A Comparative Analysis of Policy and Legal Frameworks Addressing Human Trafficking and Migrant Smuggling in the Horn of Africa

A Comparative Analysis of Policy and Legal Frameworks Addressing Human Trafficking and Migrant Smuggling in the Horn of Africa | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article A Comparative Analysis of Policy and Legal Frameworks Addressing Human Trafficking and Migrant Smuggling in the Horn of Africa Berihu Teweldebirhan Gebresilassie, kinfe Abraha Gebre-Egziabher, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9475587/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract From 2014 to 2024, human trafficking and migrant smuggling continued to be major concerns in the Horn of Africa (Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia), despite differences in legal definitions and a focus on prioritizing victim protection over enforcement. This study analyzes existing institutions, laws, and policies to identify gaps in the legal framework. Using a mixed-methods approach, it highlights these gaps and offers tailored recommendations for each country's specific context. Promoting legal migration channels and increasing local employment can decrease the attractiveness of smuggling and support vulnerable groups. Strengthening international cooperation and addressing root causes like poverty and conflict are essential to fighting human trafficking and migrant smuggling. Practical strategies include prevention, protection, prosecution, alliance-building, and the adoption of human rights-based policies. Effectively combating these issues requires stronger law enforcement, regional cooperation, and harmonized legal standards. Human Trafficking Law Law-Enforcement Migrant Smuggling Policy Victim-Centered Approach INTRODUCTION Human trafficking and migrant smuggling are serious problems in the Horn of Africa, as recent migrants from Sudan and Libya flee conflict, poverty, and environmental issues. Many are trafficked, exploited, and forced into harsh conditions despite the risks while seeking safety. Undocumented migrants are especially vulnerable (Lelliott & Miller, 2023). The region faces policy challenges: smuggling involves violations of consent, and trafficking includes illegal crossings, both of which are considered crimes under the UN Palermo Convention. Strengthening border enforcement, legal systems, and victim support, as well as efforts to reduce poverty and conflict, are crucial (Tenant, 2021). As technological advances make enforcement more complex, international cooperation becomes essential (Usman et al., 2021). Countries in the Horn of Africa face law enforcement challenges due to different legal systems, regional instability caused by poverty and conflict, and the need for community education on trafficking risks. Implementing policies and strengthening institutions are crucial to fighting migrant exploitation and violence. Regional insecurity weakens the effectiveness of the Intergovernmental Authority on Drought and Development (IGADD)'s Regional Migration Policy. Strategies like investing in infrastructure, harmonizing laws, and focusing on victims can help reduce human trafficking (Mehra & Sharif, 2042). Human trafficking requires coordinated efforts—policy enforcement, infrastructure, and international collaboration. This study reviews how Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia addressed trafficking from 2014 to 2024. AN EXTENSIVE REVIEW OF EMPIRICAL AND THEORETICAL ASPECTS Human trafficking involves recruiting, transporting, or exploiting people through force, fraud, coercion, or vulnerabilities, mainly for forced labor or sexual exploitation (Article 3(a) of the UN Protocol, 2000). Migrant smuggling is the illegal crossing of borders for profit; if migrants agree, they are not considered victims (Article 3(a) of the Smuggling of Migrants Protocol). Definitions vary, but trafficking focuses on exploitation, while smuggling centers on illegal border crossings for money. The Palermo Protocol—Articles 3, 5, 6, 7—provides a victim-centered legal framework that highlights survivors' rights. Smuggling can lead to trafficking through debt or abuse. The main difference is that smuggling involves crossing borders, whereas trafficking involves exploitation within countries (Szablewska, 2022). Smuggling can occur without force or deception. Both crimes involve organized networks, shared routes, and links to other criminal activities (Campana & Varese, 2022). Although similar, smuggling enables illegal border crossings, while trafficking involves deception and coercion (Bish et al., 2023). Fragile states and porous borders make migration control more challenging (Pokharel, 2024). Over the past twenty years, theories about trafficking have evolved (Alagna, 2024). Liberals support border controls; socialists focus on economic inequality (Wakefield, 2025). Enforcing anti-trafficking laws in the Horn of Africa remains difficult despite the Palermo Protocols (Silver, 2021). Some countries focus more on security than on supporting victims (Siems, 2022), which increases the risk of exploitation. Criminal networks adapt to avoid law enforcement, raising the danger for migrants (Nwala & Gesiere, 2023). Different legal systems lead to inconsistent enforcement and hinder data sharing, complicating cross-border cooperation (Khan, 2025). Research on trafficking and migrant smuggling is limited. Legal and policy theories analyze regulations, with feminist legal theory highlighting issues like human trafficking, migration, gender inequality, and political instability. Wanjiru (2023) examines human rights, migration studies, crime theory, and governance models. Effective responses to human trafficking require cooperation across sectors. Human rights-based approaches emphasize victim-centered policies over security measures (Andreopoulos & Carey, 2022). Victims benefit from tailored support and international collaboration (Kozma, 2022). Community strategies that address victims' needs strengthen legal systems. Including these perspectives can improve trafficking interventions (Usman & Khan, 2021). Social norms and networks assist in smuggling and trafficking (Gezie et al., 2021). This study combines four frameworks—Risk Environment Theory, Legal Pluralism, Securitization Theory, and Policy Implementation Theory—into a causal model to analyze how legal changes and enforcement influence outcomes (Ahmad et al., 20255). Using mixed methods, it links doctrinal and non-doctrinal factors to case studies to evaluate the impact of legal consistency and governance strategies on migrant experiences (Martin, 2023). The goal is to connect legal differences to risks, enhancing understanding of how legal systems affect migrant vulnerability and trafficking. Recommendations include aligning laws with international standards, establishing victim support services, and forming interagency task forces to coordinate legal systems across regions (Huynh, 2022). This research addresses a gap by analyzing migration laws and policies through a structured, theory-based approach that connects legislation, enforcement, and migrant risks. Recognizing these interactions is essential. Key strategies include strengthening laws and institutions, forming partnerships, preventing crime, prosecuting offenders, and increasing cooperation (Elfakharani, 2025). Protecting migrant rights and dignity, ensuring justice for survivors, and dismantling trafficking networks are critical. A coordinated, sustainable approach can more effectively fight smuggling and trafficking. METHODOLOGY The study employs a mixed-methods approach to analyze trafficking and smuggling laws in the Horn of Africa, comparing policies across Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia. It combines legal analysis with stakeholder insights, acknowledging that the enforcement of standards such as the Palermo Protocols varies by country. The review includes laws, policies, enforcement, cultural beliefs, and regional efforts, highlighting their challenges. This research evaluates how well laws align with international standards, their practical implementation, and the situations where migration controls may increase trafficking risks. The methodology reviews relevant laws, policies, and anti-trafficking efforts in Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia. It highlights legal gaps through policy analysis, Most Similar Systems Design (MSSD), and Most Different Systems Design (MDSD), using data from several Horn of Africa countries. Due to regional instability and covert criminal activities, both primary and secondary data are collected. The Desk Review (Secondary Data) analyzes legislation, regional frameworks like IGAD and the African Union, court decisions, international reports (UNODC, IOM, ILO), and academic research. Key Informant Interviews (Primary Data) are conducted with government officials (police, judiciary, immigration), NGOs, staff from international organizations (IOM, UNHCR), and community leaders. Delphi Questionnaires gather input from regional experts via online surveys. Data sources include legal texts, records, digital Delphi surveys, interviews, and reviews, providing valuable insights into migration policies. Snowball Sampling is used to reach hard-to-access groups such as migrants and smugglers, especially in Djibouti, Eritrea, and Somalia. This study investigates prevention, protection, prosecution, partnerships, and policy measures through a mixed-methods approach. It compares legal language with enforcement practices via doctrinal coding, coherence scoring, and stakeholder interviews. The methodology is layered: Doctrinal Comparison evaluates core laws in Horn of Africa countries against international standards, such as the UN Trafficking Protocol; Legal-Practical Gap Analysis contrasts legal provisions (de jure) with actual enforcement (de facto); and Thematic Analysis identifies patterns in interviews, such as misunderstandings between trafficking and smuggling. Case Studies examine law enforcement coordination. Key factors include adherence to the Palermo Protocols on coercion and exploitation, an emphasis on victim protection over criminalization, National Coordination Mechanisms, and law enforcement capacity—covering border control, corruption, and prosecution. The study also reviews legal measures and human rights initiatives aimed at closing legislative gaps, enhancing enforcement, and aligning policies with international standards, providing valuable insights for scholars and policymakers. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS, RESULTS, AND DISCUSSIONS: The Palermo Protocol addresses human trafficking and migrant smuggling in the Horn of Africa (HoA). Eritrea and Somalia lack comprehensive anti-trafficking laws, unlike Ethiopia and Djibouti. A policy comparison highlights legal gaps, best practices, and regional differences. INTERNATIONAL LAW AND POLICY FRAMEWORKS: Both migrant smuggling and human trafficking are covered by international treaties that require countries to collaborate on prevention, prosecution, and victim protection (Sharif & Mehra, 2024). The 2000 Trafficking Protocol defines acts such as coercion and fraud. Many countries also address these issues through agreements, including the 1951 Refugee Convention (Ullah et al., 2025). The Palermo Protocol describes human trafficking as forcing or deceiving migrants for exploitation (Article 3(a)), while migrant smuggling involves illegal entry into a country for profit. Although grounded in the principles of the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), national laws complicate international cooperation. Trafficking involves exploitation and coercion, making rehabilitation more complex than in migrant smuggling, which centers on illegal entry. Under the UNTOC, member states are required to criminalize offenses related to transnational organized crime, as outlined in Articles 5 and 10 and in the protocols. The treaty promotes financial transparency, enforces anti-money laundering measures, and addresses legal entity liability, confiscation, and mutual judicial assistance. Extradition, law enforcement, victim protection, and prevention are covered in Articles 16–18 and 25–27. Several provisions support international cooperation, witness protection, and improvements to the judicial process (Articles 11, 15, 20, 25). Other articles aim to coordinate law enforcement efforts, increase compliance, and strengthen prevention, victim support, and guidance on cooperation. Regional initiatives facilitate cross-border law enforcement and intelligence sharing to combat human trafficking. Human trafficking is a severe violation of human rights acknowledged by international treaties. For instance, the Palermo Protocol defines the crime and mandates that countries criminalize it, protect victims, and enhance international cooperation. Major human rights documents like the Universal Declaration of Human Rights also highlight protections against slavery and exploitation. These treaties aim to prevent trafficking through legislation and awareness campaigns, support victims, and prosecute offenders in line with principles of dignity and justice. As challenges to human rights increase, guidelines and resolutions promote global collaboration. The 1926 Slavery Convention and subsequent treaties declare slavery illegal, define it (Article 1), specify state responsibilities (Articles 2-3), and promote international cooperation (Article 4). They call for eradicating slavery, ending the slave trade, and preventing forced labor (Article 5), with penalties (Article 6) and commitments to legal cooperation (Articles 7–8). Articles 4 and 8 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), and Articles 2 and 8 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), prohibit slavery, servitude, and forced labor. International cooperation and victim-focused strategies are vital in combating human trafficking (Work, 2024; Convention & Protocol, 1949). Moreover, the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) (Articles 2-6, 10-16) and the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) (Articles 3-4, 19, 32, 34-36, 39) require nations to establish strong legal frameworks and support systems. In 2000, the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child made child trafficking and smuggling illegal. Article 38 strengthens law enforcement and bans recruiting and using children in armed conflict. Article 29 of the International Labor Organization (ILO) Constitution recognizes and provides services for children of migrant workers. The ILO emphasizes the protection of vulnerable groups and migrants through Conventions 29 and 182. The 1993 Hague Convention prohibits intercountry adoptions under Article 39, paragraph 2. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) guidelines under the 1967 Refugee Protocol protect trafficking victims within the 1951 Refugee Convention, indirectly safeguarding refugees under Article 1A(2). The International Convention on the Rights of All Migrant Workers (Levni, 2025) protects migrants from trafficking through Article 11. The International Criminal Court (ICC) Rome Statute criminalizes slavery as a crime against humanity and allows prosecution under Article 7(1)(c). Table 1 highlights the ratification of international instruments by Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia. Djibouti ratified the UNTOC in 2005; Eritrea in 2014; Ethiopia in 2007; and Somalia's ratification is planned for 2024. Ethiopia accepted the 1951 Refugee Convention in 1969; Somalia in 1978; Ethiopia ratified the ICESCR in 1993; and Djibouti ratified the ICESCR in 1992. Several CRC Optional Protocols were ratified in the early 2010s. The data clearly indicate that ratification timelines differ across these countries. UN Security Council Resolutions 2482, 2464, 2394, and 2321 focus on fighting terrorism, organized crime, and human trafficking (Akestoridi & Tzortzi, 2024). They encourage international cooperation and intelligence sharing to combat financial crimes and trafficking. However, doubts remain about their enforcement and overall effectiveness. LAWS AND POLICIES OF THE AFRICAN UNION (AU ) : The AU struggles with human smuggling and trafficking because it lacks a comprehensive law and instead relies on national laws and regional agreements (Ajah & Magadze, 2025). In 2021, it focused on prevention, victim support, capacity building, and regional cooperation under Article 22, in accordance with international treaties, including the UN Trafficking Protocol. Its goals include standardizing definitions, helping victims, addressing root causes, and improving prosecution through capacity-building and data sharing. The Banjul Charter defines the rights of humans and peoples across Africa, outlining the responsibilities of both the state and individuals. It covers personal freedoms, protection from discrimination, and equality (Arts. 2-3). The Charter affirms rights to life, dignity, and integrity; bans slavery, torture, and inhumane treatment (Arts. 4-5); and guarantees liberty, security, and protection from arbitrary detention (Art. 6). It guarantees fair trials, due process, and legal assistance (Art. 7), along with freedoms of conscience, religion, expression, association, and assembly (Arts. 8–11). The Charter also emphasizes political participation, access to public services (Art. 13), property rights, fair employment (Arts. 14–15), and rights to health, education, and culture (Arts. 16–17). The Maputo Protocol expands the Banjul Charter to promote women's rights by fighting discrimination and harmful practices. It bans gender discrimination, forced marriage, and female genital mutilation (Arts. 2, 5), and encourages gender equality in politics and law (Arts. 8–9). It offers protections against sexual violence and trafficking, forbids harmful medical procedures, and supports reproductive rights, including access to medical abortion (Arts. 3, 4, 14). The protocol endorses monogamy but also safeguards women in polygamous marriages (Arts. 6–7) and advocates for the rights of widows, children, older women, and women with disabilities (Arts. 20–24). It guarantees rights to education, housing, food, culture, and sustainable development (Arts. 12, 15–19). According to Article 4(g), the African Charter defends individual rights. Both documents influence anti-trafficking laws: the Banjul Charter emphasizes individual rights, while the Maputo Protocol seeks to protect women from violence. Implementation challenges include legal gaps and conflicts with security policies. The African Charter addresses trafficking through Articles 15, 16, 27, and 29. The Malabo Protocol proposes a single African Court for serious crimes (Article 46(c)), but slow ratification since 2014, driven by concerns over immunity and jurisdiction, hampers the implementation of trafficking policies. Once 15 states ratify, human trafficking will be recognized under international law. While the Protocol enhances the authority of the courts, protections for victims remain uncertain. The non-binding Ouagadougou Action Plan (2006) emphasizes prevention, protection, and cooperation (Aniche et al., 2025). The MPFA tackles irregular migration through regional cooperation, legal reforms, and data sharing, but faces challenges, including weak collaboration and limited resources. Organizations such as IGAD and the East African Community promote free movement but lack legal mechanisms to address trafficking—an urgent issue for the AU (Makanga, 2021). Migration is mainly driven by poverty and limited awareness (Maunganidze & Mbiyozo, 2024). Despite efforts, trafficking and migrant smuggling continue to be major problems across Africa. INITIATIVES FROM THE HORN OF AFRICA COMPARED: The Horn of Africa, including Eritrea, Somalia, Ethiopia, and Djibouti, faces ongoing conflicts, colonial legacies, and foreign interventions. Colonial borders encourage separatism (Yemane & Borowy, 2023). Each country faces unique challenges: Ethiopia faces civil war and the Tigray conflict; Eritrea faces post-independence issues; Somalia faces state collapse; and Djibouti faces security threats (Merhawi, 2025). Ethiopia's maritime interests influence regional stability (Otto, 2025). Weak legal systems hinder efforts to combat human trafficking and protect victims. Major international players—the US, China, and the EU—are involved in disputes, conflicts, and terrorism (Hamilton & Renouard, 2024). Human trafficking and migrant smuggling are widespread: Eritreans cross through Sudan and Libya; Somali and Ethiopian migrants travel via Djibouti (Bariagaber, 2023). In Djibouti and Yemen, trafficking is linked to smuggling (Nzau, 2024). Despite Ethiopia's legal initiatives, migrants remain vulnerable to exploitation and danger. Ethiopia enforces strict penalties for human trafficking and migrant smuggling. Despite ratifying international treaties, it still faces challenges, including limited protections for victims. Human trafficking is prohibited by Article 18(2) of the Ethiopian Constitution, yet vulnerable groups remain at risk. Proclamation No. 909/2015, amended to No. 1178/2020, criminalizes trafficking—especially labor exploitation—fixes legal gaps, broadens definitions, and imposes harsher penalties (Articles 3-7). It creates a Victim Fund, improves support, and establishes a national committee. Articles 11-18 of the Criminal Code address crimes committed within Ethiopia and against nationals. Courts work with international organizations, and some cases are tried before three-judge panels (Articles 6-8). Proclamation No. 1178/2020 further enhances property seizure and victim protection (Article 9). Ethiopia's National Plan of Action against Human Trafficking has seen few updates. Nonetheless, it aims to conform to international standards, despite criticism of the Palermo Protocol's definition as discriminatory and of significant gaps. Several government ministries gather data, although resources remain limited. Middle Eastern countries have signed ethical recruitment agreements with Ethiopia (Busza et al., 2023) to help reduce labor exploitation. Ethiopia's refugee policies adhere to international obligations, including bans on expulsion and refoulement (Sisay, 2024). As smuggling networks shift toward cashless methods facilitated by hawala traders, the number of Ethiopian smugglers is rising (Gobena, 2023). Djibouti's Law No. 133 of 2016 addresses human trafficking and migrant smuggling, broadly defining trafficking to include sexual exploitation, forced labor, and organ removal (Article 1). It criminalizes all activities, regardless of the victim's consent, and imposes penalties, including life imprisonment in aggravated cases (Articles 5–10). The law