced entrepreneurship programs to promote skills acquisition and self-reliance among youth (Neneh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Strategies in the education sector aim to develop skills and promote entrepreneurship from primary through higher education (Demboh \u0026amp; Susanti, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). However, persistent challenges include limited funding, lack of business skills, and high taxes (Neneh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). The education system struggles to produce graduates with employable skills, prompting demands for curriculum reform (Nkamta, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Efforts to create a national strategy for skills development are focused on both informal and formal labor markets (Sosale \u0026amp; Majgaard, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Despite these initiatives, many policies have failed to meet their objectives in a timely manner, leaving Cameroonians heavily reliant on government employment (Demboh \u0026amp; Susanti, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Stakeholders stress the need for a curriculum that integrates employability skills at the secondary school level (Nkamta, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Educational reform initiatives must address these shortcomings and highlight the informal sector as a legitimate avenue for economic advancement to cultivate a culture of entrepreneurship among youth.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBy addressing the gaps in entrepreneurship education and encouraging awareness of the informal sector, the literature emphasizes the potential for empowering youth in Cameroon to engage in entrepreneurial activities, thereby contributing to economic development and self-sufficiency.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eExisting studies on entrepreneurship in Cameroon often focus primarily on formal sectors, overlooking the richness of the informal economy where a significant proportion of the workforce is engaged. Many examinations center on macroeconomic trends without delving into the micro-level factors motivating youth engagement in entrepreneurship. Furthermore, the educational aspects that could encourage young individuals to view informal entrepreneurship as a viable career path are frequently neglected. There is also a lack of empirical evidence showcasing successful business models within this sector.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe current study addresses these limitations by comprehensively analyzing successful informal enterprises and exploring the intersection of entrepreneurship education and youth perspectives. This research aims to empower youth, promote economic inclusion, and reshape perceptions regarding entrepreneurial opportunities in Cameroon while advocating for necessary educational reforms, ultimately contributing to sustainable economic growth.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe propose the following hypotheses to explore the influence of recognizing successful enterprises in the informal sector on youth perspectives regarding entrepreneurship and the necessary shifts in educational priorities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eH1: There is a positive correlation between recognition of successful informal sector enterprises and youth interest in pursuing entrepreneurship as a career path.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eH2: Successful entrepreneurial ventures in the informal sector exhibit common success factors that significantly influence youth perceptions of entrepreneurship.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eH3: Strategies that emphasize the advantages of the informal economy positively impact youth attitudes toward entrepreneurial activities compared to traditional academic paths.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eH4: Integrating case studies of successful informal enterprises into educational curricula enhances students' entrepreneurial will and reduces their perception of entrepreneurship as a risky endeavor.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eH5: The articulation of successful informal entrepreneurship in educational settings contributes to a shift in educational priorities among youth, favoring practical entrepreneurship skills over strict academic achievements.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Theoretical framework: Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), developed by Ajzen (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e), serves as a foundational framework for understanding individual behavior in various contexts, particularly in entrepreneurship. The TPB posits that an individual's intention to engage in a behavior, in this case, starting a business, is influenced by three primary components: Attitude towards the behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. This theory underscores the significance of personal beliefs, social influences, and perceived capabilities in shaping entrepreneurial intentions and actions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral studies have successfully applied the TPB) to investigate entrepreneurial intentions among youth. Research conducted in Saudi Arabia (Ali, 2016), emerging and developed countries (Niţu-Antonie \u0026amp; Feder, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), South Africa (Gird \u0026amp; Bagraim, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e), and Saudi Arabia again (Al-Mamary \u0026amp; Alraja, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) consistently found that the TPB is a valuable tool for predicting entrepreneurial intentions among university students. These studies revealed that attitude towards entrepreneurship, perceived behavioral control, and subjective norms are positively associated with entrepreneurial intentions (Ali, 2016; Niţu-Antonie \u0026amp; Feder, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). The TPB model explained a significant portion of the variance in students' entrepreneurial intentions, ranging from 27\u0026ndash;100% across different contexts (Gird \u0026amp; Bagraim, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Al-Mamary \u0026amp; Alraja, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, prior exposure to entrepreneurship was found to enhance the predictive power of the TPB model (Gird \u0026amp; Bagraim, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the context of Cameroon, previous research has indicated that despite high levels of entrepreneurial interest among youth, barriers such as lack of access to capital, limited education, and socio-cultural perceptions inhibit entrepreneurial action (Neneh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Maurice \u0026amp; Pelagie, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Studies incorporating TPB have highlighted the importance of addressing these barriers and reshaping attitudes toward entrepreneurship, contributing to a deeper understanding of the entrepreneurial ecosystem in developing nations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe TPB is particularly suited for this study as it encompasses both individual-level factors and external influences that affect entrepreneurial intentions among youth in Cameroon. Given that socio-cultural norms and familial expectations influence many young individuals in the country (Tchinda \u0026amp; Abessolo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Lontsi \u0026amp; Nzongang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), utilizing TPB allows for a nuanced exploration of how these dynamics shape their perceptions of informal entrepreneurship. Additionally, by integrating factors such as educational experiences and mentorship, the TPB framework can help identify critical areas for intervention, thereby enhancing the feasibility of entrepreneurial intentions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, this study investigates how entrepreneurship education can modify attitudes and perceived behavioral control, fostering a supportive environment for youth to engage in informal entrepreneurship. By focusing on these elements, the TPB provides a solid theoretical foundation. It enables a comprehensive analysis of the complex interplay between knowledge acquisition, environmental influences, and decision-making processes among young entrepreneurs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study extends the application of the Theory of Planned Behavior within the context of informal entrepreneurship in Cameroon, filling a gap in the existing literature. By integrating the role of entrepreneurship education, the research contributes to a deeper understanding of how educational interventions can change attitudes and perceived barriers, leading to increased entrepreneurial intentions among youth. This aligns with the growing body of literature advocating for the inclusion of pedagogical strategies that elevate entrepreneurship as a viable career option, especially in developing economies (Moses et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Nayak, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, the findings from this study may reinforce the applicability of TPB across diverse cultural contexts, offering insights into how local factors can shape entrepreneurial intentions. As such, it could pave the way for future research to employ or adapt TPB in related studies exploring youth entrepreneurship in various settings.