Influence of nitrogen levels, organic amendments and foliar nutrition on growth and yield performance of rice (Oryza sativa L.) in the Cauvery Deltaic Zone

Influence of nitrogen levels, organic amendments and foliar nutrition on growth and yield performance of rice (Oryza sativa L.) in the Cauvery Deltaic Zone | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Influence of nitrogen levels, organic amendments and foliar nutrition on growth and yield performance of rice (Oryza sativa L.) in the Cauvery Deltaic Zone M Kannappan, G Baradhan, S Manimaran, D Venkatakrishnan This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8144642/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Nitrogen (N) is an essential macronutrient vital for crop growth and development and its replenishment in agricultural soil is indispensable for sustainable food production and preventing nutrient depletion. Despite extensive research, there remain significant knowledge gaps in understanding the complex interactions between root-soil interfaces for efficient nitrogen uptake, the root-shoot interaction mechanisms for nitrogen utilization and the development of integrated management strategies to minimize the rice root system for high yield and efficient nitrogen use. The field experiment was conducted during the cropping season using a Randomized Block Design (RBD) with nine treatment and replicated three. The observations on plant growth parameters, physiological indices, biomass production and yield attributes were recorded following standard agronomic procedures. The treatment receiving the 100% recommended dose of fertilizer (120:40:40 kg ha⁻¹) recorded the highest values for plant height (102.67 cm), no. of tillers (402 m⁻²), LAI (5.41), DMP (10,985 kg ha⁻¹), CGR (5.74 g m⁻² day⁻¹), AGR (0.0861 g plant⁻¹ day⁻¹), grain yield (4,978 kg ha⁻¹) and straw yield (7,126 kg ha⁻¹). This was closely followed by the integrated nutrient treatments, with T₆ performing statistically on par with T₄. The combined use of organic with chemical fertilizers and foliar Zn and B significantly improved NUE and minimized nutrient losses. INM practices demonstrate strong potential to reduce dependence on urea, enhance soil health and improve long-term nitrogen-use efficiency in rice production systems. The study provides practical evidence supporting the adoption of sustainable nutrient management strategies in intensively cultivated rice ecosystems. Graphical abstract Biochar Growth Nitrogen Urban compost and Yield Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 1 Introduction Rice ( Oryza sativa L.) is globally the most important cereal crop cultivated for human consumption (Alam et al., 2024 ). Globally, rice occupies an area of 168.58 million hectares, with a total production of 532.87 million tonnes and an average productivity of 4.72 t ha − 1 . In India, rice is cultivated across 50 million hectares, producing 145 million tonnes with a productivity of 4.35 t ha − 1 (USDA, 2025 ). In Tamil Nadu, rice is cultivated across 20.20 lakh hectares, with a production of 81.81 lakh tonnes and a productivity of approximately 4.0 t ha − 1 (Department of Economics and Statistics, 2024–2025). The Cauvery deltaic and its vast canal networks and favourable tropical climate, the delta has traditionally supported intensive rice farming with high yields. However, rising concerns related to soil degradation, nutrient depletion and environmental sustainability have prompted researchers and agronomists to explore the intricate dynamics of nitrogen (N) inputs, organic amendments and foliar spray practices on rice growth, yield attributes and soil health in this ecologically sensitive zone (Mamatha et al., 2024 ). Nitrogen, being one of the most critical macronutrients for rice production, governs essential physiological processes such as chlorophyll synthesis, enzymatic activities and protein formation, all of which influence photosynthesis, plant growth and ultimately grain yield. Conventional reliance on mineral nitrogen fertilizers, quantified by the recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF), while effective in rapidly meeting crop nitrogen demands and boosting yields, has led to challenges including nitrogen use efficiency, progressive soil nutrient imbalance, loss of soil organic matter and environmental pollution through leaching and gaseous losses (Nayak et al., 2022 and Brobery et al., 2023). Consequently, sustainable nitrogen management strategies integrating organic amendments such as biochar, urban compost, goat manure and farm yard manure, along with foliar spray, are increasingly being investigated for their potential to complement or partially substitute chemical fertilizers, enhance nutrient use efficiency and improve soil physical, chemical and biological properties. Organic amendments serve a multifaceted role in this context by supplying nutrients through gradual mineralization, improving soil structure, increasing microbial activity and enhancing soil moisture retention, which collectively contribute to healthier root development and better nutrient uptake (Shankar et al., 2020 ). Biochar, a carbon-rich product derived from pyrolyzed biomass, stands out for its capacity to improve soil aeration, water-holding capacity and cation exchange capacity, thereby reducing nutrient leaching and promoting prolonged nutrient availability (He et al., 2024 ). Urban compost, derived from segregated municipal organic wastes, serves as an important component of Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) in rice production systems by providing a balanced source of macro (N, P, K) and micronutrients (Zn, Fe, Cu, Mn) as well as organic matter that enhances soil fertility and structure. The addition of compost improves cation exchange capacity, water-holding capacity and soil aggregation, thereby creating a favourable rhizosphere environment. More importantly, the organic carbon in compost acts as an energy source for beneficial microbial communities, including nitrogen-fixing bacteria, phosphate-solubilizing microorganisms and cellulolytic fungi, which play vital roles in nutrient mineralization and cycling. When applied in combination with inorganic fertilizers, urban compost enhances nutrient-use efficiency, reduces dependence on chemical fertilizers and sustains rice yields under intensive cropping systems (Gao et al., 2025 ). Goat manure and farmyard manure similarly contribute to long-term soil fertility and biological activity, although their nutrient release rates are comparatively slower (Singh, 2024 ). Foliar spray, the direct application of soluble nutrients to the leaf surface, offers a rapid and targeted fertilization approach that can supplement soil nutrient supply, especially during critical growth stages. It enhances nutrient availability at the site of photosynthesis and metabolic activity, potentially improving chlorophyll content, leaf area development and dry matter accumulation (Rao et al., 2020 ). The continuous intensive cultivation of high-yielding rice varieties supported by substantial mineral fertilizer inputs has resulted in significant soil nutrient mining and declining soil organic carbon levels, thus threatening the sustainability of rice production systems (Singh et al., 2022 ). The decline in soil organic carbon diminishes nitrogen mineralization potential and overall soil fertility, necessitating the incorporation of organic amendments to restore soil health. Furthermore, the traditionally abundant supply of water from the Cauvery delta zone has become increasingly erratic due to upstream water disputes, climate variability and over-extraction of groundwater, which amplifies the challenges of nutrient management in rice cultivation. It is within this context that (INM) approaches, combining chemical fertilizers with organic amendments and foliar spray methods, become indispensable to maintain balanced nutrition, optimize nitrogen use efficiency and achieve desirable yield and quality in rice (Katovh et al., 2024). Research studies in similar agro-ecological settings have demonstrated that the combined use of organics, inorganics and foliar nutrient sprays can significantly enhance growth parameters such as plant height, leaf area index, chlorophyll content and dry matter accumulation, culminating in improved yield attributes including number of productive tillers, panicle length, grain filling and ultimately grain and straw yield (Kushwah et al., 2024 ). Despite these benefits, the precise effects and optimal combinations of nitrogen sources, organic amendments and foliar spray remain region-specific and subject to soil type, climate, varietal response and management practices, underscoring the need for localized comprehensive studies in the Cauvery Delta region. Investigations into the varying nitrogen inputs, incorporating both conventional 100% RDF and organic alternatives like biochar, urban compost, FYM and goat manure coupled with foliar spray, are vital to unravel their comparative effectiveness in improving rice growth and yield while promoting soil health restoration. Emphasis on foliar spray as a supplementary technique merits attention, given its potential to address transient nutrient deficiencies during critical phenological stages, thereby enhancing nutrient utilization efficiency and reducing dependence on higher soil-applied doses. This comprehensive assessment aims to study the nutrient management practices for sustainable rice cultivation in the Cauvery Delta zone, balancing productivity gains with environmental stewardship. It aligns with broader goals of sustainable intensification, whereby increased agricultural output is coupled with the preservation of natural resources and soil ecological functions. 