Relationship between soil seed bank and standing vegetation: An effective approach to conclude plant invasion pattern in Indian dry tropical peri-urban region

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The tropical regions due to favorable environmental conditions are considered rich reservoirs of much of the biodiversity of the earth. The Indian dry tropical urban region has also been reported to be highly diverse but fragile with abundant alien flora, of which American, Asian, and European and Asian species form the major contributions. By the allelopathic activity, these weeds alter the soil environment, cause low productive systems with weak soil microflora and accelerate their fast spread by fast colonization, fast reproduction, or highly competitive ability. These weedy species have a great potential to make persistent soil seed banks. The soil seed bank is a reservoir of viable but ungerminated seeds and acts as a genetic reservoir that could play an important role in determining the future vegetation of the community. The present study carried out four different land use patterns and focused on the seed bank dynamics of these sites. In this study, the abundance of alien invasive species in the floristic composition and density of the subterranean vegetation reflects the impact of disturbance and other anthropogenic factors. Soil seed bank Invasive alien species Disturbance Associated standing vegetation Diversity Spatio-temporal Changes Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Introduction Biological Invasion has been documented as a serious environmental concern in both developed and developing countries due to their strong ecological and economic impacts (Pimental et al. 2001, Villa et al. 2011). Due to globalization through trade, travel, and tourism, the spread of human populations has facilitated the translocation of species beyond their natural biogeographic boundaries and most of these species become invasive in the region of concern (Khuroo et al. 2012 ). According to Weber et al. 2008 , knowledge of invasive alien species varies considerably in different regions of the world, as both socio-economic factors such as population density and degree of urbanization, as well as biogeographic factors such as latitude and climate correlate with the establishment of alien species (Lonsdale 1999 ; Rejma´nek 2000 ). India is currently undergoing rapid economic development and increasing urbanization. Over the past two decades, India’s expanding economy has triggered major infrastructure development projects that have resulted in ecological side effects with negatively impacted biodiversity (Monney et al. 2005), and have also promoted the invasion of alien species (Sharma et al. 2005; Weber et. al. 2008 ). These disturbances are widely recognized as one of the main factors influencing variations in species diversity (Noss 1996 ) and productivity in the country (Brooks and Berry, 2006 ). The transformation of the primary natural ecosystem into an anthropogenic system in and around urbanized landscapes is a result of human activities, which results in a reduction in plant species diversity due to the elimination of several native species that facilitate the accelerating spread of competitive superior exotic species. The increasing dominance of a few invasive species reinforces the global homogenization of biodiversity by reducing local diversity and distinctiveness (Austin, 1990 , Foster, 2004). In dry tropics, particularly peri-urban areas that are both ecologically and economically important and considered highly heterogenous for plants’ survival and establishment (Pysek et al. 2004) and it is crucial that species especially those turning invasive, exhibit phenotypic plasticity through variation in morphological and eco-physiological traits. This is considered a potential mechanism for successful colonization in these heterogenous peri-urban areas. (Lehman and Rebele 2005) The exotic plant species differ from native ones with respect to their requirement, and their way of acquiring their resources which may lead to changes in soil structure, soil profile, decomposition, nutrient content, moisture, etc. (Seker 2012). It is often reported that weeds and ruderals invade open and disturbed areas because they have a faster growth rate and biomass production compared to native species, are highly competitive, and have high reproductive efficacy including the production of large numbers of seeds, effective dispersal, vegetative reproduction, rapid establishment, and other characteristics that help them adapt to new habitats (Simberloff et al. 2005 ; Sharma et al. 2005). It is now a well-established fact that the exchange of alien species between continents is not a random phenomenon, but is significantly influenced by political history, cultural background, the extent of trade and travel (di Castri, F 1989 ; Thuiller et al. 2005 ) and climatic match between the destination and source regions (Rouget et al. 2004 ; Thuiller et al. 2005 ; Bomford et al. 2009 ). Many researchers have attempted to identify the specific traits that can be considered an important factor for the invasiveness of alien plants. Reproductive traits have been shown to play a particularly important role in the naturalization and invasiveness of alien plants. Much evidence suggests that the formation of seed banks that can persist in the soil over multiple regeneration seasons i.e., Persistence seed bank (Thompson and Bekker 1997; Walck et al. 2005) is an important species trait (Giora et al. 2020) that increases the probability of naturalization of alien species (Giora, 2021). It also serves as a source of seeds that are ready to take advantage of environmental conditions to maximize their reproductive success. The study of soil seed banks has great potential to provide insights into the causes of species invasiveness and the factors that influence the susceptibility of established communities to invasion. It can be a central pathway for exploring the potential cause of plant Invasion. In India, very little information is available about the pathways that are involved in the introduction and spread of alien species. In our country where different regions have different geographical, climatic, and socio-economic conditions, few studies have addressed the role of seed banks to describe the plant invasion pattern along climate gradients and different land use patterns. This ecological investigation will contribute to generating a better understanding of plant invasion in a rising peri-urban area of India. Materials And Methods Study area The present study was carried out in Bulandshahr (28º24’ N lat. and 77º51’ E long.), the western part of Uttar Pradesh, which is located in the upper doab of the Ganges and Jamuna rivers at an altitude of ca.180 m above msl. Bulandshahr, in the vicinity of Delhi, has witnessed a range of developmental activities in the past five decades. This region has witnessed the emergence of several industries such as about 300 brick kiln industries, several dairy industries, pottery industries, and various other small to medium-scale industries, besides the preponderance of varying dimensions of agricultural fields in isolated patches. Kali river passes through the city that carries off polluted industrial and domestic wastes. All these diverse factors have caused the emergence of a range of habitat conditions for investigating the complex vegetation-environmental relations in peri-urban areas. Four study sites covering a variety of habitats corresponding to diverse land use patterns were selected for the present study. These study sites were: (1) Grazing land (GL), (2) Kali River bank (KRB), (3) Agricultural land (AL), and (4) Brick kiln area (BK). BK site witnessed active brick baking operation for 12 years between 1988 and 2000 at a large commercial scale and was abandoned since the last few years. The GL site was located near a dairy milk industry. The cows, goats, buffaloes, horses, etc. frequently grazed here. The KRB site was located along the banks of river Kali, a tributary of Ganga that receives untreated and partially treated industrial effluents and domestic sewage through heavily silted drains. AL site was earlier occupied by a mango-guava orchard and witnessed a shift to cereals and vegetable cultivation during the last 30 years. The climate is semi-arid having three distinct seasons: winter (November-February), summer (March-June), and rainy (July-October). The annual mean temperature was 31°C. The monthly mean minimum temperature ranged from 7.5°C (January) to 29.6°C (June), and the mean maximum from 17°C (January) to 39.6°C (May). Annual mean rainfall was 528 mm. Moderately low rainfall, high saturation deficit, and the marked temperature difference make the climate semi-arid in nature. Vegetation sampling- The floristic composition of the four study sites was recorded monthly. The phytosociological study was carried out by the quadrat method. The phytosociological data were quantitatively analyzed for density and basal cover according to Curtis and Mc Intosh (1951). The plant species were identified according to Sharma (1980) and Gaur (1999). The nativity of the all-plant species was obtained from Index Kewensis and some recently published literature and the origin of the plant species was categorized broadly at the continental scale, viz. Asia (excluding the Indian subcontinent), Europe, Africa, North America, South America, and Australia. If a non-native species occurred in Asia as well as another continent(s), then it was placed under Asia. The species whose invasion status could not be ascertained were placed under the 'unknown (Uk)' category. Seed bank study- Soil samples were collected, each from the center of half of the size of permanent plots i.e., 4 m ´ 2 m to determine the taxonomic position and size of the soil seed bank (size of permanent plots i.e., 4 m ´ 4 m) in two season winter and summer. From each of the permanent plots, soil samples (each of the size of 25 cm ´ 25 cm) were collected with the help of a knife and spoon. Seed density was estimated by the seedling emergence method. This technique is considered effective for assessing both the transient and persistent components of the seed bank (Thompson and Grime 1979). The surface of the soil was cleared off the existing live plant parts, litter, debris, etc. before the collection of soil samples. The soil was air-dried and sieved through a 2 mm sieve to remove vegetative fragments. The soil was then spread uniformly in round earthen pots (size: 20 cm upper diameter, 18 cm bottom diameter, and 5 cm deep). Pots were arranged in glass houses and watered regularly. The majority of germination occurred within six months but pots were monitored for nine months to record the late emergents. The total number of seedlings counted in each soil sample during the study period was considered as the seed density, corresponding to available viable seeds. The seedlings were allowed to grow to the identifiable stage and then eliminated. Similarities of soil seed flora among study sites and their similarities with the standing vegetation were compared using a modified Sorenson similarity coefficient index to estimate the standing flora's dynamic nature. Where jN = total no. of species present in both flora; aN = total no. of all species in seed bank flora and bN = total no. of all species in standing vegetation. Soil analysis- The surface soil samples (0-5 cm) were collected seasonally from each site air-dried and sieved (2 mm). The soil moisture content, Soil organic carbon, and pH were estimated by Walkley and Black method, and total nitrogen was determined by