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Methodology and empirical model","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study employs a mixed-methods approach (William, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024c\u003c/span\u003e) to comprehensively explore the role of the informal sector in promoting youth entrepreneurship in Cameroon. The methodology combines qualitative and quantitative research techniques to gather rich data to understand youth engagement in informal entrepreneurship.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study adopts a constructivist research paradigm (William, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024a\u003c/span\u003e), which emphasizes that knowledge is constructed through subjective experiences and social interactions. This approach is particularly relevant for exploring the perspectives of youth and informal entrepreneurs within Cameroon\u0026rsquo;s informal economy. The constructivist lens acknowledges the diverse and complex lived experiences of participants, reflecting their varying socio-economic backgrounds and cultural contexts. By recognizing that individuals shape their understanding of entrepreneurship through personal narratives, this approach allows for a deeper examination of how their experiences influence their views on the informal sector.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, the mixed-methods strategy enhances our understanding of these subjective experiences. Qualitative interviews provide in-depth insights into individual motivations, success factors, and challenges faced by entrepreneurs, while quantitative surveys yield broader statistical data on youth attitudes and perceptions. This combination contributes to a holistic understanding of the constructivist principles at play within the informal sector.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, embracing a constructivist perspective aids in reevaluating educational priorities based on the informal sector's role in fostering entrepreneurship. By comprehending how youth define and perceive entrepreneurship, we can develop strategies that resonate with their experiences, encouraging more significant involvement in the informal economy.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.1. Overview of the businesses involved in the study\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eField figures were gathered from each business surveyed, offering a visual representation of the various informal enterprises to clarify the business activities included in this study. The following descriptions, coupled with Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, provide insight into each type of business involved.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.1.1. Vegetable Merchants (\"Buy and Salam\")\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis term refers to individuals who sell vegetables, often sourced from local farmers. These merchants typically operate in informal markets or roadside stalls. They play a vital role in providing fresh produce to communities, and their business practices may involve negotiating prices, managing inventory, and catering to the daily needs of local consumers. The term \"buy and salam\" translates to \"buy and sell,\" highlighting the straightforward nature of their trading operations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.1.2. Chicken cleaners\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis refers to entrepreneurs who specialize in cleaning and preparing chickens for sale, particularly in markets where poultry is a popular food choice. Chicken cleaners often work closely with local poultry suppliers and households, providing a critical service by preparing chickens for consumption. Their work may include plucking feathers and gutting, and they often operate at marketplaces where customers purchase live chickens or ready-to-cook poultry.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.1.3. Moto-Taxi (\"Benskin\")\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoto-taxi services involve motorcycle taxis that offer convenient transportation for short distances within urban areas. Known locally as \"Benskin,\" these operators provide an affordable and accessible means of transport, particularly in congested cities. Moto-taxi drivers typically provide their own motorcycles and navigate busy streets, often building a loyal customer base due to their personalized service and efficiency.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.1.4. Hairdressers\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eHairdressing is a prominent informal business involving the styling and grooming of hair for clients. Hairdressers may operate from home, in small salons, or market stalls. This profession is prevalent among women and often serves as a pivotal social hub for communities, where clients engage in discussion while receiving services. Hairdressers can vary from those offering basic haircuts to those who provide intricate styling, braiding, or other specialized services.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese business types highlight the diversity of the informal sector in Cameroon, emphasizing the creativity and resilience of entrepreneurs who operate within this space.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.2. Data collection\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eData were collected over three months, from July to September 2024, focusing on three major cities: Bafoussam, Douala, and Yaound\u0026eacute;. The research utilized multiple data collection methods to ensure a well-rounded perspective on youth engagement in the informal sector.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.2.1. Interviews\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSemi-structured interviews were conducted with 30 successful entrepreneurs operating in various sectors of the informal economy, including commerce, hairdressing, transport (moto-taxi services), and small businesses. These interviews aimed to glean insights into their business models, success factors, challenges, and motivations for engaging in informal entrepreneurship. The semi-structured format allowed for flexibility in discussions while ensuring that crucial themes were systematically explored.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.2.2. Surveys\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA structured questionnaire was distributed to 300 youth aged 18\u0026ndash;35. This survey targeted respondents' awareness of the informal sector, attitudes toward entrepreneurship, and perceived barriers to starting their businesses. The questionnaire included Likert-scale questions to quantify responses (e.g., strongly agree to strongly disagree) and open-ended questions that encouraged participants to elaborate on their thoughts and experiences, thus allowing for the collection of qualitative insights alongside quantitative data.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.2.3. Observational research\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOnsite observations were conducted in various informal markets and business settings. Researchers recorded interactions, business practices, and the immediate environment in which informal entrepreneurs operate. This observational research provided context to other data collection methods and helped to identify non-verbal cues and practices that may not have been captured through interviews or surveys.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.3. Sampling technique and data analysis plan\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA purposive sampling technique was utilized to select participants who had direct experience with or knowledge of informal entrepreneurship. Youth survey respondents were approached in community centers, educational institutions, and informal marketplaces to ensure a diversity of perspectives.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe data analysis employed both qualitative and quantitative techniques to derive meaningful insights from the collected data.