Changing the paradigm and policy for promoting girls' physical activity: a retrospective cross-sectional study

Changing the paradigm and policy for promoting girls' physical activity: a retrospective cross-sectional study | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Changing the paradigm and policy for promoting girls' physical activity: a retrospective cross-sectional study Karel Frömel, Dorota Groffik, Josef Mitáš, Michal Kudláček, Michael Pratt This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9423876/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 5 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background The long-term lower levels of physical activity (PA) among girls compared with boys represent a global public health concern. Despite numerous interventions, progress in reducing these disparities has been limited, raising questions about the effectiveness of the current paradigm for promoting girls’ PA. The aim of this study was to identify long-term trends in preferences for PA types and gender differences in the axiological orientation of adolescents’ PA, and to provide evidence for paradigm and policy changes supporting girls’ PA. Methods The research was conducted between 2008 and 2023 and included 8,656 Czech and 6,065 Polish adolescents aged 15–18 years. Preferences for PA types and their axiological orientation were assessed using the Physical Activity Preference Questionnaire. Weekly PA was measured using the International Physical Activity Questionnaire – long form (IPAQ-LF). Well-being was assessed using the WHO-5 Well-Being Index. Boys and girls were categorized into three groups: adolescents not participating in organized PA, those participating in organized non-preferred PA, and those participating in organized preferred PA. Results Clear gender differences were observed in physical activity preferences. Boys more frequently preferred team sports and martial arts, whereas girls more often preferred dance activities and activities performed in aquatic or outdoor environments. Between 2020 and 2023, preferences for individual physical activities increased and preferences for team activities decreased among both boys and girls. Significant gender differences were also identified in the axiological orientation of preferred physical activities. Girls more often preferred activities emphasizing health, regeneration, recreation, aesthetics, family participation, and lifelong engagement, whereas boys more frequently preferred performance-oriented, competitive, contact, and physically demanding activities. Adolescents participating in organized preferred physical activity showed the highest likelihood of meeting physical activity recommendations and reported the highest levels of well-being. Conclusions This study documents long-term trends in adolescents’ PA preferences and highlights changes in these preferences following the COVID-19 pandemic. The findings support a new approach to promoting girls’ PA based on gender differences in the axiological orientation of activity types. Participation in organized preferred PA was associated with higher weekly PA levels, greater adherence to PA recommendations, and higher subjective well-being. These findings suggest that paradigm and policy changes aimed at supporting girls’ PA should consider adolescents’ activity preferences and the value orientations associated with different PA types. Organized physical activity Gender inequalities Well-being Paradigm change Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Contributions to the Literature This study provides a sixteen-year follow-up of adolescents’ preferences for physical activity types and their physical activity levels in natural school settings. The findings offer a novel axiological perspective on physical activity types and identify gender differences in value orientations associated with preferred activities. The observed associations between participation in organized preferred physical activity, physical activity levels, and subjective well-being provide evidence supporting a paradigm shift and policy changes aimed at promoting physical activity among girls. Introduction Globally, physical activity (PA) among adolescents remains insufficient [ 1 ]. Moreover, PA levels decline with increasing age during adolescence [ 2 ] and continue to decline from adolescence to early adulthood [ 3 ]. A greater decline in PA is observed among girls [ 4 ]. In most countries worldwide, girls are less physically active than boys [ 5 ]. Even in the Central European region, boys report higher levels of weekly PA [ 6 ], PA during school days [ 7 ], PA within school-day segments [ 8 ], and PA during physical education (PE) classes [ 9 ]. In this region, a negative trend has also been observed in adolescents’ participation in organized PA, particularly among girls [ 10 ]. Lower levels of PA among girls are associated with greater gender inequality [ 11 ]. Therefore, de Looze et al. [ 12 ] call for public health policies to focus more strongly on social and cultural factors influencing young people’s behavior. Although changes in gender inequality across the life course are not yet fully understood, men consistently report higher prevalence of PA than women [ 13 ]. Gender inequalities in sports participation have also been widely criticized [ 14 ]. It appears that gender-specific characteristics are not sufficiently considered in efforts to promote PA among adolescents. A better understanding of differences and similarities in girls’ and boys’ PA and sedentary behaviors could help strengthen positive behaviors and improve strategies for promoting girls’ PA [ 15 ]. Prevention strategies aimed at increasing PA should therefore be tailored to differences between boys’ and girls’ activity patterns [ 16 ]. It is important to respect gender differences and gender-specific characteristics in the relationships between types of PA (especially moderate-to-vigorous PA and vigorous PA) and physical, sociocultural, economic, and political environmental factors [ 17 ]. Partly for these reasons, many interventions designed to promote sport and PA among adolescents have shown limited effectiveness [ 18 ]. Even interventions specifically targeting adolescent girls’ PA have generally reported only small effects [ 4 , 19 ]. Interventions implemented in secondary schools to prevent declines in girls’ PA also provide limited evidence of effectiveness. However, evidence suggests that declines in moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) among adolescent girls can be prevented if schools fully implement comprehensive school PA activity programs [ 20 ]. Interventions focusing on leisure-time PA, where impacts are often gender-differentiated, may help reveal barriers to increasing girls’ PA [ 21 ]. Lack of support from peers, family members, and teachers, limited time, and competing priorities have been identified as important barriers to girls’ PA participation [ 22 ]. Social norms, perceived safety in public spaces, and accessibility of facilities are also frequently cited barriers [ 23 ]. In promoting PA among girls, greater emphasis should also be placed on developing long-term PA habits and educating girls about the positive effects of PA. Numerous studies indicate that PA is often not a priority during adolescence [ 24 ]. This raises an important question: should the primary goal be to reduce gender differences in PA levels, or rather to promote those types of PA that most effectively support girls’ physical and mental health? Reducing gender inequalities in PA therefore requires a more precise understanding of PA types and the FITT characteristics (frequency, intensity, time, and type) of activities that best respect biological and social gender differences. One example of respecting social gender characteristics in PA promotion is the analysis of gender preferences for PA [ 25 ]. The diagnosis of PA preferences remains underestimated, even though it represents an important starting point for school-based PE, leisure activities, institutional programs, family activities, and other contexts of PA participation. Moreover, the diagnosis of PA preferences is explicitly emphasized in the WHO Global Action Plan on Physical Activity [ 26 ]. Although identifying gender preferences for PA may be challenging across different social, political, cultural, and educational contexts, and may change over time, this should not diminish the importance of continuously monitoring gender differences in PA preferences. Without knowledge of the structure of preferred and popular types of PA, it is difficult to effectively support sufficient PA levels and promote physically active lifestyles among youth. Creating opportunities for girls to engage in their preferred types of PA should therefore be emphasized in all programs aimed at promoting PA and adolescent health [ 10 , 27 ]. In promoting PA to girls, there should also be a greater emphasis on focusing on developing PA habits for lifelong engagement and educating girls on the positive effects of PA, especially as numerous studies highlight that PA is not a priority during adolescence [ 24 ]. This brings to the forefront the question of whether the main goal is to reduce gender differences in PA or to promote the types of PA that will most benefit girls' physical and mental health? Reducing gender inequalities needs to be specified in terms of PA types and FITT (Frequency, Intensity, Time, and Type) characteristics of PA that will be most respectful of biological and social gender specificities. A typical example of respecting social gender specificities in PA promotion is the analysis of gender preferences for PA [ 25 ]. The diagnosis of PA preferences is still underappreciated, despite the fact that it is an important starting point for school-based PE, leisure, institutional, family, and other types of PA and that it is globally required in the WHO Action Plan on Physical Activity [ 26 ]. Nor should the difficulty of identifying gender preferences for PA in different social, political, cultural or educational contexts, changing over time, diminish the importance of ongoing diagnosis of gender differences in PA preferences. Without knowledge of the structure of preferred and popular PAs, it is not possible to ensure sufficient PA and support for a physically active lifestyle in youth. Creating conditions for girls to practice their preferred types of PA should be emphasized in all programs to promote PA and adolescent health [ 10 , 27 ]. Success in addressing gender inequalities in physical activity has so far been only partial and insufficient [ 28 ], raising doubts about the effectiveness of the current paradigm. In particular, simplistic efforts to increase the overall volume and intensity of PA in order to reduce gender inequalities may be problematic if differentiation and individualization of PA approaches are not adequately applied. Moreover, currently promoted approaches to addressing gender inequalities in PA and lifestyle have shown limited effectiveness in strengthening girls’ resilience to adverse life situations, such as the negative impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic [ 27 ]. This raises the question of the extent to which gender inequalities in PA should be addressed and whether constant comparison of these inequalities may sometimes be counterproductive. Gender inequalities in PA are primarily associated with differences in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), which is typically higher among boys [ 29 ]. In this context, Kretschmer et al. [ 30 ] note that interventions focusing primarily on increasing MVPA may paradoxically lead to a widening of gender inequalities. Strategies aimed at reducing gender disparities in PA, while respecting these specificities, should therefore be incorporated into all efforts to increase PA among children and adolescents and should be given high priority [ 5 ]. In promoting PA among adolescents and improving equity in PA participation, changes at both macro- and micro-levels should be actively pursued [ 31 ]. A new strategy for promoting PA among adolescent girls is therefore required [ 32 ]. Increasing PA and reducing sedentary behaviour among children and adolescents worldwide will also require significant improvements in the surveillance of PA and sedentary behaviour [ 33 ]. Furthermore, the global decline in PA following the COVID-19 pandemic represents an additional challenge that must be addressed [ 34 ]. Based on the critical assessment of the current situation and trends in gender inequalities in PA, the following research questions were formulated: To identify changes in gender differences in preferences for PA types among Czech and Polish adolescents across four-year stages between 2008 and 2023. To identify gender differences in the axiological orientation of physical activity preferences. To examine gender differences in physical activity according to participation in organized PA. To analyze the associations between participation in organized PA and well-being among boys and girls. The aim of this study was to identify long-term trends in preferences for PA types and gender differences in the axiological orientation of adolescents’ PA, and to provide evidence for paradigm and policy changes supporting girls’ PA. Materials and methods Study setting, participants, and procedures A total of 14,721 Czech and Polish adolescents aged 15–18 years participated in the physical activity (PA) preference survey. The research was conducted in 133 secondary schools in the Czech Republic and 123 secondary schools in Poland. Throughout the study period, schools with which Czech and Polish universities had long-standing cooperation were involved in the research. The selection of student classes within schools was random, but care was taken to ensure that students who had previously participated in similar surveys were not included again. Each year, between 755 and 1,236 adolescents participated in the study, and the numbers of participants in the autumn (September–November) and spring (March–May) periods were comparable. During the study period, 81 Czech and 70 Polish schools agreed to extend participation to a survey of weekly PA levels. Subsequently, 53 Czech and 49 Polish schools also agreed to include the assessment of students’ well-being. The surveys in Czech and Polish schools were conducted throughout the study period by the same two-person research teams. At the initial session, participants were informed about the aims and benefits of the study and about how the results would be reported. They were also informed about how the findings would be used to support physical activity in schools and to improve the school environment related to healthy lifestyles. During the initial session, all participants registered in the web-based application International Database for Research and