Morphological Dynamics of Padma River: A Study on the Char-Janajat in Madaripur

Morphological Dynamics of Padma River: A Study on the Char-Janajat in Madaripur | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Morphological Dynamics of Padma River: A Study on the Char-Janajat in Madaripur Fatema Akter, Md. Tanhir Hossain, Md. Serajul Islam, Md Rashed Hossain This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8218526/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The Padma River, one of the principal distributaries of the Ganges in Bangladesh, exhibits highly dynamic morphological behavior, leading to recurrent erosion and accretion along its banks. This study investigates the spatiotemporal changes in riverbank morphology and the resultant socio-environmental impacts in Char-Janajat, Madaripur, over a ten-year period (2012–2022). Using Landsat satellite imagery and the Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI) through GIS and Remote Sensing techniques, significant bank-line shifts, erosion, and accretion patterns were quantified. Results reveal a net land gain of 5463 hectares, with peak erosion observed between 2016 and 2018 and maximum accretion between 2018 and 2020. The findings underscore the need for proactive monitoring and management strategies, particularly as 95% of surveyed residents attribute erosion to overflow and upstream water release. This study contributes to a better understanding of fluvial dynamics and calls for localized policy interventions to safeguard vulnerable communities in riverine regions. Riverbank Erosion Char Land Padma River GIS RS NDWI Decadal Change Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Introduction Bangladesh is the location of the largest delta in the world on the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna river systems (Arefin et al., 2021 ). Rivers have a profound impact on social development and livelihoods in the Bengal Delta (Begum et al., 2024 ). Natural phenomena or occurrences in this region include erosion, deposition, and riverine floods. Natural or artificial activities, including deforestation, settlement along riversides, and other human manipulations with natural river water flow, wind, moving water, moving ice, pore water pressures, and moisture levels within the bank, can all contribute to riverbank erosion (Siddeqa et al., 2023 ). Riverbank erosion and riverine floods during the monsoon season are produced by heavy rain in the delta and rising water levels as a result of excessive snowmelt, which increases water discharge in these rivers (Rajib et al., 2011 ). The amount of water that flows following the higher catchment regions increases the intensity and vulnerability of floods, as well as the related riverbank erosion. The integration of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) with Remote Sensing (RS) is the appropriate technique for studying riverbank erosion and accretion (Winterbottom & Gilvear, 2000 ). There are many scholars (Arefin et al., 2021 ; Begum et al., 2024 ; Chowdhury et al., 2021 ; Ety & Rashid, 2020 ; Rahman et al., 2022 ; Rajib et al., 2011 ; Khaleda et al., 2022 ; Siddeqa et al., 2023 ) have investigated riverbank erosion and channel shifting in Bangladesh utilizing GIS and RS technology. In Bhola, Bangladesh, bank erosion along the Meghna River was tracked using GIS and RS. According to the study, there is an average accretion rate of 37348.27 hectares and an erosion rate of 16137.89 hectares. (Siddeqa et al., 2023 ). Another study carried out in Barisal found that the left bank erosion rate is 17.1 hectares/year and the right bank accretion rate is 19.72 hectares/year (Rahman et al., 2022 ). In the Ganges River, erosion is weaker than deposition (1760–2015). Maximum erosion and deposition occurred between 1760–1975 and 1760–2015, respectively (Ety & Rashid, 2020 ). The land area in Mehendiganj Upazila is impacted by river erosion, expanding settlements, and dwindling vegetation. Riverbank management is supported by new buildings in specific areas (Arefin et al., 2021 ). The loss rate for 4470.47 hectares of land is 124.18 hectares per year. Considering the physical conditions that exist now, 43.88% of households are considered extremely susceptible (Chowdhury, 2021). In the surrounding Padma districts, the highest rate of erosion in 35 years (55.42%) occurred on arable land (23661.21 hectares) (Begum et al., 2024 ). The area of land lost as a result of the riverbank is 51.68 km². The Jamuna River has flowed from east to west since 1956 (Khaleda et al., 2022 ). The Padma River in Madaripur, Bangladesh, experiences significant accretion and erosion, which has an impact on the land cover and use of the area (Arefin et al., 2021 ; Begum et al., 2024 ). Padma's morphology is highly dynamic in the study area. The study area's population experiences riverine floods and riverbank erosion almost every year during the monsoon season. However, there are currently no studies or initiatives underway at Char Janajat by the government or any other body to evaluate the rate of erosion and accretion. This study utilizes multi-temporal Landsat satellite imagery to assess the hydrological dynamics of the Padma River near Char-Janajat between 2012 and 2022, aiming to map the extent of riverbank erosion and accretion and evaluate the causes of flood and riverbank erosion. Details of the Study Area The Char-Janajat riverine island is located within the territories of five upazilas – Shibchar, Janjira, Sadarpur, Srinagar, and Lauhajang – spanning four districts: Madaripur, Faridpur, Munshiganj, and Shariatpur. It falls within the Ganges-Padma River basin, which forms part of the active Ganges-Brahmaputra delta in Bangladesh. Administratively, Char-Janajat functions as a union under Shibchar Upazila of Madaripur District, encompassing an area of approximately 31.94 km². However, the broader Char-Janajat Island, often collectively referred to by the same name, covers an estimated 84.09 km² and incorporates sections of six unions. Geographically, the study area lies between 23°15′ and 23°30′ north latitudes and 90°05′ to 90°17′ east longitudes (Banglapedia, 2023). Positioned along the dynamic course of the Padma River, the area is bordered by several other char settlements and fertile agricultural zones, including Char-Amirabad, Akter-Char, Boro Khas Bandarkhola, Bandarkhola Union, Kathalbari Union, and Panchchar Union within Shibchar Upazila. The physiographic setting is characterized by active floodplains and recent alluvial deposits, with elevation ranging from 4 to 6 meters above mean sea level. Char-Janajat exhibits a transient geomorphology, shaped predominantly by seasonal patterns of erosion and accretion, contributing to its environmental vulnerability. The population of Char-Janajat Union is approximately 17,373, with local livelihoods largely based on agriculture, fishing, and informal trade activities (Banglapedia, 2023). The literacy rate, estimated at around 33%, reflects limited educational infrastructure and access within this marginal riverine community. The region is highly susceptible to hydro-morphological changes and natural hazards, particularly monsoon flooding and riverbank erosion. In light of these characteristics, Char-Janajat under Shibchar Upazila in Madaripur District has been selected as the study area for investigating the morphological dynamics of the Padma River, with a specific focus on riverbank erosion (Fig. 1 ). Methodology Landsat Satellite images The month of November is selected for this analysis because the monsoon season in Bangladesh occurs from June to October. During this time, river erosion happens frequently, leading to changes in the river channels. Therefore, November is the ideal time to obtain the necessary images (Table 1 ) for analyzing erosion and accretion. Table 1 Satellite ID and Acquired Time of Images (Generated by the Authors) Satellite ID Acquired Time Resolution Sensor Landsat 7 November 2012 30m*30m Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) Landsat 8 November 2014 30m*30m Operational Land Imager (OLI) Landsat 8 November 2016 30m*30m Operational Land Imager (OLI) Landsat 8 November 2018 30m*30m Operational Land Imager (OLI) Landsat 8 November 2020 30m*30m Operational Land Imager (OLI) Landsat 8 November 2022 30m*30m Operational Land Imager (OLI) Analysis of the Riverbank Erosion and Accretion In this study, the Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI) was applied to effectively differentiate between water bodies and land surfaces in the Char-Janajat area using multi-temporal Landsat satellite imagery. NDWI was calculated using the green and mid-infrared (MIR) bands—specifically, Bands 2 and 4 for Landsat 7 and Bands 3 and 5 for Landsat 8. A thresholding technique was employed to classify pixels as either water or non-water. NDWI value > 0.2 was taken as threshold value to extract waterbodies from the NDWI. The final reclassified NDWI maps for each time period were then used to delineate water boundaries, and by overlaying these maps for different years, areas of riverbank erosion and accretion were identified. This method allowed for precise quantification of spatiotemporal morphological changes along the Padma River near Char-Janajat from 2012 to 2022. Calculate NDWI NDWI (Normalized Difference Water Index) is a commonly used index for water extraction from satellite imagery. It compares the reflectance of green and near-infrared bands to identify water bodies. $$\:NDWI=\frac{Green-NIR}{Green+NIR}$$ \(\:NDWI=\frac{B2-B4}{B2+B4}\) [For Landsat 7] \(\:NDWI=\frac{B3-B5}{B3+B5}\) [For Landsat 8] The wavelengths that are visible of green are used to maximize the typical reflectance of the water surface. The wavelengths of near-infrared used to maximize the high reflectance of soil features and terrestrial vegetation while using to minimize the low reflectance of water features. The result of the NDWI (Normalized Difference Water Index) equation is negative ones (or zero) represent for soil and terrestrial vegetation and positive values represent for water features and negative ones (or zero) represent for soil terrestrial vegetation. Results and Discussion Temporal Changes of the Water Body In 2012, the river course was relatively stable, with the Char-Janajat landmass remaining intact. However, by 2014, the river had begun encroaching upon the land, particularly on the western side. This erosion intensified in 2016, with significant portions of the land being lost. The trend continued in 2018 and 2020, as the river further eroded the Char-Janajat landmass (Fig. 2 ). By 2022, the erosion had reached its peak, with a substantial reduction in the land area which represent and highlights the dynamic nature