micro-kjeldahl's method following (Piper 1944). Available phosphorus, exchangeable calcium, and potassium of the soils were estimated following Allen et al.1986. Results Taxonomic composition A total of 115 plant species distributed over 95 genera and 34 angiospermic families were recorded across all 4 sites and 3 different seasons (Appendix 1)). Among 115 plant species (predominantly annuals 67%), most of the species were forbs (76) followed by grasses (28), shrubs (8), climbers (2), and tree (1) Fig. 1 . The predominant family was Poaceae (21) followed by Asteraceae (11) and Malvaceae, Amaranthaceae, Fabaceae, and Cyperaceae (7 species of each) while among non-native species Poaceae (18) followed by Asteraceae (10 species), Malvaceae and Ameranthaceae (7 Species each) occupied top positions. (Fig. 2 ) Of all recorded plant species, only 14% were native to India and the remaining 86% were alien species that have invaded from different 7 continents. More than 71% of alien species were introduced from three geographical regions namely South America (36), Asia (18), and Europe (17). The remaining species were from Africa (9), North America (7), and Australia (3), and 8 species were Pantropical, while 1 species was cryptogenic with unknown origin (Fig. 3 b). Seed Bank Density The total seed density (aggregate of mean seed density of summer and winter seed banks) at different depths (Table 1 ) showed relatively higher seeds were found in the surface soils of agricultural land, Kali River bank, and brick kiln sites. Seed density showed a variable trend with increasing depth. It decreased with depth at agricultural land and Kali River bank. It increased with depth in grazing land. Table 2 compares the mean seed density (surface soils) of summer and winter seed banks as well as some phytosociological characteristics (plant density, basal cover, and basal cover/ind.) of associated standing vegetation. The number of seedlings emergent recorded in both summer and winter seed banks during the summer season was much comparable. The BK site showed higher seed density in the summer seed bank and many reductions in seed density in the winter seed bank of the AL site were observed in the rainy and winter seasons. Relatively lower seed density was recorded in soils of the KRB site in the rainy season. The plant density in the standing vegetation varied with changes in sites and seasons. Plant density was generally lower in the summer season. The plant density across different sites and seasons was generally lower than the seed density in the surface soils. In the GL site, however, both densities were relatively comparable, especially during the wet season. Table 1 Total seed numbers (aggregate of means of summer and winter seed bank density) in different depths across four study sites in a dry tropical peri-urban region. Study sites/ soil depths (cm) 0–5 5–10 10–15 Total seeds m − 2 (0–15 cm depth) Agricultural land 5813 3551 2975 12339 Grazing land 1065 1481 1373 3919 Kali river bank 1045 763 413 2221 Brick kiln 4775 - - 4775 Table 2. Mean seasonal seed density in the summer seed bank (SSD) and winter seed bank (WSD) (based on seedling emergents recorded in different seasons), above-ground plant density in the field (FD), basal area (BA, cm 2 m − 2 ), and basal area per individual (BAI) across four contrasting study sites and three seasons, estimated over two years of study in surface soils (0–5 cm). SSD FD BA BA/I WSD FD BA B rick kiln Brick kiln Rainy 1821 748 135 0.18 Rainy 1231 1078 98 0.09 Winter 1188 278 208 0.748 Winter 81 765 120 0.16 Summer 175 366 366 1 Summer 281 434 151 0.35 Agricultural land Agricultural land Rainy 1462 814 65 0.08 Rainy 513 714 109 0.15 Winter 2356 908 97.8 0.108 Winter 263 961 330 0.34 Summer 244 203 73 0.36 Summer 1425 436 12 0.03 Grazing land Grazing land Rainy 142 714 42.6 0.06 Rainy 150 1145 91 0.08 Winter 267 601 88 0.146 Winter 394 728 38 0.05 Summer 42 191 92 0.482 Summer 156 223 22.75 0.1 Kali river bank Kali river bank Rainy 138 336 100 0.298 Rainy 158 519 57 0.11 Winter 263 293 138 0.471 Winter 125 326 24.65 0.08 Summer 38 203 104 0.512 Summer 325 254 40.09 0.16 Relationship Of A Seed Bank With Standing Vegetation There is a markable difference between soil seed bank density and above-ground plant density of invasive species from different geographic origins. The invasive species had higher density in the seed bank than the field density of corresponding continents, whereas native plant species had greater field density in comparison to seed numbers of native plants. The below-ground density occupied by plant species with respect to their origin in different continents was in the order of Europe > Asia > Pantropical > North America > South America > Tropical Africa, while the above-ground density occupancy was in the order of Asia > Europe > South America > Pantropical > Australia > Tropical Africa > North America (Fig. 3 ). This indicates that Eurasia dominants in terms of density of standing vegetation and seed bank vegetation among all continents (Fig. 3 ). In contrast to density, species richness of alien species is higher in above-ground vegetation as compared to the soil seed bank. For above ground, the order is South America followed by Asia, Europe, Tropical Africa, Pantropic, North America and one is cryptogenic with unknown origin, whereas the order in soil seed bank studies in Asia followed by South America, Europe, North America, Pantropic and Tropical Africa. The similarity in species composition of summer and winter seed banks at four different sites shows that the summer seed bank at ABK, KRB, and GL sites generally had lower similarity to the corresponding seed banks at these sites in winter (Table 3 ). At GL site, both seed banks i.e., summer and winter had relatively greater similarity to the respective winter and summer seed banks of KRB, AL, and BK sites. AL site had a comparably higher similarity between the species composition of both seed banks i.e., summer and winter. The flora of winter seed bank generally showed greater similarity to the standing vegetation than the flora of summer seed bank to the standing vegetation Table 4. The composite flora of the summer seed bank and winter seed bank and the composite flora of the standing vegetation in permanent plots over two years indicated ≤ 5 % similarity at ABK and GL sites and ≥ 0 % similarity at AL and KRB sites. The soil characteristics of the sites are summarized in Table 5 . Table 3 The similarity of a summer seed bank with winter seed bank across different study sites. The first letter indicates the seed bank of summer (S) or winter (W); the next two/three letters represent site codes: BK (brick kiln), GL (grazing land), AL (agricultural land), and KRB (Kali River bank). The values indicate the similarity coefficient (modified Sorenson index). SGL SAL SKRB WBK WGL WAL WKRB SBK 0.47 0.26 0.33 0.35 0.33 0.13 0.29 SGL 0.47 0.47 0.46 0.28 0.14 0.37 SAL 0.32 0.38 0.47 0.46 0.44 SKRB 0.35 0.20 0.07 0.36 WBK 0.40 0.30 0.55 WGL 0.44 0.46 WAL 0.31 Table 5 The similarity of species compositions of the soil seed bank and standing vegetation at four study sites. Values against codes: SSB (summer seed bank); WSB (winter seed bank); CSB (combined seed bank); Veg 1 (standing flora recorded for a year subsequent to SSB germination); Veg 2 (standing flora recorded for a year subsequent to WSB germination); SI 1 , SI 2, and SI 3 indicated similarity between SSB and Veg 1, WSB and Veg 2, CSB and CVeg. Site Brick kiln Grazing land Agricultural land Kali river bank SSB 9 8 23 9 Veg 1 43 54 49 36 SI 1 0.30 0.22 0.52 0.26 WSB 13 22 16 19 Veg 2 29 29 25 28 SI 2 0.48 0.38 0.34 0.52 CSB 17 25 30 23 CVeg 51 52 50 39 SI 3 0.42 0.46 0.64 0.54 Table 5 Soil Properties of different sites in different seasons. Summer Soil pH 7.72 ± 0.42 7.34 ± 0.44 8.15 ± 0.38 7.38 ± 0.49 Soil moisture (%) 1.53 ± 0.73 2.48 ± 1.34 10.1 ± .014 3.60 ± 1.80 Soil organic carbon (%) 0.41 ± 0.64 1.33 ± 0.24 0.79 ± 0.11 1.07 ± 0.37 Winter Soil pH 8.80 ±. 0.5 8.30 ± 0.64 7.99 ± 0.64 7.20 ± 0.31 Soil moisture (%) 18.36 ± 1.8 11.25 ± 0.24 17.42 ± 0.98 15.03 ± 0.56 Soil organic carbon (%) 0.16 ± .07 1.30 ± 0.31 0.66 ± 0.27 1.16 ± 0.40 Rainy Soil pH 7.32 ± 0.43 6.91 ± 0.61 7.87 ± 0.24 7.86 ± 0.37 Soil moisture (%) 20.6 ± 0.13 13.5 ± 0.22 17 ± 0.98 14.4 ± 0.24 Soil organic carbon (%) 0.11 ± 0.8 0.79 ± 0.42 0.39 ± 0.11 0.47 ± 0.35 Total N .023 ± .002 .007 ± .0023 .035 ± .003 .04 ± .003 C: N 9.856 162.86 17.52 22.5 P (mg/g) .0018 ± .002 .032 ± .005 .035 ± .002 .030 ±. 10 Ca(mg/g) .29 ± .04 .44 ± .08 .62 ± .04 .37 ± .09 K (mg/g) .57 ± 06 .71 ± .09 .91 ±. 04 .45 ± .01 The emergence behavior pattern of dominant species of aboveground and belowground vegetation was compared by plotting a graph between the seed and field density of each species Seed bank density was found to be positively related to the plant density of standing vegetation at corresponding sites (R 2 = 0.3845, P 0.05) (Fig. 4 b). Soil organic carbon showed a relatively declining trend with seed density (Fig. 4 c), However, this relation was not found for field density (Fig. 4 b). Soil moisture showed a positive and significant relationship with seed density (R 2 = 0.4977, P 0.05) (Fig. 4 e, f). Discussion The present ecological investigation was conducted in a developing peri-urban area of dry tropics in terms of spatial-temporal variation to understand the pattern of plant invasion. It reflects the effects of disturbance arising from urbanization and various land use changes on the natural vegetation, resulting in native species being replaced by non-native species with higher plant diversity. This disturbance is a great factor in the generation of mosaic habitat conditions with the introduction of new species to the peri-urban region (Connell 1978 ; Gupta and Narayan 2006 ; Pickett and White 1985 ). The predominance of annuals (67%) in our floristic list indicates the disturbing site’s soils as reported by several researchers (Foster and Stubbdeck 1980; Tilman 1983 ). Singh et al. ( 2010 ) also reported the dominance of annuals in the total invasive alien flora of UP. The high fraction of annuals may be due to a variety of agricultural and other anthropogenic activities (Rejmanek and Richardson 1996 ; Weber et al. 2008 ) and are more plastic and capable of invading a larger geographical area compared to perennials (Huang et al. 2010 ; McDougall et al. 2011 ). Through their allelopathic activity, these weeds alter the soil environment, lead to low productive systems with weak soil microflora, and accelerate their rapid spread through fast reproductive and highly competitive ability, especially in disturbed sites (Sharma et al. 2005) (Fig. 1 ). About 52% of the total invasive weed species in this study belong to only five families. Poaceae and Asteraceae are dominant families. These angiospermic families have been reported to contribute to most exotic weed species in India, China, and South Africa (Rao and Murugan 2006 Hung et al. 2009) and not only in Asian countries but also worldwide with tropical or warm climates (Pysek 1998; Zerbe et al. 2004 ; Wu et al. 2010 ). The occurrence of 86% invasive plant species of total flora originating from all continents shows that persisting disturbance (e.g., grazing, anthropogenic pressure) creates a platform for the onset of biological invasion from around the world. These species complete 2–3 generations annually and gradually displace native flora and also make persistent soil seed banks. In this work, approximately 79% of total invasive species were introduced only from the American (South and North) and Eurasian continents. According to one report, about 18% of the Indian flora constitutes aliens, of