Rural Background and Its Effects on Leadership behaviour in Higher Education

Rural Background and Its Effects on Leadership behaviour in Higher Education | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Rural Background and Its Effects on Leadership behaviour in Higher Education Yasser Al-Rawi, Abdulsalam Alnoori, Mohammad harith Bin Amlus, and 3 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7743189/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 11 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The primary objective of this paper is to investigate the influence of rural background on leadership behaviour in higher education. A qualitative approach was employed, using in-depth semi-structured interviews. The 23 participants were selected based on their experience and knowledge of the topic. The findings showed that respondents held different views regarding the factors affecting leadership behaviour. Respondents largely agreed that tribalism, authoritarianism, and lack in vision for the future directly influence a leader’s behaviour and are regarded as enduring traits of leaders from rural backgrounds. Other factors (short-sightedness, apathy, and introversion) were deemed to be of lesser importance. Additionally, this study highlights ways to refine the leader selection process within higher education. This study contributes to the literature by offering new insights and addressing a gap in evidence concerning the characteristics of leaders from rural backgrounds. The study suggests that future research should examine the influence of genetic and family history factors on leader personality. Health sciences/Health care Biological sciences/Psychology Social science/Psychology leadership tribalism authoritarianism introversion short-sightedness apathy vision 1. Introduction The terms ‘rural’ and ‘urban’ represent distinct and often contrasting contexts, shaped by a long history of separation, tension, and perceived differences in status. This divide remains pronounced in the Arab world (Abd Allah, 1989 ; Ghosn, 2025 ). Against this backdrop, this study examines a complex issue: how individuals within Iraqi higher education organisations perceive leaders, particularly in relation to the leader’s environmental background and the impact of their behaviour on the organisation. Rural areas are defined as regions with a population density of fewer than 150 inhabitants per square kilometre, though their demographic, social, economic, historical, and cultural characteristics can vary greatly (Greinke & Rammelmeier, 2025 ). While each rural community is unique, many share common features and challenges, including (Budge, 2006 ; Ismael & Ngah, 2011 ; Farah et al., 2018 ; Campbell-Halfaker & Gregor, 2021 ; Gimpel & Reeves, 2024 ; Li et al., 2025 ), (1) low population density and geographic isolation, (2) interdependence between schools and communities, (3) experiences of marginalisation and oppression, (4) historical conflicts over educational aims, (5) emigration of young talent and, (6) a strong sense of place attachment. By contrast, urban areas are characterised by larger, densely populated settlements and their surrounding regions (Kahl, 2012 ; Luca et al., 2023 ). The distinctions and tensions between urban and rural societies are longstanding and universal (Murphey, 1972 ; OECD, 2010 ; Luca et al., 2023 ). A leader’s upbringing in either context can profoundly influence their perspectives, values, and behaviours. Urban identity encompasses a sense of belonging to a community described in “we” terms, shared values and norms, and a feeling of historical continuity of the life experience within the city. The concept of the ‘urbanite’ reflects the experience of urban life and its associated social and political practices (i.e. ‘civil’), often contrasted with rural practices, which are sometimes perceived as less developed in terms of civic engagement (Vendina et al., 2014 ). This study focuses on the rural background of leaders, as leadership styles and effectiveness – shaped by cultural context – have long been subjects of scholarly interest (Letcher, 2006 ; Lerutla & Steyn, 2022 ). The study of ‘place’ has gained increasing attention in disciplines such as architecture, ecology, geography, anthropology, philosophy, sociology, literary theory, psychology, and cultural studies (Budge, 2006 ). Understanding place is essential to comprehending human relationships and societal processes. Tradition, as a mechanism of historical and cultural continuity, plays a vital role in socio-cultural development; without it, such processes would not be possible (Mustafaevich & Sirazhudinovna, 2016 ). The conceptual and critical significance of tradition in contemporary anthropology is extensive, particularly as it involves the element of cultural continuity. Nevertheless, it is possible to identify several areas of empirical, conceptual, and critical interest in which the notion of tradition is particularly prominent. Traditions and customary behaviours are intimately connected to ways of life in earlier periods, reflecting how people managed the challenges of daily existence. As a result, customs and behaviours serve as indicators of the relationships between individuals and their environment. At the same time, social and cultural lifestyles are shaped not only by enduring customs and traditions, but also by evolving needs. While new technologies exert a considerable influence on the nature of work, work itself remains deeply rooted in culture and traditions (Chadwick, 2012 ). To