of the river and its impact on the surrounding landscape. Riverbank shifting The riverbank morphology near Char-Janajat between 2012 and 2022 shows the dynamic nature of the river. The different colored lines represent the riverbank positions in each year (Fig. 3 ). The map shows that the river has undergone significant shifts over this decade. In 2012, the riverbank was relatively stable. However, from 2014 onwards, the river began to erode the landmass on the western side of Char-Janajat. This erosion intensified in 2016, 2018, and 2020, with the riverbank shifting further inland. By 2022, the erosion had reached its peak, resulting in a substantial loss of land area. Erosion and Accretion Scenario Figure 4 presents a series of maps illustrating the erosion and accretion scenario or patterns of the riverbank near Char-Janajat over different periods from 2012 to 2022. Each map represents a two-year interval, depicting the changes in the riverbank's morphology. The legend indicates that blue represents areas of stability, yellow represents accretion (land gain), and red represents erosion (land loss). The maps reveal a dynamic river system with significant shifts in the riverbank. Erosion is particularly evident on the western side of Char-Janajat, where the riverbank has retreated significantly over time. Simultaneously, some areas have experienced accretion, with new land being formed along the riverbank. This visual representation highlights the complex interplay between erosion and accretion processes in shaping the river's landscape. Table 2 Yearly Erosion Scenario of the River Bank in the Study Area (Generated by the Authors) Period Total erosion (hectares) Duration (Year) Average yearly erosion (hectares/year) 2012-14 1888.296536 2 944.148 2014-16 1371.181967 2 685.591 2016-18 2521.403301 2 1260.702 2018-20 2345.199697 2 1172.5998 2020-22 953.086602 2 476.543 2012–2022 9079.168103 10 4539.5838 Table 3 Volume of River bank Accretion in Char-Janajat of Padma River (Generated by the Authors) Period Total Accretion (hectares) Duration (Year) Average yearly accretion (hectares/year) 2012-14 2507.168491 2 1253.584 2014-16 2965.463863 2 1482.732 2016-18 2804.19711 2 1402.099 2018-20 3981.081552 2 1990.541 2020-22 3422.95954 2 1711.479 2012–2022 15680.87056 10 7840.435 Tables 2 and 3 illustrate the extent of riverbank erosion and accretion in Char-Janajat along the Padma River across various time intervals between 2012 and 2022. The data is organized in two-year intervals, as well as for the entire decade, and includes the total area of land eroded and accreted (measured in hectares), the duration of each interval, and the corresponding average annual rates of erosion and accretion (hectares per year). The findings indicate substantial fluctuations in land loss and gain throughout the period, with the most pronounced rates of both erosion and accretion occurring during the 2016 and 2018 intervals. This underscores the highly dynamic behavior of the riverbank and the intricate relationship between erosional and depositional processes. Erosion and accretion trends in Char-Janajat of the Padma River from 2012 to 2022 shows with varying magnitudes and the highest levels of erosion and accretion were observed in the 2018–2020 period (Fig. 5 ). Changed land area by erosion and accretion Table 4 provides a quantitative breakdown of land area changes in Char-Janajat of the Padma River due to erosion and accretion between 2012 and 2022. The data is categorized into two-year intervals. For each period, the table shows the area of land that remained unchanged, the area lost to erosion, and the area gained through accretion, all measured in hectares. The result reveals a dynamic river system with both significant erosion and accretion. While erosion peaked in the 2016–2018 period, with 2521 hectares lost, accretion reached its highest point in the 2018–2020 period, with 3981 hectares gained. Over the entire decade, a net gain of 5463 hectares occurred, indicating that accretion outpaced erosion during this time. The trends of erosion and accretion are illustrated in Figs. 6 and 7 . Table 4 Changed Land Area by Erosion and Accretion (Generated by the Authors) Year Unchanged area (hectares) Erosion (hectares) Accretion (hectares) 2012-14 5626 1888 2507 2014-16 6762 1371 2965 2016-18 7206 2521 2804 2018-20 7665 2345 3981 2020-22 10693 953 3423 Causes of flood and riverbank erosion Figure 8 outlines the primary causes of flooding and riverbank erosion in the study area that shows 95% of respondents identified "Overflow of river banks," "River bank erosion," and "Sudden release of water from upstream" as major contributors. "Excessive rainfall" was reported by 40%, while "Low topography" and other factors accounted for 20% and 5%, respectively. The data indicate that hydrological factors are the main drivers of flooding and erosion, significantly affecting the region's stability and land formation. Discussion The results of this study provide comprehensive insights into the morphological evolution of the Padma River near Char-Janajat, highlighting the region's complex interplay between erosion and accretion processes over the decade spanning 2012 to 2022. Through a combination of multi-temporal NDWI analysis and GIS-based change detection, this research identifies significant spatiotemporal transformations in the riverbank landscape, with implications for both the physical geography and the human-environment dynamics of the area. The NDWI-based image classification, performed across six time points (2012, 2014, 2016, 2018, 2020, and 2022), revealed a pattern of high-frequency morphological activity. The data indicate that erosion and accretion do not occur in linear or opposing trends, but rather in cyclical bursts influenced by hydrological, seasonal, and possibly anthropogenic factors. Notably, the peak erosion period (2016–2018) resulted in the loss of 2,521 hectares, which is the highest in any two-year interval during the study period. This significant contraction in landmass was clearly visible in the satellite-derived NDWI imagery, where the riverbank receded markedly on the western side of Char-Janajat, an area previously characterized by dense settlement and agricultural use. Conversely, the highest accretion volume (3,981 hectares) occurred during 2018–2020, immediately after the peak erosion event. This observation suggests a possible sediment redistribution mechanism downstream or laterally along the river channel, reinforcing the notion that accretion is not necessarily spatially co-located with prior erosion. Accretion zones often emerged in less inhabited or peripheral areas, making their benefits for community resettlement or cultivation limited. This phenomenon reflects a common challenge in deltaic regions where land gain does not always compensate for land loss in terms of utility, productivity, or tenure. The net gain of 5,463 hectares over the ten-year period, while seemingly positive, must be interpreted with caution. In riverine systems like the Padma, newly accreted land (locally known as char) is often geomorphologically unstable, particularly in its early formation stages. Such lands are frequently low-lying, poorly drained, and highly vulnerable to re-erosion in subsequent monsoon cycles. This instability discourages long-term investment or permanent settlement, perpetuating a cycle of uncertainty for char dwellers. The land use potential of such gain is therefore contingent on stability, which was not guaranteed during the observation period. The riverbank shifting maps generated through overlaying annual NDWI classifications provided clear visual evidence of the river’s lateral migration. The Padma River’s channel exhibited both transverse and longitudinal shifts, with more pronounced bankline changes in the southern and southwestern zones of Char-Janajat. These areas displayed considerable morphological volatility, marked by alternating zones of erosion and deposition within short time spans. Such dynamic behavior is characteristic of braided river systems with heavy sediment loads and variable discharge regimes. These geomorphic changes have direct implications for local communities. Based on field data, 95% of respondents identified overflow of riverbanks, upstream water releases, and direct riverbank erosion as the primary causes of flood-induced hazards. These local perceptions are validated by the satellite-based erosion maps, particularly where active erosion zones coincided with high-density settlements or agricultural plots. Furthermore, the loss of homesteads and arable land, especially in the 2016–2018 period, likely resulted in forced displacement, temporary migration, and social dislocation—though not quantitatively measured, this can be inferred based on the spatial overlap of erosion zones and settlement areas. Another dimension of concern is the vulnerability profile of the population. With a literacy rate of just 33%, the local population has limited access to formal education and institutional support, which constrains their adaptive capacity to environmental shocks. The loss of land is not merely a physical phenomenon but a socio-economic rupture, impacting livelihoods, food security, and psychological well-being. Many households rely on subsistence agriculture, river fishing, and informal labor, all of which are deeply tied to land availability and seasonal stability. The study’s findings also underscore the value of NDWI and GIS-based methods in detecting and monitoring morphological changes in fluvial environments. The use of threshold-based classification, combined with zonal statistics and raster differencing, enabled the quantification of erosion and accretion volumes over time. This methodological approach is both cost-effective and scalable, particularly for developing countries like Bangladesh, where high-resolution field data are often lacking. By offering a repeatable, data-driven method, this study contributes to building local capacity for real-time river monitoring, disaster preparedness, and land-use planning. However, the spatial asymmetry between erosion and accretion patterns, as shown in the maps and temporal graphs, reveals a more nuanced reality. Erosion typically occurred near areas of human settlement and infrastructure, while accretion was mostly observed in marginal or uninhabited zones. This means that while the total land area may have increased, the functional and socio-economic value of the land has likely decreased. Such spatial disconnect challenges the notion of “net land gain” as a positive outcome, and instead calls for a qualitative assessment of what kind of land is being lost and gained. An important implication of this study is the need