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.3.1. Qualitative analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eInterviews were transcribed and thematically analyzed using NVivo software. Thematic coding was applied to identify key themes and patterns related to entrepreneurial success factors, challenges faced by informal entrepreneurs, and motivational elements driving youth engagement in entrepreneurship. This qualitative analysis illuminated the nuanced perspectives of entrepreneurs regarding their experiences in the informal sector, highlighting intricate relationships and realities that quantitative data alone might overlook.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.3.2. Quantitative analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSurvey responses were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) to derive descriptive statistics and correlations. This involved calculating frequency distributions, means, and standard deviations for Likert-scale responses, which quantified youth attitudes toward entrepreneurship. Regression analysis was also employed to identify relationships between youth awareness of successful informal enterprises and their intentions to start their businesses. Integration of qualitative and quantitative findings aimed to provide a holistic understanding of youth engagement in the informal sector, drawing connections between statistical trends and personal experiences.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"6. Findings","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec27\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.1. Results from qualitative analysis: Interviews\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFindings from thematic coding revealed three key themes that emerged from the interviews with informal entrepreneurs in Cameroon: Entrepreneurial success factors, challenges faced by informal entrepreneurs, and motivational elements driving youth engagement in entrepreneurship. These themes encapsulate the nuanced experiences and perspectives of the respondents, providing deeper insights beyond what quantitative data could reveal.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec28\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.1.1. Entrepreneurial success factors\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the interviews, respondents emphasized the significance of adaptability and resourcefulness as crucial success factors in the informal sector. Entrepreneurs shared personal narratives that highlighted how they overcame barriers to entrepreneurship, particularly those that disproportionately impact women. One female entrepreneur noted, \"Starting my business was a financial necessity after I left school, but it has empowered me to support my family and build a better future.\" Her experience illustrates how informal entrepreneurship offers a pathway for women to achieve independence and assert control over their economic circumstances.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, female entrepreneurs often demonstrated exceptional creativity in leveraging local networks and resources. One entrepreneur mentioned, \u0026ldquo;Through community support and shared knowledge among women in my neighborhood, we help each other grow our businesses.\u0026rdquo; This sense of solidarity reflects the unique social dynamics that female entrepreneurs navigate, countering some of the systemic challenges they face. The potential for earnings in the informal sector, compared to traditional employment\u0026mdash;which may offer significantly lower wages\u0026mdash;was a common theme among both male and female respondents. An entrepreneur reflected on the financial benefits of informal work: \"After starting a business, I decided to stop applying for jobs... I earn an average of \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e15 a day, which is much higher than the minimum wage of about \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e3 a day.\" This suggests that the potential for earnings often outweighs traditional employment prospects, fostering a sense of independence among entrepreneurs. Yet, the intersectional barriers, such as societal expectations and limited access to capital explicitly faced by women, magnified the importance of support systems and educational opportunities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec29\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.1.2. Challenges faced by informal entrepreneurs\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite their successes, the interviews highlighted significant challenges that informal entrepreneurs encounter, with a particular focus on the barriers experienced by women. A recurring issue was the lack of financing and infrastructure. Female entrepreneurs specifically mentioned that when seeking support, they often faced skepticism from financial institutions and investors. One participant shared, \u0026ldquo;It\u0026rsquo;s hard to get funding when they see you as just a woman running a small business. The system is set up in a way that favors already established male entrepreneurs.\u0026rdquo; This underscores the unique obstacles that limit women\u0026rsquo;s engagement in entrepreneurship, reinforcing the need for targeted support mechanisms and resources aimed at bridging this gap.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocietal perceptions and stigma surrounding informal work emerged as additional hurdles. One female entrepreneur expressed, \u0026ldquo;People often judge us for our work, thinking we're not serious or capable, especially as women.\u0026rdquo; Such attitudes can discourage women from pursuing opportunities in the informal sector, suggesting an imperative for policymakers to design awareness campaigns that promote the legitimacy and value of informal enterprises. The challenges faced by female entrepreneurs underscore the necessity of comprehensive support frameworks to allow women in the informal sector to thrive. One male entrepreneur shared, \u0026ldquo;As a 'benskin' motorcycle taxi driver, I am judged by society as a delinquent,\u0026rdquo; reflecting the stigma that accompanies informal employment. Recognizing these gender-specific barriers adds depth to the ongoing discourse on entrepreneurship in Cameroon and highlights the call for educational reforms that prioritize practical entrepreneurship skills, which remain critically underserved in the current educational framework.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec30\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.1.3. Motivational elements driving youth engagement in entrepreneurship\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMotivation to engage in entrepreneurship often stemmed from both necessity and aspiration for independence. One respondent articulated a common sentiment among the youth, stating, \u0026ldquo;Finding a job is not always easy... I think that the state must conduct awareness campaigns to divert the gaze of many young people towards the informal sector.\u0026rdquo; This highlights a recognition of the informal sector as a viable alternative, especially in a challenging job market.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, the lack of entrepreneurial education was a recurring theme. One participant lamented, \u0026ldquo;We should integrate entrepreneurship courses into our curriculum since kindergarten.\u0026rdquo; This yearning for education reflects a widespread belief that early exposure to entrepreneurial concepts could empower future generations to pursue informal opportunities more effectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec31\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.2. Results from qualitative analysis: Observational research\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe observational research conducted alongside qualitative interviews provided critical insights into the daily realities and interactions of informal entrepreneurs in Cameroon. By situating observations within various community spaces and market environments where these entrepreneurs operate, we gained an enriched understanding of the context in which they navigate their business activities, face challenges, and build networks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec32\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.2.1. Entrepreneurial activities and interactions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eObservations revealed that informal entrepreneurs are highly adaptive and resourceful in their business practices. For instance, vendors in local markets often adjust their strategies based on customer preferences and market dynamics. During one observation at a fruit market, a vendor was seen rearranging her stall to highlight seasonal fruits, effectively attracting more customers. This practice illustrates the dynamic nature of entrepreneurship in the informal sector, where quick decision-making is essential for maximizing sales opportunities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, interpersonal interactions among entrepreneurs were also noteworthy. Many displayed camaraderie, often helping one another with logistical challenges. For example, a group of vendors collaborated to share supplies and transport goods, which facilitated smoother operating conditions. Observational notes highlighted a dialogue between vendors: \u0026ldquo;I\u0026rsquo;ll help you carry your goods today if you lend me some space at your stall later.