also criminalizes illegal migrant smuggling (Article 2), with sanctions such as asset seizures and venue closures. Victim protections include residency rights, legal aid, and support services. Articles 11–13 assign liability, and Articles 19–21 criminalize facilitation involving fraudulent documents. Articles 16–17 authorize courts to revoke licenses, seize property, and freeze assets. The law promotes cooperation among prosecutors and supports victims through NGOs and international partners, though enforcement faces challenges due to underfunding and lack of training (Mandisodza, 2024). Ethiopia’s legal framework is more comprehensive; Djibouti relies heavily on international aid. Its strategy emphasizes raising awareness, capacity-building, regional cooperation, and victim protection (Tadesse & Tafesse, 2025). The Ministry of Justice faces difficulties in prosecutions, border enforcement, and awareness campaigns. The government receives aid and has established MMTF and MRCs to oversee migration (Chiré & Pinauldt, 2024). The Eritrean government employs civil and transitional laws to combat human trafficking. Although the 1997 draft Constitution has not been enforced, laws such as the 2015 Transitional Penal Code criminalize forced labor and exploitation, aligning with international standards. The draft Constitution grants rights against slavery and unfair treatment, offering legal protections. Laws define migrant statuses to distinguish trafficked individuals from legal migrants. Articles 15-17 prohibit slavery, protect liberty, and ensure fair trials, which are crucial in trafficking cases. Eritrea's courts and treaties are in place, but systemic issues hinder enforcement. Victims receive limited support, resulting in a Tier 3 ranking in the U.S. Trafficking report. Despite treaties, there is no comprehensive anti-trafficking law. The draft Constitution advocates for equality but remains vague regarding foreigners. The Penal Code does not fully criminalize exploitation, and immigration laws lack trafficking-specific provisions. Laws addressing sexual exploitation mainly target women and minors, with Articles 605 and 607 excluding adult males. Weak protections, ineffective investigations, and arbitrary detention impede progress. Somalia faces challenges with human trafficking. Its primary legal framework, the Somali Penal Code (Decree No. 5 of 1962), is based on the Italian Penal Code and has not been fully updated to specifically address trafficking or smuggling, even though these issues are acknowledged. The law applies nationwide and allows extraterritorial prosecution of crimes against Somali citizens (Article 3). It defines offenses such as unlawful abduction or coercion, with penalties including imprisonment and fines, depending on the harm caused and the victims involved (Articles 90–99). Somalia has ratified some international conventions, but not a key UN treaty. Limited resources and counter-terrorism efforts weaken law enforcement's capacity to fight trafficking. Puntland has established institutions such as the Counter-Trafficking Board and the Interministerial Task Force (Kamara, 2024), while Somaliland lacks formal enforcement mechanisms. Somaliland's 2012 Provisional Constitution guarantees security but does not ensure enforcement of trafficking laws. Assistance centers exist, yet victims often fear retaliation despite protections in place. Enforcement remains weak, with few investigations and poor coordination. Repatriations continue despite concerns about refoulement. Even with support from the IMF and the EU, enforcing the Human Trafficking Law remains ineffective (Mehra & Sharif, 2022). APPLICATION OF THE LAW AND CREDENCE: The UN Convention has influenced national laws from 2014 to 2024, but enforcement varies among countries. Some nations have reformed their laws, yet issues persist in victim protection, law enforcement, and data collection. Djibouti and Eritrea struggle with prosecution and victim support, while Ethiopia has updated its laws to meet international standards. Somalia's fragmented system hampers enforcement. Despite progress since 2015, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti, and Somalia still face challenges such as inconsistent prosecutions, transparency issues, and large-scale victim cases. Major concerns include weak enforcement, data gaps, ineffective victim procedures, lack of judicial transparency, training deficiencies, insufficient victim protection, and cross-border cooperation. Court reviews from 2014 to 2024 link smuggling and trafficking to specific cases, supported by testimony and NGO reports. Challenges involve dismantling criminal networks and protecting witnesses. Judicial rulings in Greece, the UK, and France focus on judicial review, legal definitions, and victim safeguards, although full judgments are often limited or based on media reports. Ethiopia serves as both a source and transit country for human trafficking and migrant smuggling, with Ethiopian workers facing forced labor and exploitation domestically and abroad through routes passing Djibouti, Sudan, and Libya on their way to Europe and the Gulf. In 2016, a licensed agency trafficked women for domestic work, resulting in forced labor and sexual exploitation overseas. The agency’s license was revoked, and its operators were imprisoned. The court emphasized Ethiopia’s responsibility to regulate recruitment and protect workers. In Federal Public Prosecutor v. Abdulshekur Emam Abdo and Abdul Aziz Rahmeto Dender (CR No. 231739, 2015), the Ethiopian Federal Supreme Court examined cases involving the trafficking and smuggling of Ethiopian nationals. The Court discussed how victims are handled, noting that bail was denied in accordance with Proclamation No. 1234/2013 and Directive No. 009/13, and referenced Rule 32/1/a and Proclamation No. 1178/2012. It confirmed that such cases can be heard by a single judge, supporting the High Court's decision. Additionally, the Court clarified that cases involving pushbacks may be reviewed without a single judge in trafficking and smuggling cases. The Ethiopian Federal Supreme Court of Cassation reviewed an important case involving the smuggling of Ethiopian citizens. In Meley Hagos v. Tigray Public Prosecutor (CC NO 18ዐ638, 2012), the regional public prosecutor charged Meley Hagos with violating Rule 32/1/a of the criminal code and Article 9/2 of Proclamation No. 909/2007. The case focused on the illegal transportation of Eritrean nationals across various locations and times, helping them enter Ethiopia and other countries, including Western nations. Evidence showed that the defendant assisted in moving Eritrean nationals into Ethiopia and abroad. The main question was whether the defendant was involved in migrant smuggling. The court determined that Meley Hagos violated Rule 32/1 (a) and Article 9/2 of Proclamation No. 909/2007 by engaging in migrant smuggling. He was sentenced to 18 years of severe imprisonment and fined 2,000 birr. In Ahmed Ibrahim Nuguse v. Oromya Public Prosecutor (CC No. 167965, 2015), the Ethiopian Federal Supreme Court of Cassation reviewed a case involving human trafficking and migrant smuggling by Ethiopian citizens. The prosecutor accused Ahmed Ibrahim Nuguse of violating Rule 32/1/a of the criminal code and Article 9/2 of Proclamation No. 909/2007. The case involved smuggling six Ethiopians at different times and locations and helping them travel to Arab and Western countries. Evidence showed the defendant’s role in trafficking and assisting their entry into Arab nations and other destinations. The main issue was whether the defendant was guilty of both human trafficking and migrant smuggling simultaneously under Article 60 of the criminal law. The court ruled that Ahmed Ibrahim Nuguse did not violate Rule 32/1/a, Article 60, or Proclamation No. 909/2007, Article 9/2, by engaging in migrant smuggling at the same time. He was acquitted, despite the victims' involvement in trafficking and smuggling. In Federal Public Prosecutor v. Siraj Mohamed Ali, Searole Agency (LP), and Ebrahim Mohamed Ali, the Ethiopian Supreme Court examined a case involving human trafficking and migrant smuggling of Ethiopians. The regional prosecutor accused the defendants of violating criminal laws by smuggling 16 Ethiopians to Arab and Western countries at different times. The main issue was whether they engaged in both trafficking and smuggling simultaneously under Article 60 of the criminal law. The court found the defendants guilty of violating several laws and sentenced them to 16 years and 6 months of rigorous imprisonment, along with a $50,000 fine. The 2018 Smuggling Networks case involved smugglers facilitating the illegal migration of Ethiopian youths through Djibouti to Yemen, where they faced extortion and abuse. Several were convicted, sentenced, and fined. The court noted that smuggling for profit and inhumane treatment violate Ethiopian law and are different from trafficking, which involves coercion. The 2020 Supreme Court case on officials' complicity revealed forged documents and neglect of trafficking victims. Although some officials were convicted, systemic issues prevented higher-level prosecutions. Assisting trafficking makes officials liable, and Ethiopia must hold officials accountable under the Palermo Protocols. The 2022 Victim Protection case involved Ethiopian women trafficked to Saudi Arabia seeking compensation and rehabilitation. The court ordered restitution and supported government programs, but enforcement remains weak. Victims are entitled to recovery and reparation under the law and international standards despite enforcement challenges. Somalia is a major hub for human trafficking due to ongoing conflict and weak governance, earning it “Special Case' status. Al-Shabaab recruits children, women, and IDPs for sexual exploitation and forced labor. Courts have convicted traffickers, and some Somali nationals face international charges, including the 2025 State v. Six Traffickers case involving six suspects in Mogadishu. Victims, some of whom died during transit, were extorted, and traffickers held them hostage for ransom. Sentences ranged from two years to acquittal, and some victims’ families received compensation, such as 50 camels, indicating efforts toward accountability. Somalia prohibits trafficking and has ratified international treaties, including the Palermo Protocols. Djibouti serves as a crucial transit hub for trafficking in the Horn of Africa, connecting Ethiopia, Somalia, and Eritrea to Yemen and the Gulf. Despite having anti-trafficking laws, enforcement remains weak. The Palermo Protocols require Djibouti to prosecute traffickers and protect victims; assisting or enabling trafficking can lead to criminal charges. Officials who collaborate with traffickers or neglect victims’ rights risk facing criminal prosecution. Although the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) has not issued rulings specifically on Djibouti, cases like Hirsi Jamaa v. Italy and Safi v. Greece emphasize key principles, including non-refoulement and victim protection, that are relevant to Djibouti’s situation. Eritrea is a major source of human trafficking and migrant smuggling in the Horn of Africa. Its citizens often face mandatory national service that resembles forced labor, prompting many to flee. Migrants are trafficked through Sudan, Libya, and the Mediterranean, relying on smugglers to cross borders into Sudan, Ethiopia, and Libya, where they encounter extortion, sexual violence, and forced labor. International cases such as Hirsi Jamaa v. Italy (2012) and Safi v. Greece (2022) involved Eritreans smuggled into Europe. For instance, Italian authorities returned 24 Somali and Eritrean nationals to Libya, violating laws and asserting extraterritorial jurisdiction. In the Safi case, Eritrean migrants died in a Greek shipwreck; survivors reported unsafe towing by the coast guard—violating Articles 2, 3, and 13. On January 12, 2017, the ECtHR ruled that Ukraine violated Articles 13 and 3 by denying asylum to three Eritreans, failing to safeguard against arbitrary removal, and allowing disembarkation only after court orders. They sought asylum on a vessel in Ukrainian waters but were prevented from disembarking and returned to a vessel bound for Saudi Arabia, risking mistreatment. The court concluded that Ukraine's procedures were insufficient, affirming that asylum seekers at ports are within its jurisdiction and have access to legal remedies. The case of In Safi and Others v. Greece (2022, ECHR) involves migrants, including Somali nationals, who died in a shipwreck near Farmakonisi, Greece. Survivors reported dangerous towing by the Coast Guard. The Court found violations of Articles 2, 3, and 13: the Coast Guard failed to protect lives, survivors faced harsh treatment, and investigations were inadequate. Article 3 highlights that migrants from the Horn of Africa face higher risks of trafficking, which subjects them to dangerous conditions, risk of refoulement, or degrading treatment. Article 4 of Protocol No. 4 bans collective expulsions without proper procedures. Article 2 requires states to ensure maritime safety, and neglecting this duty can lead to loss of life. Article 13 mandates effective remedies against expulsions or unsafe conditions; denying access breaches the Convention. Jurisdiction lies with states that control migrants on vessels or detain them outside their territory. The ECHR states that European countries violate the Convention when they push back, detain, or neglect Horn of Africa migrants without proper safeguards. The Court emphasizes the importance of dignity, individual assessments, and the protection of life as fundamental obligations. Decisions by the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) on migrants from the Horn of Africa emphasize that countries must avoid pushbacks, collective expulsions, and inhumane treatment. These rulings reinforce international agreements like the UN Palermo Protocols (2000), which distinguish between voluntary migrant smuggling and forced trafficking. The legal framework combines Palermo Protocol standards with ECHR case law to protect migrant rights across Europe. From 2014 to 2024, key cases include Greece's Mohamad Hanad Abdi, UK trafficking assessments, and a French Supreme Court decision supporting a trafficking victim. The analysis also covers Ethiopian domestic workers in Saudi Arabia and prosecutions in Africa, using legal databases and reports, though some judgments remain unpublished. Insights show improvements in victim remedies, increased prosecutions, overlaps with immigration issues, limited enforcement in the Gulf region, and the development of regional judicial precedents. Limitations stem from inconsistent publication and reliance on prosecutors. Landmark cases such as Hirsi Jamaa v. Italy (2012) highlight violations, including inhumane treatment and collective expulsion, emphasizing the obligation to prevent harmful returns. Chowdury v. Greece (2017) and S.M. v. Croatia (2020) reaffirm protections for trafficking victims. Criticisms point to European enforcement efforts that prioritize border security over human rights, with incidents like Safi v. Greece (2022) exposing failures in safe operations, resulting in 11 deaths—meanwhile, N.D. N.T. v. Spain (2020) permitted the return of migrants to Morocco, attempting to balance protection with border control. Table 2 shows that Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia are working to combat human trafficking and migrant smuggling. Djibouti struggles to enforce its anti-trafficking laws due to strong executive control and weak legislative oversight. In Eritrea, victims receive no assistance; there is no national action plan, and human trafficking issues are not well understood. Ethiopia has made progress in protecting victims with its 2020 Proclamation against human trafficking and its 2025-2029 Victim Protection Plans. Although Somalia has implemented various laws and reforms, its legal system still faces challenges because of ongoing conflict and poor governance. CONCLUSION AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS Human trafficking and migrant smuggling present significant challenges in the Horn of Africa due to limited resources, enforcement gaps, and political instability. Factors like poverty, conflict, and the lack of legal migration options worsen these issues in Ethiopia, Djibouti, Eritrea, and Somalia. Unlike Ethiopia, Eritrea lacks strong anti-trafficking laws. Somalia and Djibouti struggle to enforce their laws despite having specialized forces. Ethiopia and Djibouti have increased prosecution rates, aligned their laws with international standards, and supported victims. In contrast, Eritrea and Somalia have weak legal and enforcement systems. Improved border controls and international cooperation have helped reduce smuggling in Djibouti. Despite limited resources and ongoing political unrest, Eritrea and Somalia face similar challenges. A global initiative aims to strengthen border security with localized strategies tailored to each country's social and political context. Law enforcement must be strengthened, regional cooperation promoted, and the root causes of human trafficking addressed. Due to Somalia's limited capacity and ongoing conflict, Djibouti's anti-trafficking efforts remain inconsistent and impact regional stability. Cross-border coordination is insufficient, enforcement varies across the region, and victim support remains underdeveloped. For example, border patrols lack adequate funding. The IGAD Regional Migration Policy offers support, but its implementation often faces difficulties. It is crucial to strengthen legal systems, empower frontline actors, raise public awareness, and address root causes. These measures will improve migration conditions and dismantle trafficking networks. Supporting efforts to fight human trafficking and migrant smuggling in the Horn of Africa involves strengthening legislative frameworks, enhancing frontline capacities, and promoting international cooperation. Regional strategies focused on victims include implementing migration frameworks, establishing a regional intelligence platform, regulating recruitment agencies, and expanding public awareness campaigns. Attention must also be given to poverty and conflict. As part of these efforts, public awareness is increased, victims receive support, partnerships between NGOs and governments are strengthened, and specialized law enforcement training is provided. Abbreviations ACHPR African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights AU African Union CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women CRC: The Convention on the Rights of the Child EU European Union HOA Horn of Africa ICC International Criminal Court ICCPR International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ICESCR International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights IDPs Internally Displaced Persons IGAD Intergovernmental Authority on Development ILO International Labor Organization IOM International Organization for Migration MDSD Most Different Systems Design MSSD Most Similar Systems Design OAU Organization of African Unity UDHR Universal Declaration of Human Rights UN United Nations UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime UNTOC United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime USA United States of America WB World Bank Declarations Ethics and approval : A public dataset with anonymized data protects vulnerable populations. Before and during data collection, each participant provided informed consent. A MU-IRB2624/2025 approval was obtained for all study activities at the Mekelle University College of Health Sciences. Funding: Neither the research nor this article received any funding. Clinical Trial Number The manuscript contains no clinical section. References Abdinasir, I. I. (2021). International Non-Government Organizations (INGOs) and Protection of Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) in Somalia, a Case Study of Danish Refugee Council (DRC) (Doctoral dissertation, Kampala International University). Ahmad, F., Hakim, F., & Ahmad, E. (2025). The Crime-Terror Nexus: Rethinking Security Through a Criminological Framework. PAKISTAN JOURNAL OF LAW, ANALYSIS AND WISDOM , 4 (5), 123-137. Ajah, B. O., & Magadze, T. O. (2025). The African Union and Organized Crime: Between Normative Frameworks and Practical Constraints. Journal of African Union Studies (JoAUS) , 14 (3), 23-47. Akestoridi, K., and Tzortzi, S. (2024). The United Nations’ Current Legal Approach to Terrorism, Organized Crime, and ‘Organized Criminal Terrorism’. In Organized Criminal Terrorism (pp. 39-73). Brill Nijhoff. Alagna, F. (2024). From the Conceptualization of Migrant Smuggling to the Research Theory and Methods. In Migrant Smuggling and the Criminalization of Migration in the EU: Policies and Practices from Italy (pp. 29-57). Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland. Andreopoulos, G., & Carey, H. F. (Eds.). (2022). Justice and World Order: Reassessing Richard Falk's Scholarship and Advocacy . Routledge. Aniche, E. T., Alumona, I. M., Iwuoha, V. C., and Michael-Olomu, O. (2025). The ‘Triangle of Shame’: interrogating the impact of African Union migration policy frameworks on human trafficking in Africa. SN Social Sciences , 5 (4), 53. Bariagaber, A. (2023). States, Migrants, and the Challenge of International Human Smuggling and Trafficking in the Horn of Africa. Journal of Global South Studies , 40 (2), 249-273. Bish, A., Cockbain, E., Walsh, P. W., & Borrion, H. (2023). Exploring the'blurred boundary': human smuggling and trafficking on the central Mediterranean route to Europe. Journal of illicit economies and development , 5 (1), 70-94. Busza, J., Shewamene, Z., Zimmerman, C., Erulkar, A., Hailu, E., Negeri, L., ... & Lo, Y. (2023). Accidental traffickers: qualitative findings on labor recruitment in Ethiopia. Globalization and health , 19 (1), 102. Campana, P., & Varese, F. (2022). Studying organized crime networks: Data sources, boundaries, and the limits of structural measures. Social networks , 69 , 149-159. Chiré, A. S., and Pinauldt, G. (2024). 