Educational Support (Indares; www.indares.com ). To ensure anonymity, personal data were registered under an assigned identification code. Summary results for the whole sample and for selected participant groups were provided to participants and school management within two weeks after the completion of the survey. All participants and their parents provided written informed consent to participate in the study and to allow the use of the research data. Refusal to participate was rare, as the data collection was conducted within the educational process. This study was conceptually grounded in the socio-ecological model of physical activity and health promotion, which emphasizes the importance of multiple factors influencing physical behaviour within the educational context [ 35 ]. The temporal structure of the study was defined by four study stages: 2008–2011, 2012–2015, 2016–2019, and 2020–2023 (Fig. 1). For all analyses, participants were divided into three groups: adolescents not participating in organized PA, adolescents participating in organized non-preferred PA, adolescents participating in organized preferred PA. Figure 1 Flow diagram of participants included in the study. PA = physical activity Measurements Physical activity preferences Preferences for PA types were assessed using the Indares Physical Activity Preference Questionnaire. The Indares system enables immediate feedback on PA preferences to administrators of participant groups in the form of summary mean results. The questionnaire has been used for a long time and has been standardized for Czech and Polish populations [ 6 , 36 , 37 ]. The questionnaire includes 90 types of physical activity classified into seven categories: individual PA, team PA, fitness PA, water PA, outdoor PA, combat PA, dance PA, and general PA. All 90 PA types were evaluated by 10 experts from different sport sectors in terms of their axiological orientation. Experts assigned rankings from first to fifth place to each PA type based on 39 value orientations, with the possibility of listing additional benefits. The sum of these rankings determined the axiological level of each PA type, with lower sums indicating higher axiological value. The axiological orientation of each PA type reflected the predominant focus of the activity, such as health, lifestyle, education, environmental engagement, bio-social development, and other characteristics relevant to quality of life. In the questionnaire, respondents selected their five most preferred PA types, which were assigned ranking points. Newly emerging or unspecified activities were assigned by respondents to the most similar listed PA type or categorized under “other”. Unselected PA types were assigned scores based on the average of the remaining placements. The final order of preferences was determined by the sum of placement scores followed by the average placement score. The present study analyzed preferences for the PA types ranked first in the preference list. Completion of the online questionnaire required respondents to assign at least a minimum score within each PA category; otherwise, the questionnaire entry was terminated and excluded from the dataset. Due to strong interest from schools and teachers in identifying students’ PA preferences, as well as the administration of the questionnaire during class time, withdrawal from the study was minimal. The questionnaire also included a question on participation in organized PA: “Please indicate participation in regularly organized physical activity (i.e., under the supervision of a teacher, trainer, or coach) during a typical week of leisure time in the past 12 months, excluding holidays and vacations.” Participants indicated whether they participated in organized PA (yes/no), the type of activity, and the number of hours per week. Weekly physica activity The Czech and Polish versions of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire – long form (IPAQ-LF) [ 38 ] were used to assess weekly physical activity levels. Both language versions of the questionnaire underwent the required translation procedures according to the guidelines of the EORTC Quality of Life Group [ 39 ]. During the standardization process, the Pearson correlation coefficient of concurrent validity between total PA (MET-min) and weekly step counts ranged from r p = 0.231 to r p = 0.283. Cronbach’s alpha, used as an indicator of internal consistency reliability, was α = 0.848 for the Polish version and α = 0.845 for the Czech version. The questionnaire has been widely used and empirically validated in international comparative studies [ 40 ]. The IPAQ-LF includes several types of physical activity. In the present study, vigorous PA, moderate PA, walking, and total weekly PA were analyzed. Data were processed in accordance with the Guidelines for Data Processing and Analysis of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) – Short and Long Forms [ 41 ]. However, vigorous PA was scored using a coefficient of six METs instead of the recommended eight METs, and the maximum weekly value was capped at 16,000 MET-min/week. A total of 684 respondents were excluded because their responses did not meet the conditions specified in the questionnaire manual. The recommendation for weekly PA was defined with reference to Healthy People 2030 [ 42 ] and the Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans [ 43 ]. According to the IPAQ response options, meeting the PA recommendation required at least 60 minutes of MVPA on five or more days per week and at least 20 minutes of vigorous PA on three or more days per week [ 27 , 44 , 45 ]. Self-Reported Well-Being Adolescents’ well-being was assessed using the WHO-Five Well-Being Index (WHO-5) in Czech and Polish versions ( https://www.psykiatri-regionh.dk/who-5/Pages/default.aspx ). The WHO-5 is a brief and widely used instrument that has demonstrated good psychometric properties and suitability for cross-cultural research among adolescents in European populations [ 46 ]. The questionnaire is also considered appropriate for comparisons of well-being between adolescent groups [ 47 ]. Participants were categorized into two groups according to their scores: lower well-being (< 13 points) and higher well-being (≥ 13 points). Because the WHO-5 questionnaire was incorporated into the Indares system only in 2012, well-being data were available for 5,662 participants. Statistical analysis Statistical analyses were conducted using Statistica 13 (StatSoft, Prague, Czech Republic) and SPSS version 25 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA). Descriptive statistics and Kolmogorov–Smirnov and Lilliefors tests were used to assess the normality of the data distribution and to guide the selection of appropriate statistical procedures. Differences between two proportions were evaluated using the difference between two proportions test. Associations between PA levels and participation in organized PA were analyzed using the Kruskal–Wallis test. When significant differences were detected, pairwise comparisons between groups were conducted using the Mann–Whitney U test. Differences in adherence to PA recommendations were examined using cross-tabulation analyses. Binary logistic regression analysis using the standard enter method was applied to estimate the likelihood of meeting PA recommendations. Effect size coefficients (η²) were interpreted as follows: small effect: 0.01 ≤ η² < 0.06, medium effect: 0.06 ≤ η² < 0.14 and large effect: η² ≥ 0.14. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. Results Sample characteristics The overall research sample included 14,721 Czech and Polish adolescents. The characteristics of the study participants are presented in Table 1 . Notable differences were observed in participation in organized physical activity (PA) between boys and girls. Czech (χ² (1,8656) = 69.26, p < 0.001, η² = 0.008) and Polish (χ² (1,6065) = 13.74, p < 0.001, η² = 0.002) boys participated in organized PA more frequently than girls. Furthermore, Polish boys (χ² (1,6290) = 9.52, p = 0.002, η² = 0.002) reported higher participation in organized PA than Czech boys. A similar pattern was observed among girls (χ² (1,8431) = 54.70, p < 0.001, η² = 0.007). Only 56% of Czech and 56% of Polish girls reported a positive attitude toward physical education (PE), compared with 73% of Czech and 76% of Polish boys. In contrast, 82% of Czech girls and 78% of Polish girls reported a positive attitude toward physical activity in general, compared with 80% of Czech boys and 81% of Polish boys. Table 1 Characteristics of the study participants Characteristics Boys CZ Boys PL Girls CZ Girls PL M ± SD n(%) M ± SD n(%) M ± SD n(%) M ± SD n(%) Age (years) 15.1 ± 1.2 16.3 ± 1.0 16.3 ± 1.2 16.3 ± 1.0 Weight (kg) 65.3 ± 13.5 66.5 ± 11.9 57.1 ± 9.6 56.5 ± 6.3 Height (cm) 174.3 ± 11.1 176.3 ± 8.7 165.9 ± 7.3 165.6 ± 6.3 BMI (kg/m 2 ) 21.3 ± 3.1 21.3 ± 3.0 20.7 ± 2.9 20.6 ± 2.9 Countries 3653(24.8%) 2637(17.9%) 5003(34.0%) 3428(23.3%) Stage 2008–2011 1340(9.1%) 633(4.3%) 1923(13.1%) 746(5.1%) Stage 2012–2015 875(5.9%) 825(5.6%) 1418(9.5%) 852(5.8%) Stage 2016–2019 775(5.3%) 620(4.2%) 934(6.3%) 725(4.9%) Stage 2020–2023 663(4.5%) 559(3.8%) 728(4.9%) 1105(7.5%) Organized PA 2490(68.2%) 1893(71.8%) 2973(59.4%) 2309(67.4%) Organized PA (hours/week) 5.8 ± 4.1 5.5 ± 4.1 4.2 ± 3.4 3.8 ± 2.8 Notes. PA = physical activity; BMI = body mass index; M = mean; SD = standard deviation Gender differences in preferences for physical activity types across study stages (2008–2011, 2012–2015, 2016–2019 and 2020–2023) Among boys, preferences for individual physical activities increased from 23% in the period 2008–2011 to 29% in 2020–2023 (χ² (1,3195) = 15.59, p < 0.001, η² = 0.005). At the same time, preferences for team activities decreased from 47% to 38% (χ² (1,3195) = 27.58, p < 0.001, η² = 0.009) (Fig. 2 ). Among girls, even more pronounced changes were observed. Preferences for individual physical activities increased from 21% to 28% across the study period (χ² (1,4502) = 35.99, p < 0.001, η² = 0.008), whereas preferences for team activities decreased from 27% to 18% (χ² (1,4502) = 56.86, p < 0.001, η² = 0.013). In the final study stage (2020–2023), these changes coincided with the period following the pandemic and with broader social changes in the region. Gender differences in axiological orientation of preferred physica activity types Clear gender differences were observed in the axiological orientation of preferred physical activity types (Table 2 ). Girls more frequently preferred physical activities oriented toward health, regeneration, recreation, aesthetics, family participation, and lifelong engagement. Boys more frequently preferred activities characterized by performance orientation, contact, competition, martial arts, and greater physical challenge. Girls also showed a higher preference for coeducational activities, whereas boys more often preferred single-sex activities. Table 2 Gender differences in preferences for the predominant axiological orientation of physical activity types Predominant focus of PA types Boys ( n = 6290) Girls ( n = 8431) U p η 2 Mdn IQR Mdn IQR Girls Coeducational 8.6 1.9 7.7 1.8 -31.7 < 0.001 0.160 *** Health 8.3 1.7 7.7 1.7 -25.6 < 0.001 0.104 ** Versatile 8.6 1.6 8.0 1.5 -25.5 < 0.001 0.103 ** Regenerative and compensatory 8.5 2.0 7.9 1.9 -24.3 < 0.001 0.094 ** More individual than team 8.0 0.9 7.7 0.9 -23.2 < 0.001 0.086 ** Family use 8.0 2.3 7.3 1.9 -18.9 < 0.001 0.057 * Physical and mental development 8.9 1.6 8.5 1.6 -17.0 < 0.001 0.046 * Aesthetic and expressive 8.5 1.4 8.2 1.3 -15.7 < 0.001 0.039 * Affordable 8.0 1.7 7.5 1.4 -15.5 < 0.001 0.038 * Recreational and experiential 9.0 2.2 8.4 2.2 -15.2 < 0.001 0.037 * In aquatic environments 8.3 0.9 8.1 1.0 -14.4 < 0.001 0.033 * Social contact 9.0 1.5 8.6 1.5 -12.8 < 0.001 0.026 * Meditative 8.6 0.9 8.3 1.1 -9.0 < 0.001 0.013 * Socially prestigious 8.9 1.4 8.7 1.5 -7.5 < 0.001 0.009 Creative 8.8 1.5 8.6 1.3 -7.2 < 0.001 0.008 Lifelong 8.7 2.2 8.5 2.0 -7.2 < 0.001 0.008 Boys Single-sex 8.3 1.0 8.8 1.0 50.4 < 0.001 0.404 *** Tactically challenging 8.9 1.2 9.2 1.2 33.9 < 0.001 0.183 *** Martial arts 8.4 1.2 8.9 0.9 32.2 < 0.001 0.165 *** Contact 8.3 1.2 9.0 1.4 30.1 < 0.001 0.144 *** Cognitively demanding 8.6 1.8 9.2 1.7 25.5 < 0.001 0.103 ** Aggressive 8.5 0.8 8.7 0.8 22.2 < 0.001 0.078 ** Extremely challenging 8.7 1.3 9.0 1.2 22.1 < 0.001 0.078 ** Speed-based 8.2 1.2 8.6 1.1 22.1 < 0.001 0.078 ** Self-defensive 8.6 0.9 8.6 0.9 21.3 < 0.001 0.072 ** Outdoor environment 8.7 1.7 9.1 1.7 20.0 < 0.001 0.064 ** Sports performance 7.7 2.1 8.4 2.3 19.3 < 0.001 0.059 * Risk-taking 8.4 1.8 8.8 1.5 18.8 < 0.001 0.056 * Competitive 8.4 1.3 8.5 2.0 15.0 < 0.001 0.036 * Strength-based 8.7 1.8 8.9 1.7 11.1 < 0.001 0.020 * Adventurous 8.8 1.0 9.0 0.9 7.2 < 0.001 0.008 Mdn: median; IQR: interquartile range; U: Mann–Whitney U test; p : statistical significance; η²: effect size coefficient. Preferences are ranked by median values; lower values indicate stronger preference Weekly physical activity according to participation in organized physical activity Significant differences in vigorous PA were observed across participation groups for both boys and girls (Fig. 3 ). Among boys, the median level of vigorous PA was lower among adolescents not participating in organized PA (899 MET-min/week) than among those participating in organized preferred PA (1934 MET-min/week) (H (1,2585) = 264.69, p < 0.001, η² = 0.102). Boys participating in organized non-preferred PA also reported lower vigorous PA (1506 MET-min/week) compared with those participating in organized preferred PA (1934 MET-min/week) (H (1,2051) = 28.59, p < 0.001, η² = 0.013). Similarly, girls who did not participate in organized PA reported lower vigorous PA (634 MET-min/week) than girls participating in organized preferred PA (1594 MET-min/week) (H (1,3777) = 435.83, p < 0.001, η² = 0.115). Differences were also observed between girls participating in organized non-preferred PA (1060 MET-min/week) and those participating in organized preferred PA (1594 MET-min/week) (H (1,2799) = 66.60, p < 0.001, η² = 0.023). Comparable patterns were observed for total weekly PA. Significant differences according to participation in organized PA were found among boys (H (2,3114) = 117.21, p < 0.001, η² = 0.037) and girls (H (2,4706) = 140.63, p < 0.001, η² = 0.029). No statistically significant differences were observed for walking. Association between well-being and participation in organized PA Among boys, well-being did not differ significantly according to participation in organized PA across the study stages (Fig. 4 ). Among girls, however, a decline in well-being was observed across study stages in all participation groups, including girls not participating in organized PA (χ² (2,1308) = 18.34, p < 0.001, η² = 0.014), girls participating in organized non-preferred PA (χ² (2,736) = 