\u0026rdquo; Such collaborations not only enhance individual entrepreneurial efforts but also foster a supportive community network.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec33\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.2.2. Challenges of the informal sector\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eChallenges faced by informal entrepreneurs, as discussed in the qualitative interviews, were also vividly illustrated through observational data. Sites of observation unveiled inadequacies in infrastructure that exacerbate the difficulties of informal work. For example, many market areas were overcrowded and lacked proper sanitation facilities. During one observation, a vendor selling fresh meat faced significant difficulties in keeping his station clean due to limited access to water and waste disposal systems, which posed health risks not just to his operation but also to the customers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, the pressures of external regulatory scrutiny were evident. Observations captured moments when local authorities conducted checks on the market, leading to heightened anxiety among entrepreneurs. Upon seeing the inspectors, one vendor was observed hastily covering her products and rearranging her stall to comply with regulations. This behavior underscores the continual stress associated with operating in an informal environment, where entrepreneurs must navigate not only the demands of their trade but also external perceptions and regulations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec34\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.2.3. Motivations and community dynamics\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eObservations also revealed powerful motivational elements driving youth engagement in entrepreneurship, corroborating findings from interviews. Young entrepreneurs often expressed a desire for financial independence and used support networks to build their businesses. For instance, during a casual gathering of motorcycle taxi drivers, it was apparent that experienced drivers were mentoring newcomers, discussing strategies for improving their customer service and navigating challenging routes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe bonds formed among these entrepreneurs were reflected in their collaborative spirit. One instance noted was when a group of drivers worked together to manage passenger flow during peak hours, indicating a collective effort to enhance profit-sharing opportunities and alleviate individual stress. Such community interactions highlight the informal sector's potential as a breeding ground for innovation and mutual support, proving instrumental in sustaining entrepreneurial efforts despite systemic challenges.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe observational research findings reinforce the themes identified in qualitative interviews, elucidating the realities that informal entrepreneurs face day-to-day. By combining the richness of these observations with interview insights, the overall findings present a comprehensive picture of the entrepreneurial landscape\u0026mdash;characterized by resilience, community support, and significant challenges\u0026mdash;but also a clear pathway to potential growth and development for those engaged in the informal sector.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec35\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.3. Results from quantitative analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec36\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.3.1. Descriptive Statistics\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics were calculated for several vital variables derived from the survey responses, focusing on attitudes toward entrepreneurship, awareness of successful informal enterprises, and intentions to start a business. The results are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics for youth attitudes and intentions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStandard Deviation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAttitude towards Entrepreneurship\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAwareness of Successful Informal Enterprises\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntentions to Start a Business\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStandard Deviation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean scores indicate a generally positive view of entrepreneurship among youth, with most respondents expressing both a favorable attitude and a solid intention to start their businesses.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec37\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.3.2. Correlations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCorrelation analysis examined the relationships among awareness of successful informal enterprises, attitudes towards entrepreneurship, and intentions to start a business. The correlations are summarized in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCorrelation analysis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Awareness of Successful Informal Enterprises\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.62**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.55**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. Attitude Toward Entrepreneurship\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.62**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.67**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. Intentions to Start a Business\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.55**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.67**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003e*Notes: *p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe analysis shows significant positive correlations, indicating that greater awareness of successful informal enterprises correlates with more favorable attitudes and higher intentions to start a business.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec38\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.3.3. Regression Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA multiple regression analysis was conducted to explore the predictors of intentions to start a business further. The regression equation predicting intentions to start a business (Y) based on awareness of successful informal enterprises (X\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e) and attitude toward entrepreneurship (X\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e) is given by:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eY\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;β\u003c/b\u003e \u003csub\u003e \u003cb\u003e0\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u003cb\u003e+\u0026thinsp;β\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003eX\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u003cb\u003e+\u0026thinsp;β\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003eX\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u003cb\u003e+\u0026thinsp;ε\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegression analysis results\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoefficient (β)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStandard Error\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003et-Value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConstant\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAwareness of Successful Informal Enterprises\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAttitude Toward Entrepreneurship\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel Summary\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u0026sup2; = 0.542, indicating that 54.2% of the variance in intentions to start a business can be attributed to the model.