2 Materials and Methods 2.1 Collection and analysis of soil A field experiment was carried out during the Kuruvai season (June -September) of 2024 at Annamalai University, Experimental Farm, Cuddalore District in Tamil Nadu and the soil type were clay soil and the soil order were vertisol (typic Udicchromustert ). The experimental field area comes under the North Eastern Agro-Climatic Zone of Tamil Nadu. The Experimental Farm is geographically located at 11°24 ’ North latitude and 79°44 ’ East longitude with an altitude of + 5.79 m above MSL. The soil belongs to the clay textural class, coarse sand 26.16%, fine sand 16.15%, silt 19.60% and clay 38.03% according to USDA taxonomy, which is clay loam in soil texture, with a pH of 7.20 and EC of 0.17 dSm − 1 . The soil is low in (Subbaiah and Asija 1956) available nitrogen (228 kg ha − 1 ), medium in (Olsen et al., 1954 ) available phosphorus (20.53 kg ha − 1 ) and high in (Stanford and English 1949 ) available potassium (264 kg ha − 1 ). 2.2 Meteorological data for the experimental area The Experimental Farm experiences a tropical climate, characterized by an average annual rainfall of 1500 mm occurring over 57 rainy days. ​Rainfall distribution shows significant seasonal variation: the southwest monsoon contributes 24% (360 mm), the northeast monsoon accounts for 70% (1000 mm) and both the winter and summer months each receive 3% (70 mm) of the total. Annamalai Nagar exhibits moderately warm weather, with particularly hot summer months. Maximum temperatures typically range from 34.2°C to 37.7°C, averaging 36.1°C, while minimum temperatures fall between 20.1°C and 22.8°C, with a mean of 21.6°C. Relative humidity fluctuates between 64% and 77%. During the cropping season, a total rainfall of 194.4 mm was recorded over 15 rainy days, alongside a mean daily sunshine duration of 5.8 hours. The compiled weather data prevailing during the cropping season is illustrated in Fig. 1 . 2.3 Experimental design A field study was conducted at the experimental farm of the Department of Agronomy, Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, from June to September 2024. The experiment utilized a Randomized Block Design (RBD) nine treatment with replicated thrice, on the rice variety ADT 43 (IR 50/Improved White Ponni, developed in 1998 by TRRI, Aduthurai). The treatment comprised of T 1 -100% recommended dose fertilizer (120:40:40 kg ha − 1 ), T 2 -75% RDN through urea + 25% RDN through FYM + 100% RD of P and K + foliar application of zinc sulphate (ZnSO 4 ) @ 0.5% and boron @ 0.3% on 25 and 50 DAT, T 3 -50% RDN through urea + 50% RDN through FYM + 100% RD of P and K + foliar application of zinc sulphate (ZnSO 4 ) @ 0.5% and boron @ 0.3% on 25 and 50 DAT, T 4 -75% RDN through urea + 25% RDN through biochar + 100% RD of P and K + foliar application of zinc sulphate (ZnSO 4 ) @ 0.5% and boron @ 0.3% on 25 and 50 DAT, T 5 -50% RDN through urea + 50% RDN through biochar + 100% RD of P and K + foliar application of zinc sulphate (ZnSO 4 ) @ 0.5% and boron @ 0.3% on 25 and 50 DAT, T 6 − 75% RDN through urea + 25% RDN through urban compost + 100% RD of P and K + foliar application of zinc sulphate (ZnSO 4 ) @ 0.5% and boron @ 0.3% on 25 and 50 DAT, T 7 -50% RDN through urea + 50% RDN through urban compost + 100% RD of P and K + foliar application of zinc sulphate (ZnSO 4 ) @ 0.5% and boron @ 0.3% on 25 and 50 DAT, T 8 -75% RDN through urea + 25% RDN through goat manure + 100% RD of P and K + foliar application of zinc sulphate (ZnSO 4 ) @ 0.5% and boron @ 0.3% on 25 and 50 DAT, T 9 -50% RDN through urea + 50% RDN through goat manure + 100% RD of P and K + foliar application of zinc sulphate (ZnSO 4 ) @ 0.5% and boron @ 0.3% on 25 and 50 DAT. Each of the 21 experimental plots measured 5m × 4m, where two rice seedlings were transplanted per hill with a spacing of 15 cm × 10 cm, maintaining a seed rate of 60 kg ha − 1 . Continuous flooded irrigation was maintained throughout the growth period, ensuring water levels were consistently 3–5 cm above the soil surface. Essential intercultural operations, including gap filling, weeding and pesticide application, were performed as required to ensure optimal growth conditions. At maturity, the rice was harvested approximately 110 days after transplanting. This comprehensive approach allowed for a robust evaluation of different nutrient management strategies on rice cultivation under specified field conditions. 2.4 Statistical analysis The recorded data were analysed statistically by using statistical software using R (version 4.2.2) with R-studio (version 2022.12.0 + 353) and the “Agricole” package was utilized. Overall differences were tested by the “F” test of significance at a 5% ( p ≤ 0.05) level as suggested by (Gomez and Gomez, 2010 ). 3 Result The assessment included growth parameters such as plant height (cm), number of tillers (m − 2 ), leaf area index and dry matter production (kg ha − 1 ) were measured at crop maturity. Additionally, growth dynamics, specifically crop growth rate and absolute growth rate, were estimated over the period from 60 DAT to crop maturity. Yield, including grain and straw yield, was also evaluated. Significant differences were observed in the growth parameters, dynamics and yield among treatments. While the Plant height 102.67 cm, number of tillers 402 m − 2 , leaf area index 5.41, dry matter production 10985 kg ha − 1 , crop growth rate 5.47 g m − 2 day − 1 , absolute growth rate 0.0861 g plant − 1 day − 1 , grain yield 4978 kg ha − 1 and straw yield 7126 kg ha − 1 , respectively, were highest in (T 1 ) treatment, as shown in Tables 1 and 2 followed by (T 6 ), which was on par with (T 4 ). The application of (T 3 ) registered the least growth parameters, dynamics and yield of rice. Table 1 Effect of integrated nutrient management strategies with organic amendments and foliar application on growth on rice Treatments Plant height (cm) No. of tillers (m − 2 ) Leaf Area Index Dry matter production (kg ha − 1 ) T 1 102.67 402 5.41 10985 T 2 92.59 349 4.26 9532 T 3 81.98 283 2.66 7904 T 4 97.90 381 4.91 10258 T 5 87.25 319 3.61 8707 T 6 99.94 389 5.11 10549 T 7 89.78 331 3.93 9128 T 8 95.08 366 4.60 9906 T 9 84.77 304 3.21 8298 F-Test 75.12** 149.37* 134.45** 91.18** SE(m) 0.85 3.54 0.08 104.74 CD (p ≤ 0.05) 2.32 10.00 0.24 314.00 *-significant level. Table 2 Effect of integrated nutrient management strategies with organic amendments and foliar application on growth oriented of rice Treatments Crop growth rate (g m − 2 day − 1 ) Absolute growth rate (g plant − 1 day − 1 ) T 1 5.74 0.0861 T 2 5.06 0.0760 T 3 4.03 0.0604 T 4 5.39 0.0809 T 5 4.60 0.0690 T 6 5.48 0.0822 T 7 4.88 0.0732 T 8 5.26 0.0790 T 9 4.31 0.0647 F-Test 31.96** 289.40** SE(m) 0.10 0.0005 CD (p ≤ 0.05) 0.30 0.0015 *-significant level. 4 Discussion 4.1 Growth parameters The comparative evaluation of different nitrogen input sources, such as 100% recommended dose of fertilizers, biochar, urban compost, FYM and goat manure, on critical growth attributes such as plant height, number of tillers, leaf area index (LAI), dry matter production (DMP), growth-oriented such as crop growth rate and absolute growth rate. Growth metrics, including plant height and LAI, a key indicator of photosynthetic capacity, were markedly enhanced under treatment (T 1 ) 100% RDF application, reflecting the optimal nutrient availability and balance that mineral fertilizers provide, thus directly supporting vigorous cell division, elongation and leaf expansion processes. Empirical evidence highlights that 100% RDF not only increases plant height significantly compared to other inputs but also promotes a higher LAI (around 6.02 at 60 DAT), indicating a denser, more photosynthetically active foliage, which is critical for maximizing biomass accumulation. This is further substantiated by the elevated dry matter yields observed under treatment of 100% RDF, from nitrogen supports chlorophyll synthesis, as evidenced by significantly increased SPAD value, correlating strongly with improved nitrogen uptake efficiency, thereby resulting in more efficient photosynthetic activity and assimilate production necessary for biomass growth (Tirkey et al., 2024 ; Yogi et al., 2024 ). The organic nature of urban compost not only supplies nitrogen but also enhances soil physical conditions, microbial activity and nutrient cycling, fostering a more sustainable and gradual nutrient release that supports steady plant growth. It effectively improves soil organic carbon content and nutrient availability, which positively influences root development and nutrient uptake, contributing favorably to the growth attributes (Chen et al., 2022 ; Dong et al., 2022 ). Studies of (Dharminder et al., 2021) confirm that urban compost amendments stimulate plant height and leaf area expansion by offering a balanced supply of macro and micronutrients while improving soil moisture retention and structure, which are critical under suboptimal or marginal soil conditions. Although the peak values of plant growth and chlorophyll content under urban compost are slightly lower than 100% RDF, the compost's capability to enhance microbial-mediated nutrient availability plays a crucial role in maintaining plant vigor and leaf greenness, as indicated by increased SPAD value. However, excessive application may sometimes limit growth due to nutrient imbalances or salinity issues, but overall, urban compost remains a robust organic alternative, especially for sustainable agriculture contexts. Additionally, foliar spray of zinc sulphate represents an effective nutrient delivery mechanism, as it can be easily absorbed and translocated into the phloem from the leaf surface and typically involves lower application rates than soil applications (Hashim et al., 2020 ). Also, boron application could contribute to the boron content's