which 55% are American, 30% Asian and Malaysian, and 15% European and Central Asian species (Nayar 1997 ; Reddy 2008 and Singh et al. 2010 ). (Fig. 3 b.). Khuroo et al. 2012 also reported that South America is the native region of 35% of the total alien flora of India. The largest proportion of flora of American origin (43%) in this study and throughout the country, in general, can be attributed to the increase in international trade between Asia and the Americas and their biogeographic affinities (Liu et al. 2006 and Weber et al. 2008 ). Huang et al. ( 2009 ) reviewed 306 papers on noxious invasive plants in China and found that many invaders from the American continent exert strong allelopathic effects on native species. They believe this may indicate that novel weapons have a strong competitive ability and are less related to native plants According to them, this may indicate that novel weapons may exhibit a strong competitive ability and are less related to native plants (Xu and Qiang 2004 ; Huang et al. 2009 ). Table 2. showed the total seed density (aggregate of mean seed density of summer and winter seed banks) across different depths at various sites. Relatively much higher seeds were found in the surface soils of all sites except Grazing land. In grazing land, seeds in surface soils are reduced due to frequent animal movement, damage by them, or seeds being eaten by the grazing animals. Several researchers, such as Jutila ( 1998 ) and Aggarwal et al. (2012), have reported disturbances affecting the seed density in grazing land. The relatively low seed density at the Kali river bank is indicative of the seed being swept off by the rise and fall of river waters after rains. Seed density showed a variable trend with increasing depth. The declining trend of seed density with increasing depth is reported by Leck et al. 1989 ; Teketay 2005 and Traba et al. 2004 ). The higher spikelet density in the upper soil layer may result from direct deposition on the soil surface together with low sediment accretion and disturbance rates (Keddy and Reznicek 1982 ) while the reason for lower seed accumulation in deeper soil layers may be processed ongoing during and after seed rain and incorporation into the soil, such as decomposition and displacement (Espinar et al. 2005 ). However, the invasive status of a species cannot be determined only by differences in seed viability, but also depends on the dispersal characteristics of the species and external factors (Richardson and Pysek 2012; Gioria et al. 2019 ). In addition, the long-distance dispersal of invasive species is often human-mediated, which affects the relative importance of species traits in invasion processes (Richardson and Pysek 2012; Gioria et al. 2019 ; Gioria et al. 2021). The seed bank size could depend upon the time of sampling. The winter emergents were generally higher in summer seed banks and contrastingly, the summer emergents were higher in the winter seed banks ( Table 3 ). This contrasting result is likely due to the difference in the timing of seed rain by the annual plant species in dry tropics. After soil sampling, in the pot culture experiment for the seed bank studies, the seeds germinated when conditions were favorable for germination such as light, moisture, and temperature. Thus most seeds germinated according to their suitable conditions in the first growing season (Russi et al. 1992 ). The higher field density in the rainy season at each site suggests that soil moisture favored the occurrence of a greater number of the herbaceous plant species population on account of the semi-arid climate of this area (Sharma and Upadhyaya, 2002). Above-ground standing density was generally lower than surface soil seed density in both seed banks. Greater seed bank density and species richness could be a symptom of pre-invasion environmental degradation (Gioria and Osborne, 2010 ; Gaertner et al., 2011) and associated with intentional or unintentional introduction of alien species. Changes in the above-ground vegetation composition (species abundance, diversity, and composition) will increasingly affect the seed bank, with overall effects on the vegetation as the invasion process (Levine 2000 ; Hejda et al. 2009 ; Gaertner et al. 2011; Vilà et al. 2011; Gioria et al. 2021). Seeds of alien species can be considered as 'sleeper cells' that can unleash their invasive potential under changing environmental conditions by replacing long-lived native species with short-lived alien species (Turner et al. 2008 ). In addition, native species seed diversity and density are also important determinants of ecological resilience because they buffer the effects of species displacement and changes in their abundance in the vegetation (Pugnaire and Lazaro, 2000; Brown and Fridley, 2003 ). Both summer and winter seed banks at the GL site exhibited much higher similarity to their respective seed banks (Table 4), suggesting that grazing resulted in homogenization of seed bank composition between the sites due to the persistence disturbances (Herault and Hiernaux, 2004). However, summer and winter seed bank composition differed mainly on account of different seasonal annuals. Higher compositional similarity (47%) at the AL site in both seed banks was due to the occurrence of several species common to both summer and winter seed banks. However, the overall inter-seed bank similarity and dissimilarity indicated temporal and spatial variation among seed bank samples (Forcella, 1984 ) and inherent to the nature of the habitat studied (Vila and Gimeno, 2007) and are the norm as indicated by differences among successional stages, seasons, and environmental gradients (Thompson 1978; Henderson et al. 1988; Peco et al. 1998 a). It was also shown that one season's seed bank population. Species diversity in seed bank flora at the studied sites was always less than the species diversity of the standing flora (Table 5 ). The seed bank flora at site BK and site GL had much lower floristic similarity among themselves. On the other hand, KRB and AL sites had higher seed bank diversity (60% of above-ground flora) and a comparable percentage of floristic similarity. The similarity and dissimilarity of the seed bank and standing flora are possibly related to the disturbance that varied in nature and intensity at different sites e.g., industrial activities (ABK), grazing (GL), and urban landfills and industrial effluents (KRB), and agricultural practices (AL). The seed bank and vegetation being distinct from each other in varying degrees of magnitude have often been documented (Smith et al. 2002 ; Díaz-Villa et al. 2003 ). The historical position of the established vegetation is often suggested to be a key feature that determines the subsequent composition of seed banks. However, temporal changes in established vegetation brought about by land use changes and abiotic and biotic factors affect the seed bank composition and create dissimilarity among these two components of a plant community. Another reason for the inconsistency between seed banks and established vegetation may be that many species have small seed reservoirs in the soil and remain undetected under most practical samplings (Thompson et al. 1997 ). In our case, this low similarity was due to higher family richness, more species within growth forms, and the presence of shrubs and trees in the vegetation but not in the seed bank. The interrelated relationship between the seed bank and associated above-ground standing vegetation was also evident in this study (Fig. 4 a). The increasing plant density of the standing vegetation with the summer seed bank density is indicating that the seed bank influenced the density structure of the subsequently associated vegetation in the vicinity (Fig. 4 . b); however, the number of seeds and their germination requirements plays a major role in determining the population success and species composition of a community (Espigare and Peco 1993 ). As evinced in this study, soil organic carbon and moisture in dry tropical peri-urban habitats suggest having a substantial effect on the organization of seed banks and community structures. A negative relation (albeit not significant) between summer seed bank density and soil organic carbon indicated higher seed density at lower organic carbon (Fig. c). Possibly at lower soil nutrients status, the larger number of competing weed opportunists turn to fast reproduction and seed set to outcompete other species. This is possibly the strategy of dry tropical weeds. In grassland, soil fertility has often been documented to interfere with seedling establishment (Zobel, 2000). Soil moisture positively affected summer seed bank density (Fig. 4 d). Soil moisture stimulates seed production or germination as water availability is one of the pre-requisites for seed germination (Baskin and Baskin 2005 ; Albrecht 2005 and Teketay (2005 a) and lower moisture indicates high environmental stress and is considered as a limiting factor for seed germination in dry tropics. Plant density decreased with soil organic carbon and increased with increasing soil moisture (Fig. e, f). Huston ( 1979 ) hypothesized that high soil resource availability speeds competitive exclusion (Franz 2001 ). Thus, Climate strongly regulates the spread of alien plants (Richardson and Thuiller 2007 , Essl et al. 2011 ) by influencing all stages of development from seed development to seedling recruitment and survival, establishment, and reproduction (Probert 2000 ; Adler and Hille Ris Lambers 2008; Walck et al. 2011 ). It is evinced in this study that the formation of a persistent seed bank plays a key role in successful invasions, by serving as a source of seeds that are willing to take advantage of environmental conditions to maximize their reproductive success. (Tilman 1997 ; Levine 2000 ; D’Antonio and Thomsen 2004 ; Lockwood et al., 2009; Rejmánek et al. 2005 ; Richardson and Pyšek 2006 ). This may give an alien species a competitive advantage over native species due to differences in the timing of germination (Moravcová et al. 2005 ; Fisher et al. 2009 ) and/or seed persistence, as well as saturation of available microsites (Brown and Fridley 2003 ) which could subsequently limit recruitment of native species (Thomsen et al. 2006 ; Ens and French 2008 ; Fisher et al. 2009 ; French et al. 2011 ). The fact is that small and compact seeds of alien weed species persist longer in the soil than those of their native relatives (Pyke 1990 ; Van Clef and Stiles 2001 ). This is consistent with evidence that the production of large numbers of viable seeds is an important factor in the invasion process (Markova et al. 2010, 2015), particularly small seeds that require light for germination and can germinate rapidly shortly after disturbance (Thompson 1993; Grime et al. 2007 ; Fenner and Thompson 2005 ). In addition, the germination of large numbers of alien plant seeds can inhibit germination of native plant seeds, particularly if dense mats of seedlings of alien species form earlier than native plant seeds (Giora and Osborne 2010; Giora and Pysek 2016), and/or if they displace native plant seedlings by taking up resources more effectively (Giora et al. 2014; Giora and Osborne 2014). Thus, the study of the relationship between soil seed banks and above-ground vegetation has great potential to provide insight into the causes of species invasiveness as well as the factors affecting the susceptibility of resident communities to invasion. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-2594725","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":176646459,"identity":"38f363ca-5e64-4411-91c1-41c5d3e2c4c6","order_by":0,"name":"Shilpi 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University","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Rup","middleName":"","lastName":"Narayan","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2023-02-16 12:14:18","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-2594725/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2594725/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":33239245,"identity":"88c2ef2f-6d99-4d9b-b889-e4683fd58eb8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-02-21 15:32:00","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":13933,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e(a) Life forms distribution of Plant species (b) lifespan form in terms of the total number of plant counts.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-2594725/v1/2c36c5c0d332870258dafcca.png"},{"id":33238209,"identity":"1efa34d1-0c6e-4ec6-9894-f554a844d431","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-02-21 15:24:00","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":32700,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTaxonomic pattern of native and invasive plants -Top dominant families contributing 75% of total plant species.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-2594725/v1/766ab80af009cd9d1b48273a.png"},{"id":33239796,"identity":"8aba6d0b-9d41-4b55-a53f-36cb260b9072","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-02-21 15:40:00","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":25781,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e(a) Density and (b) Species richness of native and invasive species from different continents (including cryptogenic) in field and seed banks contributing to the alien flora.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-2594725/v1/2de0922cd85734467d9ece0d.png"},{"id":33238208,"identity":"5b9ab20a-15ef-4630-8b8b-8b0806f553ba","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-02-21 15:24:00","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":53165,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eShowing relationships between no. of species in the seed bank with the number of species in close standing vegetation (a) and seed density and density of associated standing vegetation (b) and showing above-ground and below-ground plant density in relation to soil nutrients (Soil organic carbon % and moisture content %) (c, d, e, f,).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-2594725/v1/ca84c17c3a995c9e868a5c24.png"},{"id":36930501,"identity":"dbabdb7e-c9f8-46f7-812d-bf018c89e716","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-05-12 03:30:13","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":536043,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-2594725/v1/71aa9ebb-bcb5-49fb-a974-91ec73f04a58.pdf"},{"id":33238206,"identity":"d866c837-aee8-47c7-9ce5-938f52e1f906","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-02-21 15:24:00","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":43902,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Appendix.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-2594725/v1/e2dbdfc0e3c4bc9d33d7ea80.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Relationship between soil seed bank and standing vegetation: An effective approach to conclude plant invasion pattern in Indian dry tropical peri-urban region","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eBiological Invasion has been documented as a serious environmental concern in both developed and developing countries due to their strong ecological and economic impacts (Pimental et al. 2001, Villa et al. 2011). Due to globalization through trade, travel, and tourism, the spread of human populations has facilitated the translocation of species beyond their natural biogeographic boundaries and most of these species become invasive in the region of concern (Khuroo et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). According to Weber et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR95\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e, knowledge of invasive alien species varies considerably in different regions of the world, as both socio-economic factors such as population density and degree of urbanization, as well as biogeographic factors such as latitude and climate correlate with the establishment of alien species (Lonsdale \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e; Rejma\u0026acute;nek \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndia is currently undergoing rapid economic development and increasing urbanization. Over the past two decades, India\u0026rsquo;s expanding economy has triggered major infrastructure development projects that have resulted in ecological side effects with negatively impacted biodiversity (Monney et al. 2005), and have also promoted the invasion of alien species (Sharma et al. 2005; Weber et. al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR95\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). These disturbances are widely recognized as one of the main factors influencing variations in species diversity (Noss \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e) and productivity in the country (Brooks and Berry, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). The transformation of the primary natural ecosystem into an anthropogenic system in and around urbanized landscapes is a result of human activities, which results in a reduction in plant species diversity due to the elimination of several native species that facilitate the accelerating spread of competitive superior exotic species. The increasing dominance of a few invasive species reinforces the global homogenization of biodiversity by reducing local diversity and distinctiveness (Austin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e, Foster, 2004).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn dry tropics, particularly peri-urban areas that are both ecologically and economically important and considered highly heterogenous for plants\u0026rsquo; survival and establishment (Pysek et al. 2004) and it is crucial that species especially those turning invasive, exhibit phenotypic plasticity through variation in morphological and eco-physiological traits. This is considered a potential mechanism for successful colonization in these heterogenous peri-urban areas. (Lehman and Rebele 2005)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe exotic plant species differ from native ones with respect to their requirement, and their way of acquiring their resources which may lead to changes in soil structure, soil profile, decomposition, nutrient content, moisture, etc. (Seker 2012). It is often reported that weeds and ruderals invade open and disturbed areas because they have a faster growth rate and biomass production compared to native species, are highly competitive, and have high reproductive efficacy including the production of large numbers of seeds, effective dispersal, vegetative reproduction, rapid establishment, and other characteristics that help them adapt to new habitats (Simberloff et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Sharma et al. 2005).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt is now a well-established fact that the exchange of alien species between continents is not a random phenomenon, but is significantly influenced by political history, cultural background, the extent of trade and travel (di Castri, F \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1989\u003c/span\u003e; Thuiller et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e) and climatic match between the destination and source regions (Rouget et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Thuiller et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Bomford et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMany researchers have attempted to identify the specific traits that can be considered an important factor for the invasiveness of alien plants. Reproductive traits have been shown to play a particularly important role in the naturalization and invasiveness of alien plants. Much evidence suggests that the formation of seed banks that can persist in the soil over multiple regeneration seasons i.e., Persistence seed bank (Thompson and Bekker 1997; Walck et al. 2005) is an important species trait (Giora et al. 2020) that increases the probability of naturalization of alien species (Giora, 2021). It also serves as a source of seeds that are ready to take advantage of environmental conditions to maximize their reproductive success. The study of soil seed banks has great potential to provide insights into the causes of species invasiveness and the factors that influence the susceptibility of established communities to invasion. It can be a central pathway for exploring the potential cause of plant Invasion.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn India, very little information is available about the pathways that are involved in the introduction and spread of alien species. In our country where different regions have different geographical, climatic, and socio-economic conditions, few studies have addressed the role of seed banks to describe the plant invasion pattern along climate gradients and different land use patterns. This ecological investigation will contribute to generating a better understanding of plant invasion in a rising peri-urban area of India.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials And Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStudy area\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe present study was carried out in\u0026nbsp;Bulandshahr (28\u0026ordm;24\u0026rsquo; N lat. and 77\u0026ordm;51\u0026rsquo; E long.), the western part of Uttar Pradesh, which is located in the upper doab of the Ganges and Jamuna rivers at an altitude of ca.180 m above msl.\u0026nbsp;Bulandshahr, in the vicinity of Delhi, has witnessed a range of developmental activities in the past five decades. This region has witnessed the emergence of several industries such as about 300 brick kiln industries, several dairy industries, pottery industries, and various other small to medium-scale industries, besides the preponderance of varying dimensions of agricultural fields in isolated patches. Kali river passes through the city that carries off polluted industrial and domestic wastes.\u0026nbsp;All these diverse factors have caused the emergence of a range of habitat conditions for investigating the complex vegetation-environmental relations\u0026nbsp;in peri-urban areas.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;Four study sites covering a variety of habitats corresponding to diverse land use patterns were selected for the present study. These study sites were: (1) Grazing land (GL), (2) Kali River bank (KRB), (3) Agricultural land (AL), and (4) Brick kiln area (BK). BK site witnessed active brick baking operation for 12 years between 1988 and 2000 at a large commercial scale and was abandoned since the last few years. The GL site was located near a dairy milk industry. The cows, goats, buffaloes, horses, etc. frequently grazed here. The KRB site was located along the banks of river Kali, a tributary of Ganga that receives untreated and partially treated industrial effluents and domestic sewage through heavily silted drains. AL site was earlier occupied by a mango-guava orchard and witnessed a shift to cereals and vegetable cultivation during the last 30 years.