for community-integrated river management strategies. As river morphology changes rapidly and often unpredictably, government agencies and NGOs must prioritize localized interventions, including early warning systems, community relocation planning, charland stabilization programs, and the legal recognition of accreted land. Such efforts must be informed by high-frequency geospatial monitoring, as demonstrated in this study, to anticipate risk and guide timely responses. Moreover, the cumulative findings challenge the existing top-down approaches to riverbank management that often ignore the lived realities and coping strategies of char dwellers. Participatory approaches, grounded in both remote sensing data and community knowledge, would be more effective in addressing the multifaceted risks posed by riverbank erosion. Conclusion This study examined the morphological dynamics of the Padma River in the Char-Janajat area between 2012 and 2022, focusing on riverbank erosion and accretion through the application of NDWI and GIS-based analysis. The results revealed substantial spatiotemporal changes, including a net land gain of 5,463 hectares despite severe erosion episodes—particularly between 2016 and 2018, when over 2,500 hectares were lost. These changes have significant implications for local livelihoods, land stability, and settlement security in a region where 95% of respondents attribute such hazards to river overflow and upstream water releases. The findings highlight the utility of satellite imagery and NDWI as effective tools for monitoring fluvial transformations in vulnerable deltaic environments. However, the study is not without limitations. It relied on 30-meter resolution Landsat data, which may overlook finer-scale changes; empirically determined NDWI thresholds that could vary under different environmental conditions; and a lack of high-resolution socioeconomic data to fully capture the human impacts of riverbank dynamics. Additionally, the two-year temporal intervals may have missed short-term or seasonal variations. Despite these constraints, the study provides a valuable methodological framework for riverbank monitoring and calls for integrated policy approaches that combine geospatial tools with community-based resilience planning in Bangladesh’s riverine regions. Declarations Data Availability The data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding authors upon request. Conflict of Interest The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest. Acknowledgement Not Applicable. Clinical Trial Number Not applicable. Funding Sources Not Applicable. Ethics and Consent to Participate Declarations Not Applicable. Consent to Publish Declaration Not Applicable. Author Contribution **Fatema Akter** : Conceptualization, Methodology, Visualization, Roles/Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing; **Md. Tanhir Hossain:** Conceptualization, Methodology, Visualization, Roles/Writing - original draft, writing – review, editing, and finalizing; **Md. Serajul Islam** : Supervising, Editing, and Finalizing; **Md. Rashed Hossain** : Conceptualization, Methodology, Visualization. References Alam, Jakia & Rahman, Md & Salman, Sakib & Al-Kadri Pranto, Tawfiq & Pranto, & Wakil, Md & Das, Anutosh. (2024). An Assessment of the Impact of River Erosion on the Life and Economy of People Living in Charghat, Rajshahi. 7 th International Conference on Civil Engineering for Sustainable Development (ICCESD 2024), Bangladesh. [CrossRef] Arefin, R., Meshram, S. G., & Seker, D. Z. (2021). River channel migration and land-use/land-cover change for Padma River at Bangladesh: A RS- and GIS-based approach. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 18(10), 3109–3126. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-020-03063-7 Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh. (2023, October 25). Shibchar Upazila. Retrieved August 14, 2025, from https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Shibchar_Upazila. Barua, P., Rahman, S. H., & Molla, M. H. (2019). Impact of river erosion on livelihood and coping strategies of displaced people in South-Eastern Bangladesh. International Journal of Migration and Residential Mobility , 2 (1), 34-55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1504/IJMRM.2019.10024811 Begum, S., Ophra, S. J., Hossain, A., Ferdous, M. T., & Rafid, F. A. (2024). Land Cover Change using GIS and RS Techniques of the Padma River Floodplain in the Three Adjacent Districts in Bangladesh. Jagannath University Journal of Science, 10(1), 43–54. https://doi.org/10.3329/jnujsci.v10i1.71249 Bhuiyan, M. A. H., Islam, S. D. U., & Azam, G. (2017). Exploring impacts and livelihood vulnerability of riverbank erosion hazard among rural household along the river Padma of Bangladesh. Environmental Systems Research , 6 , 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40068-017-0102-9 Billah, Mohammad. (2018). Mapping and Monitoring Erosion-Accretion in an Alluvial River Using Satellite Imagery – The River Bank Changes of the Padma River in Bangladesh. Quaestiones Geographicae. 37. 87-95. https://doi.org/10.2478/quageo-2018-0027 Chowdhury, T. R., Ahmed, Z., Islam, S., Akter, S., Ambinakudige, S., & Kung, H. (2021). Trend Analysis and Simulation of Human Vulnerability Based on Physical Factors of Riverbank Erosion Using RS and GIS. Earth Systems and Environment, 5(3), 709–723. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41748-021-00247-0 Ety, N. J., & Rashid, Md. S. (2020). Spatiotemporal variability of erosion and accretion in Ganges River using GIS and RS: A comparative study overlapping Rennell’s map of 1760s. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 22(4), 3757–3775. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-019-00317-4 Howlader, N., & Rahman, M. A. (2016). Riverbank erosion and its Impact: A study on Ganges river affected area. Jagannath University Journal of Social Sciences , Vol. 4, No. 1-2 . [CrossRef] Islam, M. A., Parvin, S., & Farukh, M. A. (2017). Impacts of riverbank erosion hazards in the Brahmaputra floodplain areas of Mymensingh in Bangladesh. Progressive Agriculture , 28 (2), 73-83. http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/pa.v28i2.33467 Khaleda, A., Nazwanul, H. M., Nazrul, I. S., Rintu, R., & Abedin, S. M. (2022). Land Degradation Due to Jamuna Riverbank Erosion: A Case Study at Shahjadpur, Sirajganj District, Bangladesh. International Journal of Economic and Environmental Geology , 13 (2), 42-46. https://doi.org/10.46660/ijeeg.v13i2.29 Mamun, A. A., Islam, A. R. M. T., Alam, E., Chandra Pal, S., & Alam, G. M. (2022). Assessing riverbank erosion and livelihood resilience using traditional approaches in northern Bangladesh. Sustainability , 14 (4), 2348. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14042348 Mohiuddin, Md. (2024). Impact of Riverbank Erosion on Livelihood of Char Land People 95 IMPACT OF RIVERBANK EROSION ON LIVELIHOOD OF CHAR LAND PEOPLE IN JAMALPUR DISTRICT OF BANGLADESH. 7. 95-108. [CrossRef] Ophra, Sultana & Begum, Sameena & Islam, Raihanul & Islam, Md. Nazrul. (2018). Assessment of bank erosion and channel shifting of Padma River in Bangladesh using RS and GIS techniques. Spatial Information Research. 26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s41324-018-0202-2 Paul, B. K., Rahman, M. K., Crawford, T., Curtis, S., Miah, M. G., Islam, R., & Islam, M. S. (2021). Coping strategies of people displaced by riverbank erosion in the lower Meghna estuary. Living on the Edge: Char Dwellers in Bangladesh , 227-239. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-73592-0_13 R. Islam, M. N. Islam, and M. N. Islam, “Impacts of Bangabandhu Jamuna multi-purpose bridge on the dynamics of bar morphology at the Jamuna River in Bangladesh,” Model. Earth Syst. Environ. , vol. 3, no. 11, pp. 903–925, 2017. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40808-017-0342-8 Rahman, S. A., Islam, Md. M., Salman, Md. A., & Rafi̇Q, M. R. (2022). Evaluating bank erosion and identifying possible anthropogenic causative factors of Kirtankhola River in Barishal, Bangladesh: An integrated GIS and Remote Sensing approaches. International Journal of Engineering and Geosciences, 7(2), 179–190. https://doi.org/10.26833/ijeg.947493 Rajib, M. A., Rahman, Md. M., Islam, A. K. M. S., & McBean, E. A. (2011). Analyzing the Future Monthly Precipitation Pattern in Bangladesh from Multi-Model Projections Using Both GCM and RCM. World Environmental and Water Resources Congress 2011, 3843–3851. https://doi.org/10.1061/41173(414)402 S. Liu, Y. Wu, G. Zhang, N. Lin, and Z. Liu, “Comparing water indices for Landsat data for automated surface water body extraction under complex ground background: A case study in Jilin Province,” Remote Sens. , vol. 15, no. 6, 2023. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15061678 Siddeqa, M., Islam, M. T., Rahman, M. S., Mukherjee, A., & Sultana, M. (2023). GIS and RS based monitoring of bank erosion along with Meghna river at Bhola, Bangladesh. Asian J. Soc. Sci. Leg. Stud , 5 (5), 172-178. http://dx.doi.org/10.34104/ajssls.023.01720178 Winterbottom, S. J., & Gilvear, D. J. (2000). A GIS-based approach to mapping probabilities of river bank erosion: Regulated River Tummel, Scotland. Regulated Rivers: Research & Management, 16(2), 127–140. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1646(200003/04)16:23.0.CO;2-Q Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 05 Jan, 2026 Reviews received at journal 31 Dec, 2025 Reviews received at journal 26 Dec, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 18 Dec, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 18 Dec, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 03 Dec, 2025 Editor invited by journal 28 Nov, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 28 Nov, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 28 Nov, 2025 First submitted to journal 27 Nov, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8218526","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":554753316,"identity":"d9cb634e-b768-4772-96ab-e01694c2b22b","order_by":0,"name":"Fatema Akter","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Dhaka","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Fatema","middleName":"","lastName":"Akter","suffix":""},{"id":554753317,"identity":"e11da795-f071-4b4d-a241-4dc0c83e1301","order_by":1,"name":"Md. Tanhir Hossain","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA7UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFCCBAYGxgYJBjZm5sMPPgD5bOwEtSRDtPCxt6UZzgBpYSZOCwODHM8ZBWkekAAhLbrt+Qc/F+6wyGeTyGEwtvm1TZ6PmYHxw8cc3FrMzjxmlp55RsKyTSL3wOPcvtuGbcwMzJIzt+HRciOZQZq3TcKATSIvwTi35zYjUAsbMy9+Lcy/IVpyDKQte27bE6OFDWILzxkDaYYftxMJaznz2MwarAUUyL0Nt5PbmBmb8fvleOLj27xtdQbyzcCo/PHntu389uaDHz7i0YIKGNvAZAOx6kHgDymKR8EoGAWjYKQAAE8TS7yJpEqXAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"University of Dhaka","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Md.","middleName":"Tanhir","lastName":"Hossain","suffix":""},{"id":554753318,"identity":"68008935-a610-40de-bbd1-561b9df9e709","order_by":2,"name":"Md. Serajul Islam","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Dhaka","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Md.","middleName":"Serajul","lastName":"Islam","suffix":""},{"id":554753319,"identity":"b8616a92-ee8e-42d3-af60-ca579993d83c","order_by":3,"name":"Md Rashed Hossain","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Dhaka","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Md","middleName":"Rashed","lastName":"Hossain","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-11-27 06:23:30","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8218526/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8218526/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":97510231,"identity":"cc59dcc6-9d7c-438d-bf04-c199a2445388","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-05 09:07:03","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":799876,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"RevisedManuscript.