overall growth rate in root and shoot systems (Anand et al., 2020 ). Biochar application exhibits growth promotion effects closely comparable to urban compost, situating itself effectively on par regarding plant height, LAI, dry matter production and SPAD value. Biochar's porous structure improves soil aeration, water retention and cation exchange capacity, indirectly promoting root growth and nutrient acquisition, which translates into improvements in aboveground morphological traits (Yadav et al., 2023 ). Biochar can adsorb nutrients and reduce their leaching, thus enhancing nutrient use efficiency in resource-limited soils (DeLuca et al., 2024 ). Physiologically, biochar amendments have been associated with increased leaf greenness and improved photosynthetic parameters, as reflected by higher SPAD reading. Short and long-term biochar applications contribute to significant increments in plant height and biomass, though these increments tend to be moderate compared to 100% RDF. Additionally, biochar influences antioxidant enzyme activities within plants, reducing oxidative stress and promoting healthier physiological states conducive to growth (Nguyen et al., 2018 ). However, the response to biochar is variable and depends on factors such as application rate, feedstock type and soil conditions. When biochar is blended, its benefits are enhanced due to improved nutrient content and reduced toxic compounds, closely mirroring the growth-promoting effects of urban compost. This synergy indicates that biochar is a viable amendment for improving growth attributes, often matching urban compost performance but generally falling short of the rapid nutrient availability (Zhou et al., 2021 ; Ma et al., 2023 ). The application of 100% RDF (T 1 ) had significantly produced the highest crop growth rate (CGR) and absolute growth rate values (AGR) as the plants had the optimized nutrient supply, significantly enhancing the plant growth and development during the reproductive stages. These findings agreed with the previous findings of (Tirkey et al., 2024 ; Yogi et al., 2024 ). Following (T 1 ), the combination of 75% nitrogen as urea, 25% nitrogen as urban compost and foliar application of 0.5% ZnSO 4 and 0.3% boron (T 6 ) also produced a high CGR and AGR. The combination of urban compost and inorganic fertilizer growth could be explained better by the greater synchronization of crop primary, secondary and micronutrient availability of key nutrients for nutrient translocation, starch production and photosynthesis. Therefore, the highest values of CGR and AGR were a function of improved source-sink relationships and carbon assimilation (Ghosh et al., 2022 ). The foliar application of zinc enhanced growth through a synergistic interaction and the ability to be absorbed efficiently through the phloem. Xylem transport is essential for the accumulation of zinc in the rice grain, while phloem transport from the leaves and stem could also greatly contribute to enhanced CGR and AGR (Saikh et al., 2022 ), which also matches earlier experiments by (Mohapatra et al., 2024 ; Vignesh and Sudhagar Rao, 2019 ). Additionally, the slow-releasing nutrients associated with urban compost, as well as the surface-banded zinc sulphate and boron applications, ensured that the necessary nutrient elements became available in the plants at critical stages of growth in the rice crop. Also, foliage-applied boron is shown to deliver faster and more efficient increases in plant biomass, as evidenced by increases in CGR and AGR measures by (Singh et al., 2021 ). Application of biochar leads to higher plant height and shows significantly the highest DMP, tillers and LAI all occurring at different levels of nitrogen and biochar, aligned with the previous findings by (Shukla et al., 2024 ; Sridhar et al., 2019 ). 4.2 Yield The studies highlight the effectiveness of the treatment application of 100% RDF (T 1 ) significantly enhancing grain and straw yield. The increase in grain output is due to nitrogen’s beneficial effects on expanding the size of the source and creating an optimal source-to-sink connection, respectively depicted in Fig. 2 . These findings are consistent with the results documented by (Tirkey et al., 2024 ; Yogi et al., 2024 ). This was closely followed by a treatment 75% of the recommended nitrogen applied as urea, 25% nitrogen as urban compost, 100% P and K and foliar applications with 0.5% ZnSO 4 and 0.3% boron (T 6 ). The combined application of the recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF) with urban compost enhances nutrient availability due to the decomposition of the compost, which releases readily accessible macronutrients N, P and K along with essential micronutrients zinc, iron, manganese and copper, ultimately resulting in the highest grain yield as underlined by (Kumar et al., 20278). In treatment of urban compost with RDF exhibited and accelerated the vegetative growth, resulting in increased straw yield is also sustained by the findings of (Aktar et al., 2018 ; Sultana et al., 2022 ). The treatment (T 6 ) showed outcomes statistically comparable to treatment (T 4 ), which comprised 75% N as urea, 25% N as biochar and 0.5% ZnSO 4 and 0.3% boron as foliar applications. The high carbon content in biochar has been shown to enhance both the number of grains and overall grain yield. These findings are consistent with previous research by (Chen et al., 2021 ; Liu et al., 2016 ). Additionally, the use of biochar has increased straw yield by approximately 13–14% (Koyama and Hayashi, 2017 ; MacCarthy et al., 2020 ). This improvement is likely due to biochar application rates, which boost nutrient availability and soil moisture retention. The increase in crop productivity with biochar application can be attributed to improvements in soil cation exchange capacity (CEC), pH balance, base saturation, nutrient retention and maximum availability of water to plants. Ultimately, the increased grain yield of rice can be attributed to the enhanced total uptake of essential nutrients and their efficient translocation to the economic parts of the plant. This improved nutrient absorption and distribution plays a crucial role in boosting the overall productivity of rice crops. These observations align with the results of (Chen et al., 2021 ; Tran and Tran, 2024 ; Hoque et al., 2025 ). 5 Conclusion The evaluation of different nitrogen inputs, 100% RDF, urban compost, biochar, FYM and goat manure reveals that 100% RDF consistently delivers the best results in enhancing plant growth parameters such as plant height, no. of tillers, leaf area index, dry matter production. This efficacy is primarily due to the immediate availability of essential nutrients in RDF, which are crucial for optimal chlorophyll synthesis, photosynthetic activity and efficient nutrient uptake, thereby promoting robust plant growth and biomass accumulation. ​​Notably, urban compost presents a promising avenue for partially substituting chemical nitrogen in rice cultivation. Its inclusion not only provides essential nutrients but also enriches soil organic matter, consequently improving overall soil quality. ​This partial substitution mitigates the environmental and health risks associated with the exclusive use of synthetic fertilizers, promoting eco-friendly farming practices. ​Furthermore, integrating organic amendments with targeted foliar nutrition strategies enhances nutrient uptake efficiency and minimizes nutrient losses, contributing to sustainable agriculture. These findings underscore the potential for achieving both productivity and environmental sustainability within a circular bio economy by effectively recycling urban organic waste into agricultural systems. ​Consequently, urban compost stands out as an ecologically sound alternative for maintaining rice cultivation in intensive production systems, fostering resilient and environmentally responsible agroecosystems. Declarations Acknowledgements I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the Faculty of Agriculture, Annamalai University, Chidambaram, for providing access to resources and literature necessary for the completion of this research article. I am sincerely thankful for the opportunity to pursue this work. Their support has played a vital role in enabling me to carry out my research and complete my master’s journey. Author Contribution MK contributed to conceptualization, investigation and preparation of original drafts; GB was involved in conceptualization, data curation and investigation; SM handled review, editing and plagiarism check; and DV contributed to review and editing. Competing interests: The authors state that they have no competing interests. Ethical approval : No study involving ethical approval was conducted. References Aktar S, Islam MS, Hossain MS, Akter H, Maula S, Hossain SSF (2018) Effects of municipal solid waste compost and fertilizers on the biomass production and yield of (cv. BRRI Dhan 50). Prog Agric 29(2):82–90. https://doi.org/10.3329/pa.v29i2.38291 Alam MM, Hossain AM, Hakim A, Islam MR, Soufan W, El Sabagh A et al (2024) Application of vermicompost to boro rice (BRRI Dhan 28) can save phosphate fertilizer with sustaining productivity and soil fertility. 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Agric Ecosyst Environ 349:108445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2023.108445 MacCarthy DS, Darko E, Nartey EK, Adiku SG, Tettey A (2020) Integrating biochar and inorganic fertilizer improves productivity and profitability of irrigated rice in Ghana, West Africa. Agronomy 10(6):904. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10060904 Mamatha B, Mudigiri C, Ramesh G, Saidulu P, Meenakshi N, Prasanna CL (2024) Enhancing soil health and fertility management for sustainable agriculture: a review. Asian J Soil Sci Plant Nutr 10:182–190. https://doi.org/10.9734/ajsspn/2024/v10i3330 Mohapatra SS, Behera SD, Behera B, Sahu G, Jena J, Giri KS et al (2024) Yield and quality of aromatic rice varieties under nutrient management in organic environment of Coastal Odisha. Indian J Ecol 51(3):552–558. https://doi.org/10.55362/IJE/2024/4272 Nayak HS, Silva JV, Parihar CM, Krupnik TJ, Sena DR, Kakraliya SK et al (2022) Interpretable machine learning methods to explain on-farm yield variability of high productivity wheat in Northwest India. Field Crops Res 287:108640. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2022.108640 Nguyen TTN, Wallace HM, Xu CY, van Zwieten L, Weng ZH, Xu Z et al (2018) The effects of short term, long term and reapplication of biochar on soil bacteria. Sci Total Environ 636:142–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.04.278 Olsen SR, Cole CV, Watanabe FS, Dean LA (1954) Estimation of available phosphorus in soils by extraction with sodium bicarbonate. USDA Circular 939 Rao GB, Balachandrakaumar V, Immanuel RR, Nambi J, Raj TS (2020) Influence of zinc and iron fortified micronutrients on the growth, yield and economics of rice (Oryza sativa L.). Crop Res 55(5–6):202–207. https://doi.org/10.31830/24541761.2020.029 Saikh R, Murmu K, Sarkar A, Mondal R, Jana K (2022) Effect of foliar zinc application on growth and yield of rice (Oryza sativa L.) in the Indo-Gangetic Plains of India. Nusantara Biosci 14(2):182–187. https://doi.org/10.13057/nusbiosci/n140208 Shankar T, Maitra S, Ram MS, Mahapatra R (2020) Influence of integrated nutrient management on growth and yield attributes of summer rice (Oryza sativa L.). Crop Res 55(1–2):1–5. https://doi.org/10.31830/2454-1761.2020.001 Shukla AK, Singh RR, Mishra T, Tripathi KM, Mishra S, Kumar D (2024) Optimizing nutrient uptake in rice crops through integrated organic manure application: a comprehensive analysis of grain and straw composition. Asian J Soil Sci Plant Nutr 10(1):167–174. https://doi.org/10.9734/ajsspn/2024/v10i1223 Singh AK (2024) Response of basmati rice (Oryza sativa L.) to efficient nitrogen management under western UP conditions. Dissertation, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel University of Agriculture and Technology, Meerut Singh N, Kumar N, Anshuman K, Singh S, Yadav S (2021) Effect of foliar application of macro and micro nutrients on growth and yield of rice (Oryza sativa L.). Pharma Innov J 10(9):1356–1359 Singh S, Singh A, Hasanain M (2022) Effect of zinc fertilization on growth and yield of basmati rice (Oryza sativa L.) varieties. Indian J Agron 67(3):227–232. https://doi.org/10.59797/ija.v67i3.11 Sridhar K, Srinivas A, Kumar AK, Ramprakash T, Rao RP (2019) Physiological growth parameters of rabi rice (Oryza sativa L.) under alternate wetting and drying irrigation with varied nitrogen levels. Int J Curr Microbiol Appl Sci 8(1):1–15. https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2019.801.001 Stanford G, English L (1949) Use of flame photometer in rapid soil tests for K and Ca. Agron J 41(9):446–447 Subbiah BV, Asija GL (1956) A rapid procedure for estimation of available nitrogen in soil. Curr Sci 25:259–260 Sultana T, Rahman MM, Hoque MA, Islam MR, Sarker P, Harine I (2022) Effect of municipal solid waste compost and NPK fertilizer on growth, yield and protein content of rice (cv. BRRI dhan49). Arch Agric Environ Sci 7(4):585–589. https://doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2022.0704016 Tirkey N, Singh C, Singh A, Singh AK, Manjhi R, Alam MP et al (2024) Effect of continuous application of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium on growth parameters and yield of rice. Int J Plant Soil Sci 36(3):277–282. https://doi.org/10.9734/ijpss/2024/v36i34424 Tran TXP, Tran DH (2024) Impact of rice straw biochar and reduced chemical fertilizer on the growth and yield of rice (Oryza sativa L.) in Central Vietnam. Res Crops 25(2):222–227. https://doi.org/10.31830/2348-7542.2024.ROC-1069 USDA (2025) World agricultural production. Foreign Agricultural Service, Washington, DC. https://www.fas.usda.gov/data/world-agricultural-production . Accessed 12 Sept 2025 Vignesh ET, Sudhagar Rao GB (2019) Response of low land rice to effective use of organic and inorganic amendments on growth and yield. J Emerg Technol Innov Res 6:268–271 Yadav SPS, Bhandari S, Bhatta D, Poudel A, Bhattarai S, Yadav P et al (2023) Biochar application: a sustainable approach to improve soil health. J Agric Food Res 11:100498. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jafr.2023.100498 Yogi LN, Joshi J, Bhandari S, Adhikari S, Nainabasti (2024) Effect of different doses of NPK fertilizer on growth and yield of rice in Gokuleshwor Baitadi. Heliyon 10:e25346. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e25346 Zhou J, Qu T, Li Y, van Zwieten L, Wang H, Chen J et al (2021) Biochar-based fertilizer decreased while chemical fertilizer increased soil N 2 O emissions in a subtropical Moso bamboo plantation. Catena 202:105257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2021.105257 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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05:26:46","extension":"html","order_by":8,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":117818,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8144642/v1/7df739e13baed34fa53e8f2e.html"},{"id":96686314,"identity":"940380dc-618a-4c79-8512-6a283e33ea7f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-25 05:26:46","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":74562,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eWeather data during the cropping period (June-September, 2024)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8144642/v1/2314ec57c78df62b2e1f2426.png"},{"id":96686315,"identity":"6fe493f9-d8b4-47e9-94cd-fde06aa4544b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-25 05:26:46","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":67747,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffect of integrated nutrient management strategies with organic amendments and foliar application on grain yield and straw yield of rice (kg ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8144642/v1/ca6881c7d4e14c0640d86405.png"},{"id":97139942,"identity":"1ffe5a1e-b983-4453-ad9e-b37f72a3b047","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-01 10:03:24","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":906603,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8144642/v1/a7e000e3-2725-4810-b38b-7547942d69a1.pdf"},{"id":96711104,"identity":"c483d5c5-eb17-49f0-8d1d-27110c9dcda2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-25 10:11:39","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":191089,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGraphical abstract\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"GA.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8144642/v1/9d10b34f7d728a02598d04bf.png"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Influence of nitrogen levels, organic amendments and foliar nutrition on growth and yield performance of rice (Oryza sativa L.) in the Cauvery Deltaic Zone","fulltext":[{"header":"1 Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eRice (\u003cem\u003eOryza sativa\u003c/em\u003e L.) is globally the most important cereal crop cultivated for human consumption (Alam et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Globally, rice occupies an area of 168.58\u0026nbsp;million hectares, with a total production of 532.87\u0026nbsp;million tonnes and an average productivity of 4.72 t ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e. In India, rice is cultivated across 50\u0026nbsp;million hectares, producing 145\u0026nbsp;million tonnes with a productivity of 4.35 t ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e (USDA, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). In Tamil Nadu, rice is cultivated across 20.20 lakh hectares, with a production of 81.81 lakh tonnes and a productivity of approximately 4.0 t ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e (Department of Economics and Statistics, 2024\u0026ndash;2025).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Cauvery deltaic and its vast canal networks and favourable tropical climate, the delta has traditionally supported intensive rice farming with high yields. However, rising concerns related to soil degradation, nutrient depletion and environmental sustainability have prompted researchers and agronomists to explore the intricate dynamics of nitrogen (N) inputs, organic amendments and foliar spray practices on rice growth, yield attributes and soil health in this ecologically sensitive zone (Mamatha et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Nitrogen, being one of the most critical macronutrients for rice production, governs essential physiological processes such as chlorophyll synthesis, enzymatic activities and protein formation, all of which influence photosynthesis, plant growth and ultimately grain yield. Conventional reliance on mineral nitrogen fertilizers, quantified by the recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF), while effective in rapidly meeting crop nitrogen demands and boosting yields, has led to challenges including nitrogen use efficiency, progressive soil nutrient imbalance, loss of soil organic matter and environmental pollution through leaching and gaseous losses (Nayak et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e and Brobery et al., 2023). Consequently, sustainable nitrogen management strategies integrating organic amendments such as biochar, urban compost, goat manure and farm yard manure, along with foliar spray, are increasingly being investigated for their potential to complement or partially substitute chemical fertilizers, enhance nutrient use efficiency and improve soil physical, chemical and biological properties.