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;The climate is semi-arid having three distinct seasons: winter (November-February), summer (March-June), and rainy (July-October). The annual mean temperature was 31\u0026deg;C. The monthly mean minimum temperature ranged from 7.5\u0026deg;C (January) to 29.6\u0026deg;C (June), and the mean maximum from 17\u0026deg;C (January) to 39.6\u0026deg;C (May). Annual mean rainfall was 528 mm. Moderately low rainfall, high saturation deficit, and the marked temperature difference make the climate semi-arid in nature.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eVegetation sampling-\u0026nbsp;The floristic composition of the four study sites was recorded monthly. The phytosociological study was carried out by the quadrat method.\u0026nbsp;The phytosociological data were quantitatively analyzed for density and basal cover according to Curtis and Mc Intosh (1951).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe plant species were identified according to Sharma (1980) and Gaur (1999).\u0026nbsp;The nativity of the all-plant species was obtained from Index Kewensis and some recently published literature and the origin of the plant species was categorized broadly at the continental scale, viz. Asia (excluding the Indian subcontinent), Europe, Africa, North America, South America, and Australia. If a non-native species occurred in Asia as well as another continent(s), then it was placed under Asia. The species whose invasion status could not be ascertained were placed under the \u0026apos;unknown (Uk)\u0026apos; category.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSeed bank study-\u003c/strong\u003e Soil samples were collected, each from the center of half of the size of permanent plots i.e., 4 m\u0026nbsp;\u0026acute;\u0026nbsp;2 m to determine the taxonomic position and size of the soil seed bank (size of permanent plots i.e., 4 m\u0026nbsp;\u0026acute;\u0026nbsp;4 m) in two season winter and summer. From each of the permanent plots, soil samples (each of the size of 25 cm\u0026nbsp;\u0026acute;\u0026nbsp;25 cm) were collected with the help of a knife and spoon. Seed density was estimated by the seedling emergence method. This technique is considered effective for assessing both the transient and persistent components of the seed bank (Thompson and Grime 1979). The surface of the soil was cleared off the existing live plant parts, litter, debris, etc. before the collection of soil samples. The soil was air-dried and sieved through a 2 mm sieve to remove vegetative fragments. The soil was then spread uniformly in round earthen pots (size: 20 cm upper diameter, 18 cm bottom diameter, and 5 cm deep). Pots were arranged in glass houses and watered regularly. The majority of germination occurred within six months but pots were monitored for nine months to record the late emergents. The total number of seedlings counted in each soil sample during the study period was considered as the seed density, corresponding to available viable seeds. The seedlings were allowed to grow to the identifiable stage and then eliminated.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSimilarities of soil seed flora among study sites and their similarities with the standing vegetation were compared using a modified Sorenson similarity coefficient index to estimate the standing flora\u0026apos;s dynamic nature.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cimg src=\"https://myfiles.space/user_files/58854_b38fc7f3db2c487f/58854_custom_files/img1676945155.png\" width=\"200\" height=\"73\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhere \u003cem\u003ejN\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= total no. of species present in both flora; \u003cem\u003eaN\u003c/em\u003e = total no. of all species in seed bank flora and \u003cem\u003ebN\u003c/em\u003e = total no. of all species in standing vegetation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u003cstrong\u003eSoil analysis-\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe surface soil samples (0-5 cm) were collected seasonally from each site air-dried and sieved (2 mm). The soil moisture content, Soil organic carbon, and pH were estimated by Walkley and Black method, and total nitrogen was determined by micro-kjeldahl\u0026apos;s method following (Piper 1944). Available phosphorus, exchangeable calcium, and potassium of the soils were estimated following Allen et al.1986.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eTaxonomic composition\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA total of 115 plant species distributed over 95 genera and 34 angiospermic families were recorded across all 4 sites and 3 different seasons (Appendix 1)). Among 115 plant species (predominantly annuals 67%), most of the species were forbs (76) followed by grasses (28), shrubs (8), climbers (2), and tree (1) Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. The predominant family was Poaceae (21) followed by Asteraceae (11) and Malvaceae, Amaranthaceae, Fabaceae, and Cyperaceae (7 species of each) while among non-native species Poaceae (18) followed by Asteraceae (10 species), Malvaceae and Ameranthaceae (7 Species each) occupied top positions. (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOf all recorded plant species, only 14% were native to India and the remaining 86% were alien species that have invaded from different 7 continents. More than 71% of alien species were introduced from three geographical regions namely South America (36), Asia (18), and Europe (17). The remaining species were from Africa (9), North America (7), and Australia (3), and 8 species were Pantropical, while 1 species was cryptogenic with unknown origin (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eb).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSeed Bank Density\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe total seed density (aggregate of mean seed density of summer and winter seed banks) at different depths (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) showed relatively higher seeds were found in the surface soils of agricultural land, Kali River bank, and brick kiln sites. Seed density showed a variable trend with increasing depth. It decreased with depth at agricultural land and Kali River bank. It increased with depth in grazing land.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;2 compares the mean seed density (surface soils) of summer and winter seed banks as well as some phytosociological characteristics (plant density, basal cover, and basal cover/ind.) of associated standing vegetation. The number of seedlings emergent recorded in both summer and winter seed banks during the summer season was much comparable. The BK site showed higher seed density in the summer seed bank and many reductions in seed density in the winter seed bank of the AL site were observed in the rainy and winter seasons. Relatively lower seed density was recorded in soils of the KRB site in the rainy season. The plant density in the standing vegetation varied with changes in sites and seasons. Plant density was generally lower in the summer season. The plant density across different sites and seasons was generally lower than the seed density in the surface soils. In the GL site, however, both densities were relatively comparable, especially during the wet season.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal seed numbers (aggregate of means of summer and winter seed bank density) in different depths across four study sites in a dry tropical peri-urban region.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudy sites/ soil depths (cm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u0026ndash;10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u0026ndash;15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal seeds m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(0\u0026ndash;15 cm depth)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAgricultural land\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5813\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3551\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2975\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12339\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eGrazing land\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1065\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1481\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1373\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3919\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eKali river bank\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1045\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e763\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e413\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2221\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBrick kiln\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4775\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4775\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Taba\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"12\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"11\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;2. Mean seasonal seed density in the summer seed bank (SSD) and winter seed bank (WSD) (based on seedling emergents recorded in different seasons), above-ground plant density in the field (FD), basal area (BA, cm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e), and basal area per individual (BAI) across four contrasting study sites and three seasons, estimated over two years of study in surface soils (0\u0026ndash;5 cm).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSSD\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFD\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBA\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBA/I\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWSD\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFD\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBA\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB\u003cb\u003erick kiln\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBrick kiln\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRainy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1821\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e748\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e135\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRainy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1231\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1078\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWinter\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1188\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e278\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e208\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.748\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWinter\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e765\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e120\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e175\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e366\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e366\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e281\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e434\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e151\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAgricultural land\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAgricultural land\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRainy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1462\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e814\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRainy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e513\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e714\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e109\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWinter\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2356\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e908\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e97.