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8218526/v1/086c32f3d598d156b384a76b.docx"},{"id":97671982,"identity":"d330635a-8c68-4110-a2ad-396f367725bc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-08 09:33:38","extension":"json","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":5558,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"cbaea6c9b90e46ad8cbb70f8097f4791.json","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8218526/v1/21e39c45f5bd5c92793383e1.json"},{"id":97672004,"identity":"e8568fa9-73ca-462a-8190-d823f32a82fc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-08 09:33:43","extension":"xml","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":81148,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"cbaea6c9b90e46ad8cbb70f8097f47911enriched.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8218526/v1/c7407b7508859bcbf78b2b50.xml"},{"id":97671503,"identity":"b69921aa-9f16-45d3-bec3-d7be63131ea9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-08 09:32:40","extension":"jpeg","order_by":7,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":138869,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8218526/v1/cf0478d26b86c6fac673ea6a.jpeg"},{"id":97510242,"identity":"41b3f315-abc0-4dff-9f41-5301ad2d085a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-05 09:07:03","extension":"jpeg","order_by":8,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":206618,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8218526/v1/4552b5054103fab0c55f6dcb.jpeg"},{"id":97670571,"identity":"b7920619-bbcb-45b2-850d-041f481d4d7e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-08 09:30:58","extension":"jpeg","order_by":9,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":206413,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8218526/v1/392342e5a02ad42e75f96a5f.jpeg"},{"id":97510241,"identity":"78299e20-ac8b-440d-9b55-073eb913a33f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-05 09:07:03","extension":"jpeg","order_by":10,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":220413,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8218526/v1/62f51d3f2505fffe60f69494.jpeg"},{"id":97510243,"identity":"f3f11c46-9394-46e6-8e1f-e050ca92f0b6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-05 09:07:03","extension":"jpeg","order_by":11,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":192104,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8218526/v1/05a95b0feaa6fb5c0dbd6bfc.jpeg"},{"id":97670506,"identity":"968947b8-88b0-4202-91fb-a17264b78303","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-08 09:30:49","extension":"png","order_by":12,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":61511,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8218526/v1/c236d7744958f96e4a12cfe5.png"},{"id":97510245,"identity":"0ad1d056-7572-4322-8a9b-3fd24e0598b9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-05 09:07:03","extension":"png","order_by":13,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":40579,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8218526/v1/7e48dc9c031a9aa32083c769.png"},{"id":97670344,"identity":"b6c73519-9730-4ff7-a9d2-e6d61aed14f4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-08 09:30:21","extension":"png","order_by":14,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":65048,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8218526/v1/9cd89b115c9d8221cfb0d807.png"},{"id":97670336,"identity":"b0d7713d-6190-4cd2-959e-d2f3dc62773d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-08 09:30:21","extension":"png","order_by":15,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":96097,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8218526/v1/d60bc0879445e106b4120700.png"},{"id":97510235,"identity":"3b7c116c-3ec4-4a83-9391-0fed650ab3d2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-05 09:07:03","extension":"png","order_by":16,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":73315,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8218526/v1/8dce55877141b5c5461582aa.png"},{"id":97510246,"identity":"6cb157ff-813c-41e9-856e-5f2013a75433","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-05 09:07:03","extension":"xml","order_by":17,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":78856,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"cbaea6c9b90e46ad8cbb70f8097f47911structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8218526/v1/cfbbfdf8c101f020ce944388.xml"},{"id":97670279,"identity":"fd301b2a-fd06-4e4b-92ba-75fa65657058","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-08 09:30:10","extension":"html","order_by":18,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":87613,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8218526/v1/d0d13060075e528a95bad7d8.html"},{"id":97510224,"identity":"33a1a722-c4d7-4264-8a8b-8cc9b662eb69","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-05 09:07:02","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":240652,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMap of the Study Area Char-Janajat (Generated by the Authors)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8218526/v1/6a1ff29f90da66be0f800967.png"},{"id":97671646,"identity":"7ad59771-f826-45dc-baf8-c747bcfb93dc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-08 09:32:52","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":266907,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eChanges in Water Bodies in Different Years of the Study (Generated by the Authors)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8218526/v1/ea71fa88304d4c585c4d6c6f.png"},{"id":97671904,"identity":"4c4a4b3d-b524-4850-8ba2-a79e39d46024","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-08 09:33:19","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":261109,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDecade of River Morphology (Nearby Char-Janajat): Shifting Banks (2012-2022) (Generated by the Authors)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8218526/v1/87bda88503508899fbc8d171.png"},{"id":97670595,"identity":"8c2645b0-3f76-4d45-b581-04b9af314b2c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-08 09:31:00","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":255198,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eErosion and Accretion Map of Different Time Periods (Generated by the Authors)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8218526/v1/9e36648938ca10b22c5556cb.png"},{"id":97510225,"identity":"ce284f00-7b4a-45b0-8049-7f4da674c981","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-05 09:07:02","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":10000,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eErosion and Accretion Trend (Generated by the Authors)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8218526/v1/452e4d28fc7fc9b8d97cc828.png"},{"id":97671717,"identity":"bc86adbd-2a85-4791-9f76-85095c43d502","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-08 09:32:58","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":9534,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTrend Line of Erosional Changing Area (Generated by the Authors)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8218526/v1/5e6d70a9c765aa91076cf212.png"},{"id":97510229,"identity":"e9c85b14-75ca-46bb-89a6-12525fa07d5a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-05 09:07:02","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":12000,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTrend Line of Accretional Changing Area (Generated by the Authors)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8218526/v1/d38432fafad9df48bbe010c2.png"},{"id":97510232,"identity":"192b2a52-8bef-41ac-b0a2-fc873e3d77d1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-05 09:07:03","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":72607,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCauses of Flood and Riverbank Erosion (Generated by the Authors)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8218526/v1/7202bf09a4e86efdf10cdbe7.png"},{"id":97677937,"identity":"164d60e6-78de-47ac-9206-fdecd61c71ca","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-08 09:54:56","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1788642,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8218526/v1/0c78ff99-6bfc-454f-9b10-0e027b85eb5a.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eMorphological Dynamics of Padma River: A Study on the Char-Janajat in Madaripur\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eBangladesh is the location of the largest delta in the world on the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna river systems (Arefin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Rivers have a profound impact on social development and livelihoods in the Bengal Delta (Begum et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Natural phenomena or occurrences in this region include erosion, deposition, and riverine floods. Natural or artificial activities, including deforestation, settlement along riversides, and other human manipulations with natural river water flow, wind, moving water, moving ice, pore water pressures, and moisture levels within the bank, can all contribute to riverbank erosion (Siddeqa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Riverbank erosion and riverine floods during the monsoon season are produced by heavy rain in the delta and rising water levels as a result of excessive snowmelt, which increases water discharge in these rivers (Rajib et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). The amount of water that flows following the higher catchment regions increases the intensity and vulnerability of floods, as well as the related riverbank erosion.