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOrganic amendments serve a multifaceted role in this context by supplying nutrients through gradual mineralization, improving soil structure, increasing microbial activity and enhancing soil moisture retention, which collectively contribute to healthier root development and better nutrient uptake (Shankar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Biochar, a carbon-rich product derived from pyrolyzed biomass, stands out for its capacity to improve soil aeration, water-holding capacity and cation exchange capacity, thereby reducing nutrient leaching and promoting prolonged nutrient availability (He et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Urban compost, derived from segregated municipal organic wastes, serves as an important component of Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) in rice production systems by providing a balanced source of macro (N, P, K) and micronutrients (Zn, Fe, Cu, Mn) as well as organic matter that enhances soil fertility and structure. The addition of compost improves cation exchange capacity, water-holding capacity and soil aggregation, thereby creating a favourable rhizosphere environment. More importantly, the organic carbon in compost acts as an energy source for beneficial microbial communities, including nitrogen-fixing bacteria, phosphate-solubilizing microorganisms and cellulolytic fungi, which play vital roles in nutrient mineralization and cycling. When applied in combination with inorganic fertilizers, urban compost enhances nutrient-use efficiency, reduces dependence on chemical fertilizers and sustains rice yields under intensive cropping systems (Gao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Goat manure and farmyard manure similarly contribute to long-term soil fertility and biological activity, although their nutrient release rates are comparatively slower (Singh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Foliar spray, the direct application of soluble nutrients to the leaf surface, offers a rapid and targeted fertilization approach that can supplement soil nutrient supply, especially during critical growth stages. It enhances nutrient availability at the site of photosynthesis and metabolic activity, potentially improving chlorophyll content, leaf area development and dry matter accumulation (Rao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe continuous intensive cultivation of high-yielding rice varieties supported by substantial mineral fertilizer inputs has resulted in significant soil nutrient mining and declining soil organic carbon levels, thus threatening the sustainability of rice production systems (Singh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The decline in soil organic carbon diminishes nitrogen mineralization potential and overall soil fertility, necessitating the incorporation of organic amendments to restore soil health. Furthermore, the traditionally abundant supply of water from the Cauvery delta zone has become increasingly erratic due to upstream water disputes, climate variability and over-extraction of groundwater, which amplifies the challenges of nutrient management in rice cultivation. It is within this context that (INM) approaches, combining chemical fertilizers with organic amendments and foliar spray methods, become indispensable to maintain balanced nutrition, optimize nitrogen use efficiency and achieve desirable yield and quality in rice (Katovh et al., 2024).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eResearch studies in similar agro-ecological settings have demonstrated that the combined use of organics, inorganics and foliar nutrient sprays can significantly enhance growth parameters such as plant height, leaf area index, chlorophyll content and dry matter accumulation, culminating in improved yield attributes including number of productive tillers, panicle length, grain filling and ultimately grain and straw yield (Kushwah et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Despite these benefits, the precise effects and optimal combinations of nitrogen sources, organic amendments and foliar spray remain region-specific and subject to soil type, climate, varietal response and management practices, underscoring the need for localized comprehensive studies in the Cauvery Delta region.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eInvestigations into the varying nitrogen inputs, incorporating both conventional 100% RDF and organic alternatives like biochar, urban compost, FYM and goat manure coupled with foliar spray, are vital to unravel their comparative effectiveness in improving rice growth and yield while promoting soil health restoration. Emphasis on foliar spray as a supplementary technique merits attention, given its potential to address transient nutrient deficiencies during critical phenological stages, thereby enhancing nutrient utilization efficiency and reducing dependence on higher soil-applied doses. This comprehensive assessment aims to study the nutrient management practices for sustainable rice cultivation in the Cauvery Delta zone, balancing productivity gains with environmental stewardship. It aligns with broader goals of sustainable intensification, whereby increased agricultural output is coupled with the preservation of natural resources and soil ecological functions.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2 Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1 Collection and analysis of soil\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA field experiment was carried out during the \u003cem\u003eKuruvai\u003c/em\u003e season (June -September) of 2024 at Annamalai University, Experimental Farm, Cuddalore District in Tamil Nadu and the soil type were clay soil and the soil order were vertisol (typic \u003cem\u003eUdicchromustert\u003c/em\u003e). The experimental field area comes under the North Eastern Agro-Climatic Zone of Tamil Nadu. The Experimental Farm is geographically located at 11\u0026deg;24\u003csup\u003e\u0026rsquo;\u003c/sup\u003e North latitude and 79\u0026deg;44\u003csup\u003e\u0026rsquo;\u003c/sup\u003e East longitude with an altitude of +\u0026thinsp;5.79 m above MSL. The soil belongs to the clay textural class, coarse sand 26.16%, fine sand 16.15%, silt 19.60% and clay 38.03% according to USDA taxonomy, which is clay loam in soil texture, with a pH of 7.20 and EC of 0.17 dSm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e. The soil is low in (Subbaiah and Asija 1956) available nitrogen (228 kg ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e), medium in (Olsen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1954\u003c/span\u003e) available phosphorus (20.53 kg ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) and high in (Stanford and English \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1949\u003c/span\u003e) available potassium (264 kg ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2 Meteorological data for the experimental area\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Experimental Farm experiences a tropical climate, characterized by an average annual rainfall of 1500 mm occurring over 57 rainy days. ​Rainfall distribution shows significant seasonal variation: the southwest monsoon contributes 24% (360 mm), the northeast monsoon accounts for 70% (1000 mm) and both the winter and summer months each receive 3% (70 mm) of the total. Annamalai Nagar exhibits moderately warm weather, with particularly hot summer months. Maximum temperatures typically range from 34.2\u0026deg;C to 37.7\u0026deg;C, averaging 36.1\u0026deg;C, while minimum temperatures fall between 20.1\u0026deg;C and 22.8\u0026deg;C, with a mean of 21.6\u0026deg;C. Relative humidity fluctuates between 64% and 77%. During the cropping season, a total rainfall of 194.4 mm was recorded over 15 rainy days, alongside a mean daily sunshine duration of 5.8 hours. The compiled weather data prevailing during the cropping season is illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3 Experimental design\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA field study was conducted at the experimental farm of the Department of Agronomy, Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, from June to September 2024. The experiment utilized a Randomized Block Design (RBD) nine treatment with replicated thrice, on the rice variety ADT 43 (IR 50/Improved White Ponni, developed in 1998 by TRRI, Aduthurai). The treatment comprised of T\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e -100% recommended dose fertilizer (120:40:40 kg ha \u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e), T\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e -75% RDN through urea\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;25% RDN through FYM\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;100% RD of P and K\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;foliar application of zinc sulphate (ZnSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e) @ 0.5% and boron @ 0.3% on 25 and 50 DAT, T\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e -50% RDN through urea\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;50% RDN through FYM\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;100% RD of P and K\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;foliar application of zinc sulphate (ZnSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e) @ 0.5% and boron @ 0.3% on 25 and 50 DAT, T\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e -75% RDN through urea\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;25% RDN