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.108\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWinter\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e263\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e961\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e330\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e244\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e203\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1425\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e436\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eGrazing land\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eGrazing land\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRainy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e142\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e714\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRainy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e150\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1145\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWinter\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e267\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e601\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.146\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWinter\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e394\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e728\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e191\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.482\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e156\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e223\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eKali river bank\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eKali river bank\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRainy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e138\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e336\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.298\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRainy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e158\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e519\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWinter\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e263\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e293\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e138\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.471\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWinter\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e125\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e326\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e203\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e104\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.512\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e325\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e254\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eRelationship Of A Seed Bank With Standing Vegetation\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThere is a markable difference between soil seed bank density and above-ground plant density of invasive species from different geographic origins. The invasive species had higher density in the seed bank than the field density of corresponding continents, whereas native plant species had greater field density in comparison to seed numbers of native plants.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe below-ground density occupied by plant species with respect to their origin in different continents was in the order of Europe\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Asia\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Pantropical\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;North America\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;South America\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Tropical Africa, while the above-ground density occupancy was in the order of Asia\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Europe\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;South America\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Pantropical\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Australia\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Tropical Africa\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;North America (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). This indicates that Eurasia dominants in terms of density of standing vegetation and seed bank vegetation among all continents (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn contrast to density, species richness of alien species is higher in above-ground vegetation as compared to the soil seed bank. For above ground, the order is South America followed by Asia, Europe, Tropical Africa, Pantropic, North America and one is cryptogenic with unknown origin, whereas the order in soil seed bank studies in Asia followed by South America, Europe, North America, Pantropic and Tropical Africa.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe similarity in species composition of summer and winter seed banks at four different sites shows that the summer seed bank at ABK, KRB, and GL sites generally had lower similarity to the corresponding seed banks at these sites in winter (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). At GL site, both seed banks i.e., summer and winter had relatively greater similarity to the respective winter and summer seed banks of KRB, AL, and BK sites. AL site had a comparably higher similarity between the species composition of both seed banks i.e., summer and winter.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe flora of winter seed bank generally showed greater similarity to the standing vegetation than the flora of summer seed bank to the standing vegetation Table\u0026nbsp;4. The composite flora of the summer seed bank and winter seed bank and the composite flora of the standing vegetation in permanent plots over two years indicated \u0026le; 5 % similarity at ABK and GL sites and \u0026ge; 0 % similarity at AL and KRB sites.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe soil characteristics of the sites are summarized in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe similarity of a summer seed bank with winter seed bank across different study sites. The first letter indicates the seed bank of summer (S) or winter (W); the next two/three letters represent site codes: BK (brick kiln), GL (grazing land), AL (agricultural land), and KRB (Kali River bank). The values indicate the similarity coefficient (modified Sorenson index).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSGL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSAL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSKRB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWBK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWGL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWAL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWKRB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSBK\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSGL\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSAL\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSKRB\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWBK\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWGL\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWAL\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe similarity of species compositions of the soil seed bank and standing vegetation at four study sites. Values against codes: SSB (summer seed bank); WSB (winter seed bank); CSB (combined seed bank); Veg 1 (standing flora recorded for a year subsequent to SSB germination); Veg 2 (standing flora recorded for a year subsequent to WSB germination); SI\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e, SI\u003csub\u003e2,\u003c/sub\u003e and SI\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e indicated similarity between SSB and Veg 1, WSB and Veg 2, CSB and CVeg.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBrick kiln\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGrazing\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eland\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgricultural\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eland\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKali river\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ebank\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSSB\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVeg 1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSI\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWSB\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVeg 2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSI\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCSB\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCVeg\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSI\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil Properties of different sites in different seasons.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummer\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil pH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.72\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.34\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.38\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil moisture (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.53\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.48\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;.014\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.60\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil organic carbon (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.79\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWinter\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil pH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.80 \u0026plusmn;. 0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.99\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil moisture (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.36\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.42\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil organic carbon (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.66\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRainy\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil pH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.32\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.91\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.87\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.86\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil moisture (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil organic carbon (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.79\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.39\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal N\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.023\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;.002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.007\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;.0023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.035\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;.003\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;.003\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC: N\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.856\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e162.