10 Djibouti, a Migratory Crossroads in the Red Sea Basin. African Perspectives on South-South Migration , 169. Constitution of Somalia Constitutional Amendment (Loi Constitutionnelle N° 215/An/08/5ème L Portant Révision de la Constitution) Convention 189 of the International Labor Organization (ILO) on domestic workers Convention C029 - Forced Labor Convention, 1930 (No. 29) Convention concerning the Abolition of Forced Labor, 1957 (No. 105) Convention on the Rights of the Child,1989 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees 1951 UN Refugee Convention Criminal Procedure Code of Ethiopia 1961 Directive Issued to Determine the Residence Status of Eritrean Nationals Residing in Ethiopia DjiboutiConstitution ApprovedOn4September1992 (LaConstitutionDeLa Republique De Djibouti) Elfakharani, A. M. (2025). A descriptive mixed-method study of legislation development about human rights with a focus on human trafficking in GCC countries. The International Journal of Human Rights , 1-20. Employment Exchange Services Proclamation No. 632/2009 Eritrea–Constitution: Adopted On: July 1996 Eritrean Nationality Proclamation, No.21/1992. Fogli, C., POPP, S. L., & MAJORANO, S. F. (2025). Resolve the root causes of irregular migration and forced displacement. How does it work? Lessons learned from the EUTF in HoA. Gezie, L. D., Yalew, A. W., Gete, Y. K., and Samkange-Zeeb, F. (2021). Exploring factors that contribute to human trafficking in Ethiopia: a socio-ecological perspective. Globalization and health , 17 (1), 76. Gobena, M. A. (2023). Money laundering in Ethiopia: an analysis of typologies and techniques. Journal of Money Laundering Control , 26 (4), 696-708. Hailu, M. (2025). Nationality Laws in Ethiopia and Eritrea: Overview of Evolution, Attainments and Gaps. Hamilton, D. S., and Renouard, J. (2024). Crossing the river by feeling the stones: The United States, Europe, and China in an age of rivalry and disruption. In The Transatlantic Community and China in the Age of Disruption (pp. 9-43). Routledge. Huynh, J. (2022). A Mixed Method-Approach to Exploring Human Organ Trafficking and Its Policy Implications (Doctoral dissertation, Texas Southern University). Immigration Proclamation (No.354/2003) Issuance of Travel DocumentsAndVisasRegulations1971(No.395/1971). Kamara, I. (2024). Coalition Dynamics in Anti-Human Trafficking Efforts: Understanding the Engagement of Coalition Actors in Implementing the Anti-Human Trafficking and Migrant Smuggling Act of 2022 in Sierra Leone. Katungati, S. M. (2025). Analysis of the Legal Framework for Combating Human Trafficking in Kenya. Essays of Faculty of Law, University of Pécs, Yearbook of [year] , (1). Khan, M. N. I. (2025). Cross-Border Data Privacy and Legal Support: A Systematic Review of International Compliance Standards and Cyber Law Practices. Law N°210/An/07/5e of Djibouti Law No. 111/An/11/6 of Djibouti Law No. 133/An/16/7ème of Djibouti Law No. 201/An/07/5 of Djibouti Lelliott, J., and Miller, R. (2023). The nexus between corruption, migrant smuggling, and human trafficking in Southeast Asia. In Migration in Southeast Asia: IMISCOE regional reader (pp. 195-215). Cham: Springer International Publishing. Levni, V. (2025). THE BOUNDARIES OF DISCRIMINATION IN CITIZENSHIP REVOCATION: LEGAL AND ETHICAL DILEMMAS FOR NATURALISED IMMIGRANTS. The Boğaziçi Law Review , 3 (1), 99-132. Makanga, F. I. (2021). An Assessment of the Implementation of Free Movement of Persons in the East African Community: Case of Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi). Mandisodza, G. (2024) BEYOND BORDERS: TACKLING HUMAN TRAFFICKING THROUGH STRUCTURAL REFORM, REGIONAL COOPERATION, AND COMMUNITY RESILIENCE. INTRACTABLE PROBLEMS OF HUMAN RIGHTS , 12. Martin, P. (2023). Introduction: Non-doctrinal Research Methods in Environmental Law. In Non-doctrinal Research Methods in Environmental Law (pp. 1-19). Edward Elgar Publishing. Maunganidze, O. A., and Mbiyozo, A. N. (2024). Block by block, Unpuzzling Africa's migration governance landscape. ISS Africa Report , 2024 (47), 1-24. Mehra, A. V., & Sharif, G. (2024). Legal Framework and International Cooperation in Combating Human Trafficking. International Journal for Multidisciplinary Research (IJFMR) , 6 (2), 1-15. Merhawi Woldemichael (2025) Eritrea and Ethiopia at a Crossroads: Rethinking Eritrea’s Foreign Policy. The HORN Bulletin • Volume VIII • Issue II Migration For Employment Convention (ILO c097), 1949 Mombelloni, A. (2024). Crisis in Context: Exploring the Regional Dynamics of the Refugee Displacement in the Horn of Africa. Nwala, P., & Gesiere, L. (2023). Transnational Smuggling and Illegal Migration in Africa: Causes and Effects. Kashere Journal of Politics and International Relations , 1 (2). Nzau, M. (2024). Migration Trends and Organized Transnational Crime in Twenty-First-Century Eastern Africa: A Critical Analysis. In Understanding the Horizontal and Vertical Nature of African Migration in Contemporary Times (pp. 175-194). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore. Ogunbajo, M. (2023). Human Trafficking as a Human Rights Violation in a Pluralistic and Interdependent World: Obligations and Accountability of States. مجلة جامعة السعيد للعلوم الانسانية , 6 (3), 215-241.‎ Otto, L. (2025). The Rights, Interests, and Strategic Approaches of Landlocked States in the Maritime Domain: The Case of Ethiopia. The Strategic Review for Southern Africa , 47 (1), 38-51. Penal Code (Table of Contents) of Ordinance No. 77-053/Pr/Ae Pokharel, G. (2024). A Study on the Smuggling of Migrants As Transnational Organized Crime in Nepal. Pre-1991PenalCode, Presidential Decree No. 25 of2June1984, On Determination of Refugee Status Prevention And Suppression of Trafficking in Persons and Smuggling of Migrants Proclamation (No.909/2015) Proclamation Issued to Amend Proclamation No. 24/1992 Enacted to Regulate the Provision of Travel Documents, the Entry into and Exit from Eritrea, and Residence of Foreigners in Eritrea (2011-04-01) Proclamation No. 24Of 1992 Issued to Regulate the Issuing Of Travel Documents, Entry And Exit Visas from Eritrea, And to Control Residence Permits Of Foreigners In Eritrea Proclamation No. 257/2001 Establishing the Ethiopian National Security Council Proclamation No. 720/2011 establishing the Ethiopian Federal Police Commission Proclamation On Ethiopian Nationality (No. 378 of 2003) Proclamation To Provide For The Requirement Of Registration Of Foreigners Who Reside, Work, Or Engage In Business In Eritrea (No. 127/2002). Proclamation To Regulate the Issuance of Travel Documents and Visas, And Registration of Foreigners in Ethiopia (No. 271/1969). Program to Grant Residency Status to Undocumented Ethiopian Migrants Protocol of the United Nations on Migrant Smuggling from 2000 Protocol of the United Nations on Refugees of 1967 Protocol Relating to the Establishment of the Peace and Security Council of the African Union Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights on the establishment of an African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights Protocol to the Convention against Human Trafficking of 2000 Providing Foreign Nationals of Ethiopian Origin with Certain Rights to Be Exercised in Their Country-of-Origin Proclamation (No. 270/2002) Refugee Proclamation (No. 409 of 2004) Regulations To Issue Work Permits To Non-Nationals (Legal Notice No 80/2003). Republic Of Somaliland Citizenship Law (Law No. 22/2002) Security, Immigration, and Refugee Affairs Authority Establishment Proclamation (No.6/1995) Siems, M. (2022). Comparative law . Cambridge University Press. Silver, S. (2021). Twenty years after the passage of the Palermo Protocol: Identifying common flaws in defining trafficking through the first global study of domestic anti-trafficking laws. Yale L. & Pol'y Rev. , 40 , 336. Sisay, G. (2024). Scoping review of empirical studies on human trafficking in Ethiopia. Cogent Social Sciences , 10 (1), 2341957. Smits, K., & Wirtz, M. (2023). Escaping Eritrea: The Vulnerability of Eritreans to Human Trafficking. In Enslaved: Trapped and Trafficked in Digital Black Holes: Human Trafficking Trajectories to Libya. (pp. 255-295). Langaa RPCIG. Somaliland Immigration Law (Law No. 72/1995) Somaliland Refugee Law Stoler, J., Pearson, A. L., Rosinger, A. Y., Lee, A. E., Bombardi, R., Brewis, A., ... and Tutu, R. A. (2022). The role of water in environmental migration. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water , 9 (3), pp.1584. Supplement to the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime on Migrant Smuggling by Land, Sea, and Air Organized Crime (2000) and the Protocols Thereto Szablewska, N. (2022). Human smuggling and human trafficking. In International conflict and security law: A research handbook (pp. 1181-1206). The Hague: TMC Asser Press. Tadesse, G. A., and Tafesse, T. (2025). Human Trafficking in the Horn of Africa with Emphasis on the Eastern Route to the Gulf States through Djibouti. Migration and Development, 14(1), 7-27. Tenant, I. (2021). Fulfilling the Promise of Palermo? A Political History of the UN Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime. The 1975 ILO 143 convention on migrant workers The 2012 law requiring the registration of all births nationwide The Criminal Code of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Proclamation No. 414/2004 The Criminal Procedure Code was amended by Law No.84 of 12 December 1972. The Eritrean Transitional Criminal Code The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Constitution The IGAD Convention on Extradition Ratification Proclamation. 733/2012 The IGAD Convention on Mutual Legal Assistance in Criminal Matters Ratification Proclamation No. 732/2012 The Overseas Employment Proclamation (No.923/2016) The Penal Code,1962, Somalia The Vienna Convention on Consular Relations of 1963 Transitional Constitution of the Puntland Regional Government Ullah, I., Manan, L., and Chaudhry, K. T. (2025). Human Trafficking and Smuggling of Migrants: The Evolving Role of Criminal Law in Global and National Contexts. Research Journal for Social Affairs , 3 (5), 281-292. Unsecuritycouncilresolutions1267(1999),1373(2001),1540(2004),1566(2004),1617(2005) and 1624(2005) Usman, M. U. H. A. M. M. A. D., Amjad, S. O. H. A. I. L., & Khan, A. S. I. F. (2021). Human Trafficking and Smuggling: Intersection with Maritime Law and International Cooperation. International Review of Social Sciences , 9 (01), 504-510. Usman, M., Khan, A., and Amjad, S. (2021). Implications of transnational crime on maritime jurisdiction and enforcement. International Review of Social Sciences , 9 (04), pp. 456-462. Wakefield, D. (2025). It is the Economy: The effect of appeals to economic policy on Latino independents. Political Behavior , 1-24. Wanjiru, D. (2023). The Intersection of Immigration Policies and Human Rights. American Journal of Law and Policy , 1 (1), 1-12. Work, 2024; Convention & Protocol, 1949; Workplace, A. I., and Work, G. (2024). Notre Dame Journal of Jaw Ethics. Yemane, M., & Borowy, I. (2023). Inter-state and Intra-state Wars and Conflicts in the Horn of Africa. EAS Journal of Humanities and Cultural Studies , 5 (04), 210-219. Tables Table 1: Year-by-year state ratifications of international instruments International Instruments DJIBOUTI ERITREA ETHIOPIA SOMALIA UNTOC 2005 2014 2007 2024 TIP Protocol 2005 2014 2012 Not Yet 1951 Refugee Convention 1977 Not Yet 1969 1978 1967 Protocol on the Refugee Convention 1977 Not Yet 1969 1978 ICCPR 2002 2002 1993 1990 ICESCR 1992 2001 1993 190 UNCAT 2002 2014 1994 1990 CEDAW 1998 1995 1982 Not Yet CRC 1990 1994 1991 2015 Optional Protocol to CRC on Armed Conflict 2011 2005 2014 2002/ sign Optional Protocol to CRC on Sale of children, prostitution, and pornography 2011 2005 2014 2005 ICERD, 1969 2011 2001 1976 1975 ICRMW, 1990 2011 Not Yet - 2019 UNCRPD, 2006 2012 2025 2010 2018 The Slavery Convention of 1926 was amended by the Protocol of 1953 1979 Not Yet 1969 Not Yet 1950 Convention on the Suppression of Human Trafficking and the Exploitation of Prostitution of Others 1979 Not Yet Not Yet Not Yet Supplementing the Abolition of Slavery Convention, the Slave Trade Convention was ratified in 1956 1979 Not Yet 1969 Not Yet ILO Forced Labor Convention, 1930 (No. 29) 1978 2000 2003 1960 Protocol to the Forced Labor Convention, 2014 2018 Not Yet Not Yet Not Yet ILO Abolition of Forced Labor Convention, 1957 (No.105) 1978 2000 1999 1961 Source, Author, 2025 Table 2: Comparison of key policy and legal responses by States of the Horn of Africa THEMATIC COMPARISON DJIBOUTI ERITREA ETHIOPIA SOMALIA The power of the legislature and the structure of the law Djibouti's president is strong, but its legislature is weak. The executive branch monopolizes power and smuggles migrants. Despite adopting a draft constitution in 1997, the party or the president has a high degree of control over the legal system. The House of People's Representatives is governed by civil law. The Constitution has three branches: legislative, executive, and judicial. Several laws prohibit the smuggling of migrants and human trafficking. Governance and security are addressed in Somalia's legal framework. The 2012 Provisional Constitution has three branches of government: executive, legislative, and judicial. The law comprises civil, Islamic, and customary law. National Action Plan/Strategic Framework Djibouti faces challenges in preventing human trafficking due to its strategic location in Africa. There has been no update to the 2015-2022 plan. The UNODC seeks a new action plan to combat human trafficking. The Eritrean government is criticized for its compulsory National Service. Adult men's sex trafficking is not criminalized, and there is no known National Action Plan/Strategic Framework. Ethiopia combats trafficking and migrant smuggling with national strategies (2025–2029) and legal frameworks. Preventing, protecting, prosecuting, and supporting victims of trafficking are the goals of the National Action Plan. Somalia's National Migration Strategy (May 2024) addresses migration challenges, including human trafficking. Regularizing migration pathways, combating smuggling, and engaging the diaspora are key goals. Migration to the Gulf states passes through Yemen. Legislation of National Importance Legislation No. 133 (2016) on human trafficking and illegal migration (Law No. 133/AN/16/7th). The Anti-Terrorism and Other Serious Crimes Law No.111 (2011) prohibits migrant smuggling and human trafficking. The Eritrean approach to human trafficking differs from that of Ethiopia and Djibouti. Although Eritrea has a legal framework, including Article 315 of the Penal Code (2015), its restrictive policies have been criticized. In 2001, the Labor Proclamation 118 prohibited forced labor and child labor, but it did not mandate national service. Although aligned with international standards, the Proclamation against Human Trafficking and Smuggling No. 1178/2020 differs from the laws of other countries. Ethiopian Overseas Employment Proclamation 923/2016 also addresses human trafficking in addition to the Criminal Code (2004). Labor trafficking and some forms of sex trafficking are criminalized under the pre-1991 Penal Code. Several recent laws have benefited the country, including the Somali Immigration Law (2023), the National Security and Intelligence Act (2023), and the Law on Refugees and Asylum Seekers (2024). Definition, Prevention, Criminalization, And Relationship with International Covenants A serious human rights and international law violation in Djibouti is human trafficking. Force, fraud, or coercion is used to recruit, transport, transfer, harbor, or receive persons for exploitation. Traffickers and smugglers are severely punished under Djibouti's national laws. Djibouti has signed the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women. (Law No. 133/AN/16/7th). Eritrea's human trafficking laws differ from international standards in several ways. Prosecutors and victims are protected to prevent, suppress, and punish trafficking in persons according to the UN Protocol. Trafficking cases are not adequately investigated or prosecuted in Eritrea because of the lack of a comprehensive victim support system. Recruiting, transporting, transferring, harboring, and receiving migrants and victims of human trafficking are challenges Eritrea faces. Despite being criminalized, they are difficult to enforce. Indefinite national service and forced labor are major contributing factors to Eritrea's trafficking problem. Eritrea is expected to sign the UN Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea, and Air, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and the Convention against Discrimination in Education. Ethiopia has more structured policies and regional cooperation to fight trafficking. Proclamation No. 1178/2020 distinguishes between human trafficking and migration smuggling. Clarifies the meaning of 'band or group' and 'band or association' in the Criminal Code 2004, and raises concerns about victim capture. Proclamation 1178/2020 also defines transnational trafficking and illegal employment abroad. Crime types are also taken into account in the legislation. Drafters intended to avoid overlap with the Criminal Code with these types. The inclusion of criminal crimes involving only exploitation. Furthermore, it criminalizes trafficking regardless of age or gender. In Somalia, human trafficking and migrant smuggling involve forced labor or sexual exploitation. International organizations strengthen laws and policies against these crimes. Criminalizes these crimes, collaborates with global agencies, and supports victims. Legislation defining human trafficking provides provisions for investigation, prosecution, and victim protection. Art. UNTOC defines an organized crime group in Article 2 and addresses anti-money laundering and counter-terrorism financing. The definition of "forced or compulsory labor" under international law, as well as situations where children are exploited in the armed forces, is also included. It explores the impact of the Immigration Act Article 30 on human trafficking and migration victims. Investigation and Prosecution Djibouti's approach to human trafficking and migrant smuggling is weak compared to other nations. In Djibouti, no traffickers have been convicted in six consecutive years, according to the U.S. Department of State’s Trafficking in Persons Report. As the 2016 anti-trafficking law has not been incorporated into its legal codes, it further weakens its response. Human trafficking investigations, prosecutions, convictions, and sentences are neither identified nor standardized. A Tier 3 ranking indicates Eritrea's government is not meeting minimum standards for eliminating trafficking and is not taking significant measures to do so. Implementing the Criminal Procedure Code of 2015 is challenging and requires special investigative techniques. Ethiopia received a Tier 2 ranking in 2023, indicating that the government is actively combating human trafficking despite not meeting the minimum requirements. As a result of Proclamation No. 1178/2020, the National Partnership Coalition strengthened penalties, improved victim protection, and enhanced cross-border cooperation. Judges, prosecutors, and police investigators were informed of the new law. Create a Criminal Procedure Code to outline police investigative powers. Despite ongoing conflict, weak governance, and limited international access, Somalia remains a "Special Case" in the 2023 TIP Report. Therefore, federal efforts to combat human trafficking are insufficient, and victims are not protected or prosecuted. The Somali Police Force investigates smugglers and human traffickers. A further function of the unit is to proactively identify trafficking situations proactively, proactively identifies trafficking situations, and at-risk individuals. The unit also addresses organized crime and trafficking. Prevention, Protection, and Assistance Djibouti has legal measures against human trafficking and migrant smuggling. Over the past seven years, the focus has been on prevention (Penal Code Articles 23 and 394-396), protection of Legal Gaps, and support for the No Aid or Compensation Framework. The lack of an active anti-trafficking committee and poor identification processes leads to inadequate victim protection, shelters, and legal assistance. Articles 12 and 13 of the TIP Protocol do not provide for security or control over travel or identity documents. Guardians can be appointed to protect children from direct contact with suspects and witnesses under Law No. 113. In Eritrea, there is no anti-trafficking law, and there is no compulsory national service, which increases trafficking risk. Additionally, there are no public awareness campaigns or procedures for identifying victims. The Eritrean government lacks a national referral mechanism and partnerships with NGOs or international agencies. Articles 19(8) and 19 (9) of the draft Constitution grant Eritreans the right to leave and re-enter Eritrea, both within and outside the country, and to obtain documentation. Human trafficking and migrant smuggling are combated through Ethiopia's Proclamation No. 1178/2020, which focuses on prevention (articles 4-6, 8, 22-23), protection (articles 24-27), and support (articles 28-311). The law criminalizes these offenses, institutes awareness campaigns, and regulates employment agencies. It provides medical care, psychological counseling, legal assistance, vocational training, and protection from criminal liability. In the proclamation, deficiencies are corrected; international standards, including the UN Palermo Protocols, are adhered to; key definitions, penalties, and victim support are established; and a National Committee is established. 