through biochar\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;100% RD of P and K\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;foliar application of zinc sulphate (ZnSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e) @ 0.5% and boron @ 0.3% on 25 and 50 DAT, T\u003csub\u003e5\u003c/sub\u003e -50% RDN through urea\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;50% RDN through biochar\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;100% RD of P and K\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;foliar application of zinc sulphate (ZnSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e) @ 0.5% and boron @ 0.3% on 25 and 50 DAT, T\u003csub\u003e6\u003c/sub\u003e \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;75% RDN through urea\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;25% RDN through urban compost\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;100% RD of P and K\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;foliar application of zinc sulphate (ZnSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e) @ 0.5% and boron @ 0.3% on 25 and 50 DAT, T\u003csub\u003e7\u003c/sub\u003e -50% RDN through urea\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;50% RDN through urban compost\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;100% RD of P and K\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;foliar application of zinc sulphate (ZnSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e) @ 0.5% and boron @ 0.3% on 25 and 50 DAT, T\u003csub\u003e8\u003c/sub\u003e -75% RDN through urea\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;25% RDN through goat manure\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;100% RD of P and K\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;foliar application of zinc sulphate (ZnSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e) @ 0.5% and boron @ 0.3% on 25 and 50 DAT, T\u003csub\u003e9\u003c/sub\u003e -50% RDN through urea\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;50% RDN through goat manure\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;100% RD of P and K\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;foliar application of zinc sulphate (ZnSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e) @ 0.5% and boron @ 0.3% on 25 and 50 DAT.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEach of the 21 experimental plots measured 5m \u0026times; 4m, where two rice seedlings were transplanted per hill with a spacing of 15 cm \u0026times; 10 cm, maintaining a seed rate of 60 kg ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e. Continuous flooded irrigation was maintained throughout the growth period, ensuring water levels were consistently 3\u0026ndash;5 cm above the soil surface. Essential intercultural operations, including gap filling, weeding and pesticide application, were performed as required to ensure optimal growth conditions. At maturity, the rice was harvested approximately 110 days after transplanting. This comprehensive approach allowed for a robust evaluation of different nutrient management strategies on rice cultivation under specified field conditions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.4 Statistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe recorded data were analysed statistically by using statistical software using R (version 4.2.2) with R-studio (version 2022.12.0\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;353) and the \u0026ldquo;Agricole\u0026rdquo; package was utilized. Overall differences were tested by the \u0026ldquo;F\u0026rdquo; test of significance at a 5% (\u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;0.05) level as suggested by (Gomez and Gomez, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3 Result","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe assessment included growth parameters such as plant height (cm), number of tillers (m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e), leaf area index and dry matter production (kg ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) were measured at crop maturity. Additionally, growth dynamics, specifically crop growth rate and absolute growth rate, were estimated over the period from 60 DAT to crop maturity. Yield, including grain and straw yield, was also evaluated. Significant differences were observed in the growth parameters, dynamics and yield among treatments. While the Plant height 102.67 cm, number of tillers 402 m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e, leaf area index 5.41, dry matter production 10985 kg ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, crop growth rate 5.47 g m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e day\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, absolute growth rate 0.0861 g plant\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e day\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, grain yield 4978 kg ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e and straw yield 7126 kg ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, respectively, were highest in (T\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e) treatment, as shown in Tables\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e followed by (T\u003csub\u003e6\u003c/sub\u003e), which was on par with (T\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e). The application of (T\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e) registered the least growth parameters, dynamics and yield of rice.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEffect of integrated nutrient management strategies with organic amendments and foliar application on growth on rice\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatments\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePlant height (cm)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo. of tillers (m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeaf Area Index\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDry matter production (kg ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eT\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd 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align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eT\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e81.98\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e283\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7904\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eT\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e4\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e97.90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e381\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.91\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10258\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eT\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e5\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e87.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e319\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.61\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8707\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eT\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e6\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e99.94\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e389\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10549\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eT\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e7\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e89.78\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e331\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.93\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9128\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eT\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e8\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e95.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e366\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9906\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eT\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e9\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e84.77\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e304\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8298\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eF-Test\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75.12**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e149.37*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e134.45**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e91.18**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSE(m)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.85\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e104.74\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCD (p\u003c/b\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u003cem\u003e\u0026le;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u003cb\u003e0.05)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e314.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003e*-significant level.