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe integration of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) with Remote Sensing (RS) is the appropriate technique for studying riverbank erosion and accretion (Winterbottom \u0026amp; Gilvear, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). There are many scholars (Arefin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Begum et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Chowdhury et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Ety \u0026amp; Rashid, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Rahman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Rajib et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Khaleda et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Siddeqa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) have investigated riverbank erosion and channel shifting in Bangladesh utilizing GIS and RS technology. In Bhola, Bangladesh, bank erosion along the Meghna River was tracked using GIS and RS. According to the study, there is an average accretion rate of 37348.27 hectares and an erosion rate of 16137.89 hectares. (Siddeqa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Another study carried out in Barisal found that the left bank erosion rate is 17.1 hectares/year and the right bank accretion rate is 19.72 hectares/year (Rahman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In the Ganges River, erosion is weaker than deposition (1760\u0026ndash;2015). Maximum erosion and deposition occurred between 1760\u0026ndash;1975 and 1760\u0026ndash;2015, respectively (Ety \u0026amp; Rashid, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The land area in Mehendiganj Upazila is impacted by river erosion, expanding settlements, and dwindling vegetation. Riverbank management is supported by new buildings in specific areas (Arefin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The loss rate for 4470.47 hectares of land is 124.18 hectares per year. Considering the physical conditions that exist now, 43.88% of households are considered extremely susceptible (Chowdhury, 2021). In the surrounding Padma districts, the highest rate of erosion in 35 years (55.42%) occurred on arable land (23661.21 hectares) (Begum et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The area of land lost as a result of the riverbank is 51.68 km\u0026sup2;. The Jamuna River has flowed from east to west since 1956 (Khaleda et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The Padma River in Madaripur, Bangladesh, experiences significant accretion and erosion, which has an impact on the land cover and use of the area (Arefin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Begum et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePadma's morphology is highly dynamic in the study area. The study area's population experiences riverine floods and riverbank erosion almost every year during the monsoon season. However, there are currently no studies or initiatives underway at Char Janajat by the government or any other body to evaluate the rate of erosion and accretion. This study utilizes multi-temporal Landsat satellite imagery to assess the hydrological dynamics of the Padma River near Char-Janajat between 2012 and 2022, aiming to map the extent of riverbank erosion and accretion and evaluate the causes of flood and riverbank erosion.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eDetails of the Study Area\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Char-Janajat riverine island is located within the territories of five upazilas \u0026ndash; Shibchar, Janjira, Sadarpur, Srinagar, and Lauhajang \u0026ndash; spanning four districts: Madaripur, Faridpur, Munshiganj, and Shariatpur. It falls within the Ganges-Padma River basin, which forms part of the active Ganges-Brahmaputra delta in Bangladesh. Administratively, Char-Janajat functions as a union under Shibchar Upazila of Madaripur District, encompassing an area of approximately 31.94 km\u0026sup2;. However, the broader Char-Janajat Island, often collectively referred to by the same name, covers an estimated 84.09 km\u0026sup2; and incorporates sections of six unions. Geographically, the study area lies between 23\u0026deg;15\u0026prime; and 23\u0026deg;30\u0026prime; north latitudes and 90\u0026deg;05\u0026prime; to 90\u0026deg;17\u0026prime; east longitudes (Banglapedia, 2023). Positioned along the dynamic course of the Padma River, the area is bordered by several other char settlements and fertile agricultural zones, including Char-Amirabad, Akter-Char, Boro Khas Bandarkhola, Bandarkhola Union, Kathalbari Union, and Panchchar Union within Shibchar Upazila. The physiographic setting is characterized by active floodplains and recent alluvial deposits, with elevation ranging from 4 to 6 meters above mean sea level. Char-Janajat exhibits a transient geomorphology, shaped predominantly by seasonal patterns of erosion and accretion, contributing to its environmental vulnerability. The population of Char-Janajat Union is approximately 17,373, with local livelihoods largely based on agriculture, fishing, and informal trade activities (Banglapedia, 2023). The literacy rate, estimated at around 33%, reflects limited educational infrastructure and access within this marginal riverine community. The region is highly susceptible to hydro-morphological changes and natural hazards, particularly monsoon flooding and riverbank erosion. In light of these characteristics, Char-Janajat under Shibchar Upazila in Madaripur District has been selected as the study area for investigating the morphological dynamics of the Padma River, with a specific focus on riverbank erosion (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methodology","content":"\n\u003ch3\u003eLandsat Satellite images\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe month of November is selected for this analysis because the monsoon season in Bangladesh occurs from June to October. During this time, river erosion happens frequently, leading to changes in the river channels. Therefore, November is the ideal time to obtain the necessary images (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) for analyzing erosion and accretion.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSatellite ID and Acquired Time of Images (Generated by the Authors)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSatellite ID\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAcquired Time\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eResolution\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSensor\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLandsat 7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNovember 2012\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30m*30m\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThematic Mapper Plus (ETM+)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLandsat 8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNovember 2014\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30m*30m\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOperational Land Imager (OLI)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLandsat 8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNovember 2016\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30m*30m\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOperational Land Imager (OLI)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLandsat 8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNovember 2018\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30m*30m\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOperational Land Imager (OLI)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLandsat 8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNovember 2020\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30m*30m\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOperational Land Imager (OLI)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLandsat 8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNovember 2022\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30m*30m\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOperational Land Imager (OLI)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAnalysis of the Riverbank Erosion and Accretion\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn this study, the Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI) was applied to effectively differentiate between water bodies and land surfaces in the Char-Janajat area using multi-temporal Landsat satellite imagery. NDWI was calculated using the green and mid-infrared (MIR) bands\u0026mdash;specifically, Bands 2 and 4 for Landsat 7 and Bands 3 and 5 for Landsat 8. A thresholding technique was employed to classify pixels as either water or non-water. NDWI value\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.2 was taken as threshold value to extract waterbodies from the NDWI. The final reclassified NDWI maps for each time period were then used to delineate water boundaries, and by overlaying these maps for different years, areas of riverbank erosion and accretion were identified. This method allowed for precise quantification of spatiotemporal morphological changes along the Padma River near Char-Janajat from 2012 to 2022.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eCalculate NDWI\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNDWI (Normalized Difference Water Index) is a commonly used index for water extraction from satellite imagery. It compares the reflectance of green and near-infrared bands to identify water bodies.\u003cdiv id=\"Equa\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equa\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:NDWI=\\frac{Green-NIR}{Green+NIR}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:NDWI=\\frac{B2-B4}{B2+B4}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e [For Landsat 7]\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:NDWI=\\frac{B3-B5}{B3+B5}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e [For Landsat 8]\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe wavelengths that are visible of green are used to maximize the typical reflectance of the water surface. The wavelengths of near-infrared used to maximize the high reflectance of soil features and terrestrial vegetation while using to minimize the low reflectance of water features. The result of the NDWI (Normalized Difference Water Index) equation is negative ones (or zero) represent for soil and terrestrial vegetation and positive values represent for water features and negative ones (or zero) represent for soil terrestrial vegetation.