15.53, p = 0.001, η² = 0.021), and girls participating in organized preferred PA (χ² (2,1324) = 25.92, p < 0.001, η² = 0.020). In the final study stage (2020–2023), 24% of girls who did not participate in organized PA reported lower well-being. Odds of meeting physical activity recommendations according to participation in organized physical activity Participation in organized preferred PA was associated with the highest likelihood of meeting PA recommendations for both boys and girls (Table 3 ). Adjustment for study stage and country (Model 2) did not attenuate these associations. Boys participating in organized preferred PA were 1.37 times more likely to meet PA recommendations than boys participating in organized non-preferred PA (β = 0.314, SE = 0.112, OR = 1.37; 95% CI: 1.10–1.70, p = 0.005). Similarly, girls participating in organized preferred PA were 1.44 times more likely to meet PA recommendations than girls participating in organized non-preferred PA (β = 0.366, SE = 0.097, OR = 1.44; 95% CI: 1.19–1.75, p < 0.001). Lower adherence to PA recommendations was observed in the study stage 2020–2023 compared with the reference stage 2008–2011. However, this decrease did not eliminate the predictive value of participation in organized PA. Table 3 Odds ratios for meeting physical activity recommendations (≥ 5×60 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous PA and ≥ 3×20 minutes of vigorous PA per week) according to participation in organized physical activity Predictor variables Model 1 Model 2 Boys Girls Boys Girls OR (95% CI) p OR (95% CI) p OR (95% CI) p OR (95% CI) p Organized PA No (ref) Yes – Non-preferred 1.97 (1.53–2.54) < 0.001 1.71 (1.38–2.10) < 0.001 1.91 (1.48–2.46) < 0.001 1.65 (1.34–2.04) < 0.001 Yes – Preferred 2.70 (2.22–3.29) < 0.001 2.46 (2.08–2.91) < 0.001 2.56 (2.10–3.12) < 0.001 2.40 (2.02–2.84) < 0.001 Control variables Stage 2008–2011(ref) Stage 2012–2015 0.95 (0.74–1.22) 0.709 0.98 (0.80–1.22) 0.881 Stage 2016–2019 0.82 (0.63–1.07) 0.137 0.97 (0.77–1.22) 0.779 Stage 2020–2023 0.55 (0.41–0.73) < 0.001 0.67 (0.52–0.86) 0.002 Czech Republic(ref) Poland 1.09 (0.92–1.29) 0.339 1.31 (1.12–1.53) 0.001 PA: physical activity; OR: odds ratio; CI: confidence interval; p : statistical significance; Model 1: unadjusted; Model 2: adjusted for study stages and countries. Discussion The most important finding of this study is the identification of gender differences in the axiological orientation of preferred types of PA. These differences were derived from a secondary evaluation of the benefits associated with different types of PA. Assessing the secondary benefits of PA types may reduce the influence of short-term factors that can affect adolescents’ activity preferences. Such factors include the presentation of sporting achievements [ 48 ], the influence of sport idols [ 49 ], social media “fitspiration” [ 50 ], and other sociopolitical influences. Gender differences in the perceived benefits of physical activity have been only rarely examined and have mostly focused on general health benefits of PA [ 51 ], lifelong participation in PA [ 52 ], psychosocial development [ 53 ], or active lifestyle promotion [ 11 ]. The gender preferences identified in this study across selected activity categories correspond with previous research conducted in Czech and Polish educational contexts [ 6 , 25 , 27 , 54 ]. While global studies examining gender preferences in PA are still limited, research on participation in sport and leisure-time PA provides broader evidence on gender differences [ 52 ]. Previous studies have most often examined gender differences in specific types of PA [ 40 ], PA intensity [ 6 ], leisure-time PA [ 52 ], active travel [ 55 ], and participation in organized PA [ 10 ], as well as geographic [ 56 ], safety-related [ 57 ], and other environmental factors. The importance of identifying gender preferences in PA already in children aged 7–11 years has been emphasized by Peral-Suárez et al. [ 58 ], who suggest that ignoring such preferences may lead to ineffective policies and may contribute to widening gender inequalities in PA. The decline in girls’ preference for team physical activities observed in this study may partly reflect the negative impact of the pandemic on girls’ PA [ 8 ]. Evidence on the effectiveness of interventions designed to promote girls’ participation in team sports remains inconclusive [ 59 ]. Nevertheless, team sports may provide important mental and social benefits later in life [ 60 ]. Some studies have also shown that participation in organized team sports is associated with fewer mental health problems among children and adolescents, whereas participation in individual sports has sometimes been associated with higher levels of mental health difficulties [ 61 ]. However, it is important to distinguish between participation in traditional competitive sports and participation in diverse forms of organized, often non-competitive physical activities. In this context, Groffik et al. [ 10 ] emphasize that the negative effects of the pandemic could be mitigated by increasing adolescents’ participation in organized PA, particularly in individual activities that can be practiced regularly even during restrictive conditions at home, in rural areas, or outdoors. Similarly, Hulteen et al. [ 52 ] suggest that promoting accessible activities such as walking, running, and swimming from an early age may be beneficial due to their greater accessibility and lower costs compared with traditional team sports. Another important finding of this study is that participation in organized preferred PA was associated with the highest levels of vigorous PA and overall weekly PA, particularly among girls. There is substantial evidence that participation in organized PA contributes to higher levels of PA [ 10 ] and supports the development of long-term habits of regular PA and healthy lifestyles [ 63 ]. However, it is also important to distinguish between habit instigation and habit execution when examining the influence of habits on physical behaviour [ 64 ]. Given the positive effects of participation in organized PA, several authors have emphasized the need to ensure gender equity in access to organized PA opportunities [ 65 ]. Increasing participation in organized preferred PA therefore appears to be particularly important for promoting PA among girls. It is essential that the professional training of educators, the provision of school-based and extracurricular PA programs, and especially opportunities to participate in organized preferred PA reflect adolescents’ current and long-term activity preferences. For example, if volleyball is consistently identified as the most preferred team activity among girls [ 25 ], this should encourage the development of new and attractive approaches to its practice. It should also be considered that girls generally face more barriers to participation in extracurricular PA than boys, and that these barriers tend to increase with age among girls [ 57 ]. The positive effects of participation in organized preferred PA are further supported by the observed associations with well-being among both boys and girls. Participation in organized leisure-time physical activity has been associated with higher levels of well-being and perceived health [ 66 ]. These associations appear to be particularly important for adolescent girls, as girls generally report higher levels of mental health difficulties and lower subjective well-being compared with boys [ 67 ]. This finding is also important because girls with higher well-being appear to cope better with decreases in weekly physical activity than girls with lower well-being [ 45 ]. The higher odds of meeting PA recommendations among adolescents participating in organized preferred PA are consistent with previous research on organized physical activity. Previous studies have shown that Czech and Polish adolescents participating in organized preferred team sports are more likely to meet PA recommendations [ 8 ]. Similarly, girls who do not participate in organized PA have been found to have significantly lower compliance with vigorous PA recommendations compared with girls participating in organized team or individual activities [ 10 ]. Policies and interventions aimed at increasing girls’ physical activity should therefore focus more strongly on local contexts and on improving safety, affordability, and access to opportunities for physical activity in leisure and transport environments, particularly in countries where participation opportunities differ between boys and girls [ 31 ]. The need for targeted strategies that empower girls and support self-rated health has also been emphasized [ 68 ]. To reduce health inequalities among future generations, public health policies should also focus on social and cultural factors influencing gender norms among young people [ 12 ]. Based on the results of this study, as well as other research on PA in the Czech–Polish context [ 7 , 10 , 25 , 40 , 45 ], we propose the following paradigm and policy changes to promote PA among adolescent girls: Establish systems to routinely monitor gender differences in preferences and participation in different types of PA. Adapt school PE curricula to better reflect the specific physical, psychological, and social needs of girls. Develop and implement online and hybrid PE formats that incorporate girls’ preferred types of PA. When promoting the FITT characteristics of PA, ensure that recommendations related to frequency, intensity, and duration are grounded in adolescents’ preferred activity types. When selecting and promoting PA opportunities, emphasize axiological orientations that are particularly valued by girls, especially those related to health, regeneration, recreation, aesthetics, family engagement, and lifelong participation. Strengthen the promotion of PA types and supportive environments in which girls participate at similar or higher levels than boys, particularly walking and other non-competitive activities. Expand opportunities for participation in organized preferred individual physical activities and promote flexible, individualized formats of team activities that may be more attractive to girls (e.g., volleyball). Support girls’ resilience to social crises by encouraging regular participation in organized preferred PA. Use participation in organized preferred PA as a means to strengthen awareness of the positive associations between PA and well-being. Within comprehensive school PA programs, expand opportunities for girls to engage in their preferred types of PA. In PE classes, promote awareness of enjoyment and satisfaction derived from vigorous PA through girls’ most preferred activity types. Strengths and limitations The main strength of this study is the unique assessment of gender differences in PA preferences, which allows for the characterization of the long-term axiological orientation of different types of PA. The findings also identify priorities for promoting girls’ PA, particularly in the context of the negative impact of the pandemic on adolescents’ healthy lifestyles in the Czech and Polish educational systems. One limitation of this study is that, within the 16-year cross-sectional design, it was not possible to ensure representative samples of Czech and Polish adolescents for each year of data collection. Another limitation is that the study includes only two Central European countries; therefore, the findings have a regional character. Although adolescents’ PA preferences may vary across countries and cultures, the approaches to diagnosing such preferences and incorporating them into PA promotion strategies may be broadly applicable. Long-term research also faces challenges in capturing the dynamic nature of gender differences and changes in school curricula and PE practices over time. The implementation of the study findings into PA promotion strategies may also be influenced by the specific organization of PE, including coeducational, single-sex, combined, or online formats. Future research should focus on verifying the axiological orientation of preferred PA types, particularly in relation to strategies aimed at supporting less physically active girls. In addition, future studies should examine the long-term effects of participation in organized preferred physical activities among girls. Conclusions This study highlights the importance of monitoring trends in preferences for types of PA when addressing gender differences in adolescent PA and when designing strategies to support girls’ PA. The study introduces a novel axiological perspective on PA types, identifying gender differences in the value orientations associated with preferred activities. Respecting gender-specific orientations in the focus of PA may help improve the availability of appropriate PA opportunities for both girls and boys. In particular, providing opportunities for girls to engage in their preferred types of PA within organized programs, school-based activities, and PE should be considered a priority in promoting girls’ PA and healthy lifestyles. The observed associations between participation in organized preferred PA, higher PA levels, and better subjective well-being provide encouraging evidence supporting a paradigm shift and policy changes aimed at promoting girls’ PA. Abbreviations BMI Body Mass Index CZ Czech Republic FITT Frequency, Intensity, Time, and Type IPAQ International Physical Activity Questionnaire – long form MET Metabolic equivalent MVPA Moderate to vigorous physical activity PA Physical activity PL Poland Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate The study protocol was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Physical Culture at Palacký University in Olomouc (No. 49/24/2012) and by the Ethics Committee of the Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education in Katowice (No. 36/2015). All participants and their parents provided written informed consent prior to participation in the study. Participation in the study was voluntary. Participants were informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any time without any penalty, in accordance with the ethical standards of the Declaration of Helsinki. The anonymity of the participants and the confidentiality of the collected data were ensured by assigning unique identification codes to all participants. Consent for publication Not applicable. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Funding This research was supported by grants from the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports “Physical Activity and Inactivity of the Inhabitants of the Czech Republic in the Context of Behavioral Changes” (No. MSM6198959221) and Czech Science Foundation project “Multifactorial Research on Built Environment, Active Lifestyle and Physical Fitness in Czech Adolescents” (No. 14-26896S). Author Contribution K.F. and D.G. contributed to the design of the study. K.F. and J.M. analyzed and interpreted the results and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. J.M., M.K. and D.G. contributed to the manuscript by critical revisions and giving comprehensive feedback on multiple drafts. 