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoth predictors\u0026mdash;awareness of successful informal enterprises and positive attitudes towards entrepreneurship\u0026mdash;were statistically significant, suggesting their strong influence on entrepreneurial intentions among youth.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec39\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.3.4. Testing hypotheses based on findings\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe following hypotheses were evaluated based on quantitative data and supported by qualitative insights drawn from interviews and observations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eHypothesis 1\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eThere is a positive correlation between recognition of successful informal sector enterprises and youth interest in pursuing entrepreneurship as a career path.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eSupport\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe quantitative data demonstrates a significant correlation (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.62, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01) between awareness of successful informal enterprises and interest in entrepreneurship. Qualitative findings reveal that interview participants frequently cited successful entrepreneurs as role models, expressing a desire to replicate their achievements. For instance, one entrepreneur reflected, \"Seeing others succeed encourages me; I want to be my boss just like them.\"\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eHypothesis 2\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eSuccessful entrepreneurial ventures in the informal sector exhibit common success factors that significantly influence youth perceptions of entrepreneurship.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003ePartial Support\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile the quantitative analysis revealed significant correlations, the identification of specific common success factors was more pronounced in qualitative findings. Themes such as community support and low entry barriers emerged from interviews, illustrating how these aspects shape positive perceptions about pursuing informal entrepreneurship. Future research could quantitatively assess these factors to validate this hypothesis fully.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eHypothesis 3\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eStrategies that emphasize the advantages of the informal economy positively impact youth attitudes toward entrepreneurial activities compared to traditional academic paths.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eSupport\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eResponses demonstrated general agreement on the perceived advantages of informal entrepreneurship. Many youths expressed that the informal economy offers greater flexibility and accessibility than traditional career paths, supporting this hypothesis. Qualitative insights revealed that participants felt traditional educational paths often overlooked practical skills essential for real-world entrepreneurship.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eHypothesis 4\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eIntegrating case studies of successful informal enterprises into educational curricula enhances students' entrepreneurial will and reduces their perception of entrepreneurship as a risky endeavor.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eMixed Support\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough respondents were interested in learning from real-life entrepreneurial case studies, the quantitative data did not capture a direct measure of risk perception. However, qualitative data showed that many youths felt that learning about successful businesses demystified the risks associated with entrepreneurship. Comments included sentiments such as, \"When I hear stories of success, it doesn't seem so daunting anymore.\"\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eHypothesis 5\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eThe articulation of successful informal entrepreneurship in educational settings contributes to a shift in educational priorities among youth, favoring practical entrepreneurship skills over strict academic achievements.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eSupport\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings indicate that many participants expressed a preference for acquiring practical entrepreneurship skills over traditional academic achievements. Qualitative interviews confirmed that graduates of informal economy classes felt more equipped for entrepreneurial success than their academically focused peers. One respondent stated, \u0026ldquo;What I've learned from the market is more valuable than exams; we need skills to survive.\"\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe quantitative analysis, anchored in robust statistical findings, complements the qualitative insights acquired from interviews and observational studies. Together, they provide a comprehensive understanding of the dynamics influencing youth engagement in the informal sector. The solid correlations and predictive relationships identified in this analysis underscore the critical factors that drive entrepreneurial intentions, emphasizing the significance of awareness and attitudes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec40\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.4. Integration of the findings\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings from this study provide a multifaceted understanding of the informal entrepreneurial landscape in Cameroon, integrating insights from qualitative interviews, observational research, and quantitative data. Through the triangulation of these research methods, several coherent themes and dynamics emerge that collectively illuminate the factors influencing youth engagement in entrepreneurship within this sector.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec41\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.4.1. Synergy between qualitative and quantitative insights\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe qualitative findings reveal deeply entrenched perceptions of successful informal entrepreneurs as adaptive and resourceful, highlighting key success factors such as resilience and financial independence. This aligns with the quantitative data that illustrates a generally positive attitude among youth toward entrepreneurship (Mean\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.23) and a solid intention to pursue entrepreneurial ventures (Mean\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.01). Such concordance between qualitative themes of adaptability and the quantitative measurement of positive attitudes underscores the notion that exposure to successful role models within the informal sector plays a pivotal role in fostering youthful aspirations to start businesses.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, both qualitative and quantitative analyses spotlight the significant correlation (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.62, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01) between awareness of successful informal enterprises and increased interest in entrepreneurship. This empirical relationship is echoed in interview responses, where participants expressed that observing successful peers not only serves as motivation but also acts as a catalyst for cultivating entrepreneurial aspirations. Thus, the qualitative data enriches and contextualizes the statistical correlations, presenting a nuanced portrayal of how familial and community narratives shape youth perspectives.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec42\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.4.2. Challenges as common threads\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings also expose a duality in the entrepreneur's journey\u0026mdash;while the qualitative insights highlight motivational elements driving engagement in entrepreneurship, they concurrently underscore significant barriers that impede success. Entrepreneurs reported challenges related to financing, infrastructure, and societal stigma associated with informal work. These obstacles were further illustrated through observational research, which provided tangible evidence of inadequate market conditions and regulatory pressures that heighten the stress of informal operations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis dual perspective reveals how systemic barriers can undermine the promising opportunities identified earlier. For instance, the positive qualitative sentiments surrounding financial independence are tempered by a reality fraught with infrastructural inadequacies and societal judgment. The acknowledgment of these challenges is vital for understanding the holistic landscape of entrepreneurship, suggesting that while the potential for success exists, it is often overshadowed by deeply ingrained socio-economic hurdles.