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eTemporal Changes of the Water Body\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn 2012, the river course was relatively stable, with the Char-Janajat landmass remaining intact. However, by 2014, the river had begun encroaching upon the land, particularly on the western side. This erosion intensified in 2016, with significant portions of the land being lost. The trend continued in 2018 and 2020, as the river further eroded the Char-Janajat landmass (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). By 2022, the erosion had reached its peak, with a substantial reduction in the land area which represent and highlights the dynamic nature of the river and its impact on the surrounding landscape.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eRiverbank shifting\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe riverbank morphology near Char-Janajat between 2012 and 2022 shows the dynamic nature of the river. The different colored lines represent the riverbank positions in each year (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). The map shows that the river has undergone significant shifts over this decade. In 2012, the riverbank was relatively stable. However, from 2014 onwards, the river began to erode the landmass on the western side of Char-Janajat. This erosion intensified in 2016, 2018, and 2020, with the riverbank shifting further inland. By 2022, the erosion had reached its peak, resulting in a substantial loss of land area.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eErosion and Accretion Scenario\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e presents a series of maps illustrating the erosion and accretion scenario or patterns of the riverbank near Char-Janajat over different periods from 2012 to 2022. Each map represents a two-year interval, depicting the changes in the riverbank's morphology. The legend indicates that blue represents areas of stability, yellow represents accretion (land gain), and red represents erosion (land loss). The maps reveal a dynamic river system with significant shifts in the riverbank. Erosion is particularly evident on the western side of Char-Janajat, where the riverbank has retreated significantly over time. Simultaneously, some areas have experienced accretion, with new land being formed along the riverbank. This visual representation highlights the complex interplay between erosion and accretion processes in shaping the river's landscape.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYearly Erosion Scenario of the River Bank in the Study Area (Generated by the Authors)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePeriod\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal erosion (hectares)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDuration (Year)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAverage yearly erosion (hectares/year)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2012-14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1888.296536\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e944.148\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2014-16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1371.181967\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e685.591\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2016-18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2521.403301\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1260.702\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2018-20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2345.199697\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1172.5998\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2020-22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e953.086602\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e476.543\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2012\u0026ndash;2022\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9079.168103\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4539.5838\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVolume of River bank Accretion in Char-Janajat of Padma River (Generated by the Authors)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePeriod\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal Accretion (hectares)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDuration (Year)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAverage yearly accretion (hectares/year)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2012-14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2507.168491\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1253.584\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2014-16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2965.463863\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1482.732\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2016-18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2804.19711\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1402.099\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2018-20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3981.081552\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1990.541\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2020-22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3422.95954\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1711.479\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2012\u0026ndash;2022\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15680.87056\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7840.435\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTables\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e illustrate the extent of riverbank erosion and accretion in Char-Janajat along the Padma River across various time intervals between 2012 and 2022. The data is organized in two-year intervals, as well as for the entire decade, and includes the total area of land eroded and accreted (measured in hectares), the duration of each interval, and the corresponding average annual rates of erosion and accretion (hectares per year). The findings indicate substantial fluctuations in land loss and gain throughout the period, with the most pronounced rates of both erosion and accretion occurring during the 2016 and 2018 intervals. This underscores the highly dynamic behavior of the riverbank and the intricate relationship between erosional and depositional processes. Erosion and accretion trends in Char-Janajat of the Padma River from 2012 to 2022 shows with varying magnitudes and the highest levels of erosion and accretion were observed in the 2018\u0026ndash;2020 period (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eChanged land area by erosion and accretion\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e provides a quantitative breakdown of land area changes in Char-Janajat of the Padma River due to erosion and accretion between 2012 and 2022. The data is categorized into two-year intervals. For each period, the table shows the area of land that remained unchanged, the area lost to erosion, and the area gained through accretion, all measured in hectares. The result reveals a dynamic river system with both significant erosion and accretion. While erosion peaked in the 2016\u0026ndash;2018 period, with 2521 hectares lost, accretion reached its highest point in the 2018\u0026ndash;2020 period, with 3981 hectares gained. Over the entire decade, a net gain of 5463 hectares occurred, indicating that accretion outpaced erosion during this time. The trends of erosion and accretion are illustrated in Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChanged Land Area by Erosion and Accretion (Generated by the Authors)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYear\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUnchanged area (hectares)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eErosion (hectares)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccretion (hectares)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2012-14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5626\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1888\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2507\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2014-16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6762\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1371\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2965\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2016-18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7206\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2521\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2804\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2018-20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7665\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2345\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3981\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2020-22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10693\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e953\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3423\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eCauses of flood and riverbank erosion\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e outlines the primary causes of flooding and riverbank erosion in the study area that shows 95% of respondents identified \"Overflow of river banks,\" \"River bank erosion,\" and \"Sudden release of water from upstream\" as major contributors. \"Excessive rainfall\" was reported by 40%, while \"Low topography\" and other factors accounted for 20% and 5%, respectively. The data indicate that hydrological factors are the main drivers of flooding and erosion, significantly affecting the region's stability and land formation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe results of this study provide comprehensive insights into the morphological evolution of the Padma River near Char-Janajat, highlighting the region's complex interplay between erosion and accretion processes over the decade spanning 2012 to 2022. Through a combination of multi-temporal NDWI analysis and GIS-based change detection, this research identifies significant spatiotemporal transformations in the riverbank landscape, with implications for both the physical geography and the human-environment dynamics of the area.