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEffect of integrated nutrient management strategies with organic amendments and foliar application on growth oriented of rice\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatments\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCrop growth rate\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(g m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e day\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAbsolute growth rate\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(g plant\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e day\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eT\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.74\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0861\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eT\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0760\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eT\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0604\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eT\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e4\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0809\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eT\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e5\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0690\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eT\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e6\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0822\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eT\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e7\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0732\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eT\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e8\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0790\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eT\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e9\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0647\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eF-Test\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31.96**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e289.40**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSE(m)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0005\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCD (p\u003c/b\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u003cem\u003e\u0026le;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u003cb\u003e0.05)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0015\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003e*-significant level.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4 Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.1 Growth parameters\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe comparative evaluation of different nitrogen input sources, such as 100% recommended dose of fertilizers, biochar, urban compost, FYM and goat manure, on critical growth attributes such as plant height, number of tillers, leaf area index (LAI), dry matter production (DMP), growth-oriented such as crop growth rate and absolute growth rate. Growth metrics, including plant height and LAI, a key indicator of photosynthetic capacity, were markedly enhanced under treatment (T\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e) 100% RDF application, reflecting the optimal nutrient availability and balance that mineral fertilizers provide, thus directly supporting vigorous cell division, elongation and leaf expansion processes. Empirical evidence highlights that 100% RDF not only increases plant height significantly compared to other inputs but also promotes a higher LAI (around 6.02 at 60 DAT), indicating a denser, more photosynthetically active foliage, which is critical for maximizing biomass accumulation. This is further substantiated by the elevated dry matter yields observed under treatment of 100% RDF, from nitrogen supports chlorophyll synthesis, as evidenced by significantly increased SPAD value, correlating strongly with improved nitrogen uptake efficiency, thereby resulting in more efficient photosynthetic activity and assimilate production necessary for biomass growth (Tirkey et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Yogi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe organic nature of urban compost not only supplies nitrogen but also enhances soil physical conditions, microbial activity and nutrient cycling, fostering a more sustainable and gradual nutrient release that supports steady plant growth. It effectively improves soil organic carbon content and nutrient availability, which positively influences root development and nutrient uptake, contributing favorably to the growth attributes (Chen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Dong et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Studies of (Dharminder et al., 2021) confirm that urban compost amendments stimulate plant height and leaf area expansion by offering a balanced supply of macro and micronutrients while improving soil moisture retention and structure, which are critical under suboptimal or marginal soil conditions. Although the peak values of plant growth and chlorophyll content under urban compost are slightly lower than 100% RDF, the compost's capability to enhance microbial-mediated nutrient availability plays a crucial role in maintaining plant vigor and leaf greenness, as indicated by increased SPAD value. However, excessive application may sometimes limit growth due to nutrient imbalances or salinity issues, but overall, urban compost remains a robust organic alternative, especially for sustainable agriculture contexts. Additionally, foliar spray of zinc sulphate represents an effective nutrient delivery mechanism, as it can be easily absorbed and translocated into the phloem from the leaf surface and typically involves lower application rates than soil applications (Hashim et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Also, boron application could contribute to the boron content's overall growth rate in root and shoot systems (Anand et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBiochar application exhibits growth promotion effects closely comparable to urban compost, situating itself effectively on par regarding plant height, LAI, dry matter production and SPAD value. Biochar's porous structure improves soil aeration, water retention and cation exchange capacity, indirectly promoting root growth and nutrient acquisition, which translates into improvements in aboveground morphological traits (Yadav et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Biochar can adsorb nutrients and reduce their leaching, thus enhancing nutrient use efficiency in resource-limited soils (DeLuca et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Physiologically, biochar amendments have been associated with increased leaf greenness and improved photosynthetic parameters, as reflected by higher SPAD reading. Short and long-term biochar applications contribute to significant increments in plant height and biomass, though these increments tend to be moderate compared to 100% RDF. Additionally, biochar influences antioxidant enzyme activities within plants, reducing oxidative stress and promoting healthier physiological states conducive to growth (Nguyen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). However, the response to biochar is variable and depends on factors such as application rate, feedstock type and soil conditions. When biochar is blended, its benefits are enhanced due to improved nutrient content and reduced toxic compounds, closely mirroring the growth-promoting effects of urban compost. This synergy indicates that biochar is a viable amendment for improving growth attributes, often matching urban compost performance but generally falling short of the rapid nutrient availability (Zhou et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Ma et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe application of 100% RDF (T\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e) had significantly produced the highest crop growth rate (CGR) and absolute growth rate values (AGR) as the plants had the optimized nutrient supply, significantly enhancing the plant growth and development during the reproductive stages. These findings agreed with the previous findings of (Tirkey et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Yogi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Following (T\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e), the combination of 75% nitrogen as urea, 25% nitrogen as urban compost and foliar application of 0.5% ZnSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e and 0.3% boron (T\u003csub\u003e6\u003c/sub\u003e) also produced a high CGR and AGR. The combination of urban compost and inorganic fertilizer growth could be explained better by the greater synchronization of crop primary, secondary and micronutrient availability of key nutrients for nutrient translocation, starch production and photosynthesis. Therefore, the highest values of CGR and AGR were a function of improved source-sink relationships and carbon assimilation (Ghosh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The foliar application of zinc enhanced growth through a synergistic interaction and the ability to be absorbed efficiently through the phloem. Xylem transport is essential for the accumulation of zinc in the rice grain, while phloem transport from the leaves and stem could also greatly contribute to enhanced CGR and AGR (Saikh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), which also matches earlier experiments by (Mohapatra et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Vignesh and Sudhagar Rao, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, the slow-releasing nutrients associated with urban compost, as well as the surface-banded zinc sulphate and boron applications, ensured that the necessary nutrient elements became available in the plants at critical stages of growth in the rice crop. Also, foliage-applied boron is shown to deliver faster and more efficient increases in plant biomass, as evidenced by increases in CGR and AGR measures by (Singh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Application of biochar leads to higher plant height and shows significantly the highest