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Jerzego Kukuczki w Katowicach","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Dorota","middleName":"","lastName":"Groffik","suffix":""},{"id":638478050,"identity":"d8e10442-72a8-4732-ac70-2ff927fbe7c3","order_by":2,"name":"Josef Mitáš","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA30lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACxgYgUcHAwANiPwASMsRpOQPUAtTDbMAA0UsEOANRyiZBlBbm9vaHDw4wbJOxZz/+rJp3hw0PA/vxB/gd1nPG2OAAw20eHp4cs9u8Z9J4GHgSEvBrmZHDJv0BpIUhh+02b9thHgYJhgMEtKQ//wG2hf/5s2KIFnCQ4NOSYMYA1iKRYMYM0cKMVwfYLxIHDIBabrwxlpwL9AsbTxp+LYbAEPtwoOK2PXt/+sMPb3fYyPETCjFDsLsNYHYCeWz47WBgkEd1ZgMh9aNgFIyCUTASAQDO1j+fO1CXdQAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Palacký University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Josef","middleName":"","lastName":"Mitáš","suffix":""},{"id":638478051,"identity":"49fb6575-c177-45c3-8782-a3e70653175d","order_by":3,"name":"Michal Kudláček","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Palacký University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Michal","middleName":"","lastName":"Kudláček","suffix":""},{"id":638478052,"identity":"51640683-974e-46b8-9ce2-bc7c680e76e2","order_by":4,"name":"Michael Pratt","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of California San Diego","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Michael","middleName":"","lastName":"Pratt","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-04-15 08:23:43","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9423876/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9423876/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":109097733,"identity":"84576e1c-0205-4384-a6d6-c885fff0236d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-12 14:09:56","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":139010,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFlow diagram of participants included in the study. PA = physical activity\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9423876/v1/8e5de0e8d5bc3e330710ebcd.jpg"},{"id":109097710,"identity":"19d0ac43-b51b-435c-829b-de2d98d26339","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-12 14:09:47","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":83576,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFirst-ranked preferences for types of physical activity among boys and girls across study stages (2008–2011, 2012–2015, 2016–2019, and 2020–2023)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9423876/v1/67646f1beddac708b63d577b.jpg"},{"id":109097732,"identity":"94de7762-3319-4500-ab9a-d374a59b5741","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-12 14:09:56","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":113289,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eWeekly physical activity among boys and girls by participation in organized physical activity (non-participants, participants in organized non-preferred PA and participants in organized preferred PA)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9423876/v1/59034341a5dbca44e43621b6.jpg"},{"id":109097616,"identity":"91b62286-bf32-40ce-8124-5afa8ffdc5ad","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-12 14:09:34","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":97853,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eWell-being (WHO-5 score ≥13) among boys and girls according to participation in organized physical activity across study stages\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9423876/v1/36746d00a6784c8bc49543f8.jpg"},{"id":109204437,"identity":"bf4e8d1c-ce34-498e-8f06-09e4028d66d4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-13 15:00:01","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":946853,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9423876/v1/a3a6ef18-4438-44fe-a226-aa13274f9f5a.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Changing the paradigm and policy for promoting girls' physical activity: a retrospective cross-sectional study","fulltext":[{"header":"Contributions to the Literature","content":"\u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThis study provides a sixteen-year follow-up of adolescents\u0026rsquo; preferences for physical activity types and their physical activity levels in natural school settings.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThe findings offer a novel axiological perspective on physical activity types and identify gender differences in value orientations associated with preferred activities.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThe observed associations between participation in organized preferred physical activity, physical activity levels, and subjective well-being provide evidence supporting a paradigm shift and policy changes aimed at promoting physical activity among girls.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e"},{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eGlobally, physical activity (PA) among adolescents remains insufficient [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. Moreover, PA levels decline with increasing age during adolescence [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e] and continue to decline from adolescence to early adulthood [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. A greater decline in PA is observed among girls [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. In most countries worldwide, girls are less physically active than boys [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. Even in the Central European region, boys report higher levels of weekly PA [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e], PA during school days [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e], PA within school-day segments [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e], and PA during physical education (PE) classes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. In this region, a negative trend has also been observed in adolescents\u0026rsquo; participation in organized PA, particularly among girls [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLower levels of PA among girls are associated with greater gender inequality [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, de Looze et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e] call for public health policies to focus more strongly on social and cultural factors influencing young people\u0026rsquo;s behavior. Although changes in gender inequality across the life course are not yet fully understood, men consistently report higher prevalence of PA than women [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. Gender inequalities in sports participation have also been widely criticized [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt appears that gender-specific characteristics are not sufficiently considered in efforts to promote PA among adolescents. A better understanding of differences and similarities in girls\u0026rsquo; and boys\u0026rsquo; PA and sedentary behaviors could help strengthen positive behaviors and improve strategies for promoting girls\u0026rsquo; PA [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. Prevention strategies aimed at increasing PA should therefore be tailored to differences between boys\u0026rsquo; and girls\u0026rsquo; activity patterns [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. It is important to respect gender differences and gender-specific characteristics in the relationships between types of PA (especially moderate-to-vigorous PA and vigorous PA) and physical, sociocultural, economic, and political environmental factors [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. Partly for these reasons, many interventions designed to promote sport and PA among adolescents have shown limited effectiveness [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. Even interventions specifically targeting adolescent girls\u0026rsquo; PA have generally reported only small effects [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. Interventions implemented in secondary schools to prevent declines in girls\u0026rsquo; PA also provide limited evidence of effectiveness. However, evidence suggests that declines in moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) among adolescent girls can be prevented if schools fully implement comprehensive school PA activity programs [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInterventions focusing on leisure-time PA, where impacts are often gender-differentiated, may help reveal barriers to increasing girls\u0026rsquo; PA [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. Lack of support from peers, family members, and teachers, limited time, and competing priorities have been identified as important barriers to girls\u0026rsquo; PA participation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. Social norms, perceived safety in public spaces, and accessibility of facilities are also frequently cited barriers [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn promoting PA among girls, greater emphasis should also be placed on developing long-term PA habits and educating girls about the positive effects of PA. Numerous studies indicate that PA is often not a priority during adolescence [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. This raises an important question: should the primary goal be to reduce gender differences in PA levels, or rather to promote those types of PA that most effectively support girls\u0026rsquo; physical and mental health?\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReducing gender inequalities in PA therefore requires a more precise understanding of PA types and the FITT characteristics (frequency, intensity, time, and type) of activities that best respect biological and social gender differences. One example of respecting social gender characteristics in PA promotion is the analysis of gender preferences for PA [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe diagnosis of PA preferences remains underestimated, even though it represents an important starting point for school-based PE, leisure activities, institutional programs, family activities, and other contexts of PA participation. Moreover, the diagnosis of PA preferences is explicitly emphasized in the WHO Global Action Plan on Physical Activity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough identifying gender preferences for PA may be challenging across different social, political, cultural, and educational contexts, and may change over time, this should not diminish the importance of continuously monitoring gender differences in PA preferences. Without knowledge of the structure of preferred and popular types of PA, it is difficult to effectively support sufficient PA levels and promote physically active lifestyles among youth. Creating opportunities for girls to engage in their preferred types of PA should therefore be emphasized in all programs aimed at promoting PA and adolescent health [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn promoting PA to girls, there should also be a greater emphasis on focusing on developing PA habits for lifelong engagement and educating girls on the positive effects of PA, especially as numerous studies highlight that PA is not a priority during adolescence [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. This brings to the forefront the question of whether the main goal is to reduce gender differences in PA or to promote the types of PA that will most benefit girls' physical and mental health? Reducing gender inequalities needs to be specified in terms of PA types and FITT (Frequency, Intensity, Time, and Type) characteristics of PA that will be most respectful of biological and social gender specificities. A typical example of respecting social gender specificities in PA promotion is the analysis of gender preferences for PA [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. The diagnosis of PA preferences is still underappreciated, despite the fact that it is an important starting point for school-based PE, leisure, institutional, family, and other types of PA and that it is globally required in the WHO Action Plan on Physical Activity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. Nor should the difficulty of identifying gender preferences for PA in different social, political, cultural or educational contexts, changing over time, diminish the importance of ongoing diagnosis of gender differences in PA preferences. Without knowledge of the structure of preferred and popular PAs, it is not possible to ensure sufficient PA and support for a physically active lifestyle in youth. Creating conditions for girls to practice their preferred types of PA should be emphasized in all programs to promote PA and adolescent health [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSuccess in addressing gender inequalities in physical activity has so far been only partial and insufficient [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e], raising doubts about the effectiveness of the current paradigm. In particular, simplistic efforts to increase the overall volume and intensity of PA in order to reduce gender inequalities may be problematic if differentiation and individualization of PA approaches are not adequately applied. Moreover, currently promoted approaches to addressing gender inequalities in PA and lifestyle have shown limited effectiveness in strengthening girls\u0026rsquo; resilience to adverse life situations, such as the negative impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. This raises the question of the extent to which gender inequalities in PA should be addressed and whether constant comparison of these inequalities may sometimes be counterproductive. Gender inequalities in PA are primarily associated with differences in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), which is typically higher among boys [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]. In this context, Kretschmer et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e] note that interventions focusing primarily on increasing MVPA may paradoxically lead to a widening of gender inequalities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStrategies aimed at reducing gender disparities in PA, while respecting these specificities, should therefore be incorporated into all efforts to increase PA among children and adolescents and should be given high priority [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. In promoting PA among adolescents and improving equity in PA participation, changes at both macro- and micro-levels should be actively pursued [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. A new strategy for promoting PA among adolescent girls is therefore required [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. Increasing PA and reducing sedentary behaviour among children and adolescents worldwide will also require significant improvements in the surveillance of PA and sedentary behaviour [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. Furthermore, the global decline in PA following the COVID-19 pandemic represents an additional challenge that must be addressed [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on the critical assessment of the current situation and trends in gender inequalities in PA, the following research questions were formulated:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo identify changes in gender differences in preferences for PA types among Czech and Polish adolescents across four-year stages between 2008 and 2023.