elucidate the complex relationship between culture and leadership, various theoretical perspectives have been advanced in management and social science. The GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organizational Behaviour Effectiveness) Project (House, 2004 ) provides a comprehensive framework for understanding cultural dimensions and their influence on leadership behaviours. Similarly, House’s ( 1971 ) Path-Goal Theory highlights the importance of aligning leadership styles with cultural expectations, emphasising adaptability across different contexts. Leadership is a significant and consequential phenomenon, central to the performance of teams, groups, and organisations (Hogan & Kaiser, 2005 ). Personality is a key predictor of leadership (‘who we are is how we lead’), and this understanding can inform leader selection, development, and performance. Researchers have identified several ways in which urban and rural environments may shape leadership development (Bowman, 2011 ; Sanfo, 2023 ; Atkinson et al., 2024 ), (1) growing up in an urban setting often exposes individuals to diverse cultures, ideas, and social issues, potentially enhancing their ability to empathise with varied perspectives and make inclusive decisions and, (2) urban environments typically offer greater access to educational resources, extracurricular activities, and professional networks, which can further shape leadership values and behaviours. Recent scholarship indicates that the backgrounds of leaders significantly influence their behaviour once in office (Goldfien et al., 2024 ). Contemporary leadership demands empathy, collaboration, curiosity, and creativity. Rather than imposing feasible solutions, effective leaders design thoughtful ones; instead of acting as authoritative custodians of the status quo, they serve as optimistic agents of change. Tomorrow’s leaders are not commanders but innovators, and in this respect, they have a natural ally in designers, the poster children of innovation (Handa & Vashisht, 2018 ). By contrast, destructive or counterproductive forms of leadership and management have received comparatively little attention in the empirical literature, which has focused more on positive outcomes (Harris & Jones, 2018 ). Kuofie et al. ( 2015 ) suggest that future research should explore societal and employee perceptions of introverted leaders and how shifting perceptions can enable leaders to effect organisational change. Work on defining and measuring authentic leadership remains at an early stage, and future research will need to clarify how authentic leadership relates to other constructs within its nomological network (Avolio et al., 2009 ). Liden et al. ( 2025 ) conclude that future leadership studies should pay greater attention to behavioural profiles, leader-centric perspectives, and leadership differentiation. In summary, this study is motivated by the understanding that effective leadership enhances team and group performance, thereby improving the well-being of organisational members, while poor leadership diminishes quality of life for all involved (Hogan & Kaiser, 2005 ). Accordingly, the central research question of this study is: ‘does rural background affect leadership behaviours?’ From the perspectives of historians, evolutionists, biologists, sociologists, psychologists, and others, leadership remains a topic of enduring significance, relevant both to the past and the future (Liden et al., 2025 ). Accordingly, this study contributes to the existing literature by providing background and detailed insights into the factors affecting rural leadership. In addition, it aims to evaluate these factors in terms of their effectiveness within the organization. Finally, this study encourages further discussion on organizational reform initiatives aimed at improving leadership within the organization. 2. Literature Review Despite the extensive literature on leadership, the influence of rural upbringing on leadership has been largely overlooked. Recent scholarship has continued to focus on leadership within educational institutions (see, for example, Spendlove ( 2007 ); Einarsen et al., ( 2007 ); Bolden et al. (2008); Alonderiene & Majauskaite, ( 2016 ); Hassan et al., ( 2018 ); Aldulaimi and Abdeldayem ( 2019 ); Lumby ( 2019 ); Akanji et al., ( 2020 ); Ghamrawi et al. ( 2024 ); Salendab's (2025); Omori et al. ( 2025 )). Dopson et al., ( 2019 ) stated that the effectiveness of leadership development initiatives within evolving global university settings remains under-researched. As tertiary education undergoes radical transformation worldwide, professionals face increasingly uncertain environments, prompting leaders to adopt more complex and diverse approaches. Consequently, leadership development programmes are vital in navigating this complexity, yet their impact within higher education remains poorly documented in existing literature. Bryman, ( 2007 ) argued that leadership which erodes the collegiate spirit, autonomy, and opportunities to participate in decision-making, whilst fostering perceptions of unfairness and failing to act in higher education's best interests, will likely prove ineffectual as it diminishes the dedication of academic staff. He pointed out that whilst this field deserves empirical investigation, it has thus far received little direct academic scrutiny. Spendlove ( 2007 ) set out to explore university leadership roles and the necessary competencies (attitudes, knowledge, behaviour) for effective leadership in tertiary education. Key findings indicated