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec43\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.4.3. Motivational dynamics of youth engagement\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMotivational factors, drawn from both qualitative and observational findings, indicate that many young entrepreneurs navigate their journey out of necessity, driven by a lack of formal job opportunities and a desire for autonomy. This inclination towards entrepreneurship is not merely seen as a last resort but rather as a legitimate alternative to traditional employment, a sentiment echoed by participants who called for more excellent awareness campaigns promoting the viability of the informal sector. The blended insights amplify the need for educational systems to incorporate entrepreneurial education as early as possible, reflecting the sentiment of youth who advocate for integrating entrepreneurship concepts into curricula from a young age.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe observation of mentoring relationships among informal workers, particularly among motorcycle taxi drivers, further validates the qualitative theme of community support as a significant motivator. The collaborative behaviors observed among youth entrepreneurs reinforce the importance of social networks in facilitating both business growth and psychological resilience amidst challenges. This supportive community dynamic, coupled with positive attitudes towards entrepreneurship, indicates a fertile ground for potential growth in the informal sector, provided the systemic barriers can be addressed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec44\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.4.4. Implications for policy and practice\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eUltimately, the integration of findings conveys critical implications for policymakers and educational institutions. The data suggests that enhancing knowledge about successful informal entrepreneurship and providing access to resources such as financing and educational support can cultivate the entrepreneurial landscape for youth. Additionally, dispelling societal stigmas associated with informal work through awareness campaigns could further legitimize these paths for young aspiring entrepreneurs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, the integrated findings from this study offer a comprehensive lens through which to view the complexities of entrepreneurship in the informal sector in Cameroon. The interplay between motivational factors, challenges, and community dynamics reveals pathways for practical interventions aimed at empowering youth to harness their entrepreneurial potential.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec45\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.5. Robustness tests\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eRobustness tests are essential in research as they evaluate the stability and reliability (William, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024b\u003c/span\u003e) of the findings across different methodologies or analytical approaches. In the context of this study, conducting robustness tests serves to verify the consistency of the results obtained from both qualitative and quantitative analyses of youth engagement in the informal entrepreneurship sector in Cameroon. This section outlines the robustness tests implemented, including sensitivity analysis and checks for multicollinearity, as well as alternative model specifications.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec46\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.5.1. Sensitivity analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo ensure that the results of the regression analysis are not overly sensitive to specific observations, we conducted a sensitivity analysis. This analysis involved removing potential outliers or influential data points from the dataset and re-running the regression model. Outliers were identified using Cook's distance measure, which quantifies the influence of each data point on the overall regression results.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSensitivity analysis results\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel Specification\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoefficient (β)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStandard Error\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003et-Value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOriginal Model\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.542\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWithout Outliers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.530\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTruncated Sample (Top 10%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.565\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe sensitivity analysis indicates that while the coefficient for awareness of successful informal enterprises remains statistically significant after the removal of outliers, slight variations occur in the effect size and model fit. This reinforces the reliability of the original findings while showcasing that the impact remains stable across different specifications.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec47\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.5.2. Multicollinearity checks\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eGiven that multicollinearity can distort the otherwise sound interpretations of regression coefficients, a variance inflation factor (VIF) test was conducted to assess the presence of multicollinearity among the independent variables\u0026mdash;awareness of successful informal enterprises and attitude toward entrepreneurship.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMulticollinearity diagnostics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariance Inflation Factor (VIF)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAwareness of Successful Informal Enterprises\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAttitude Toward Entrepreneurship\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe VIF values for both variables are well below the common threshold of 5, indicating that multicollinearity is not a concern in this study. This reinforces the validity of our regression analysis, confirms the independent contributions of each predictor, and supports the robustness of our findings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec48\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.5.3. Alternative model specifications\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, alternative specifications were tested to further evaluate the robustness of the initial model. Multiple regression models were run, including interaction terms and nonlinear transformations of critical variables, to investigate if different modeling approaches yield consistent results.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlternative model specifications\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoefficient (β for Awareness)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoefficient (β for Attitude)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOriginal Model\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.542\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel with Interaction Term\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.550\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel with Quadratic Term\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.560\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese alternative regression specifications demonstrate consistent relationships between the predictors and the dependent variable, reaffirming that both awareness of successful informal enterprises and positive attitudes toward entrepreneurship significantly influence youth intentions to start a business.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe robustness tests conducted affirm the stability and validity of the original findings from the study. The sensitivity analysis revealed that the core relationships remain intact even when accounting for outliers; multicollinearity assessments confirmed the independence of the predictors, and alternative model specifications further validated the conclusions regarding the influential factors driving entrepreneurial intentions among youth. As such, the findings are deemed reliable and consistent across various analytical approaches, thereby enhancing the credibility of the insights drawn from this research into youth entrepreneurship in the informal economy of Cameroon.