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo identify gender differences in the axiological orientation of physical activity preferences.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo examine gender differences in physical activity according to participation in organized PA.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo analyze the associations between participation in organized PA and well-being among boys and girls.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe aim of this study was to identify long-term trends in preferences for PA types and gender differences in the axiological orientation of adolescents\u0026rsquo; PA, and to provide evidence for paradigm and policy changes supporting girls\u0026rsquo; PA.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy setting, participants, and procedures\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA total of 14,721 Czech and Polish adolescents aged 15\u0026ndash;18 years participated in the physical activity (PA) preference survey. The research was conducted in 133 secondary schools in the Czech Republic and 123 secondary schools in Poland. Throughout the study period, schools with which Czech and Polish universities had long-standing cooperation were involved in the research. The selection of student classes within schools was random, but care was taken to ensure that students who had previously participated in similar surveys were not included again. Each year, between 755 and 1,236 adolescents participated in the study, and the numbers of participants in the autumn (September\u0026ndash;November) and spring (March\u0026ndash;May) periods were comparable. During the study period, 81 Czech and 70 Polish schools agreed to extend participation to a survey of weekly PA levels. Subsequently, 53 Czech and 49 Polish schools also agreed to include the assessment of students\u0026rsquo; well-being. The surveys in Czech and Polish schools were conducted throughout the study period by the same two-person research teams.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt the initial session, participants were informed about the aims and benefits of the study and about how the results would be reported. They were also informed about how the findings would be used to support physical activity in schools and to improve the school environment related to healthy lifestyles. During the initial session, all participants registered in the web-based application \u003cem\u003eInternational Database for Research and Educational Support\u003c/em\u003e (Indares; \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ewww.indares.com\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"http://www.indares.com\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e). To ensure anonymity, personal data were registered under an assigned identification code. Summary results for the whole sample and for selected participant groups were provided to participants and school management within two weeks after the completion of the survey. All participants and their parents provided written informed consent to participate in the study and to allow the use of the research data. Refusal to participate was rare, as the data collection was conducted within the educational process.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study was conceptually grounded in the socio-ecological model of physical activity and health promotion, which emphasizes the importance of multiple factors influencing physical behaviour within the educational context [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. The temporal structure of the study was defined by four study stages: 2008\u0026ndash;2011, 2012\u0026ndash;2015, 2016\u0026ndash;2019, and 2020\u0026ndash;2023 (Fig.\u0026nbsp;1). For all analyses, participants were divided into three groups:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eadolescents not participating in organized PA,\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eadolescents participating in organized non-preferred PA,\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e adolescents participating in organized preferred PA.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;1\u003c/b\u003e Flow diagram of participants included in the study. PA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;physical activity\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eMeasurements\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePhysical activity preferences\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePreferences for PA types were assessed using the Indares Physical Activity Preference Questionnaire. The Indares system enables immediate feedback on PA preferences to administrators of participant groups in the form of summary mean results. The questionnaire has been used for a long time and has been standardized for Czech and Polish populations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. The questionnaire includes 90 types of physical activity classified into seven categories: individual PA, team PA, fitness PA, water PA, outdoor PA, combat PA, dance PA, and general PA. All 90 PA types were evaluated by 10 experts from different sport sectors in terms of their axiological orientation. Experts assigned rankings from first to fifth place to each PA type based on 39 value orientations, with the possibility of listing additional benefits. The sum of these rankings determined the axiological level of each PA type, with lower sums indicating higher axiological value. The axiological orientation of each PA type reflected the predominant focus of the activity, such as health, lifestyle, education, environmental engagement, bio-social development, and other characteristics relevant to quality of life.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the questionnaire, respondents selected their five most preferred PA types, which were assigned ranking points. Newly emerging or unspecified activities were assigned by respondents to the most similar listed PA type or categorized under \u0026ldquo;other\u0026rdquo;. Unselected PA types were assigned scores based on the average of the remaining placements. The final order of preferences was determined by the sum of placement scores followed by the average placement score. The present study analyzed preferences for the PA types ranked first in the preference list. Completion of the online questionnaire required respondents to assign at least a minimum score within each PA category; otherwise, the questionnaire entry was terminated and excluded from the dataset. Due to strong interest from schools and teachers in identifying students\u0026rsquo; PA preferences, as well as the administration of the questionnaire during class time, withdrawal from the study was minimal.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe questionnaire also included a question on participation in organized PA:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Please indicate participation in regularly organized physical activity (i.e., under the supervision of a teacher, trainer, or coach) during a typical week of leisure time in the past 12 months, excluding holidays and vacations.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e Participants indicated whether they participated in organized PA (yes/no), the type of activity, and the number of hours per week.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eWeekly physica activity\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Czech and Polish versions of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire \u0026ndash; long form (IPAQ-LF) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e] were used to assess weekly physical activity levels. Both language versions of the questionnaire underwent the required translation procedures according to the guidelines of the EORTC Quality of Life Group [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]. During the standardization process, the Pearson correlation coefficient of concurrent validity between total PA (MET-min) and weekly step counts ranged from r\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e = 0.231 to r\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e = 0.283. Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha, used as an indicator of internal consistency reliability, was α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.848 for the Polish version and α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.845 for the Czech version. The questionnaire has been widely used and empirically validated in international comparative studies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. The IPAQ-LF includes several types of physical activity. In the present study, vigorous PA, moderate PA, walking, and total weekly PA were analyzed. Data were processed in accordance with the \u003cem\u003eGuidelines for Data Processing and Analysis of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) \u0026ndash; Short and Long Forms\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e]. However, vigorous PA was scored using a coefficient of six METs instead of the recommended eight METs, and the maximum weekly value was capped at 16,000 MET-min/week. A total of 684 respondents were excluded because their responses did not meet the conditions specified in the questionnaire manual.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe recommendation for weekly PA was defined with reference to \u003cem\u003eHealthy People 2030\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e] and the \u003cem\u003ePhysical Activity Guidelines for Americans\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e]. According to the IPAQ response options, meeting the PA recommendation required at least 60 minutes of MVPA on five or more days per week and at least 20 minutes of vigorous PA on three or more days per week [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSelf-Reported Well-Being\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAdolescents\u0026rsquo; well-being was assessed using the WHO-Five Well-Being Index (WHO-5) in Czech and Polish versions (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.psykiatri-regionh.dk/who-5/Pages/default.aspx\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.psykiatri-regionh.dk/who-5/Pages/default.aspx\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe WHO-5 is a brief and widely used instrument that has demonstrated good psychometric properties and suitability for cross-cultural research among adolescents in European populations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e]. The questionnaire is also considered appropriate for comparisons of well-being between adolescent groups [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e]. Participants were categorized into two groups according to their scores: lower well-being (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;13 points) and higher well-being (\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;13 points).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBecause the WHO-5 questionnaire was incorporated into the Indares system only in 2012, well-being data were available for 5,662 participants.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStatistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eStatistical analyses were conducted using Statistica 13 (StatSoft, Prague, Czech Republic) and SPSS version 25 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA). Descriptive statistics and Kolmogorov\u0026ndash;Smirnov and Lilliefors tests were used to assess the normality of the data distribution and to guide the selection of appropriate statistical procedures. Differences between two proportions were evaluated using the difference between two proportions test. Associations between PA levels and participation in organized PA were analyzed using the Kruskal\u0026ndash;Wallis test.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen significant differences were detected, pairwise comparisons between groups were conducted using the Mann\u0026ndash;Whitney U test. Differences in adherence to PA recommendations were examined using cross-tabulation analyses. Binary logistic regression analysis using the standard enter method was applied to estimate the likelihood of meeting PA recommendations. Effect size coefficients (η\u0026sup2;) were interpreted as follows: small effect: 0.01\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;η\u0026sup2; \u0026lt; 0.06, medium effect: 0.06\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;η\u0026sup2; \u0026lt; 0.14 and large effect: η\u0026sup2; \u0026ge; 0.14. Statistical significance was set at \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSample characteristics\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe overall research sample included 14,721 Czech and Polish adolescents. The characteristics of the study participants are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. Notable differences were observed in participation in organized physical activity (PA) between boys and girls. Czech (χ\u0026sup2;\u003csub\u003e(1,8656)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;69.26, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, η\u0026sup2; = 0.008) and Polish (χ\u0026sup2;\u003csub\u003e(1,6065)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;13.74, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, η\u0026sup2; = 0.002) boys participated in organized PA more frequently than girls. Furthermore, Polish boys (χ\u0026sup2;\u003csub\u003e(1,6290)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9.52, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.002, η\u0026sup2; = 0.002) reported higher participation in organized PA than Czech boys. A similar pattern was observed among girls (χ\u0026sup2;\u003csub\u003e(1,8431)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;54.70, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, η\u0026sup2; = 0.007). Only 56% of Czech and 56% of Polish girls reported a positive attitude toward physical education (PE), compared with 73% of Czech and 76% of Polish boys. In contrast, 82% of Czech girls and 78% of Polish girls reported a positive attitude toward physical activity in general, compared with 80% of Czech boys and 81% of Polish boys.