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe NDWI-based image classification, performed across six time points (2012, 2014, 2016, 2018, 2020, and 2022), revealed a pattern of high-frequency morphological activity. The data indicate that erosion and accretion do not occur in linear or opposing trends, but rather in cyclical bursts influenced by hydrological, seasonal, and possibly anthropogenic factors. Notably, the peak erosion period (2016\u0026ndash;2018) resulted in the loss of 2,521 hectares, which is the highest in any two-year interval during the study period. This significant contraction in landmass was clearly visible in the satellite-derived NDWI imagery, where the riverbank receded markedly on the western side of Char-Janajat, an area previously characterized by dense settlement and agricultural use.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eConversely, the highest accretion volume (3,981 hectares) occurred during 2018\u0026ndash;2020, immediately after the peak erosion event. This observation suggests a possible sediment redistribution mechanism downstream or laterally along the river channel, reinforcing the notion that accretion is not necessarily spatially co-located with prior erosion. Accretion zones often emerged in less inhabited or peripheral areas, making their benefits for community resettlement or cultivation limited. This phenomenon reflects a common challenge in deltaic regions where land gain does not always compensate for land loss in terms of utility, productivity, or tenure.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe net gain of 5,463 hectares over the ten-year period, while seemingly positive, must be interpreted with caution. In riverine systems like the Padma, newly accreted land (locally known as char) is often geomorphologically unstable, particularly in its early formation stages. Such lands are frequently low-lying, poorly drained, and highly vulnerable to re-erosion in subsequent monsoon cycles. This instability discourages long-term investment or permanent settlement, perpetuating a cycle of uncertainty for char dwellers. The land use potential of such gain is therefore contingent on stability, which was not guaranteed during the observation period.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe riverbank shifting maps generated through overlaying annual NDWI classifications provided clear visual evidence of the river\u0026rsquo;s lateral migration. The Padma River\u0026rsquo;s channel exhibited both transverse and longitudinal shifts, with more pronounced bankline changes in the southern and southwestern zones of Char-Janajat. These areas displayed considerable morphological volatility, marked by alternating zones of erosion and deposition within short time spans. Such dynamic behavior is characteristic of braided river systems with heavy sediment loads and variable discharge regimes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese geomorphic changes have direct implications for local communities. Based on field data, 95% of respondents identified overflow of riverbanks, upstream water releases, and direct riverbank erosion as the primary causes of flood-induced hazards. These local perceptions are validated by the satellite-based erosion maps, particularly where active erosion zones coincided with high-density settlements or agricultural plots. Furthermore, the loss of homesteads and arable land, especially in the 2016\u0026ndash;2018 period, likely resulted in forced displacement, temporary migration, and social dislocation\u0026mdash;though not quantitatively measured, this can be inferred based on the spatial overlap of erosion zones and settlement areas.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnother dimension of concern is the vulnerability profile of the population. With a literacy rate of just 33%, the local population has limited access to formal education and institutional support, which constrains their adaptive capacity to environmental shocks. The loss of land is not merely a physical phenomenon but a socio-economic rupture, impacting livelihoods, food security, and psychological well-being. Many households rely on subsistence agriculture, river fishing, and informal labor, all of which are deeply tied to land availability and seasonal stability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study\u0026rsquo;s findings also underscore the value of NDWI and GIS-based methods in detecting and monitoring morphological changes in fluvial environments. The use of threshold-based classification, combined with zonal statistics and raster differencing, enabled the quantification of erosion and accretion volumes over time. This methodological approach is both cost-effective and scalable, particularly for developing countries like Bangladesh, where high-resolution field data are often lacking. By offering a repeatable, data-driven method, this study contributes to building local capacity for real-time river monitoring, disaster preparedness, and land-use planning.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHowever, the spatial asymmetry between erosion and accretion patterns, as shown in the maps and temporal graphs, reveals a more nuanced reality. Erosion typically occurred near areas of human settlement and infrastructure, while accretion was mostly observed in marginal or uninhabited zones. This means that while the total land area may have increased, the functional and socio-economic value of the land has likely decreased. Such spatial disconnect challenges the notion of \u0026ldquo;net land gain\u0026rdquo; as a positive outcome, and instead calls for a qualitative assessment of what kind of land is being lost and gained.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAn important implication of this study is the need for community-integrated river management strategies. As river morphology changes rapidly and often unpredictably, government agencies and NGOs must prioritize localized interventions, including early warning systems, community relocation planning, charland stabilization programs, and the legal recognition of accreted land. Such efforts must be informed by high-frequency geospatial monitoring, as demonstrated in this study, to anticipate risk and guide timely responses. Moreover, the cumulative findings challenge the existing top-down approaches to riverbank management that often ignore the lived realities and coping strategies of char dwellers. Participatory approaches, grounded in both remote sensing data and community knowledge, would be more effective in addressing the multifaceted risks posed by riverbank erosion.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study examined the morphological dynamics of the Padma River in the Char-Janajat area between 2012 and 2022, focusing on riverbank erosion and accretion through the application of NDWI and GIS-based analysis. The results revealed substantial spatiotemporal changes, including a net land gain of 5,463 hectares despite severe erosion episodes\u0026mdash;particularly between 2016 and 2018, when over 2,500 hectares were lost. These changes have significant implications for local livelihoods, land stability, and settlement security in a region where 95% of respondents attribute such hazards to river overflow and upstream water releases. The findings highlight the utility of satellite imagery and NDWI as effective tools for monitoring fluvial transformations in vulnerable deltaic environments. However, the study is not without limitations. It relied on 30-meter resolution Landsat data, which may overlook finer-scale changes; empirically determined NDWI thresholds that could vary under different environmental conditions; and a lack of high-resolution socioeconomic data to fully capture the human impacts of riverbank dynamics. Additionally, the two-year temporal intervals may have missed short-term or seasonal variations. Despite these constraints, the study provides a valuable methodological framework for riverbank monitoring and calls for integrated policy approaches that combine geospatial tools with community-based resilience planning in Bangladesh\u0026rsquo;s riverine regions.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding authors upon request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of Interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot Applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical Trial Number\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding Sources\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot Applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics and Consent to Participate Declarations\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot Applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Publish Declaration\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot Applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e**Fatema Akter** : Conceptualization, Methodology, Visualization, Roles/Writing - original draft, Writing - review \u0026amp;amp; editing; **Md. Tanhir Hossain:** Conceptualization, Methodology, Visualization, Roles/Writing - original draft, writing \u0026ndash; review, editing, and finalizing; **Md. Serajul Islam** : Supervising, Editing, and Finalizing; **Md. Rashed Hossain** : Conceptualization, Methodology, Visualization.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAlam, Jakia \u0026amp; Rahman, Md \u0026amp; Salman, Sakib \u0026amp; Al-Kadri Pranto, Tawfiq \u0026amp; Pranto, \u0026amp; Wakil, Md \u0026amp; Das, Anutosh. (2024). An Assessment of the Impact of River Erosion on the Life and Economy of People Living in Charghat, Rajshahi. 7\u003csup\u003eth\u003c/sup\u003e International Conference on Civil Engineering for Sustainable Development (ICCESD 2024), Bangladesh. [CrossRef]\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eArefin, R., Meshram, S. G., \u0026amp; Seker, D. Z. (2021). River channel migration and land-use/land-cover change for Padma River at Bangladesh: A RS- and GIS-based approach. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 18(10), 3109\u0026ndash;3126. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-020-03063-7\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBanglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh. (2023, October 25). Shibchar Upazila. Retrieved August 14, 2025, from https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Shibchar_Upazila.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBarua, P., Rahman, S. H., \u0026amp; Molla, M. H. (2019). Impact of river erosion on livelihood and coping strategies of displaced people in South-Eastern Bangladesh. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Migration and Residential Mobility\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e(1), 34-55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1504/IJMRM.2019.10024811\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBegum, S., Ophra, S. J., Hossain, A., Ferdous, M. T., \u0026amp; Rafid, F. A. (2024). Land Cover Change using GIS and RS Techniques of the Padma River Floodplain in the Three Adjacent Districts in Bangladesh. Jagannath University Journal of Science, 10(1), 43\u0026ndash;54. https://doi.org/10.3329/jnujsci.v10i1.71249\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBhuiyan, M. A. H., Islam, S. D. U., \u0026amp; Azam, G. (2017). Exploring impacts and livelihood vulnerability of riverbank erosion hazard among rural household along the river Padma of Bangladesh. \u003cem\u003eEnvironmental Systems Research\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e6\u003c/em\u003e, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40068-017-0102-9\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBillah, Mohammad. (2018). Mapping and Monitoring Erosion-Accretion in an Alluvial River Using Satellite Imagery \u0026ndash; The River Bank Changes of the Padma River in Bangladesh. Quaestiones Geographicae. 37. 87-95. https://doi.org/10.2478/quageo-2018-0027\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eChowdhury, T. R., Ahmed, Z., Islam, S., Akter, S., Ambinakudige, S., \u0026amp; Kung, H. (2021). Trend Analysis and Simulation of Human Vulnerability Based on Physical Factors of Riverbank Erosion Using RS and GIS. Earth Systems and Environment, 5(3), 709\u0026ndash;723. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41748-021-00247-0\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEty, N. J., \u0026amp; Rashid, Md. S. (2020). Spatiotemporal variability of erosion and accretion in Ganges River using GIS and RS: A comparative study overlapping Rennell\u0026rsquo;s map of 1760s. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 22(4), 3757\u0026ndash;3775. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-019-00317-4\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHowlader, N., \u0026amp; Rahman, M. A. (2016). Riverbank erosion and its Impact: A study on Ganges river affected area. \u003cem\u003eJagannath University Journal of Social Sciences\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eVol. 4, No. 1-2\u003c/em\u003e. [CrossRef]\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eIslam, M. A., Parvin, S., \u0026amp; Farukh, M. A. (2017). Impacts of riverbank erosion hazards in the Brahmaputra floodplain areas of Mymensingh in Bangladesh. \u003cem\u003eProgressive Agriculture\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e28\u003c/em\u003e(2), 73-83. http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/pa.v28i2.33467\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKhaleda, A., Nazwanul, H. M., Nazrul, I. S., Rintu, R., \u0026amp; Abedin, S. M. (2022). Land Degradation Due to Jamuna Riverbank Erosion: A Case Study at Shahjadpur, Sirajganj District, Bangladesh. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Economic and Environmental Geology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e13\u003c/em\u003e(2), 42-46. https://doi.org/10.46660/ijeeg.v13i2.29\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMamun, A. A., Islam, A. R. M. T., Alam, E., Chandra Pal, S., \u0026amp; Alam, G. M. (2022). Assessing riverbank erosion and livelihood resilience using traditional approaches in northern Bangladesh. \u003cem\u003eSustainability\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e14\u003c/em\u003e(4), 2348. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14042348\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMohiuddin, Md. (2024). Impact of Riverbank Erosion on Livelihood of Char Land People 95 IMPACT OF RIVERBANK EROSION ON LIVELIHOOD OF CHAR LAND PEOPLE IN JAMALPUR DISTRICT OF BANGLADESH. 7. 95-108. [CrossRef]\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOphra, Sultana \u0026amp; Begum, Sameena \u0026amp; Islam, Raihanul \u0026amp; Islam, Md. Nazrul. (2018). Assessment of bank erosion and channel shifting of Padma River in Bangladesh using RS and GIS techniques. Spatial Information Research. 26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s41324-018-0202-2\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePaul, B. K., Rahman, M. K., Crawford, T., Curtis, S., Miah, M. G., Islam, R., \u0026amp; Islam, M. S. (2021). Coping strategies of people displaced by riverbank erosion in the lower Meghna estuary. \u003cem\u003eLiving on the Edge: Char Dwellers in Bangladesh\u003c/em\u003e, 227-239. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-73592-0_13\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eR. Islam, M. N. Islam, and M. N. Islam, \u0026ldquo;Impacts of Bangabandhu Jamuna multi-purpose bridge on the dynamics of bar morphology at the Jamuna River in Bangladesh,\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eModel. Earth Syst. Environ.\u003c/em\u003e, vol. 3, no. 11, pp. 903\u0026ndash;925, 2017. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40808-017-0342-8\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRahman, S. A., Islam, Md. M., Salman, Md. A., \u0026amp; Rafi̇Q, M. R. (2022). Evaluating bank erosion and identifying possible anthropogenic causative factors of Kirtankhola River in Barishal, Bangladesh: An integrated GIS and Remote Sensing approaches. International Journal of Engineering and Geosciences, 7(2), 179\u0026ndash;190. https://doi.org/10.26833/ijeg.947493\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRajib, M. A., Rahman, Md. M., Islam, A. K. M. S., \u0026amp; McBean, E. A. (2011). Analyzing the Future Monthly Precipitation Pattern in Bangladesh from Multi-Model Projections Using Both GCM and RCM. World Environmental and Water Resources Congress 2011, 3843\u0026ndash;3851. https://doi.org/10.1061/41173(414)402\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eS. Liu, Y. Wu, G. Zhang, N. Lin, and Z. Liu, \u0026ldquo;Comparing water indices for Landsat data for automated surface water body extraction under complex ground background: A case study in Jilin Province,\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eRemote Sens.\u003c/em\u003e, vol. 15, no. 6, 2023. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15061678\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSiddeqa, M., Islam, M. T., Rahman, M. S., Mukherjee, A., \u0026amp; Sultana, M. (2023). GIS and RS based monitoring of bank erosion along with Meghna river at Bhola, Bangladesh. \u003cem\u003eAsian J. Soc. Sci. Leg. Stud\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e5\u003c/em\u003e(5), 172-178. http://dx.doi.org/10.34104/ajssls.023.01720178\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWinterbottom, S. J., \u0026amp; Gilvear, D. J. (2000). A GIS-based approach to mapping probabilities of river bank erosion: Regulated River Tummel, Scotland. Regulated Rivers: Research \u0026amp; Management, 16(2), 127\u0026ndash;140. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1646(200003/04)16:2\u0026lt;127::AID-RRR573\u0026gt;3.0.CO;2-Q\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-geoscience","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Geoscience](https://www.springer.com/journal/44288)","snPcode":"44288","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44288","title":"Discover Geoscience","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Riverbank Erosion, Char Land, Padma River, GIS, RS, NDWI, Decadal Change","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8218526/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8218526/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe Padma River, one of the principal distributaries of the Ganges in Bangladesh, exhibits highly dynamic morphological behavior, leading to recurrent erosion and accretion along its banks. This study investigates the spatiotemporal changes in riverbank morphology and the resultant socio-environmental impacts in Char-Janajat, Madaripur, over a ten-year period (2012\u0026ndash;2022). Using Landsat satellite imagery and the Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI) through GIS and Remote Sensing techniques, significant bank-line shifts, erosion, and accretion patterns were quantified. Results reveal a net land gain of 5463 hectares, with peak erosion observed between 2016 and 2018 and maximum accretion between 2018 and 2020. The findings underscore the need for proactive monitoring and management strategies, particularly as 95% of surveyed residents attribute erosion to overflow and upstream water release. This study contributes to a better understanding of fluvial dynamics and calls for localized policy interventions to safeguard vulnerable communities in riverine regions.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Morphological Dynamics of Padma River: A Study on the Char-Janajat in Madaripur","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-12-05 09:06:58","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8218526/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-01-05T07:33:45+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-01-01T04:57:52+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-12-26T13:48:19+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"209348069170208513043403635323300204599","date":"2025-12-18T17:17:01+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"93403819851119004871200093665101449247","date":"2025-12-18T16:37:54+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-12-03T14:48:06+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-11-28T14:01:18+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-11-28T08:49:00+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-11-28T08:46:55+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Discover Geoscience","date":"2025-11-27T06:15:07+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-geoscience","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Geoscience](https://www.springer.com/journal/44288)","snPcode":"44288","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44288","title":"Discover Geoscience","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"e0f31f3d-06ee-4f44-83b4-27d527547fd0","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 5th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-02-15T02:53:08+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-12-05 09:06:58","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8218526","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8218526","identity":"rs-8218526","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}