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"7. Discussions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe following discussion synthesizes the findings of this study within the framework of existing literature, highlighting how the results align with or deviate from prior research. Furthermore, it underscores the contributions of this work to the understanding of informal entrepreneurship in Cameroon and its implications for policy and educational reform.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec50\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e7.1. Building on prior research findings\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study corroborates existing literature that emphasizes the importance of the informal sector in providing employment and economic opportunities, particularly in developing economies like Cameroon. Prior research has consistently highlighted how the informal sector constitutes a substantial portion of the workforce, with figures suggesting that around 90% of Cameroonians engage in informal employment (Raoul \u0026amp; Zenabou, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). This study\u0026rsquo;s findings that demonstrate a strong interest among youth in entrepreneurship echo the work of scholars like Cling et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) and Achua \u0026amp; Lussier (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), who note that informal entrepreneurship serves as a refuge from precarious wage jobs, offering autonomy and financial independence.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, the observation that young entrepreneurs often draw inspiration from successful role models in the informal sector aligns with the findings of Mbah and Okeke (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Their research indicated that recognizing successful ventures enhances entrepreneurial aspirations among youth. The qualitative and quantitative insights from our study reinforce this notion, demonstrating that awareness of successful informal enterprises significantly correlates with favorable attitudes toward entrepreneurship, thus extending the understanding of motivational dynamics in Cameroon.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec51\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e7.2. Deviation from anterior research trends\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile the study aligns with numerous findings on the informal sector's significance, it also reveals notable deviations from earlier research trends. Many analyses of entrepreneurship in Cameroon primarily focus on the formal sector, neglecting the vibrancy of the informal economy. This study addresses this gap by examining the micro-level factors that motivate youth engagement in informal entrepreneurship, echoing the calls for greater attention to informal enterprises (Sparks \u0026amp; Barnett, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, unlike previous literature that tends to portray the informal sector predominantly as a challenging environment with limited growth potential (Raoul \u0026amp; Zenabou, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), our findings reveal a more nuanced view. While challenges such as lack of financing and infrastructural inadequacies were prominent, the study identifies how community support, adaptability, and networking among informal entrepreneurs can facilitate both individual and collective success. This perspective offers a more balanced understanding of the informal sector, recognizing its complexities and the resilience of those within it.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn terms of education, the study diverges from conventional educational discourse that emphasizes academic achievement as the primary path to success. Instead, it underscores the necessity of integrating practical entrepreneurial skills into the curriculum, highlighting the limitations of traditional education in preparing students for real-world challenges. This deviation calls for a paradigm shift toward experiential learning models that align more closely with the realities of informal entrepreneurship.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec52\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e7.3. Novelty of the study\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe originality of this study lies in its comprehensive exploration of the interplay between entrepreneurship education, youth engagement, and informal sector dynamics in Cameroon. By focusing on how successful informal enterprises can shape youth perceptions and attitudes toward entrepreneurship, the study not only supports existing hypotheses but also presents new avenues for research and policy development.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eImportantly, this study highlights the intersectionality of gender within the informal sector, acknowledging that female entrepreneurs face unique challenges that have been underrepresented in prior research. This focus on gender and the particular barriers women encounter enhances the discussion around entrepreneurship, urging policymakers to consider targeted support mechanisms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, the findings advocate for educational reforms that prioritize practical entrepreneurship skills, which remain critically underserved in the current educational framework. By substantiating the need for integrating case studies of successful informal enterprises into educational curricula, this research offers a novel approach to empowering youth and fostering a culture of entrepreneurship.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"8. Conclusion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec54\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e8.1. Summary of the findings\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study explored the role of the informal sector in fostering youth entrepreneurship in Cameroon, revealing multiple dimensions influencing young individuals' perspectives and engagement. The qualitative insights highlighted adaptability, resourcefulness, and community support within informal entrepreneurship, while quantitative analysis established significant correlations between awareness of successful informal enterprises and positive entrepreneurial intentions among youth. The findings indicated that young individuals are motivated by both necessity and aspiration, recognizing the informal sector as a viable career path amidst challenges such as societal stigma and lack of funding. Moreover, the study revealed critical gaps in entrepreneurship education that fail to prepare youth for success in this dynamic sector adequately. Overall, the research emphasized the importance of community role models and the emerging need to reshape educational curricula to nurture entrepreneurial aspirations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec55\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e8.2. Managerial implications of the study\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results of this study provide critical insights for various stakeholders, particularly policymakers, educators, and community leaders. Policymakers are urged to recognize the informal sector's contributions to economic resilience and job creation, advocating for supportive measures that enhance microentrepreneurship through streamlined access to financing and reduced bureaucratic hurdles. Educators should prioritize integrating entrepreneurship education into curriculums, emphasizing practical skills and real-world applications relevant to informal entrepreneurship. Community leaders and successful informal entrepreneurs can also play pivotal roles in mentorship programs that promote the visibility of successful enterprises, thereby inspiring youth to explore entrepreneurship as a viable career option.