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCharacteristics of the study participants\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCharacteristics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoys CZ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoys PL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGirls CZ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGirls PL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003en(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003en(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003en(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003en(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge (years)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWeight (kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeight (cm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e174.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e176.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e165.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e165.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBMI (kg/m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCountries\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3653(24.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2637(17.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5003(34.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3428(23.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStage 2008\u0026ndash;2011\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1340(9.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e633(4.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1923(13.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e746(5.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStage 2012\u0026ndash;2015\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e875(5.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e825(5.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1418(9.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e852(5.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStage 2016\u0026ndash;2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e775(5.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e620(4.2%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e934(6.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e725(4.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStage 2020\u0026ndash;2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e663(4.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e559(3.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e728(4.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1105(7.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrganized PA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2490(68.2%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1893(71.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2973(59.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2309(67.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrganized PA (hours/week)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003eNotes. PA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;physical activity; BMI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;body mass index; M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;mean; SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;standard deviation\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eGender differences in preferences for physical activity types across study stages (2008\u0026ndash;2011, 2012\u0026ndash;2015, 2016\u0026ndash;2019 and 2020\u0026ndash;2023)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong boys, preferences for individual physical activities increased from 23% in the period 2008\u0026ndash;2011 to 29% in 2020\u0026ndash;2023 (χ\u0026sup2;\u003csub\u003e(1,3195)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;15.59, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, η\u0026sup2; = 0.005). At the same time, preferences for team activities decreased from 47% to 38% (χ\u0026sup2;\u003csub\u003e(1,3195)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;27.58, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, η\u0026sup2; = 0.009) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Among girls, even more pronounced changes were observed. Preferences for individual physical activities increased from 21% to 28% across the study period (χ\u0026sup2;\u003csub\u003e(1,4502)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;35.99, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, η\u0026sup2; = 0.008), whereas preferences for team activities decreased from 27% to 18% (χ\u0026sup2;\u003csub\u003e(1,4502)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;56.86, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, η\u0026sup2; = 0.013). In the final study stage (2020\u0026ndash;2023), these changes coincided with the period following the pandemic and with broader social changes in the region.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eGender differences in axiological orientation of preferred physica activity types\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eClear gender differences were observed in the axiological orientation of preferred physical activity types (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Girls more frequently preferred physical activities oriented toward health, regeneration, recreation, aesthetics, family participation, and lifelong engagement. Boys more frequently preferred activities characterized by performance orientation, contact, competition, martial arts, and greater physical challenge. Girls also showed a higher preference for coeducational activities, whereas boys more often preferred single-sex activities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender differences in preferences for the predominant axiological orientation of physical activity types\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePredominant focus of PA types\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoys (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6290)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGirls (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8431)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eU\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eη\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMdn\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIQR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMdn\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIQR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"8\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGirls\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoeducational\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-31.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.160\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHealth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-25.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.104\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVersatile\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-25.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.103\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegenerative and compensatory\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-24.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.094\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMore individual than team\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-23.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.086\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFamily use\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-18.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.057\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysical and mental development\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-17.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.046\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAesthetic and expressive\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-15.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.039\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAffordable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-15.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.038\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecreational and experiential\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-15.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.037\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn aquatic environments\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-14.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.033\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocial contact\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-12.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.026\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeditative\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-9.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.013\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocially prestigious\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-7.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.009\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCreative\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-7.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.008\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLifelong\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-7.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.008\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"8\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBoys\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSingle-sex\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.404\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTactically challenging\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.183\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMartial arts\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.165\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eContact\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.144\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCognitively demanding\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.103\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAggressive\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.078\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExtremely challenging\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.078\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpeed-based\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.078\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-defensive\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.072\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOutdoor environment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.064\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSports performance\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.059\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRisk-taking\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.056\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompetitive\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.036\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStrength-based\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.020\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdventurous\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.008\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003eMdn: median; IQR: interquartile range; U: Mann\u0026ndash;Whitney U test; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e: statistical significance; η\u0026sup2;: effect size coefficient. Preferences are ranked by median values; lower values indicate stronger preference\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eWeekly physical activity according to participation in organized physical activity\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSignificant differences in vigorous PA were observed across participation groups for both boys and girls (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Among boys, the median level of vigorous PA was lower among adolescents not participating in organized PA (899 MET-min/week) than among those participating in organized preferred PA (1934 MET-min/week) (H\u003csub\u003e(1,2585)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;264.69, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, η\u0026sup2; = 0.102). Boys participating in organized non-preferred PA also reported lower vigorous PA (1506 MET-min/week) compared with those participating in organized preferred PA (1934 MET-min/week) (H\u003csub\u003e(1,2051)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;28.59, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, η\u0026sup2; = 0.013). Similarly, girls who did not participate in organized PA reported lower vigorous PA (634 MET-min/week) than girls participating in organized preferred PA (1594 MET-min/week) (H\u003csub\u003e(1,3777)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;435.83, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, η\u0026sup2; = 0.115). Differences were also observed between girls participating in organized non-preferred PA (1060 MET-min/week) and those participating in organized preferred PA (1594 MET-min/week) (H\u003csub\u003e(1,2799)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;66.60, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, η\u0026sup2; = 0.023). Comparable patterns were observed for total weekly PA. Significant differences according to participation in organized PA were found among boys (H\u003csub\u003e(2,3114)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;117.21, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, η\u0026sup2; = 0.037) and girls (H\u003csub\u003e(2,4706)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;140.63, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, η\u0026sup2; = 0.029). No statistically significant differences were observed for walking.