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP (mg/g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.0018\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;.002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.032\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;.005\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.035\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;.002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.030 \u0026plusmn;. 10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCa(mg/g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.29\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.44\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.62\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.37\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eK (mg/g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.57\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.71\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.91 \u0026plusmn;. 04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.45\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe emergence behavior pattern of dominant species of aboveground and belowground vegetation was compared by plotting a graph between the seed and field density of each species Seed bank density was found to be positively related to the plant density of standing vegetation at corresponding sites (R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.3845, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ea), while the relationship between the number of species in both flora was not significant (R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.2539, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eb). Soil organic carbon showed a relatively declining trend with seed density (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ec), However, this relation was not found for field density (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eb). Soil moisture showed a positive and significant relationship with seed density (R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.4977, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) and field density (R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.4425, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ee, f).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe present ecological investigation was conducted in a developing peri-urban area of dry tropics in terms of spatial-temporal variation to understand the pattern of plant invasion. It reflects the effects of disturbance arising from urbanization and various land use changes on the natural vegetation, resulting in native species being replaced by non-native species with higher plant diversity. This disturbance is a great factor in the generation of mosaic habitat conditions with the introduction of new species to the peri-urban region (Connell \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1978\u003c/span\u003e; Gupta and Narayan \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Pickett and White \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe predominance of annuals (67%) in our floristic list indicates the disturbing site\u0026rsquo;s soils as reported by several researchers (Foster and Stubbdeck 1980; Tilman \u003cspan citationid=\"CR88\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e). Singh et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) also reported the dominance of annuals in the total invasive alien flora of UP. The high fraction of annuals may be due to a variety of agricultural and other anthropogenic activities (Rejmanek and Richardson \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e; Weber et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR95\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e) and are more plastic and capable of invading a larger geographical area compared to perennials (Huang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; McDougall et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Through their allelopathic activity, these weeds alter the soil environment, lead to low productive systems with weak soil microflora, and accelerate their rapid spread through fast reproductive and highly competitive ability, especially in disturbed sites (Sharma et al. 2005) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbout 52% of the total invasive weed species in this study belong to only five families. Poaceae and Asteraceae are dominant families. These angiospermic families have been reported to contribute to most exotic weed species in India, China, and South Africa (Rao and Murugan \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e Hung et al. 2009) and not only in Asian countries but also worldwide with tropical or warm climates (Pysek 1998; Zerbe et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR98\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Wu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR96\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe occurrence of 86% invasive plant species of total flora originating from all continents shows that persisting disturbance (e.g., grazing, anthropogenic pressure) creates a platform for the onset of biological invasion from around the world. These species complete 2\u0026ndash;3 generations annually and gradually displace native flora and also make persistent soil seed banks. In this work, approximately 79% of total invasive species were introduced only from the American (South and North) and Eurasian continents. According to one report, about 18% of the Indian flora constitutes aliens, of which 55% are American, 30% Asian and Malaysian, and 15% European and Central Asian species (Nayar \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e; Reddy \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e and Singh et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eb.). Khuroo et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e also reported that South America is the native region of 35% of the total alien flora of India. The largest proportion of flora of American origin (43%) in this study and throughout the country, in general, can be attributed to the increase in international trade between Asia and the Americas and their biogeographic affinities (Liu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e and Weber et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR95\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Huang et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) reviewed 306 papers on noxious invasive plants in China and found that many invaders from the American continent exert strong allelopathic effects on native species. They believe this may indicate that novel weapons have a strong competitive ability and are less related to native plants According to them, this may indicate that novel weapons may exhibit a strong competitive ability and are less related to native plants (Xu and Qiang \u003cspan citationid=\"CR97\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Huang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;2. showed the total seed density (aggregate of mean seed density of summer and winter seed banks) across different depths at various sites. Relatively much higher seeds were found in the surface soils of all sites except Grazing land. In grazing land, seeds in surface soils are reduced due to frequent animal movement, damage by them, or seeds being eaten by the grazing animals. Several researchers, such as Jutila (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e) and Aggarwal et al. (2012), have reported disturbances affecting the seed density in grazing land. The relatively low seed density at the Kali river bank is indicative of the seed being swept off by the rise and fall of river waters after rains. Seed density showed a variable trend with increasing depth. The declining trend of seed density with increasing depth is reported by Leck et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1989\u003c/span\u003e; Teketay 2005 and Traba et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR89\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). The higher spikelet density in the upper soil layer may result from direct deposition on the soil surface together with low sediment accretion and disturbance rates (Keddy and Reznicek \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1982\u003c/span\u003e) while the reason for lower seed accumulation in deeper soil layers may be processed ongoing during and after seed rain and incorporation into the soil, such as decomposition and displacement (Espinar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). However, the invasive status of a species cannot be determined only by differences in seed viability, but also depends on the dispersal characteristics of the species and external factors (Richardson and Pysek 2012; Gioria et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). In addition, the long-distance dispersal of invasive species is often human-mediated, which affects the relative importance of species traits in invasion processes (Richardson and Pysek 2012; Gioria et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Gioria et al. 2021).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe seed bank size could depend upon the time of sampling. The winter emergents were generally higher in summer seed banks and contrastingly, the summer emergents were higher in the winter seed banks \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). This contrasting result is likely due to the difference in the timing of seed rain by the annual plant species in dry tropics. After soil sampling, in the pot culture experiment for the seed bank studies, the seeds germinated when conditions were favorable for germination such as light, moisture, and temperature. Thus most seeds germinated according to their suitable conditions in the first growing season (Russi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e). The higher field density in the rainy season at each site suggests that soil moisture favored the occurrence of a greater number of the herbaceous plant species population on account of the semi-arid climate of this area (Sharma and Upadhyaya, 2002). Above-ground standing density was generally lower than surface soil seed density in both seed banks. Greater seed bank density and species richness could be a symptom of pre-invasion environmental degradation (Gioria and Osborne, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Gaertner et al., 2011) and associated with intentional or unintentional introduction of alien species. Changes in the above-ground vegetation composition (species abundance, diversity, and composition) will increasingly affect the seed bank, with overall effects on the vegetation as the invasion process (Levine \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Hejda et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Gaertner et al. 2011; Vil\u0026agrave; et al. 2011; Gioria et al. 2021). Seeds of alien species can be considered as 'sleeper cells' that can unleash their invasive potential under changing environmental conditions by replacing long-lived native species with short-lived alien species (Turner et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR90\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). In addition, native species seed diversity and density are also important determinants of ecological resilience because they buffer the effects of species displacement and changes in their abundance in the vegetation (Pugnaire and Lazaro, 2000; Brown and Fridley, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoth summer and winter seed banks at the GL site exhibited much higher similarity to their respective seed banks (Table\u0026nbsp;4), suggesting that grazing resulted in homogenization of seed bank composition between the sites due to the persistence disturbances (Herault and Hiernaux, 2004). However, summer and winter seed bank composition differed mainly on account of different seasonal annuals. Higher compositional similarity (47%) at the AL site in both seed banks was due to the occurrence of several species common to both summer and winter seed banks. However, the overall inter-seed bank similarity and dissimilarity indicated temporal and spatial variation among seed bank samples (Forcella, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1984\u003c/span\u003e) and inherent to the nature of the habitat studied (Vila and Gimeno, 2007) and are the norm as indicated by differences among successional stages, seasons, and environmental gradients (Thompson 1978; Henderson et al. 1988; Peco et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003ea). It was also shown that one season's seed bank population.