that respondents overwhelmingly viewed academic credibility and university experience as fundamental, concurrently sustaining research and teaching alongside management functions. People skills, especially communication and negotiation, were also highlighted as vital. Critically, the study exposed a widespread absence of systematic frameworks within universities for leadership skill identification or development. Einarsen et al. ( 2007 ) put forward a definition and descriptive model of destructive leadership behaviour. Their proposed model identifies three categories: tyrannical, derailed, and supportive–disloyal leadership. This conceptual framework enhances understanding of destructive leadership by presenting a comprehensive definition encompassing behaviours targeting both subordinates and the wider organisation. Moreover, the model offers a nuanced perspective, highlighting how destructive leaders may exhibit both destructive and constructive behaviours concurrently. Ultimately, it provides a taxonomy that clearly delineates the principal forms of such behaviours. Bolden et al. (2008) aimed to reveal leadership elements often overlooked: the clash of multiple identities (personal, professional, social, organisational), the varied nature of leader influence, and the dynamic, informal social influence processes within complex university settings. This focus explains why higher education leaders frequently sense tension between competing demands. The author, however, argued that by rigorously examining the personal, structural, social, contextual, and temporal dimensions of leadership, the level of conflict arising from these forces could potentially be reduced. A paper by Alonderiene & Majauskaite ( 2016 ) examined how leadership styles influenced academic staff job satisfaction in Lithuania's higher education sector. Empirical findings revealed a statistically significant positive association between leadership style and job satisfaction, with servant leadership demonstrating the strongest positive impact, whereas autocratic leadership showed the weakest effect when other variables were controlled for. Hassan et al. ( 2018 ) have examined determinants of leadership in higher education settings, identifying follower acceptance as a universal prerequisite for leadership effectiveness, transcending national and institutional boundaries. The findings indicated that leadership effectiveness functions both as an independent challenge and as an outcome influenced by other challenges, notably leadership practices and stylistic approaches. Aldulaimi and Abdeldayem ( 2019 ) contend that the future viability of academic institutions hinges upon cultivating effective leadership capabilities across all organisational tiers. Their research, situated within Arab cultural contexts, consequently examines the interplay between cultural dimensions and leadership paradigms. The scholars advocate for further investigation into the detrimental impacts of traditional hierarchical leadership models on organisational change processes. Focusing on power dynamics, Lumby ( 2019 ) argues power is an indispensable yet intricate component of leadership. Her study investigates how UK university leaders navigate and deploy power amidst cultural resistance. Findings demonstrate leaders habitually utilise varying power modalities, though this is often obfuscated by defensive strategies. Lumby interprets this not as mere image management but as a necessary adaptation for operational efficacy in a leadership-averse context. Crucially, she asserts that enhanced self-awareness—promoted by both leaders and their appointers/developers—is essential for ethical decision-making regarding power. Rational, psychodynamic, and political lenses are recommended as instruments for profound critical reflection A study by Akanji et al., ( 2020 ) aims to investigate the influence of organisational culture upon leadership approaches within Nigerian universities. The research employs Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory alongside the social exchange concept as theoretical frameworks to analyse these phenomena. The outcomes demonstrate that hierarchical, patriarchal, servile, and interdependent values form the fundamental attributes of organisational culture, thereby determining the selection of leadership styles in Nigerian university management. Consequently, the study revealed that positional leadership, formalised exchanges, paternalism, relational approaches, and gendered responses to leadership are commonly adopted in university administration in this particular context. The study's findings contribute to addressing the research gap regarding organisational culture's consequences and its influence on leadership conduct in the Sub-Saharan African context. Additionally, the research deepens comprehension of cultural dimensions, informing leadership methods adopted within tertiary education settings. Ghamrawi et al. ( 2024 ) conducted a study examining destructive leadership behaviours among academic managers in higher education, as perceived by academic staff. Six participants from six Arab States engaged in three interview phases to document their lived experiences. Researcher diaries supplemented the data, enabling examination of preconceptions about the phenomenon. Analysis employed a whole-part-whole approach. Findings revealed specific destructive leadership practices: micromanagement and excessive control, hostile communication, detrimental organisational culture, and infringement of staff work-life