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec56\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e8.3. Theoretical contributions of the study\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study enriched the theoretical discourse surrounding informal entrepreneurship by extending the application of the Theory of Planned Behavior in the Cameroonian context. By linking the role of entrepreneurship education, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control with youth engagement in the informal sector, the study provides a nuanced understanding of how these factors collectively influence entrepreneurial intentions. Furthermore, the findings provoke critical discussions about the intersectionality of gender within informal entrepreneurship, shedding light on the unique challenges faced by women and urging future research to explore targeted educational interventions that address these disparities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec57\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e8.4. Shortcomings of the study and avenues for exploration\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite the significant contributions of this research, certain limitations were acknowledged. The reliance on self-reported data may introduce biases that affect the generalizability of findings, and the study predominantly focused on urban settings, potentially overlooking rural dynamics within the informal sector. Future research could expand upon this study by adopting longitudinal designs to track changes in youth entrepreneurial intentions over time, exploring the impact of specific educational interventions on youth engagement, and conducting comparative analyses across different geographical and socio-economic contexts. Additionally, investigations into the role of digital platforms and technologies in facilitating informal entrepreneurship among youth could further illuminate pathways for economic empowerment in the evolving digital landscape.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\"1. The study has approval from Sanya University IRB/ethics committee. 2. All participants consented to the study and publishing the data including all pictures taken during the survey.\"\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAchua CF, Lussier R (2014) Entrepreneurial Drive and The Informal Economy in Cameroon. J Dev Entrepreneurship 19:1450024\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAchuo E, Asongu S, Dinga G (2022) Addressing the educational crisis in Cameroon: Policy syndromes, arguments, views, theory and agenda. \u003cem\u003eEuropean Xtramile Centre of African Studies WP/22/097\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAdams AV (2008) Skills development in the informal sector of Sub-Saharan Africa\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAjide FM, Dada JT (2023) Poverty, entrepreneurship, and economic growth in Africa. Poverty Public Policy 15(2):199\u0026ndash;226\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAjzen I (1991) The Theory of planned behavior. \u003cem\u003eOrganizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAjzen I (2002) Perceived behavioral control, self-efficacy, locus of control, and the theory of planned behavior. J Appl Soc Psychol 32:665\u0026ndash;683\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAl-Mamary YHS, Alraja MM (2022) Understanding entrepreneurship intention and behavior in the light of TPB model from the digital entrepreneurship perspective. Int J Inform Manage Data Insights 2(2):100106\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAli A, Topping KJ, Tariq R (2011) Entrepreneurial Attitudes among Potential Entrepreneurs. 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All Irel J High Educ, \u003cem\u003e8\u003c/em\u003e(1)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMve JP (2020) Promoting Innovative and Entrepreneurial Talent Cultivation in Cameroon Higher Education: Significance, Challenges and Opportunities. J Educ Pract 11:42\u0026ndash;53\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNayak S (2020) Managing Radical Change in Entrepreneurship Education: Adoption of Innovative and Effective Pedagogy used in Teaching Entrepreneurship. J Bus Hotel Manage 7:1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNdedi A (2015) Rethinking Entrepreneurship Education and Training in Cameroon. \u003cem\u003eAvailable at SSRN 2647998\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNdedi AA (2016) Entrepreneurship education in Cameroon matters: Reorganizing the teaching of the subject. Routledge Handbook of Entrepreneurship in Developing Economies. Routledge, pp 455\u0026ndash;462\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNdouna FK, Nanfosso RT, Essimi B, J. A., Ambassa LF (2021) The informal sector facing COVID-19: The case of Cameroon. Sustainability 13(23):13269\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNeck HM, Corbett AC (2018) The Scholarship of Teaching and Learning Entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship Educ Pedagogy 1:41\u0026ndash;48\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNeneh BN (2014) An Assessment of Entrepreneurial Intention among University Students in Cameroon. Mediterranean J social Sci 5:542\u0026ndash;542\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNiţu-Antonie RD, Feder ES (2017) Exploratory study on student\u0026rsquo;s entrepreneurial intentions in developed and emerging countries. 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Int J Res Publications, \u003cem\u003e143\u003c/em\u003e(1)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWilliam FKA (2024b) Mastering Validity and Reliability in Academic Research: Meaning and Significance. Int J Res Publications 144(1):287\u0026ndash;292\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWilliam FKA (2024c) My Data Are Ready, How Do I Analyze Them: Navigating Data Analysis in Social Science Research. Int J Sci Res Manage 12(3):1730\u0026ndash;1741\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWilliams CC (2019) The informal economy. Agenda Publishing, London\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZhang Y, Duysters G, Cloodt M (2014) The role of entrepreneurship education as a predictor of university students\u0026rsquo; entrepreneurial intention. Int entrepreneurship Manage J 10:623\u0026ndash;641\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"Sanya University","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Economic development, entrepreneurship education, gender dynamics, informal entrepreneurship, women entrepreneurs, youth empowerment, Cameroon","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5495522/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5495522/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study investigates the role of informal entrepreneurship in empowering youth within Cameroon, with a particular focus on the gender dimensions influencing entrepreneurial experiences. Addressing significant gaps in the literature that predominantly concentrate on formal business sectors, the research employs a mixed-methods approach that integrates qualitative interviews, observational studies, and quantitative surveys. Data were collected from 30 informal entrepreneurs and 300 youth aged 18\u0026ndash;35 across three major cities, revealing both common success factors in informal business ventures and systemic barriers such as lack of financing, societal stigma, and gender-specific challenges women face. The findings indicate a strong positive correlation between awareness of successful informal enterprises and youth intentions to pursue entrepreneurship, with qualitative insights underscoring that community support, adaptability, and resilience are crucial for success. Notably, female entrepreneurs encounter unique obstacles, including limited access to funding and societal perceptions that undermine their legitimacy, highlighting the need for targeted support mechanisms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile this study provides significant contributions to understanding the informal economy's role in youth empowerment, some limitations include a relatively small sample size and the concentration on urban areas, which may not fully capture rural dynamics. Future research could explore the impact of cultural factors on gender roles in entrepreneurship and the long-term effects of informal entrepreneurship on socio-economic mobility among youth. This research emphasizes the potential of the informal sector as a legitimate pathway for economic empowerment, especially for women, and proposes actionable strategies for policymakers and educators to foster a culture of entrepreneurship in Cameroon.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Empowering Entrepreneurs in the Informal Sector: Strategies for Youth Engagement and Educational Reform","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-11-26 09:48:06","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5495522/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"36455558-3e80-4a08-88fb-6fc7f134c3aa","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 26th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-11-26T09:48:06+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-11-26 09:48:06","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5495522","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5495522","identity":"rs-5495522","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}