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAssociation between well-being and participation in organized PA\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAmong boys, well-being did not differ significantly according to participation in organized PA across the study stages (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Among girls, however, a decline in well-being was observed across study stages in all participation groups, including girls not participating in organized PA (χ\u0026sup2;\u003csub\u003e(2,1308)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;18.34, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, η\u0026sup2; = 0.014), girls participating in organized non-preferred PA (χ\u0026sup2;\u003csub\u003e(2,736)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;15.53, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.001, η\u0026sup2; = 0.021), and girls participating in organized preferred PA (χ\u0026sup2;\u003csub\u003e(2,1324)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;25.92, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, η\u0026sup2; = 0.020). In the final study stage (2020\u0026ndash;2023), 24% of girls who did not participate in organized PA reported lower well-being.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eOdds of meeting physical activity recommendations according to participation in organized physical activity\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipation in organized preferred PA was associated with the highest likelihood of meeting PA recommendations for both boys and girls (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Adjustment for study stage and country (Model 2) did not attenuate these associations. Boys participating in organized preferred PA were 1.37 times more likely to meet PA recommendations than boys participating in organized non-preferred PA (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.314, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.112, OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.37; 95% CI: 1.10\u0026ndash;1.70, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.005). Similarly, girls participating in organized preferred PA were 1.44 times more likely to meet PA recommendations than girls participating in organized non-preferred PA (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.366, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.097, OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.44; 95% CI: 1.19\u0026ndash;1.75, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). Lower adherence to PA recommendations was observed in the study stage 2020\u0026ndash;2023 compared with the reference stage 2008\u0026ndash;2011. However, this decrease did not eliminate the predictive value of participation in organized PA.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOdds ratios for meeting physical activity recommendations (\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;5\u0026times;60 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous PA and \u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;3\u0026times;20 minutes of vigorous PA per week) according to participation in organized physical activity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePredictor variables\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoys\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGirls\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoys\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGirls\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOR\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(95% CI)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOR\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(95% CI)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOR\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(95% CI)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOR\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(95% CI)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"9\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOrganized PA\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo (ref)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes \u0026ndash; Non-preferred\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(1.53\u0026ndash;2.54)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(1.38\u0026ndash;2.10)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(1.48\u0026ndash;2.46)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(1.34\u0026ndash;2.04)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes \u0026ndash; Preferred\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.70\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(2.22\u0026ndash;3.29)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(2.08\u0026ndash;2.91)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(2.10\u0026ndash;3.12)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(2.02\u0026ndash;2.84)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"9\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eControl variables\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStage 2008\u0026ndash;2011(ref)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"8\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStage 2012\u0026ndash;2015\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(0.74\u0026ndash;1.22)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.709\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(0.80\u0026ndash;1.22)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.881\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStage 2016\u0026ndash;2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.82\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(0.63\u0026ndash;1.07)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.137\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(0.77\u0026ndash;1.22)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.779\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStage 2020\u0026ndash;2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(0.41\u0026ndash;0.73)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(0.52\u0026ndash;0.86)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCzech Republic(ref)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"8\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoland\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(0.92\u0026ndash;1.29)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.339\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(1.12\u0026ndash;1.53)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePA: physical activity; OR: odds ratio; CI: confidence interval; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e: statistical significance; Model 1: unadjusted; Model 2: adjusted for study stages and countries.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe most important finding of this study is the identification of gender differences in the axiological orientation of preferred types of PA. These differences were derived from a secondary evaluation of the benefits associated with different types of PA. Assessing the secondary benefits of PA types may reduce the influence of short-term factors that can affect adolescents\u0026rsquo; activity preferences. Such factors include the presentation of sporting achievements [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e], the influence of sport idols [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e], social media \u0026ldquo;fitspiration\u0026rdquo; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e], and other sociopolitical influences. Gender differences in the perceived benefits of physical activity have been only rarely examined and have mostly focused on general health benefits of PA [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e], lifelong participation in PA [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e], psychosocial development [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e], or active lifestyle promotion [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe gender preferences identified in this study across selected activity categories correspond with previous research conducted in Czech and Polish educational contexts [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e]. While global studies examining gender preferences in PA are still limited, research on participation in sport and leisure-time PA provides broader evidence on gender differences [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e]. Previous studies have most often examined gender differences in specific types of PA [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e], PA intensity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e], leisure-time PA [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e], active travel [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e], and participation in organized PA [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e], as well as geographic [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e], safety-related [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e], and other environmental factors. The importance of identifying gender preferences in PA already in children aged 7\u0026ndash;11 years has been emphasized by Peral-Su\u0026aacute;rez et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e], who suggest that ignoring such preferences may lead to ineffective policies and may contribute to widening gender inequalities in PA.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe decline in girls\u0026rsquo; preference for team physical activities observed in this study may partly reflect the negative impact of the pandemic on girls\u0026rsquo; PA [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Evidence on the effectiveness of interventions designed to promote girls\u0026rsquo; participation in team sports remains inconclusive [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e]. Nevertheless, team sports may provide important mental and social benefits later in life [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e]. Some studies have also shown that participation in organized team sports is associated with fewer mental health problems among children and adolescents, whereas participation in individual sports has sometimes been associated with higher levels of mental health difficulties [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e]. However, it is important to distinguish between participation in traditional competitive sports and participation in diverse forms of organized, often non-competitive physical activities. In this context, Groffik et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e] emphasize that the negative effects of the pandemic could be mitigated by increasing adolescents\u0026rsquo; participation in organized PA, particularly in individual activities that can be practiced regularly even during restrictive conditions at home, in rural areas, or outdoors. Similarly, Hulteen et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e] suggest that promoting accessible activities such as walking, running, and swimming from an early age may be beneficial due to their greater accessibility and lower costs compared with traditional team sports.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e Another important finding of this study is that participation in organized preferred PA was associated with the highest levels of vigorous PA and overall weekly PA, particularly among girls. There is substantial evidence that participation in organized PA contributes to higher levels of PA [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e] and supports the development of long-term habits of regular PA and healthy lifestyles [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e]. However, it is also important to distinguish between habit instigation and habit execution when examining the influence of habits on physical behaviour [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e]. Given the positive effects of participation in organized PA, several authors have emphasized the need to ensure gender equity in access to organized PA opportunities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e65\u003c/span\u003e]. Increasing participation in organized preferred PA therefore appears to be particularly important for promoting PA among girls. It is essential that the professional training of educators, the provision of school-based and extracurricular PA programs, and especially opportunities to participate in organized preferred PA reflect adolescents\u0026rsquo; current and long-term activity preferences. For example, if volleyball is consistently identified as the most preferred team activity among girls [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e], this should encourage the development of new and attractive approaches to its practice. It should also be considered that girls generally face more barriers to participation in extracurricular PA than boys, and that these barriers tend to increase with age among girls [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe positive effects of participation in organized preferred PA are further supported by the observed associations with well-being among both boys and girls. Participation in organized leisure-time physical activity has been associated with higher levels of well-being and perceived health [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e]. These associations appear to be particularly important for adolescent girls, as girls generally report higher levels of mental health difficulties and lower subjective well-being compared with boys [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e67\u003c/span\u003e]. This finding is also important because girls with higher well-being appear to cope better with decreases in weekly physical activity than girls with lower well-being [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe higher odds of meeting PA recommendations among adolescents participating in organized preferred PA are consistent with previous research on organized physical activity. Previous studies have shown that Czech and Polish adolescents participating in organized preferred team sports are more likely to meet PA recommendations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Similarly, girls who do not participate in organized PA have been found to have significantly lower compliance with vigorous PA recommendations compared with girls participating in organized team or individual activities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. Policies and interventions aimed at increasing girls\u0026rsquo; physical activity should therefore focus more strongly on local contexts and on improving safety, affordability, and access to opportunities for physical activity in leisure and transport environments, particularly in countries where participation opportunities differ between boys and girls [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. The need for targeted strategies that empower girls and support self-rated health has also been emphasized [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e68\u003c/span\u003e]. To reduce health inequalities among future generations, public health policies should also focus on social and cultural factors influencing gender norms among young people [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on the results of this study, as well as other research on PA in the Czech\u0026ndash;Polish context [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e], we propose the following paradigm and policy changes to promote PA among adolescent girls:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eEstablish systems to routinely monitor gender differences in preferences and participation in different types of PA.