1178/2020 does not discriminate based on nationality, immigration status, or other factors. Ethiopian Nationality Proclamation No. 378/2003 concerning the role of the carrier provisions in Article 17 of the Immigration Proclamation. In October 2025, Somalia plans to hold national consultations on the Anti-Trafficking and Smuggling Act to comply with international standards. Public awareness is low, and there is no National Referral Mechanism for victim support, which often leads to victim criminalization. The Immigration Act, Article 31, addresses undesirable foreigners—assessment of the Border Management Information System's capacity to prevent cross-border human trafficking. In Somalia, UNODC and IOM have developed training manuals and countertrafficking programs to combat human trafficking and migrant smuggling. Institutions, Culture, Coordination, And Cooperation Despite being illegal (Articles 23, 394-396, Law No 133 (2016)), human trafficking and migrant smuggling are difficult to enforce and coordinate. It is inactive due to a shortage of appointments and funding. Cultural acceptance prevents support for irregular migrants. Human trafficking and migrant smuggling are effectively addressed as a result of the 2014-2020 National Action Plan. Through ICAT, UNODC provides technical assistance and training to improve law enforcement responses in Djibouti. There is no anti-trafficking agency in Eritrea, and no prosecutions of human traffickers have been conducted for years. In states that sponsor forced labor, citizens often turn to smugglers for help; there is no victim assistance, and there is minimal cooperation with international protocols. Under Eritrea's penal code, victim protection is prioritized over migration control. The situation is exacerbated by forced conscription and economic hardship. To improve the country's response, UNODC assists. Trafficking in human beings and migrant smuggling are serious problems in Ethiopia, exacerbated by Proclamation No. 1178/2020. Several key bodies are involved in the legal reform process, including the Ministries of Justice and Women and Social Affairs (Articles 22 and 23, as well as 26 and 31). Ethiopian Federal Police and Immigration Office assist with investigations, while civil society organizations support rehabilitation. A 2019 Memorandum of Understanding backs this. Ethiopia engages in regional cooperation to prevent irregular migration under the UN Palermo Protocols, and IOM and UNODC collaborate to share training and data. Additionally, extradition is legally complex, as it differs from Proclamation No. 378/2003, Proclamation No. 733/2012, and Proclamation No. 1178/2020 with respect to the requirements of dual criminality and the death penalty. In Somalia, the Ministry of Justice has drafted an Anti-Trafficking and Smuggling Act to combat the Smuggling of migrants and human trafficking. A lack of agencies, weak law enforcement, and cultural acceptance of irregular migration pose significant challenges. There is no National Referral Mechanism (NRM) to facilitate coordination. IOM and UNODC maintain international partnerships with Somalia, which has acceded to the UNTOC. Although reform efforts are still in their early stages, awareness-raising initiatives and improvements to legal frameworks and enforcement are underway. Return And Reintegration Laws and procedures are in place to return victims of human trafficking and migrant smuggling, and to receive victims of trafficking who are being returned to Djibouti. Bilateral relationships, if any, are in place to support the return and reintegration of trafficked victims, and whether they have been effectively implemented. The ‘guarantee’ from the country of origin is required before a person is repatriated to their home country, in accordance with the art. 32 of the 2016 Law No. 113, and whether this amounts to protection against non-refoulement. There is an infrastructure in place to ensure the efficient exercise of the residency rights of victims of human trafficking and migrant smuggling set out in Articles 31 and 36 of the 2016 Law No. 113. Implement a mechanism to identify victims of trafficking among those returning to Eritrea and those being removed, as recommended by Art. 8 of UNTOC. Emphasize the importance of fundamental rights and freedoms in return and reintegration processes for victims of human trafficking and migrant smuggling. Consider acceding to the 1951 Refugee Convention and the 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees. Ethiopia's framework for trafficking victims' returns and reintegration is defined by Proclamation No. 1178/2020 and Directive No. 969/2023. A National Committee is mandated to coordinate implementation. The Directive also specifies the operational aspects of reintegration services, with a focus on sustainability. The Ministry of Women and Social Affairs, IOM, and UNODC are key partners. Article 28-31 Proclamation, Article 150 of the Criminal Code, or Article 5 of the Immigration Proclamation No. Outlines victims' legal rights, including medical care, psychological support, and legal assistance. In such situations, protection risks arise. Deporting trafficked individuals from Ethiopia using Article 8 of Immigration Proclamation No. 354/2003. As part of the National Referral Mechanism, finalized in 2023, victims will be able to self-identify and receive services while being protected from the risk of deportation. Somalia lacks robust laws regarding the return and reintegration of migrant smugglers and human trafficking victims. National Migration Strategy (2024) suggests policies for safe returns and community-based reintegration programs. Returnees are supported by the IOM's Migrant Protection and Assistance Program. The Task Force on Return and Reintegration develops and implements a National Action Plan. As protected by Section 32 of the Immigration Act, Article 37 of the Provisional Constitution enacts non-refoulement as a response to TIP. The Anti-Trafficking and Smuggling Act (2020) protects victims. Legal codification is still pending, but Gulf returnees, refugees, and trafficking victims are receiving better assistance. Civil Remedy Djibouti's judicial system offers specific avenues for victims to seek justice, but enforcement is weak. Strengthening anti-corruption legislation, boosting judicial awareness, and providing specialized services for victims are critical steps towards tackling these concerns. Eritrea presents tremendous obstacles in preventing human trafficking, with few civil remedies available to victims. In Ethiopia, legal frameworks protect, rehabilitate, and support victims of human trafficking and migrant smuggling. Increasing cross-border cooperation and enforcing laws on prevention, prosecution, and rehabilitation are essential. Somalia's authorities and organizations are improving protection for smugglers and traffickers. The recovery of assets Despite addressing human trafficking and migrant smuggling, Djibouti's legal framework reflects international asset recovery agreements. Djibouti has signed bilateral investment treaties with France, China, and Turkey, which influence asset protection and recovery. The country's investment climate encourages foreign direct investment and financial transparency. Djibouti collaborates with other nations to repatriate stolen assets through global frameworks such as the United Nations Convention against Corruption and regional agreements—articles 17 and 18 of Law No. 113 address asset seizure and special investigative tools, respectively. Along with its laws against human trafficking and migrant smuggling, Eritrea has little information on how it approaches asset recovery. The proceeds of trafficking should be confiscated in accordance with international guidelines to assist victims. Eritrea's strict border controls and migration policies pose unique challenges. Eritrea must strengthen its asset recovery mechanisms. Smuggling and trafficking need stronger legal frameworks, according to international organizations. Asset recovery provisions are included in Ethiopian law to combat human trafficking. Furthermore, a Victim Fund is established to assist victims of human trafficking. The legal framework, regional cooperation, and victim support provisions of Ethiopia's asset recovery policy distinguish it from those of other countries. International collaboration and civil society participation are lacking. The ability of police to employ the authorities granted to them to freeze, seize, and confiscate property under Articles 20-22 of Proclamation No. 1178/2020 and the criminal procedure code to detect and limit the dangers of their actual execution. A legal framework and policies have been developed in Somalia to combat human trafficking and migrant smuggling. International laws, including the UN Convention Against Corruption and the World Bank Stolen Asset Recovery Initiative, aid asset recovery. Global financial institutions and international best practices have been incorporated into Somalia's asset recovery strategy. Recent cases include the Somali Asset Recovery Case, the U.S. Discovery Dispute, and the approximately $260 million allegedly frozen by the U.S. Source, Author, 2025 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-9475587","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":634597540,"identity":"bc541a07-3a22-4b17-bdb7-33df6dfcbe65","order_by":0,"name":"Berihu Teweldebirhan Gebresilassie","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA3UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACAyA+zMBgwcDA3gDiWhCtRYKBgecAiCtBnBZmsBaJBBCfCC3m7L0PDxe2Scgb3Hx+dcOPAgkG/vbuBLxaLHuOGxye2SZhuOF2TtnNHqDDJM6c3YDfYTfSGA7ztkkwArWk3eABajGQyCWg5f4zsBb7DTfPpN38Q5SWG2xgLYkbbrAfu02ULZY9QIfxnJNInnkmh+22jIEED0G/mLMfY/7MU2Zj23f8+LObb/7YyPG39+LXAgcKB3hAccTAQ5xyEJBvYH9AvOpRMApGwSgYUQAAcLNJU83J1cAAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Mekelle University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Berihu","middleName":"Teweldebirhan","lastName":"Gebresilassie","suffix":""},{"id":634597541,"identity":"6eb9e596-a356-4887-888c-15b9307bf460","order_by":1,"name":"kinfe Abraha Gebre-Egziabher","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Mekelle University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"kinfe","middleName":"Abraha","lastName":"Gebre-Egziabher","suffix":""},{"id":634597542,"identity":"1faf95f6-0f13-4ec1-9d42-7f60bff55b15","order_by":2,"name":"Tsegai Berhane Ghebretekle","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Mekelle University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Tsegai","middleName":"Berhane","lastName":"Ghebretekle","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-04-20 18:23:19","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9475587/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9475587/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":108805500,"identity":"118da735-5824-436f-8300-08a8a14a4a8c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-08 15:26:07","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":491014,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9475587/v1/20064669-02ae-407b-a48a-9efb9e810b7d.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"A Comparative Analysis of Policy and Legal Frameworks Addressing Human Trafficking and Migrant Smuggling in the Horn of Africa","fulltext":[{"header":"INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eHuman trafficking and migrant smuggling are serious problems in the Horn of Africa, as recent migrants from Sudan and Libya flee conflict, poverty, and environmental issues. Many are trafficked, exploited, and forced into harsh conditions despite the risks while seeking safety. Undocumented migrants are especially vulnerable (Lelliott \u0026amp; Miller, 2023). The region faces policy challenges: smuggling involves violations of consent, and trafficking includes illegal crossings, both of which are considered crimes under the UN Palermo Convention. Strengthening border enforcement, legal systems, and victim support, as well as efforts to reduce poverty and conflict, are crucial (Tenant, 2021).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs technological advances make enforcement more complex, international cooperation becomes essential (Usman et al., 2021). Countries in the Horn of Africa face law enforcement challenges due to different legal systems, regional instability caused by poverty and conflict, and the need for community education on trafficking risks. Implementing policies and strengthening institutions are crucial to fighting migrant exploitation and violence. Regional insecurity weakens the effectiveness of the Intergovernmental Authority on Drought and Development (IGADD)'s Regional Migration Policy. Strategies like investing in infrastructure, harmonizing laws, and focusing on victims can help reduce human trafficking (Mehra \u0026amp; Sharif, 2042). Human trafficking requires coordinated efforts—policy enforcement, infrastructure, and international collaboration. This study reviews how Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia addressed trafficking from 2014 to 2024.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAN EXTENSIVE REVIEW OF EMPIRICAL AND THEORETICAL ASPECTS\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHuman trafficking involves recruiting, transporting, or exploiting people through force, fraud, coercion, or vulnerabilities, mainly for forced labor or sexual exploitation (Article 3(a) of the UN Protocol, 2000). Migrant smuggling is the illegal crossing of borders for profit; if migrants agree, they are not considered victims (Article 3(a) of the\u0026nbsp;Smuggling of Migrants Protocol). Definitions vary, but trafficking focuses on exploitation, while smuggling centers on illegal border crossings for money. The Palermo Protocol—Articles 3, 5, 6, 7—provides a victim-centered legal framework that highlights survivors' rights. Smuggling can lead to trafficking through debt or abuse. The main difference is that smuggling involves crossing borders, whereas trafficking involves exploitation within countries (Szablewska, 2022). Smuggling can occur without force or deception. Both crimes involve organized networks, shared routes, and links to other criminal activities (Campana \u0026amp; Varese, 2022). Although similar, smuggling enables illegal border crossings, while trafficking involves deception and coercion (Bish et al., 2023). Fragile states and porous borders make migration control more challenging (Pokharel, 2024). Over the past twenty years, theories about trafficking have evolved (Alagna, 2024). Liberals support border controls; socialists focus on economic inequality (Wakefield, 2025).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEnforcing anti-trafficking laws in the Horn of Africa remains difficult despite the Palermo Protocols (Silver, 2021). Some countries focus more on security than on supporting victims (Siems, 2022), which increases the risk of exploitation. Criminal networks adapt to avoid law enforcement, raising the danger for migrants (Nwala \u0026amp; Gesiere, 2023). Different legal systems lead to inconsistent enforcement and hinder data sharing, complicating cross-border cooperation (Khan, 2025). Research on trafficking and migrant smuggling is limited.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLegal and policy theories analyze regulations, with feminist legal theory highlighting issues like human trafficking, migration, gender inequality, and political instability. Wanjiru (2023) examines human rights, migration studies, crime theory, and governance models. Effective responses to human trafficking require cooperation across sectors. Human rights-based approaches emphasize victim-centered policies over security measures (Andreopoulos \u0026amp; Carey, 2022). Victims benefit from tailored support and international collaboration (Kozma, 2022). Community strategies that address victims' needs strengthen legal systems. Including these perspectives can improve trafficking interventions (Usman \u0026amp; Khan, 2021). Social norms and networks assist in smuggling and trafficking (Gezie et al., 2021).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study combines four frameworks—Risk Environment Theory, Legal Pluralism, Securitization Theory, and Policy Implementation Theory—into a causal model to analyze how legal changes and enforcement influence outcomes (Ahmad et al., 20255). Using mixed methods, it links doctrinal and non-doctrinal factors to case studies to evaluate the impact of legal consistency and governance strategies on migrant experiences (Martin, 2023). The goal is to connect legal differences to risks, enhancing understanding of how legal systems affect migrant vulnerability and trafficking. Recommendations include aligning laws with international standards, establishing victim support services, and forming interagency task forces to coordinate legal systems across regions (Huynh, 2022).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research addresses a gap by analyzing migration laws and policies through a structured, theory-based approach that connects legislation, enforcement, and migrant risks. Recognizing these interactions is essential. Key strategies include strengthening laws and institutions, forming partnerships, preventing crime, prosecuting offenders, and increasing cooperation (Elfakharani, 2025). Protecting migrant rights and dignity, ensuring justice for survivors, and dismantling trafficking networks are critical. A coordinated, sustainable approach can more effectively fight smuggling and trafficking.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"METHODOLOGY","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study employs a mixed-methods approach to analyze trafficking and smuggling laws in the Horn of Africa, comparing policies across Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia. It combines legal analysis with stakeholder insights, acknowledging that the enforcement of standards such as the Palermo Protocols varies by country. The review includes laws, policies, enforcement, cultural beliefs, and regional efforts, highlighting their challenges.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research evaluates how well laws align with international standards, their practical implementation, and the situations where migration controls may increase trafficking risks. The methodology reviews relevant laws, policies, and anti-trafficking efforts in Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia. It highlights legal gaps through policy analysis, Most Similar Systems Design (MSSD), and Most Different Systems Design (MDSD), using data from several Horn of Africa countries. Due to regional instability and covert criminal activities, both primary and secondary data are collected. The Desk Review (Secondary Data) analyzes legislation, regional frameworks like IGAD and the African Union, court decisions, international reports (UNODC, IOM, ILO), and academic research. Key Informant Interviews (Primary Data) are conducted with government officials (police, judiciary, immigration), NGOs, staff from international organizations (IOM, UNHCR), and community leaders. Delphi Questionnaires gather input from regional experts via online surveys. Data sources include legal texts, records, digital Delphi surveys, interviews, and reviews, providing valuable insights into migration policies. Snowball Sampling is used to reach hard-to-access groups such as migrants and smugglers, especially in Djibouti, Eritrea, and Somalia.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study investigates prevention, protection, prosecution, partnerships, and policy measures through a mixed-methods approach. It compares legal language with enforcement practices via doctrinal coding, coherence scoring, and stakeholder interviews. The methodology is layered: Doctrinal Comparison evaluates core laws in Horn of Africa countries against international standards, such as the UN Trafficking Protocol; Legal-Practical Gap Analysis contrasts legal provisions (de jure) with actual enforcement (de facto); and Thematic Analysis identifies patterns in interviews, such as misunderstandings between trafficking and smuggling. Case Studies examine law enforcement coordination. Key factors include adherence to the Palermo Protocols on coercion and exploitation, an emphasis on victim protection over criminalization, National Coordination Mechanisms, and law enforcement capacity—covering border control, corruption, and prosecution. The study also reviews legal measures and human rights initiatives aimed at closing legislative gaps, enhancing enforcement, and aligning policies with international standards, providing valuable insights for scholars and policymakers.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCOMPARATIVE ANALYSIS, RESULTS, AND DISCUSSIONS:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Palermo Protocol addresses human trafficking and migrant smuggling in the Horn of Africa (HoA). Eritrea and Somalia lack comprehensive anti-trafficking laws, unlike Ethiopia and Djibouti. A policy comparison highlights legal gaps, best practices, and regional differences.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eINTERNATIONAL LAW AND POLICY FRAMEWORKS:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBoth migrant smuggling and human trafficking are covered by international treaties that require countries to collaborate on prevention, prosecution, and victim protection (Sharif \u0026amp; Mehra, 2024). The 2000 Trafficking Protocol defines acts such as coercion and fraud. Many countries also address these issues through agreements, including the 1951 Refugee Convention (Ullah et al., 2025). The Palermo Protocol describes human trafficking as forcing or deceiving migrants for exploitation (Article 3(a)), while migrant smuggling involves illegal entry into a country for profit. Although grounded in the principles of the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), national laws complicate international cooperation. Trafficking involves exploitation and coercion, making rehabilitation more complex than in migrant smuggling, which centers on illegal entry.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUnder the UNTOC, member states are required to criminalize offenses related to transnational organized crime, as outlined in Articles 5 and 10 and in the protocols. The treaty promotes financial transparency, enforces anti-money laundering measures, and addresses legal entity liability, confiscation, and mutual judicial assistance. Extradition, law enforcement, victim protection, and prevention are covered in Articles 16–18 and 25–27. Several provisions support international cooperation, witness protection, and improvements to the judicial process (Articles 11, 15, 20, 25). Other articles aim to coordinate law enforcement efforts, increase compliance, and strengthen prevention, victim support, and guidance on cooperation. Regional initiatives facilitate cross-border law enforcement and intelligence sharing to combat human trafficking.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHuman trafficking is a severe violation of human rights acknowledged by international treaties. For instance, the Palermo Protocol defines the crime and mandates that countries criminalize it, protect victims, and enhance international cooperation. Major human rights documents like the Universal Declaration of Human Rights also highlight protections against slavery and exploitation. These treaties aim to prevent trafficking through legislation and awareness campaigns, support victims, and prosecute offenders in line with principles of dignity and justice. As challenges to human rights increase, guidelines and resolutions promote global collaboration. The 1926 Slavery Convention and subsequent treaties declare slavery illegal, define it (Article 1), specify state responsibilities (Articles 2-3), and promote international cooperation (Article 4). They call for eradicating slavery, ending the slave trade, and preventing forced labor (Article 5), with penalties (Article 6) and commitments to legal cooperation (Articles 7–8). Articles 4 and 8 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), and Articles 2 and 8 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), prohibit slavery, servitude, and forced labor. International cooperation and victim-focused strategies are vital in combating human trafficking (Work, 2024; Convention \u0026amp; Protocol, 1949). Moreover, the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) (Articles 2-6, 10-16) and the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) (Articles 3-4, 19, 32, 34-36, 39) require nations to establish strong legal frameworks and support systems.