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecies diversity in seed bank flora at the studied sites was always less than the species diversity of the standing flora (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). The seed bank flora at site BK and site GL had much lower floristic similarity among themselves. On the other hand, KRB and AL sites had higher seed bank diversity (60% of above-ground flora) and a comparable percentage of floristic similarity. The similarity and dissimilarity of the seed bank and standing flora are possibly related to the disturbance that varied in nature and intensity at different sites e.g., industrial activities (ABK), grazing (GL), and urban landfills and industrial effluents (KRB), and agricultural practices (AL). The seed bank and vegetation being distinct from each other in varying degrees of magnitude have often been documented (Smith et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; D\u0026iacute;az-Villa et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). The historical position of the established vegetation is often suggested to be a key feature that determines the subsequent composition of seed banks. However, temporal changes in established vegetation brought about by land use changes and abiotic and biotic factors affect the seed bank composition and create dissimilarity among these two components of a plant community. Another reason for the inconsistency between seed banks and established vegetation may be that many species have small seed reservoirs in the soil and remain undetected under most practical samplings (Thompson et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e). In our case, this low similarity was due to higher family richness, more species within growth forms, and the presence of shrubs and trees in the vegetation but not in the seed bank.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe interrelated relationship between the seed bank and associated above-ground standing vegetation was also evident in this study (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ea). The increasing plant density of the standing vegetation with the summer seed bank density is indicating that the seed bank influenced the density structure of the subsequently associated vegetation in the vicinity (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e. b); however, the number of seeds and their germination requirements plays a major role in determining the population success and species composition of a community (Espigare and Peco \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e). As evinced in this study, soil organic carbon and moisture in dry tropical peri-urban habitats suggest having a substantial effect on the organization of seed banks and community structures. A negative relation (albeit not significant) between summer seed bank density and soil organic carbon indicated higher seed density at lower organic carbon (Fig. c). Possibly at lower soil nutrients status, the larger number of competing weed opportunists turn to fast reproduction and seed set to outcompete other species. This is possibly the strategy of dry tropical weeds. In grassland, soil fertility has often been documented to interfere with seedling establishment (Zobel, 2000). Soil moisture positively affected summer seed bank density (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ed). Soil moisture stimulates seed production or germination as water availability is one of the pre-requisites for seed germination (Baskin and Baskin \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Albrecht \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e and Teketay (2005 a) and lower moisture indicates high environmental stress and is considered as a limiting factor for seed germination in dry tropics. Plant density decreased with soil organic carbon and increased with increasing soil moisture (Fig. e, f). Huston (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1979\u003c/span\u003e) hypothesized that high soil resource availability speeds competitive exclusion (Franz \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, Climate strongly regulates the spread of alien plants (Richardson and Thuiller \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e, Essl et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) by influencing all stages of development from seed development to seedling recruitment and survival, establishment, and reproduction (Probert \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Adler and Hille Ris Lambers 2008; Walck et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR94\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt is evinced in this study that the formation of a persistent seed bank plays a key role in successful invasions, by serving as a source of seeds that are willing to take advantage of environmental conditions to maximize their reproductive success. (Tilman \u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e; Levine \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; D\u0026rsquo;Antonio and Thomsen \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Lockwood et al., 2009; Rejm\u0026aacute;nek et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Richardson and Pyšek \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). This may give an alien species a competitive advantage over native species due to differences in the timing of germination (Moravcov\u0026aacute; et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Fisher et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) and/or seed persistence, as well as saturation of available microsites (Brown and Fridley \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e) which could subsequently limit recruitment of native species (Thomsen et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Ens and French \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Fisher et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; French et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). The fact is that small and compact seeds of alien weed species persist longer in the soil than those of their native relatives (Pyke \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e; Van Clef and Stiles \u003cspan citationid=\"CR91\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). This is consistent with evidence that the production of large numbers of viable seeds is an important factor in the invasion process (Markova et al. 2010, 2015), particularly small seeds that require light for germination and can germinate rapidly shortly after disturbance (Thompson 1993; Grime et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Fenner and Thompson \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). In addition, the germination of large numbers of alien plant seeds can inhibit germination of native plant seeds, particularly if dense mats of seedlings of alien species form earlier than native plant seeds (Giora and Osborne 2010; Giora and Pysek 2016), and/or if they displace native plant seedlings by taking up resources more effectively (Giora et al. 2014; Giora and Osborne 2014). Thus, the study of the relationship between soil seed banks and above-ground vegetation has great potential to provide insight into the causes of species invasiveness as well as the factors affecting the susceptibility of resident communities to invasion.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003cp\u003eAdler P B and HilleRis Lambers J (2008). The influence of climate and species composition on the population dynamics of ten prairie forbs. 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Eco 81(12): 3274-3282.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Soil seed bank, Invasive alien species, Disturbance, Associated standing vegetation, Diversity, Spatio-temporal Changes","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-2594725/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2594725/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe natural and semi-natural ecosystems of dry tropical regions are characterized by a high biodiversity with the new introduction of alien invasive species, especially at disturbed sites. The tropical regions due to favorable environmental conditions are considered rich reservoirs of much of the biodiversity of the earth. The Indian dry tropical urban region has also been reported to be highly diverse but fragile with abundant alien flora, of which American, Asian, and European and Asian species form the major contributions. By the allelopathic activity, these weeds alter the soil environment, cause low productive systems with weak soil microflora and accelerate their fast spread by fast colonization, fast reproduction, or highly competitive ability. These weedy species have a great potential to make persistent soil seed banks. The soil seed bank is a reservoir of viable but ungerminated seeds and acts as a genetic reservoir that could play an important role in determining the future vegetation of the community. The present study carried out four different land use patterns and focused on the seed bank dynamics of these sites. In this study, the abundance of alien invasive species in the floristic composition and density of the subterranean vegetation reflects the impact of disturbance and other anthropogenic factors.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Relationship between soil seed bank and standing vegetation: An effective approach to conclude plant invasion pattern in Indian dry tropical peri-urban region","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2023-02-21 15:23:55","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-2594725/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"f1fe3f56-39a8-426e-8f05-c18b69b2b84e","owner":[],"postedDate":"February 21st, 2023","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2023-05-12T03:23:51+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2023-02-21 15:23:55","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-2594725","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-2594725","identity":"rs-2594725","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"oE6Zbj460LM0Up2FdVbMZ","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}