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdapt school PE curricula to better reflect the specific physical, psychological, and social needs of girls.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eDevelop and implement online and hybrid PE formats that incorporate girls\u0026rsquo; preferred types of PA.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen promoting the FITT characteristics of PA, ensure that recommendations related to frequency, intensity, and duration are grounded in adolescents\u0026rsquo; preferred activity types.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen selecting and promoting PA opportunities, emphasize axiological orientations that are particularly valued by girls, especially those related to health, regeneration, recreation, aesthetics, family engagement, and lifelong participation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eStrengthen the promotion of PA types and supportive environments in which girls participate at similar or higher levels than boys, particularly walking and other non-competitive activities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpand opportunities for participation in organized preferred individual physical activities and promote flexible, individualized formats of team activities that may be more attractive to girls (e.g., volleyball).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eSupport girls\u0026rsquo; resilience to social crises by encouraging regular participation in organized preferred PA.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eUse participation in organized preferred PA as a means to strengthen awareness of the positive associations between PA and well-being.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eWithin comprehensive school PA programs, expand opportunities for girls to engage in their preferred types of PA.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn PE classes, promote awareness of enjoyment and satisfaction derived from vigorous PA through girls\u0026rsquo; most preferred activity types.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eStrengths and limitations\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe main strength of this study is the unique assessment of gender differences in PA preferences, which allows for the characterization of the long-term axiological orientation of different types of PA. The findings also identify priorities for promoting girls\u0026rsquo; PA, particularly in the context of the negative impact of the pandemic on adolescents\u0026rsquo; healthy lifestyles in the Czech and Polish educational systems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne limitation of this study is that, within the 16-year cross-sectional design, it was not possible to ensure representative samples of Czech and Polish adolescents for each year of data collection. Another limitation is that the study includes only two Central European countries; therefore, the findings have a regional character. Although adolescents\u0026rsquo; PA preferences may vary across countries and cultures, the approaches to diagnosing such preferences and incorporating them into PA promotion strategies may be broadly applicable. Long-term research also faces challenges in capturing the dynamic nature of gender differences and changes in school curricula and PE practices over time. The implementation of the study findings into PA promotion strategies may also be influenced by the specific organization of PE, including coeducational, single-sex, combined, or online formats.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFuture research should focus on verifying the axiological orientation of preferred PA types, particularly in relation to strategies aimed at supporting less physically active girls. In addition, future studies should examine the long-term effects of participation in organized preferred physical activities among girls.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study highlights the importance of monitoring trends in preferences for types of PA when addressing gender differences in adolescent PA and when designing strategies to support girls\u0026rsquo; PA. The study introduces a novel axiological perspective on PA types, identifying gender differences in the value orientations associated with preferred activities. Respecting gender-specific orientations in the focus of PA may help improve the availability of appropriate PA opportunities for both girls and boys. In particular, providing opportunities for girls to engage in their preferred types of PA within organized programs, school-based activities, and PE should be considered a priority in promoting girls\u0026rsquo; PA and healthy lifestyles. The observed associations between participation in organized preferred PA, higher PA levels, and better subjective well-being provide encouraging evidence supporting a paradigm shift and policy changes aimed at promoting girls\u0026rsquo; PA.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionList\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eBMI\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBody Mass Index\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eCZ\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCzech Republic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eFITT\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequency, Intensity, Time, and Type\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eIPAQ\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInternational Physical Activity Questionnaire \u0026ndash; long form\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eMET\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMetabolic equivalent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eMVPA\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModerate to vigorous physical activity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003e\u003cb\u003ePA\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysical activity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003e\u003cb\u003ePL\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoland\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003e The study protocol was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Physical Culture at Palack\u0026yacute; University in Olomouc (No. 49/24/2012) and by the Ethics Committee of the Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education in Katowice (No. 36/2015). All participants and their parents provided written informed consent prior to participation in the study. Participation in the study was voluntary. Participants were informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any time without any penalty, in accordance with the ethical standards of the Declaration of Helsinki. The anonymity of the participants and the confidentiality of the collected data were ensured by assigning unique identification codes to all participants.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis research was supported by grants from the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports \u0026ldquo;Physical Activity and Inactivity of the Inhabitants of the Czech Republic in the Context of Behavioral Changes\u0026rdquo; (No. MSM6198959221) and Czech Science Foundation project \u0026ldquo;Multifactorial Research on Built Environment, Active Lifestyle and Physical Fitness in Czech Adolescents\u0026rdquo; (No. 14-26896S).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eK.F. and D.G. contributed to the design of the study. K.F. and J.M. analyzed and interpreted the results and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. J.M., M.K. and D.G. contributed to the manuscript by critical revisions and giving comprehensive feedback on multiple drafts. M.P. critically appraised the study and edited the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGuthold R, Stevens GA, Riley LM, Bull FC. Global trends in insufficient physical activity among adolescents: a pooled analysis of 298 population-based surveys with 1.6 million participants. 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Associations of different types of physical activity and sedentary behavior with self-rated health in children and adolescents: a systematic review of research from 2010 to 2024. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2025;22:48. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-025-01747-2\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1186/s12966-025-01747-2\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"archives-of-public-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"aoph","sideBox":"Learn more about [Archives of Public Health](http://archpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"13690","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/13690/3","title":"Archives of Public Health","twitterHandle":"@Archpubhealth","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Organized physical activity, Gender inequalities, Well-being, Paradigm change","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9423876/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9423876/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe long-term lower levels of physical activity (PA) among girls compared with boys represent a global public health concern. Despite numerous interventions, progress in reducing these disparities has been limited, raising questions about the effectiveness of the current paradigm for promoting girls\u0026rsquo; PA. The aim of this study was to identify long-term trends in preferences for PA types and gender differences in the axiological orientation of adolescents\u0026rsquo; PA, and to provide evidence for paradigm and policy changes supporting girls\u0026rsquo; PA.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe research was conducted between 2008 and 2023 and included 8,656 Czech and 6,065 Polish adolescents aged 15\u0026ndash;18 years. Preferences for PA types and their axiological orientation were assessed using the Physical Activity Preference Questionnaire. Weekly PA was measured using the International Physical Activity Questionnaire \u0026ndash; long form (IPAQ-LF). Well-being was assessed using the WHO-5 Well-Being Index. Boys and girls were categorized into three groups: adolescents not participating in organized PA, those participating in organized non-preferred PA, and those participating in organized preferred PA.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eClear gender differences were observed in physical activity preferences. Boys more frequently preferred team sports and martial arts, whereas girls more often preferred dance activities and activities performed in aquatic or outdoor environments. Between 2020 and 2023, preferences for individual physical activities increased and preferences for team activities decreased among both boys and girls. Significant gender differences were also identified in the axiological orientation of preferred physical activities. Girls more often preferred activities emphasizing health, regeneration, recreation, aesthetics, family participation, and lifelong engagement, whereas boys more frequently preferred performance-oriented, competitive, contact, and physically demanding activities. Adolescents participating in organized preferred physical activity showed the highest likelihood of meeting physical activity recommendations and reported the highest levels of well-being.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study documents long-term trends in adolescents\u0026rsquo; PA preferences and highlights changes in these preferences following the COVID-19 pandemic. The findings support a new approach to promoting girls\u0026rsquo; PA based on gender differences in the axiological orientation of activity types. Participation in organized preferred PA was associated with higher weekly PA levels, greater adherence to PA recommendations, and higher subjective well-being. These findings suggest that paradigm and policy changes aimed at supporting girls\u0026rsquo; PA should consider adolescents\u0026rsquo; activity preferences and the value orientations associated with different PA types.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Changing the paradigm and policy for promoting girls' physical activity: a retrospective cross-sectional study","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-05-12 13:58:51","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9423876/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"265582849511344903938754834837664884394","date":"2026-05-14T08:35:09+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-05-04T12:57:26+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-04-27T13:52:38+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-04-24T12:04:35+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Archives of Public Health","date":"2026-04-21T10:18:22+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"archives-of-public-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"aoph","sideBox":"Learn more about [Archives of Public Health](http://archpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"13690","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/13690/3","title":"Archives of Public Health","twitterHandle":"@Archpubhealth","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"71f5c0b7-c7b6-4d90-a4ff-150c51c50858","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 12th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"265582849511344903938754834837664884394","date":"2026-05-14T08:35:09+00:00","index":48,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"25","date":"2026-05-04T12:57:26+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-12T13:58:51+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-05-12 13:58:51","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9423876","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9423876","identity":"rs-9423876","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}