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2000, the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child made child trafficking and smuggling illegal. Article 38 strengthens law enforcement and bans recruiting and using children in armed conflict. Article 29 of the International Labor Organization (ILO) Constitution recognizes and provides services for children of migrant workers. The ILO emphasizes the protection of vulnerable groups and migrants through Conventions 29 and 182. The 1993 Hague Convention prohibits intercountry adoptions under Article 39, paragraph 2. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) guidelines under the 1967 Refugee Protocol protect trafficking victims within the 1951 Refugee Convention, indirectly safeguarding refugees under Article 1A(2). The International Convention on the Rights of All Migrant Workers (Levni, 2025) protects migrants from trafficking through Article 11. The International Criminal Court (ICC) Rome Statute criminalizes slavery as a crime against humanity and allows prosecution under Article 7(1)(c).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 1 highlights the ratification of international instruments by Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia. Djibouti ratified the UNTOC in 2005; Eritrea in 2014; Ethiopia in 2007; and Somalia's ratification is planned for 2024. Ethiopia accepted the 1951 Refugee Convention in 1969; Somalia in 1978; Ethiopia ratified the ICESCR in 1993; and Djibouti ratified the ICESCR in 1992. Several CRC Optional Protocols were ratified in the early 2010s. The data clearly indicate that ratification timelines differ across these countries.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUN Security Council Resolutions 2482, 2464, 2394, and 2321 focus on fighting terrorism, organized crime, and human trafficking (Akestoridi \u0026amp; Tzortzi, 2024). They encourage international cooperation and intelligence sharing to combat financial crimes and trafficking. However, doubts remain about their enforcement and overall effectiveness.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLAWS AND POLICIES OF\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTHE AFRICAN UNION (AU\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe AU struggles with human smuggling and trafficking because it lacks a comprehensive law and instead relies on national laws and regional agreements (Ajah \u0026amp; Magadze, 2025). In 2021, it focused on prevention, victim support, capacity building, and regional cooperation under Article 22, in accordance with international treaties, including the UN Trafficking Protocol. Its goals include standardizing definitions, helping victims, addressing root causes, and improving prosecution through capacity-building and data sharing.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Banjul Charter defines the rights of humans and peoples across Africa, outlining the responsibilities of both the state and individuals. It covers personal freedoms, protection from discrimination, and equality (Arts. 2-3). The Charter affirms rights to life, dignity, and integrity; bans slavery, torture, and inhumane treatment (Arts. 4-5); and guarantees liberty, security, and protection from arbitrary detention (Art. 6). It guarantees fair trials, due process, and legal assistance (Art. 7), along with freedoms of conscience, religion, expression, association, and assembly (Arts. 8–11). The Charter also emphasizes political participation, access to public services (Art. 13), property rights, fair employment (Arts. 14–15), and rights to health, education, and culture (Arts. 16–17).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Maputo Protocol expands the Banjul Charter to promote women's rights by fighting discrimination and harmful practices. It bans gender discrimination, forced marriage, and female genital mutilation (Arts. 2, 5), and encourages gender equality in politics and law (Arts. 8–9). It offers protections against sexual violence and trafficking, forbids harmful medical procedures, and supports reproductive rights, including access to medical abortion (Arts. 3, 4, 14). The protocol endorses monogamy but also safeguards women in polygamous marriages (Arts. 6–7) and advocates for the rights of widows, children, older women, and women with disabilities (Arts. 20–24). It guarantees rights to education, housing, food, culture, and sustainable development (Arts. 12, 15–19). According to Article 4(g), the African Charter defends individual rights. Both documents influence anti-trafficking laws: the Banjul Charter emphasizes individual rights, while the Maputo Protocol seeks to protect women from violence. Implementation challenges include legal gaps and conflicts with security policies.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe African Charter addresses trafficking through Articles\u0026nbsp;15, 16, 27, and 29. The Malabo Protocol proposes a single African Court for serious crimes (Article 46(c)), but slow ratification since 2014, driven by concerns over immunity and jurisdiction, hampers the implementation of trafficking policies. Once 15 states ratify, human trafficking will be recognized under international law. While the Protocol enhances the authority of the courts, protections for victims remain uncertain. The non-binding Ouagadougou Action Plan (2006) emphasizes prevention, protection, and cooperation (Aniche et al., 2025). The MPFA tackles irregular migration through regional cooperation, legal reforms, and data sharing, but faces challenges, including weak collaboration and limited resources. Organizations such as IGAD and the East African Community promote free movement but lack legal mechanisms to address trafficking—an urgent issue for the AU (Makanga, 2021). Migration is mainly driven by poverty and limited awareness (Maunganidze \u0026amp; Mbiyozo, 2024). Despite efforts, trafficking and migrant smuggling continue to be major problems across Africa.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eINITIATIVES FROM THE HORN OF AFRICA COMPARED:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Horn of Africa, including Eritrea, Somalia, Ethiopia, and Djibouti, faces ongoing conflicts, colonial legacies, and foreign interventions. Colonial borders encourage separatism (Yemane \u0026amp; Borowy, 2023). Each country faces unique challenges: Ethiopia faces civil war and the Tigray conflict; Eritrea faces post-independence issues; Somalia faces state collapse; and Djibouti faces security threats (Merhawi, 2025). Ethiopia's maritime interests influence regional stability (Otto, 2025). Weak legal systems hinder efforts to combat human trafficking and protect victims. Major international players—the US, China, and the EU—are involved in disputes, conflicts, and terrorism (Hamilton \u0026amp; Renouard, 2024). Human trafficking and migrant smuggling are widespread: Eritreans cross through Sudan and Libya; Somali and Ethiopian migrants travel via Djibouti (Bariagaber, 2023). In Djibouti and Yemen, trafficking is linked to smuggling (Nzau, 2024). Despite Ethiopia's legal initiatives, migrants remain vulnerable to exploitation and danger.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthiopia enforces strict penalties for human trafficking and migrant smuggling. Despite ratifying international treaties, it still faces challenges, including limited protections for victims. Human trafficking is prohibited by Article 18(2) of the Ethiopian Constitution, yet vulnerable groups remain at risk. Proclamation No. 909/2015, amended to No. 1178/2020, criminalizes trafficking—especially labor exploitation—fixes legal gaps, broadens definitions, and imposes harsher penalties (Articles 3-7). It creates a Victim Fund, improves support, and establishes a national committee. Articles 11-18 of the Criminal Code address crimes committed within Ethiopia and against nationals. Courts work with international organizations, and some cases are tried before three-judge panels (Articles 6-8). Proclamation No. 1178/2020 further enhances property seizure and victim protection (Article 9).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthiopia's National Plan of Action against Human Trafficking has seen few updates. Nonetheless, it aims to conform to international standards, despite criticism of the Palermo Protocol's definition as discriminatory and of significant gaps. Several government ministries gather data, although resources remain limited. Middle Eastern countries have signed ethical recruitment agreements with Ethiopia (Busza et al., 2023) to help reduce labor exploitation. Ethiopia's refugee policies adhere to international obligations, including bans on expulsion and refoulement (Sisay, 2024). As smuggling networks shift toward cashless methods facilitated by hawala traders, the number of Ethiopian smugglers is rising (Gobena, 2023).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDjibouti's Law No. 133 of 2016 addresses human trafficking and migrant smuggling, broadly defining trafficking to include sexual exploitation, forced labor, and organ removal (Article 1). It criminalizes all activities, regardless of the victim's consent, and imposes penalties, including life imprisonment in aggravated cases (Articles 5–10). The law also criminalizes illegal migrant smuggling (Article 2), with sanctions such as asset seizures and venue closures. Victim protections include residency rights, legal aid, and support services. Articles 11–13 assign liability, and Articles 19–21 criminalize facilitation involving fraudulent documents. Articles 16–17 authorize courts to revoke licenses, seize property, and freeze assets. The law promotes cooperation among prosecutors and supports victims through NGOs and international partners, though enforcement faces challenges due to underfunding and lack of training (Mandisodza, 2024). Ethiopia’s legal framework is more comprehensive; Djibouti relies heavily on international aid. Its strategy emphasizes raising awareness, capacity-building, regional cooperation, and victim protection (Tadesse \u0026amp; Tafesse, 2025). The Ministry of Justice faces difficulties in prosecutions, border enforcement, and awareness campaigns. The government receives aid and has established MMTF and MRCs to oversee migration (Chiré \u0026amp; Pinauldt, 2024).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Eritrean government employs civil and transitional laws to combat human trafficking. Although the 1997 draft Constitution has not been enforced, laws such as the 2015 Transitional Penal Code criminalize forced labor and exploitation, aligning with international standards. The draft Constitution grants rights against slavery and unfair treatment, offering legal protections. Laws define migrant statuses to distinguish trafficked individuals from legal migrants. Articles 15-17 prohibit slavery, protect liberty, and ensure fair trials, which are crucial in trafficking cases. Eritrea's courts and treaties are in place, but systemic issues hinder enforcement. Victims receive limited support, resulting in a Tier 3 ranking in the U.S. Trafficking report. Despite treaties, there is no comprehensive anti-trafficking law. The draft Constitution advocates for equality but remains vague regarding foreigners. The Penal Code does not fully criminalize exploitation, and immigration laws lack trafficking-specific provisions. Laws addressing sexual exploitation mainly target women and minors, with Articles 605 and 607 excluding adult males. Weak protections, ineffective investigations, and arbitrary detention impede progress.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSomalia faces challenges with human trafficking. Its primary legal framework, the Somali Penal Code (Decree No. 5 of 1962), is based on the Italian Penal Code and has not been fully updated to specifically address trafficking or smuggling, even though these issues are acknowledged. The law applies nationwide and allows extraterritorial prosecution of crimes against Somali citizens (Article 3). It defines offenses such as unlawful abduction or coercion, with penalties including imprisonment and fines, depending on the harm caused and the victims involved (Articles 90–99). Somalia has ratified some international conventions, but not a key UN treaty. Limited resources and counter-terrorism efforts weaken law enforcement's capacity to fight trafficking. Puntland has established institutions such as the Counter-Trafficking Board and the Interministerial Task Force (Kamara, 2024), while Somaliland lacks formal enforcement mechanisms. Somaliland's 2012 Provisional Constitution guarantees security but does not ensure enforcement of trafficking laws. Assistance centers exist, yet victims often fear retaliation despite protections in place. Enforcement remains weak, with few investigations and poor coordination. Repatriations continue despite concerns about refoulement. Even with support from the IMF and the EU, enforcing the Human Trafficking Law remains ineffective (Mehra \u0026amp; Sharif, 2022).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAPPLICATION OF THE LAW AND CREDENCE:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe UN Convention has influenced national laws from 2014 to 2024, but enforcement varies among countries. Some nations have reformed their laws, yet issues persist in victim protection, law enforcement, and data collection. Djibouti and Eritrea struggle with prosecution and victim support, while Ethiopia has updated its laws to meet international standards. Somalia's fragmented system hampers enforcement. Despite progress since 2015, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti, and Somalia still face challenges such as inconsistent prosecutions, transparency issues, and large-scale victim cases. Major concerns include weak enforcement, data gaps, ineffective victim procedures, lack of judicial transparency, training deficiencies, insufficient victim protection, and cross-border cooperation. Court reviews from 2014 to 2024 link smuggling and trafficking to specific cases, supported by testimony and NGO reports. Challenges involve dismantling criminal networks and protecting witnesses. Judicial rulings in Greece, the UK, and France focus on judicial review, legal definitions, and victim safeguards, although full judgments are often limited or based on media reports.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthiopia serves as both a source and transit country for human trafficking and migrant smuggling, with Ethiopian workers facing forced labor and exploitation domestically and abroad through routes passing Djibouti, Sudan, and Libya on their way to Europe and the Gulf. In 2016, a licensed agency trafficked women for domestic work, resulting in forced labor and sexual exploitation overseas. The agency’s license was revoked, and its operators were imprisoned. The court emphasized Ethiopia’s responsibility to regulate recruitment and protect workers.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn Federal Public Prosecutor v. Abdulshekur Emam Abdo and Abdul Aziz Rahmeto Dender (CR No. 231739, 2015), the Ethiopian Federal Supreme Court examined cases involving the trafficking and smuggling of Ethiopian nationals. The Court discussed how victims are handled, noting that bail was denied in accordance with Proclamation No. 1234/2013 and Directive No. 009/13, and referenced Rule 32/1/a and Proclamation No. 1178/2012. It confirmed that such cases can be heard by a single judge, supporting the High Court's decision. Additionally, the Court clarified that cases involving pushbacks may be reviewed without a single judge in trafficking and smuggling cases.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Ethiopian Federal Supreme Court of Cassation reviewed an important case involving the smuggling of Ethiopian citizens. In Meley Hagos v. Tigray Public Prosecutor (CC NO 18ዐ638, 2012), the regional public prosecutor charged Meley Hagos with violating Rule 32/1/a of the criminal code and Article 9/2 of Proclamation No. 909/2007. The case focused on the illegal transportation of Eritrean nationals across various locations and times, helping them enter Ethiopia and other countries, including Western nations. Evidence showed that the defendant assisted in moving Eritrean nationals into Ethiopia and abroad. The main question was whether the defendant was involved in migrant smuggling. The court determined that Meley Hagos violated Rule 32/1 (a) and Article 9/2 of Proclamation No. 909/2007 by engaging in migrant smuggling. He was sentenced to 18 years of severe imprisonment and fined 2,000 birr.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn Ahmed Ibrahim Nuguse v. Oromya Public Prosecutor (CC No. 167965, 2015), the Ethiopian Federal Supreme Court of Cassation reviewed a case involving human trafficking and migrant smuggling by Ethiopian citizens. The prosecutor accused Ahmed Ibrahim Nuguse of violating Rule 32/1/a of the criminal code and Article 9/2 of Proclamation No. 909/2007. The case involved smuggling six Ethiopians at different times and locations and helping them travel to Arab and Western countries. Evidence showed the defendant’s role in trafficking and assisting their entry into Arab nations and other destinations. The main issue was whether the defendant was guilty of both human trafficking and migrant smuggling simultaneously under Article 60 of the criminal law. The court ruled that Ahmed Ibrahim Nuguse did not violate Rule 32/1/a, Article 60, or Proclamation No. 909/2007, Article 9/2, by engaging in migrant smuggling at the same time. He was acquitted, despite the victims' involvement in trafficking and smuggling.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn Federal Public Prosecutor v. Siraj Mohamed Ali, Searole Agency (LP), and Ebrahim Mohamed Ali, the Ethiopian Supreme Court examined a case involving human trafficking and migrant smuggling of Ethiopians. The regional prosecutor accused the defendants of violating criminal laws by smuggling 16 Ethiopians to Arab and Western countries at different times. The main issue was whether they engaged in both trafficking and smuggling simultaneously under Article 60 of the criminal law. The court found the defendants guilty of violating several laws and sentenced them to 16 years and 6 months of rigorous imprisonment, along with a $50,000 fine.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe 2018 Smuggling Networks case involved smugglers facilitating the illegal migration of Ethiopian youths through Djibouti to Yemen, where they faced extortion and abuse. Several were convicted, sentenced, and fined. The court noted that smuggling for profit and inhumane treatment violate Ethiopian law and are different from trafficking, which involves coercion. The 2020 Supreme Court case on officials' complicity revealed forged documents and neglect of trafficking victims. Although some officials were convicted, systemic issues prevented higher-level prosecutions. Assisting trafficking makes officials liable, and Ethiopia must hold officials accountable under the Palermo Protocols. The 2022 Victim Protection case involved Ethiopian women trafficked to Saudi Arabia seeking compensation and rehabilitation. The court ordered restitution and supported government programs, but enforcement remains weak. Victims are entitled to recovery and reparation under the law and international standards despite enforcement challenges.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSomalia is a major hub for human trafficking due to ongoing conflict and weak governance, earning it “Special Case' status. Al-Shabaab recruits children, women, and IDPs for sexual exploitation and forced labor. Courts have convicted traffickers, and some Somali nationals face international charges, including the 2025 State v. Six Traffickers case involving six suspects in Mogadishu. Victims, some of whom died during transit, were extorted, and traffickers held them hostage for ransom. Sentences ranged from two years to acquittal, and some victims’ families received compensation, such as 50 camels, indicating efforts toward accountability. Somalia prohibits trafficking and has ratified international treaties, including the Palermo Protocols.