DMP, tillers and LAI all occurring at different levels of nitrogen and biochar, aligned with the previous findings by (Shukla et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Sridhar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.2 Yield\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe studies highlight the effectiveness of the treatment application of 100% RDF (T\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e) significantly enhancing grain and straw yield. The increase in grain output is due to nitrogen\u0026rsquo;s beneficial effects on expanding the size of the source and creating an optimal source-to-sink connection, respectively depicted in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. These findings are consistent with the results documented by (Tirkey et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Yogi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). This was closely followed by a treatment 75% of the recommended nitrogen applied as urea, 25% nitrogen as urban compost, 100% P and K and foliar applications with 0.5% ZnSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e and 0.3% boron (T\u003csub\u003e6\u003c/sub\u003e). The combined application of the recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF) with urban compost enhances nutrient availability due to the decomposition of the compost, which releases readily accessible macronutrients N, P and K along with essential micronutrients zinc, iron, manganese and copper, ultimately resulting in the highest grain yield as underlined by (Kumar et al., 20278). In treatment of urban compost with RDF exhibited and accelerated the vegetative growth, resulting in increased straw yield is also sustained by the findings of (Aktar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Sultana et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe treatment (T\u003csub\u003e6\u003c/sub\u003e) showed outcomes statistically comparable to treatment (T\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e), which comprised 75% N as urea, 25% N as biochar and 0.5% ZnSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e and 0.3% boron as foliar applications. The high carbon content in biochar has been shown to enhance both the number of grains and overall grain yield. These findings are consistent with previous research by (Chen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, the use of biochar has increased straw yield by approximately 13\u0026ndash;14% (Koyama and Hayashi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; MacCarthy et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). This improvement is likely due to biochar application rates, which boost nutrient availability and soil moisture retention. The increase in crop productivity with biochar application can be attributed to improvements in soil cation exchange capacity (CEC), pH balance, base saturation, nutrient retention and maximum availability of water to plants. Ultimately, the increased grain yield of rice can be attributed to the enhanced total uptake of essential nutrients and their efficient translocation to the economic parts of the plant. This improved nutrient absorption and distribution plays a crucial role in boosting the overall productivity of rice crops. These observations align with the results of (Chen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Tran and Tran, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Hoque et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5 Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe evaluation of different nitrogen inputs, 100% RDF, urban compost, biochar, FYM and goat manure reveals that 100% RDF consistently delivers the best results in enhancing plant growth parameters such as plant height, no. of tillers, leaf area index, dry matter production. This efficacy is primarily due to the immediate availability of essential nutrients in RDF, which are crucial for optimal chlorophyll synthesis, photosynthetic activity and efficient nutrient uptake, thereby promoting robust plant growth and biomass accumulation. ​​Notably, urban compost presents a promising avenue for partially substituting chemical nitrogen in rice cultivation. Its inclusion not only provides essential nutrients but also enriches soil organic matter, consequently improving overall soil quality. ​This partial substitution mitigates the environmental and health risks associated with the exclusive use of synthetic fertilizers, promoting eco-friendly farming practices. ​Furthermore, integrating organic amendments with targeted foliar nutrition strategies enhances nutrient uptake efficiency and minimizes nutrient losses, contributing to sustainable agriculture. These findings underscore the potential for achieving both productivity and environmental sustainability within a circular bio economy by effectively recycling urban organic waste into agricultural systems. ​Consequently, urban compost stands out as an ecologically sound alternative for maintaining rice cultivation in intensive production systems, fostering resilient and environmentally responsible agroecosystems.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eI would like to express my sincere gratitude to the Faculty of Agriculture, Annamalai University, Chidambaram, for providing access to resources and literature necessary for the completion of this research article. I am sincerely thankful for the opportunity to pursue this work. Their support has played a vital role in enabling me to carry out my research and complete my master\u0026rsquo;s journey.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMK contributed to conceptualization, investigation and preparation of original drafts; GB was involved in conceptualization, data curation and investigation; SM handled review, editing and plagiarism check; and DV contributed to review and editing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eCompeting interests:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003eThe authors state that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eEthical approval\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e:\u003c/strong\u003e No study involving ethical approval was conducted.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAktar S, Islam MS, Hossain MS, Akter H, Maula S, Hossain SSF (2018) Effects of municipal solid waste compost and fertilizers on the biomass production and yield of (cv. 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Catena 202:105257. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2021.105257\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.catena.2021.105257\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Biochar, Growth, Nitrogen, Urban compost and Yield","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8144642/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8144642/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eNitrogen (N) is an essential macronutrient vital for crop growth and development and its replenishment in agricultural soil is indispensable for sustainable food production and preventing nutrient depletion. Despite extensive research, there remain significant knowledge gaps in understanding the complex interactions between root-soil interfaces for efficient nitrogen uptake, the root-shoot interaction mechanisms for nitrogen utilization and the development of integrated management strategies to minimize the rice root system for high yield and efficient nitrogen use. The field experiment was conducted during the cropping season using a Randomized Block Design (RBD) with nine treatment and replicated three. The observations on plant growth parameters, physiological indices, biomass production and yield attributes were recorded following standard agronomic procedures. The treatment receiving the 100% recommended dose of fertilizer (120:40:40 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1;) recorded the highest values for plant height (102.67 cm), no. of tillers (402 m⁻\u0026sup2;), LAI (5.41), DMP (10,985 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1;), CGR (5.74 g m⁻\u0026sup2; day⁻\u0026sup1;), AGR (0.0861 g plant⁻\u0026sup1; day⁻\u0026sup1;), grain yield (4,978 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1;) and straw yield (7,126 kg ha⁻\u0026sup1;). This was closely followed by the integrated nutrient treatments, with T₆ performing statistically on par with T₄. The combined use of organic with chemical fertilizers and foliar Zn and B significantly improved NUE and minimized nutrient losses. INM practices demonstrate strong potential to reduce dependence on urea, enhance soil health and improve long-term nitrogen-use efficiency in rice production systems. The study provides practical evidence supporting the adoption of sustainable nutrient management strategies in intensively cultivated rice ecosystems.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGraphical abstract\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Influence of nitrogen levels, organic amendments and foliar nutrition on growth and yield performance of rice (Oryza sativa L.) in the Cauvery Deltaic Zone","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-11-25 05:26:41","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8144642/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"3f0ca009-a795-4065-9f27-493c875be9dd","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 25th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-12-01T06:24:08+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-11-25 05:26:41","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8144642","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8144642","identity":"rs-8144642","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}