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDjibouti serves as a crucial transit hub for trafficking in the Horn of Africa, connecting Ethiopia, Somalia, and Eritrea to Yemen and the Gulf. Despite having anti-trafficking laws, enforcement remains weak. The Palermo Protocols require Djibouti to prosecute traffickers and protect victims; assisting or enabling trafficking can lead to criminal charges. Officials who collaborate with traffickers or neglect victims’ rights risk facing criminal prosecution. Although the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) has not issued rulings specifically on Djibouti, cases like Hirsi Jamaa v. Italy and Safi v. Greece emphasize key principles, including non-refoulement and victim protection, that are relevant to Djibouti’s situation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEritrea is a major source of human trafficking and migrant smuggling in the Horn of Africa. Its citizens often face mandatory national service that resembles forced labor, prompting many to flee. Migrants are trafficked through Sudan, Libya, and the Mediterranean, relying on smugglers to cross borders into Sudan, Ethiopia, and Libya, where they encounter extortion, sexual violence, and forced labor. International cases such as Hirsi Jamaa v. Italy (2012) and Safi v. Greece (2022) involved Eritreans smuggled into Europe. For instance, Italian authorities returned 24 Somali and Eritrean nationals to Libya, violating laws and asserting extraterritorial jurisdiction. In the Safi case, Eritrean migrants died in a Greek shipwreck; survivors reported unsafe towing by the coast guard—violating Articles 2, 3, and 13. On January 12, 2017, the ECtHR ruled that Ukraine violated Articles 13 and 3 by denying asylum to three Eritreans, failing to safeguard against arbitrary removal, and allowing disembarkation only after court orders. They sought asylum on a vessel in Ukrainian waters but were prevented from disembarking and returned to a vessel bound for Saudi Arabia, risking mistreatment. The court concluded that Ukraine's procedures were insufficient, affirming that asylum seekers at ports are within its jurisdiction and have access to legal remedies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe case of In Safi and Others v. Greece (2022, ECHR) involves migrants, including Somali nationals, who died in a shipwreck near Farmakonisi, Greece. Survivors reported dangerous towing by the Coast Guard. The Court found violations of Articles 2, 3, and 13: the Coast Guard failed to protect lives, survivors faced harsh treatment, and investigations were inadequate. Article 3 highlights that migrants from the Horn of Africa face higher risks of trafficking, which subjects them to dangerous conditions, risk of refoulement, or degrading treatment. Article 4 of Protocol No. 4 bans collective expulsions without proper procedures. Article 2 requires states to ensure maritime safety, and neglecting this duty can lead to loss of life. Article 13 mandates effective remedies against expulsions or unsafe conditions; denying access breaches the Convention. Jurisdiction lies with states that control migrants on vessels or detain them outside their territory. The ECHR states that European countries violate the Convention when they push back, detain, or neglect Horn of Africa migrants without proper safeguards. The Court emphasizes the importance of dignity, individual assessments, and the protection of life as fundamental obligations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDecisions by the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) on migrants from the Horn of Africa emphasize that countries must avoid pushbacks, collective expulsions, and inhumane treatment. These rulings reinforce international agreements like the UN Palermo Protocols (2000), which distinguish between voluntary migrant smuggling and forced trafficking. The legal framework combines Palermo Protocol standards with ECHR case law to protect migrant rights across Europe. From 2014 to 2024, key cases include Greece's Mohamad Hanad Abdi, UK trafficking assessments, and a French Supreme Court decision supporting a trafficking victim. The analysis also covers Ethiopian domestic workers in Saudi Arabia and prosecutions in Africa, using legal databases and reports, though some judgments remain unpublished. Insights show improvements in victim remedies, increased prosecutions, overlaps with immigration issues, limited enforcement in the Gulf region, and the development of regional judicial precedents. Limitations stem from inconsistent publication and reliance on prosecutors. Landmark cases such as Hirsi Jamaa v. Italy (2012) highlight violations, including inhumane treatment and collective expulsion, emphasizing the obligation to prevent harmful returns. Chowdury v. Greece (2017) and S.M. v. Croatia (2020) reaffirm protections for trafficking victims. Criticisms point to European enforcement efforts that prioritize border security over human rights, with incidents like Safi v. Greece (2022) exposing failures in safe operations, resulting in 11 deaths—meanwhile, N.D. N.T. v. Spain (2020) permitted the return of migrants to Morocco, attempting to balance protection with border control.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 2 shows that Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia are working to combat human trafficking and migrant smuggling. Djibouti struggles to enforce its anti-trafficking laws due to strong executive control and weak legislative oversight. In Eritrea, victims receive no assistance; there is no national action plan, and human trafficking issues are not well understood. Ethiopia has made progress in protecting victims with its 2020 Proclamation against human trafficking and its 2025-2029 Victim Protection Plans. Although Somalia has implemented various laws and reforms, its legal system still faces challenges because of ongoing conflict and poor governance.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"CONCLUSION AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS","content":"\u003cp\u003eHuman trafficking and migrant smuggling present significant challenges in the Horn of Africa due to limited resources, enforcement gaps, and political instability. Factors like poverty, conflict, and the lack of legal migration options worsen these issues in Ethiopia, Djibouti, Eritrea, and Somalia. Unlike Ethiopia, Eritrea lacks strong anti-trafficking laws. Somalia and Djibouti struggle to enforce their laws despite having specialized forces. Ethiopia and Djibouti have increased prosecution rates, aligned their laws with international standards, and supported victims. In contrast, Eritrea and Somalia have weak legal and enforcement systems. Improved border controls and international cooperation have helped reduce smuggling in Djibouti. Despite limited resources and ongoing political unrest, Eritrea and Somalia face similar challenges. A global initiative aims to strengthen border security with localized strategies tailored to each country's social and political context. Law enforcement must be strengthened, regional cooperation promoted, and the root causes of human trafficking addressed. Due to Somalia's limited capacity and ongoing conflict, Djibouti's anti-trafficking efforts remain inconsistent and impact regional stability. Cross-border coordination is insufficient, enforcement varies across the region, and victim support remains underdeveloped. For example, border patrols lack adequate funding. The IGAD Regional Migration Policy offers support, but its implementation often faces difficulties.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt is crucial to strengthen legal systems, empower frontline actors, raise public awareness, and address root causes. These measures will improve migration conditions and dismantle trafficking networks. Supporting efforts to fight human trafficking and migrant smuggling in the Horn of Africa involves strengthening legislative frameworks, enhancing frontline capacities, and promoting international cooperation. Regional strategies focused on victims include implementing migration frameworks, establishing a regional intelligence platform, regulating recruitment agencies, and expanding public awareness campaigns. Attention must also be given to poverty and conflict. As part of these efforts, public awareness is increased, victims receive support, partnerships between NGOs and governments are strengthened, and specialized law enforcement training is provided.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cp\u003eACHPR \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAU \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; African Union\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCEDAW \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCRC: \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;The Convention on the Rights of the Child\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEU \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;European Union\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHOA \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Horn of Africa\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eICC \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;International Criminal Court\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eICCPR \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eICESCR \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIDPs \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Internally Displaced Persons\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIGAD \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Intergovernmental Authority on Development\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eILO \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;International Labor Organization\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIOM \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;International Organization for Migration\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMDSD \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Most Different Systems Design\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMSSD \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Most Similar Systems Design\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOAU \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Organization of African Unity\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUDHR \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Universal Declaration of Human Rights\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUN \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; United Nations\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUNHCR \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUNODC \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUNTOC \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUSA \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;United States of America\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWB \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; World Bank\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics and approval\u003c/strong\u003e:\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eA public dataset with anonymized data protects vulnerable populations.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBefore and during data collection, each participant provided informed consent.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eA MU-IRB2624/2025 approval was obtained for all study activities at the Mekelle University College of Health Sciences.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eNeither the research nor this article received any funding.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical Trial Number\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThe manuscript contains no clinical section.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAbdinasir, I. I. (2021).\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eInternational Non-Government Organizations (INGOs) and Protection of Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) in Somalia, a Case Study of Danish Refugee Council (DRC)\u003c/em\u003e(Doctoral dissertation, Kampala International University).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAhmad, F., Hakim, F., \u0026amp; Ahmad, E. (2025). The Crime-Terror Nexus: Rethinking Security Through a Criminological Framework.\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003ePAKISTAN JOURNAL OF LAW, ANALYSIS AND WISDOM\u003c/em\u003e,\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003e4\u003c/em\u003e(5), 123-137.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAjah, B. O., \u0026amp; Magadze, T. O. (2025). The African Union and Organized Crime: Between Normative Frameworks and Practical Constraints.\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eJournal of African Union Studies (JoAUS)\u003c/em\u003e,\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003e14\u003c/em\u003e(3), 23-47.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAkestoridi, K., and Tzortzi, S. (2024). The United Nations\u0026rsquo; Current Legal Approach to Terrorism, Organized Crime, and \u0026lsquo;Organized Criminal Terrorism\u0026rsquo;. In\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eOrganized Criminal Terrorism\u003c/em\u003e(pp. 39-73). Brill Nijhoff.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAlagna, F. (2024). From the Conceptualization of Migrant Smuggling to the Research Theory and Methods. In Migrant Smuggling and the Criminalization of Migration in the EU: Policies and Practices from Italy (pp. 29-57). Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAndreopoulos, G., \u0026amp; Carey, H. F. (Eds.). (2022).\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eJustice and World Order: Reassessing Richard Falk's Scholarship and Advocacy\u003c/em\u003e. Routledge.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAniche, E. T., Alumona, I. M., Iwuoha, V. C., and Michael-Olomu, O. (2025). The \u0026lsquo;Triangle of Shame\u0026rsquo;: interrogating the impact of African Union migration policy frameworks on human trafficking in Africa.\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eSN Social Sciences\u003c/em\u003e,\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003e5\u003c/em\u003e(4), 53.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBariagaber, A. (2023). States, Migrants, and the Challenge of International Human Smuggling and Trafficking in the Horn of Africa.\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eJournal of Global South Studies\u003c/em\u003e,\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003e40\u003c/em\u003e(2), 249-273.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBish, A., Cockbain, E., Walsh, P. W., \u0026amp; Borrion, H. (2023). Exploring the'blurred boundary': human smuggling and trafficking on the central Mediterranean route to Europe.\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eJournal of illicit economies and development\u003c/em\u003e,\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003e5\u003c/em\u003e(1), 70-94.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBusza, J., Shewamene, Z., Zimmerman, C., Erulkar, A., Hailu, E., Negeri, L., ... \u0026amp; Lo, Y. (2023). Accidental traffickers: qualitative findings on labor recruitment in Ethiopia.\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eGlobalization and health\u003c/em\u003e,\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003e19\u003c/em\u003e(1), 102.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCampana, P., \u0026amp; Varese, F. (2022). Studying organized crime networks: Data sources, boundaries, and the limits of structural measures.\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eSocial networks\u003c/em\u003e,\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003e69\u003c/em\u003e, 149-159.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eChir\u0026eacute;, A. S., and Pinauldt, G. (2024). 10 Djibouti, a Migratory Crossroads in the Red Sea Basin.\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eAfrican Perspectives on South-South Migration\u003c/em\u003e, 169.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eConstitution of Somalia\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eConstitutional Amendment (Loi Constitutionnelle N\u0026deg; 215/An/08/5\u0026egrave;me L Portant R\u0026eacute;vision de la Constitution)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eConvention 189 of the International Labor Organization (ILO) on domestic workers\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eConvention C029 - Forced Labor Convention, 1930 (No. 29)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eConvention concerning the Abolition of Forced Labor, 1957 (No. 105)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eConvention on the Rights of the Child,1989\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eConvention relating to the Status of Refugees 1951 UN Refugee Convention\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCriminal Procedure Code of Ethiopia 1961\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDirective Issued to Determine the Residence Status of Eritrean Nationals Residing in Ethiopia\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDjiboutiConstitution\u003cem\u003eApprovedOn4September1992\u003c/em\u003e(LaConstitutionDeLa Republique De Djibouti)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eElfakharani, A. M. (2025). A descriptive mixed-method study of legislation development about human rights with a focus on human trafficking in GCC countries.\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eThe International Journal of Human Rights\u003c/em\u003e, 1-20.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEmployment Exchange Services Proclamation No. 632/2009\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEritrea\u0026ndash;Constitution:\u003cem\u003e Adopted On: July 1996\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEritrean Nationality Proclamation, No.21/1992.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFogli, C., POPP, S. L., \u0026amp; MAJORANO, S. F. (2025). Resolve the root causes of irregular migration and forced displacement. How does it work? Lessons learned from the EUTF in HoA.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGezie, L. D., Yalew, A. W., Gete, Y. K., and Samkange-Zeeb, F. (2021). Exploring factors that contribute to human trafficking in Ethiopia: a socio-ecological perspective.\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eGlobalization and health\u003c/em\u003e,\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003e17\u003c/em\u003e(1), 76.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGobena, M. A. (2023). Money laundering in Ethiopia: an analysis of typologies and techniques.\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eJournal of Money Laundering Control\u003c/em\u003e,\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003e26\u003c/em\u003e(4), 696-708.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHailu, M. (2025). Nationality Laws in Ethiopia and Eritrea: Overview of Evolution, Attainments and Gaps.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHamilton, D. S., and Renouard, J. (2024). Crossing the river by feeling the stones: The United States, Europe, and China in an age of rivalry and disruption. In\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eThe Transatlantic Community and China in the Age of Disruption\u003c/em\u003e(pp. 9-43). Routledge.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHuynh, J. (2022).\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eA Mixed Method-Approach to Exploring Human Organ Trafficking and Its Policy Implications\u003c/em\u003e(Doctoral dissertation, Texas Southern University).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eImmigration Proclamation (No.354/2003)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eIssuance of Travel DocumentsAndVisasRegulations1971(No.395/1971).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKamara, I. (2024). Coalition Dynamics in Anti-Human Trafficking Efforts: Understanding the Engagement of Coalition Actors in Implementing the Anti-Human Trafficking and Migrant Smuggling Act of 2022 in Sierra Leone.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKatungati, S. M. (2025). Analysis of the Legal Framework for Combating Human Trafficking in Kenya.\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eEssays of Faculty of Law, University of P\u0026eacute;cs, Yearbook of [year]\u003c/em\u003e, (1).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKhan, M. N. I. (2025). Cross-Border Data Privacy and Legal Support: A Systematic Review of International Compliance Standards and Cyber Law Practices.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLaw N\u0026deg;210/An/07/5e of Djibouti\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLaw No. 111/An/11/6 of Djibouti\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLaw No. 133/An/16/7\u0026egrave;me of Djibouti\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLaw No. 201/An/07/5 of Djibouti\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLelliott, J., and Miller, R. (2023). The nexus between corruption, migrant smuggling, and human trafficking in Southeast Asia. In\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eMigration in Southeast Asia: IMISCOE regional reader\u003c/em\u003e(pp. 195-215). Cham: Springer International Publishing.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLevni, V. (2025). THE BOUNDARIES OF DISCRIMINATION IN CITIZENSHIP REVOCATION: LEGAL AND ETHICAL DILEMMAS FOR NATURALISED IMMIGRANTS.\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eThe Boğazi\u0026ccedil;i Law Review\u003c/em\u003e,\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003e3\u003c/em\u003e(1), 99-132.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMakanga, F. I. (2021).\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eAn Assessment of the Implementation of Free Movement of Persons in the East African Community: Case of Kenya\u003c/em\u003e(Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMandisodza, G. (2024) BEYOND BORDERS: TACKLING HUMAN TRAFFICKING THROUGH STRUCTURAL REFORM, REGIONAL COOPERATION, AND COMMUNITY RESILIENCE.\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eINTRACTABLE PROBLEMS OF HUMAN RIGHTS\u003c/em\u003e, 12.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMartin, P. (2023). Introduction: Non-doctrinal Research Methods in Environmental Law. In\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eNon-doctrinal Research Methods in Environmental Law\u003c/em\u003e(pp. 1-19). Edward Elgar Publishing.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMaunganidze, O. A., and Mbiyozo, A. N. (2024). Block by block, Unpuzzling Africa's migration governance landscape.\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eISS Africa Report\u003c/em\u003e,\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003e2024\u003c/em\u003e(47), 1-24.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMehra, A. V., \u0026amp; Sharif, G. (2024). Legal Framework and International Cooperation in Combating Human Trafficking.\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eInternational Journal for Multidisciplinary Research (IJFMR)\u003c/em\u003e,\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003e6\u003c/em\u003e(2), 1-15.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMerhawi Woldemichael (2025) Eritrea and Ethiopia at a Crossroads: Rethinking Eritrea\u0026rsquo;s Foreign Policy. The HORN Bulletin \u0026bull; Volume VIII \u0026bull; Issue II\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMigration For Employment Convention (ILO c097), 1949\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMombelloni, A. (2024). Crisis in Context: Exploring the Regional Dynamics of the Refugee Displacement in the Horn of Africa.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNwala, P., \u0026amp; Gesiere, L. (2023). Transnational Smuggling and Illegal Migration in Africa: Causes and Effects.\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eKashere Journal of Politics and International Relations\u003c/em\u003e,\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003e1\u003c/em\u003e(2).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNzau, M. (2024). Migration Trends and Organized Transnational Crime in Twenty-First-Century Eastern Africa: A Critical Analysis. In\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eUnderstanding the Horizontal and Vertical Nature of African Migration in Contemporary Times\u003c/em\u003e(pp. 175-194). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOgunbajo, M. (2023). Human Trafficking as a Human Rights Violation in a Pluralistic and Interdependent World: Obligations and Accountability of States.\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eمجلة جامعة السعيد للعلوم الانسانية\u003c/em\u003e,\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003e6\u003c/em\u003e(3), 215-241.\u0026lrm;\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOtto, L. (2025). The Rights, Interests, and Strategic Approaches of Landlocked States in the Maritime Domain: The Case of Ethiopia.\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eThe Strategic Review for Southern Africa\u003c/em\u003e,\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003e47\u003c/em\u003e(1), 38-51.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePenal Code (Table of Contents) of Ordinance No. 77-053/Pr/Ae\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePokharel, G. (2024). A Study on the Smuggling of Migrants As Transnational Organized Crime in Nepal.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePre-1991PenalCode, Presidential Decree No. 25 of2June1984, On Determination of Refugee Status\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePrevention And Suppression of Trafficking in Persons and Smuggling of Migrants Proclamation (No.909/2015)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eProclamation Issued to Amend Proclamation No. 24/1992 Enacted to Regulate the Provision of Travel Documents, the Entry into and Exit from Eritrea, and Residence of Foreigners in Eritrea (2011-04-01)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eProclamation No. 24Of 1992 Issued to Regulate the Issuing Of Travel Documents, Entry And Exit Visas from Eritrea, And to Control Residence Permits Of Foreigners In Eritrea\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eProclamation No. 257/2001 Establishing the Ethiopian National Security Council\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eProclamation No. 720/2011 establishing the Ethiopian Federal Police Commission\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eProclamation On Ethiopian Nationality (No. 378 of 2003)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eProclamation To Provide For The Requirement Of Registration Of Foreigners Who Reside, Work, Or Engage In Business In Eritrea (No. 127/2002).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eProclamation To Regulate the Issuance of Travel Documents and Visas, And Registration of Foreigners in Ethiopia (No. 271/1969).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eProgram to Grant Residency Status to Undocumented Ethiopian Migrants\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eProtocol of the United Nations on Migrant Smuggling from 2000\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eProtocol of the United Nations on Refugees of 1967\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eProtocol Relating to the Establishment of the Peace and Security Council of the African Union\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eProtocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights on the establishment of an African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eProtocol to the Convention against Human Trafficking of 2000\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eProviding Foreign Nationals of Ethiopian Origin with Certain Rights to Be Exercised in Their Country-of-Origin Proclamation (No. 270/2002)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRefugee Proclamation (No. 409 of 2004)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRegulations To Issue Work Permits To Non-Nationals (Legal Notice No 80/2003).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRepublic Of Somaliland Citizenship Law (Law No. 22/2002)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSecurity, Immigration, and Refugee Affairs Authority Establishment Proclamation (No.6/1995)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSiems, M. (2022).\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eComparative law\u003c/em\u003e. Cambridge University Press.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSilver, S. (2021). Twenty years after the passage of the Palermo Protocol: Identifying common flaws in defining trafficking through the first global study of domestic anti-trafficking laws.\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eYale L. \u0026amp; Pol'y Rev.\u003c/em\u003e,\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003e40\u003c/em\u003e, 336.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSisay, G. (2024). Scoping review of empirical studies on human trafficking in Ethiopia.\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eCogent Social Sciences\u003c/em\u003e,\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003e10\u003c/em\u003e(1), 2341957.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSmits, K., \u0026amp; Wirtz, M. (2023). Escaping Eritrea: The Vulnerability of Eritreans to Human Trafficking. In\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eEnslaved: Trapped and Trafficked in Digital Black Holes: Human Trafficking Trajectories to Libya.\u003c/em\u003e(pp. 255-295). Langaa RPCIG.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSomaliland Immigration Law (Law No. 72/1995)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSomaliland Refugee Law\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eStoler, J., Pearson, A. L., Rosinger, A. Y., Lee, A. E., Bombardi, R., Brewis, A., ... and Tutu, R. A. (2022). The role of water in environmental migration.\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eWiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water\u003c/em\u003e,\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003e9\u003c/em\u003e(3), pp.1584.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSupplement to the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime on Migrant Smuggling by Land, Sea, and Air Organized Crime (2000) and the Protocols Thereto\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSzablewska, N. (2022). Human smuggling and human trafficking. In\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eInternational conflict and security law: A research handbook\u003c/em\u003e(pp. 1181-1206). The Hague: TMC Asser Press.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTadesse, G. A., and Tafesse, T. (2025). Human Trafficking in the Horn of Africa with Emphasis on the Eastern Route to the Gulf States through Djibouti. Migration and Development, 14(1), 7-27.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTenant, I. (2021). Fulfilling the Promise of Palermo? A Political History of the UN Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eThe 1975 ILO 143 convention on migrant workers\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eThe 2012 law requiring the registration of all births nationwide\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eThe Criminal Code of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Proclamation No. 414/2004\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eThe Criminal Procedure Code was amended by Law No.84 of 12 December 1972.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eThe Eritrean Transitional Criminal Code\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eThe Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Constitution\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eThe IGAD Convention on Extradition Ratification Proclamation. 733/2012\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eThe IGAD Convention on Mutual Legal Assistance in Criminal Matters Ratification Proclamation No. 732/2012\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eThe Overseas Employment Proclamation (No.923/2016)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eThe Penal Code,1962, Somalia\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eThe Vienna Convention on Consular Relations of 1963\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTransitional Constitution of the Puntland Regional Government\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eUllah, I., Manan, L., and Chaudhry, K. T. (2025). Human Trafficking and Smuggling of Migrants: The Evolving Role of Criminal Law in Global and National Contexts.\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eResearch Journal for Social Affairs\u003c/em\u003e,\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003e3\u003c/em\u003e(5), 281-292.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eUnsecuritycouncilresolutions1267(1999),1373(2001),1540(2004),1566(2004),1617(2005) and 1624(2005)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eUsman, M. U. H. A. M. M. A. D., Amjad, S. O. H. A. I. L., \u0026amp; Khan, A. S. I. F. (2021). Human Trafficking and Smuggling: Intersection with Maritime Law and International Cooperation.\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eInternational Review of Social Sciences\u003c/em\u003e,\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003e9\u003c/em\u003e(01), 504-510.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eUsman, M., Khan, A., and Amjad, S. (2021). Implications of transnational crime on maritime jurisdiction and enforcement.\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eInternational Review of Social Sciences\u003c/em\u003e,\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003e9\u003c/em\u003e(04), pp. 456-462.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWakefield, D. (2025). It is the Economy: The effect of appeals to economic policy on Latino independents.\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003ePolitical Behavior\u003c/em\u003e, 1-24.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWanjiru, D. (2023). The Intersection of Immigration Policies and Human Rights.\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eAmerican Journal of Law and Policy\u003c/em\u003e,\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003e1\u003c/em\u003e(1), 1-12.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWork, 2024; Convention \u0026amp; Protocol, 1949; Workplace, A. I., and Work, G. (2024). Notre Dame Journal of Jaw Ethics.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYemane, M., \u0026amp; Borowy, I. (2023). Inter-state and Intra-state Wars and Conflicts in the Horn of Africa.\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eEAS Journal of Humanities and Cultural Studies\u003c/em\u003e,\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003e5\u003c/em\u003e(04), 210-219.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003eTable 1: Year-by-year state ratifications of international instruments\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 269px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInternational\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInstruments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDJIBOUTI\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eERITREA\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eETHIOPIA\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSOMALIA\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 269px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eUNTOC\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2005\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2014\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2007\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2024\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 269px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTIP Protocol\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2005\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2014\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2012\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNot Yet\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 269px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1951\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRefugee Convention\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1977\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNot Yet\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1969\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1978\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 269px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1967 Protocol on the\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRefugee\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;Convention\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1977\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNot Yet\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1969\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1978\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 269px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eICCPR\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2002\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2002\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1993\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1990\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 269px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eICESCR\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1992\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1993\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e190\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 269px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eUNCAT\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2002\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2014\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1994\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1990\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 269px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCEDAW\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1998\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1995\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1982\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNot Yet\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 269px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCRC\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1990\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1994\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1991\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2015\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 269px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOptional Protocol to CRC\u0026nbsp;on\u0026nbsp;Armed Conflict\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2011\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2005\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2014\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2002/ sign\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 269px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOptional\u0026nbsp;Protocol to\u0026nbsp;CRC\u0026nbsp;on\u0026nbsp;Sale of\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003echildren,\u0026nbsp;prostitution, and\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003epornography\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2011\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2005\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2014\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2005\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 269px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eICERD, 1969\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2011\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1976\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1975\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 269px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eICRMW,\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1990\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; 2011\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNot Yet\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2019\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 269px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eUNCRPD,\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2006\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2012\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2025\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2010\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2018\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 269px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe Slavery\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConvention\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eof\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1926 was amended by the Protocol of 1953\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1979\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNot Yet\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1969\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNot Yet\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 269px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1950 Convention on the Suppression of Human Trafficking and the Exploitation of Prostitution of Others\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1979\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNot Yet\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNot Yet\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNot Yet\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 269px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSupplementing the Abolition of Slavery Convention, the Slave Trade Convention was ratified in 1956\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1979\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNot Yet\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1969\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNot Yet\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 269px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eILO Forced Labor Convention,\u0026nbsp;1930\u0026nbsp;(No.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e29)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1978\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2003\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1960\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 269px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eProtocol to the Forced Labor\u0026nbsp;Convention,\u0026nbsp;2014\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2018\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNot Yet\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNot Yet\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNot Yet\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 269px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eILO Abolition of Forced Labor\u0026nbsp;Convention,\u0026nbsp;1957 (No.105)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1978\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1999\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1961\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSource, Author, 2025\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;2:\u0026nbsp;Comparison of key policy and legal responses by States of the Horn of Africa\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"3\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"100%\" class=\"fr-table-selection-hover\"\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTHEMATIC COMPARISON\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 136px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDJIBOUTI\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 172px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eERITREA\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 172px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eETHIOPIA\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSOMALIA\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe power of the legislature and the structure of the law\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 136px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDjibouti\u0026apos;s president is strong, but its legislature is weak. The executive branch monopolizes power and smuggles migrants.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 172px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDespite adopting a draft constitution in 1997, the party or the president has a high degree of control over the legal system.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 172px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe House of People\u0026apos;s Representatives is governed by civil law. The Constitution has three branches: legislative, executive, and judicial. Several laws prohibit the smuggling of migrants and human trafficking.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGovernance and security are addressed in Somalia\u0026apos;s legal framework. The 2012 Provisional Constitution has three branches of government: executive, legislative, and judicial. The law comprises civil, Islamic, and customary law.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNational\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAction Plan/Strategic\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFramework\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 136px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDjibouti faces challenges in preventing human trafficking due to its strategic location in Africa. There has been no update to the 2015-2022 plan. The UNODC seeks a new action plan to combat human trafficking.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 172px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe Eritrean government is criticized for its compulsory National Service. Adult men\u0026apos;s sex trafficking is not criminalized, and there is no known National Action Plan/Strategic Framework.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 172px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEthiopia combats trafficking and migrant smuggling with national strategies (2025\u0026ndash;2029) and legal frameworks. Preventing, protecting, prosecuting, and supporting victims of trafficking are the goals of the National Action Plan.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSomalia\u0026apos;s National Migration Strategy (May 2024) addresses migration challenges, including human trafficking. Regularizing migration pathways, combating smuggling, and engaging the diaspora are key goals. Migration to the Gulf states passes through Yemen.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLegislation of National Importance\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 136px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLegislation No. 133 (2016) on human trafficking and illegal migration (Law No. 133/AN/16/7th). The Anti-Terrorism and Other Serious Crimes Law No.111 (2011) prohibits migrant smuggling and human trafficking.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 172px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe Eritrean approach to human trafficking differs from that of Ethiopia and Djibouti. Although Eritrea has a legal framework, including Article 315 of the Penal Code (2015), its restrictive policies have been criticized. In 2001, the Labor Proclamation 118 prohibited forced labor and child labor, but it did not mandate national service.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 172px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAlthough aligned with international standards, the Proclamation against Human Trafficking and Smuggling No. 1178/2020 differs from the laws of other countries. Ethiopian Overseas Employment Proclamation 923/2016 also addresses human trafficking in addition to the Criminal Code (2004).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLabor trafficking and some forms of sex trafficking are criminalized under the pre-1991 Penal Code. Several recent laws have benefited the country, including the Somali Immigration Law (2023), the National Security and Intelligence Act (2023), and the Law on Refugees and Asylum Seekers (2024).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDefinition, Prevention,\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCriminalization, And Relationship with International Covenants\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 136px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA serious human rights and international law violation in Djibouti is human trafficking. Force, fraud, or coercion is used to recruit, transport, transfer, harbor, or receive persons for exploitation. Traffickers and smugglers are severely punished under Djibouti\u0026apos;s national laws. Djibouti has signed the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women. (Law No. 133/AN/16/7th).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 172px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEritrea\u0026apos;s human trafficking laws differ from international standards in several ways. Prosecutors and victims are protected to prevent, suppress, and punish trafficking in persons according to the UN Protocol. Trafficking cases are not adequately investigated or prosecuted in Eritrea because of the lack of a comprehensive victim support system. Recruiting, transporting, transferring, harboring, and receiving migrants and victims of human trafficking are challenges Eritrea faces. Despite being criminalized, they are difficult to enforce. Indefinite national service and forced labor are major contributing factors to Eritrea\u0026apos;s trafficking problem. Eritrea is expected to sign the UN Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea, and Air, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and the Convention against Discrimination in Education.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 172px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEthiopia has more structured policies and regional cooperation to fight trafficking. Proclamation No. 1178/2020 distinguishes between human trafficking and migration smuggling. Clarifies the meaning of \u0026apos;band or group\u0026apos; and \u0026apos;band or association\u0026apos; in the Criminal Code 2004, and raises concerns about victim capture. Proclamation 1178/2020 also defines transnational trafficking and illegal employment abroad. Crime types are also taken into account in the legislation. Drafters intended to avoid overlap with the Criminal Code with these types. The inclusion of criminal crimes involving only exploitation. Furthermore, it criminalizes trafficking regardless of age or gender.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn Somalia, human trafficking and migrant smuggling involve forced labor or sexual exploitation. International organizations strengthen laws and policies against these crimes. Criminalizes these crimes, collaborates with global agencies, and supports victims. Legislation defining human trafficking provides provisions for investigation, prosecution, and victim protection. Art. UNTOC defines an organized crime group in Article 2 and addresses anti-money laundering and counter-terrorism financing. The definition of \u0026quot;forced or compulsory labor\u0026quot; under international law, as well as situations where children are exploited in the armed forces, is also included. It explores the impact of the Immigration Act Article 30 on human trafficking and migration victims.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInvestigation and Prosecution\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 136px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDjibouti\u0026apos;s approach to human trafficking and migrant smuggling is weak compared to other nations. In Djibouti, no traffickers have been convicted in six consecutive years, according to the U.S. Department of State\u0026rsquo;s Trafficking in Persons Report. As the 2016 anti-trafficking law has not been incorporated into its legal codes, it further weakens its response.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 172px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHuman trafficking investigations, prosecutions, convictions, and sentences are neither identified nor standardized. A Tier 3 ranking indicates Eritrea\u0026apos;s government is not meeting minimum standards for eliminating trafficking and is not taking significant measures to do so. Implementing the Criminal Procedure Code of 2015 is challenging and requires special investigative techniques.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 172px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEthiopia received a Tier 2 ranking in 2023, indicating that the government is actively combating human trafficking despite not meeting the minimum requirements. As a result of Proclamation No. 1178/2020, the National Partnership Coalition strengthened penalties, improved victim protection, and enhanced cross-border cooperation. Judges, prosecutors, and police investigators were informed of the new law. Create a Criminal Procedure Code to outline police investigative powers.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDespite ongoing conflict, weak governance, and limited international access, Somalia remains a \u0026quot;Special Case\u0026quot; in the 2023 TIP Report. Therefore, federal efforts to combat human trafficking are insufficient, and victims are not protected or prosecuted. The Somali Police Force investigates smugglers and human traffickers. A further function of the unit is to proactively identify trafficking situations proactively, proactively identifies trafficking situations, and at-risk individuals. The unit also addresses organized crime and trafficking.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePrevention, Protection, and Assistance\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 136px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDjibouti has legal measures against human trafficking and migrant smuggling. Over the past seven years, the focus has been on prevention (Penal Code Articles 23 and 394-396), protection of Legal Gaps, and support for the No Aid or Compensation Framework. The lack of an active anti-trafficking committee and poor identification processes leads to inadequate victim protection, shelters, and legal assistance. Articles 12 and 13 of the TIP Protocol do not provide for security or control over travel or identity documents. Guardians can be appointed to protect children from direct contact with suspects and witnesses under Law No. 113.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 172px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn Eritrea, there is no anti-trafficking law, and there is no compulsory national service, which increases trafficking risk. Additionally, there are no public awareness campaigns or procedures for identifying victims. The Eritrean government lacks a national referral mechanism and partnerships with NGOs or international agencies. Articles 19(8) and 19 (9) of the draft Constitution grant Eritreans the right to leave and re-enter Eritrea, both within and outside the country, and to obtain documentation.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 172px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHuman trafficking and migrant smuggling are combated through Ethiopia\u0026apos;s Proclamation No. 1178/2020, which focuses on prevention (articles 4-6, 8, 22-23), protection (articles 24-27), and support (articles 28-311). The law criminalizes these offenses, institutes awareness campaigns, and regulates employment agencies. It provides medical care, psychological counseling, legal assistance, vocational training, and protection from criminal liability. In the proclamation, deficiencies are corrected; international standards, including the UN Palermo Protocols, are adhered to; key definitions, penalties, and victim support are established; and a National Committee is established. 1178/2020 does not discriminate based on nationality, immigration status, or other factors. Ethiopian Nationality Proclamation No. 378/2003 concerning the role of the carrier provisions in Article 17 of the Immigration Proclamation.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn October 2025, Somalia plans to hold national consultations on the Anti-Trafficking and Smuggling Act to comply with international standards. Public awareness is low, and there is no National Referral Mechanism for victim support, which often leads to victim criminalization. The Immigration Act, Article 31, addresses undesirable foreigners\u0026mdash;assessment of the Border Management Information System\u0026apos;s capacity to prevent cross-border human trafficking. In Somalia, UNODC and IOM have developed training manuals and countertrafficking programs to combat human trafficking and migrant smuggling.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInstitutions, Culture, Coordination, And Cooperation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 136px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDespite being illegal (Articles 23, 394-396, Law No 133 (2016)), human trafficking and migrant smuggling are difficult to enforce and coordinate. It is inactive due to a shortage of appointments and funding. Cultural acceptance prevents support for irregular migrants. Human trafficking and migrant smuggling are effectively addressed as a result of the 2014-2020 National Action Plan. Through ICAT, UNODC provides technical assistance and training to improve law enforcement responses in Djibouti.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 172px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThere is no anti-trafficking agency in Eritrea, and no prosecutions of human traffickers have been conducted for years. In states that sponsor forced labor, citizens often turn to smugglers for help; there is no victim assistance, and there is minimal cooperation with international protocols. Under Eritrea\u0026apos;s penal code, victim protection is prioritized over migration control. The situation is exacerbated by forced conscription and economic hardship. To improve the country\u0026apos;s response, UNODC assists.\u003c/p\u003e\u0026nbsp;\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 172px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTrafficking in human beings and migrant smuggling are serious problems in Ethiopia, exacerbated by Proclamation No. 1178/2020. Several key bodies are involved in the legal reform process, including the Ministries of Justice and Women and Social Affairs (Articles 22 and 23, as well as 26 and 31). Ethiopian Federal Police and Immigration Office assist with investigations, while civil society organizations support rehabilitation. A 2019 Memorandum of Understanding backs this. Ethiopia engages in regional cooperation to prevent irregular migration under the UN Palermo Protocols, and IOM and UNODC collaborate to share training and data. Additionally, extradition is legally complex, as it differs from Proclamation No. 378/2003, Proclamation No. 733/2012, and Proclamation No. 1178/2020 with respect to the requirements of dual criminality and the death penalty.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn Somalia, the Ministry of Justice has drafted an Anti-Trafficking and Smuggling Act to combat the Smuggling of migrants and human trafficking. A lack of agencies, weak law enforcement, and cultural acceptance of irregular migration pose significant challenges. There is no National Referral Mechanism (NRM) to facilitate coordination. IOM and UNODC maintain international partnerships with Somalia, which has acceded to the UNTOC. Although reform efforts are still in their early stages, awareness-raising initiatives and improvements to legal frameworks and enforcement are underway.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eReturn And Reintegration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 136px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLaws and procedures are in place to return victims of human trafficking and migrant smuggling, and to receive victims of trafficking who are being returned to Djibouti. Bilateral relationships, if any, are in place to support the return and reintegration of trafficked victims, and whether they have been effectively implemented. The \u0026lsquo;guarantee\u0026rsquo; from the country of origin is required before a person is repatriated to their home country, in accordance with the art. 32 of the 2016 Law No. 113, and whether this amounts to protection against non-refoulement. There is an infrastructure in place to ensure the efficient exercise of the residency rights of victims of human trafficking and migrant smuggling set out in Articles 31 and 36 of the 2016 Law No. 113.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 172px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eImplement a mechanism to identify victims of trafficking among those returning to Eritrea and those being removed, as recommended by Art. 8 of UNTOC. Emphasize the importance of fundamental rights and freedoms in return and reintegration processes for victims of human trafficking and migrant smuggling. Consider acceding to the 1951 Refugee Convention and the 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees.\u003c/p\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 172px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEthiopia\u0026apos;s framework for trafficking victims\u0026apos; returns and reintegration is defined by Proclamation No. 1178/2020 and Directive No. 969/2023. A National Committee is mandated to coordinate implementation. The Directive also specifies the operational aspects of reintegration services, with a focus on sustainability. The Ministry of Women and Social Affairs, IOM, and UNODC are key partners. Article 28-31 Proclamation, Article 150 of the Criminal Code, or Article 5 of the Immigration Proclamation No. Outlines victims\u0026apos; legal rights, including medical care, psychological support, and legal assistance. In such situations, protection risks arise. Deporting trafficked individuals from Ethiopia using Article 8 of Immigration Proclamation No. 354/2003. As part of the National Referral Mechanism, finalized in 2023, victims will be able to self-identify and receive services while being protected from the risk of deportation.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;Somalia lacks robust laws regarding the return and reintegration of migrant smugglers and human trafficking victims. National Migration Strategy (2024) suggests policies for safe returns and community-based reintegration programs. Returnees are supported by the IOM\u0026apos;s Migrant Protection and Assistance Program. The Task Force on Return and Reintegration develops and implements a National Action Plan. As protected by Section 32 of the Immigration Act, Article 37 of the Provisional Constitution enacts non-refoulement as a response to TIP. The Anti-Trafficking and Smuggling Act (2020) protects victims. Legal codification is still pending, but Gulf returnees, refugees, and trafficking victims are receiving better assistance.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCivil Remedy\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 136px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDjibouti\u0026apos;s judicial system offers specific avenues for victims to seek justice, but enforcement is weak. Strengthening anti-corruption legislation, boosting judicial awareness, and providing specialized services for victims are critical steps towards tackling these concerns.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 172px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEritrea presents tremendous obstacles in preventing human trafficking, with few civil remedies available to victims.\u003c/p\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 172px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn Ethiopia, legal frameworks protect, rehabilitate, and support victims of human trafficking and migrant smuggling. Increasing cross-border cooperation and enforcing laws on prevention, prosecution, and rehabilitation are essential.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSomalia\u0026apos;s authorities and organizations are improving protection for smugglers and traffickers.\u003c/p\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe recovery of assets\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 136px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDespite addressing human trafficking and migrant smuggling, Djibouti\u0026apos;s legal framework reflects international asset recovery agreements. Djibouti has signed bilateral investment treaties with France, China, and Turkey, which influence asset protection and recovery. The country\u0026apos;s investment climate encourages foreign direct investment and financial transparency. Djibouti collaborates with other nations to repatriate stolen assets through global frameworks such as the United Nations Convention against Corruption and regional agreements\u0026mdash;articles 17 and 18 of Law No. 113 address asset seizure and special investigative tools, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 172px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAlong with its laws against human trafficking and migrant smuggling, Eritrea has little information on how it approaches asset recovery. The proceeds of trafficking should be confiscated in accordance with international guidelines to assist victims. Eritrea\u0026apos;s strict border controls and migration policies pose unique challenges. Eritrea must strengthen its asset recovery mechanisms. Smuggling and trafficking need stronger legal frameworks, according to international organizations.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 172px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAsset recovery provisions are included in Ethiopian law to combat human trafficking. Furthermore, a Victim Fund is established to assist victims of human trafficking. The legal framework, regional cooperation, and victim support provisions of Ethiopia\u0026apos;s asset recovery policy distinguish it from those of other countries. International collaboration and civil society participation are lacking. The ability of police to employ the authorities granted to them to freeze, seize, and confiscate property under Articles 20-22 of Proclamation No. 1178/2020 and the criminal procedure code to detect and limit the dangers of their actual execution.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA legal framework and policies have been developed in Somalia to combat human trafficking and migrant smuggling. International laws, including the UN Convention Against Corruption and the World Bank Stolen Asset Recovery Initiative, aid asset recovery. Global financial institutions and international best practices have been incorporated into Somalia\u0026apos;s asset recovery strategy. Recent cases include the Somali Asset Recovery Case, the U.S. Discovery Dispute, and the approximately $260 million allegedly frozen by the U.S.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSource, Author, 2025\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Human Trafficking, Law, Law-Enforcement, Migrant Smuggling, Policy, Victim-Centered Approach","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9475587/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9475587/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"From 2014 to 2024, human trafficking and migrant smuggling continued to be major concerns in the Horn of Africa (Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia), despite differences in legal definitions and a focus on prioritizing victim protection over enforcement. This study analyzes existing institutions, laws, and policies to identify gaps in the legal framework. Using a mixed-methods approach, it highlights these gaps and offers tailored recommendations for each country's specific context. Promoting legal migration channels and increasing local employment can decrease the attractiveness of smuggling and support vulnerable groups. Strengthening international cooperation and addressing root causes like poverty and conflict are essential to fighting human trafficking and migrant smuggling. Practical strategies include prevention, protection, prosecution, alliance-building, and the adoption of human rights-based policies. Effectively combating these issues requires stronger law enforcement, regional cooperation, and harmonized legal standards.","manuscriptTitle":"A Comparative Analysis of Policy and Legal Frameworks Addressing Human Trafficking and Migrant Smuggling in the Horn of Africa","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-05-06 08:36:54","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9475587/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"2f9e144a-3d86-4bc4-8868-9e7bc6d2d215","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 6th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-06T08:36:54+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-05-06 08:36:54","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9475587","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9475587","identity":"rs-9475587","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}