balance. The study further explored these behaviours' impact on morale, work output, and institutional culture. Salendab's (2025) study addresses the intricate nature of leadership within higher education, positioning it as fundamental to both educational success and institutional performance. After defining effective leadership and its critical role in shaping academic environments, the research evaluates multiple leadership styles—including transformational, transactional, servant, distributed, and adaptive approaches—and their specific effects on higher education operations. The analysis then identifies core requirements for effective academic management: visionary leadership, clear communication, staff empowerment and collaboration, innovation and adaptability, commitment to diversity and inclusivity, and sound financial oversight. To translate theory into practice, the study suggests actionable techniques for strengthening leadership in higher education: diversifying leadership profiles, supporting continuous professional development, building leadership resilience, and leveraging technological integration. Omori et al. ( 2025 ) investigated the relationship between education administrators' leadership styles and academic workforce performance in Nigerian public universities. Specifically, the research examined how autocratic, democratic, and transformational leadership approaches influenced lecturer effectiveness. Underpinned by three hypotheses, the study employed an ex post facto design, focusing on lecturers across Cross River State's public universities. A sample of 450 participants was randomly selected from these institutions. Analysis revealed that transformative, democratic, and authoritarian leadership styles significantly impacted academic workforce performance. The study concluded that administrators' leadership approaches are critical determinants of lecturer effectiveness in public universities, contributing valuable insights into how leadership styles enhance academic performance across higher education settings. Finally, based on the studies above, researchers observed a scarcity of literature precisely identifying negative factors affecting rural leaders' behaviours, indicating an absence of rural background factors influencing leadership behaviour in higher education. 2.1 Leadership Leadership is a concept that remains difficult to define. More than four decades ago, Stogdill ( 1974 ) observed that ‘there are almost as many different definitions of leadership as there are persons who have attempted to define the concept.’ There is still no consensus on the definition of leadership, and the search for a clearer understanding continues (Silva, 2016 ). Warren G. Bennis distinguishes leaders as those who ‘do the right thing,’ while managers are those who ‘do things right.’ Dwight D. Eisenhower defined leadership as ‘the art of getting someone else to do something you want done because he wants to do it’ (Bennis & Nanus, 1974 ). Kjellström et al. ( 2020 ) note that, collectively, scholars have failed to agree on a definition of leadership throughout its modern history. They argue that the diversity of interpretations reflects individual value systems and perspectives or mindsets rather than a lack of conceptual sophistication. Effective leaders take a personal interest in the long-term development of their employees, employing tact and social skills to motivate them to perform at their best. Leadership is not simply about being ‘nice’ or ‘understanding,’ but about tapping into individual motivations to advance organisational goals. Analysts of leadership often focus on popularity, power, charisma, or strategic wisdom in long-range planning, but none of these alone captures the essence of leadership. Leadership is the achievement of a goal through the guidance of others – a human and social accomplishment that depends on the leader’s understanding of their colleagues and the relationship between individual and group objectives. Successful leaders recognise that people are complex and diverse, responding not only to traditional incentives but also to ambition, patriotism, aesthetic appreciation, boredom, self-doubt, and a range of other desires and emotions (Prentice, 2004 ). Organisational continuity depends on the emergence of new leaders as others retire, move on, or are promoted. New leaders face many challenges, and without comprehensive leadership development programmes to aid them in their new roles, they may encounter significant obstacles to effective decision-making, management, and leadership (Shufutinsky, 2019 ). Penney et al. ( 2015 ) emphasized that contemporary society is characterized by an exponential acceleration in the pace of change. It is hard to recall that merely twenty years ago, the internet was a newcomer in homes around the world. Now, contemplating life without it feels almost like fantasy. The transformation of Facebook over the past decade—from an emerging platform to a billion-dollar corporation—serves as a stark illustration. This corporation commands a population-scale user base, exemplifying the accelerating velocity of change that organizations must navigate. The best leaders are those who adapt decisively to relentless change and uncertainty. Stasis is suicide in an era of flux. Thus, leadership itself has undergone metamorphosis—archaic ideals of stable, directive authority are ill-suited to our chaotic modern reality. According to Hughes et al. ( 1993 ), the ability to influence others effectively is central to leadership, particularly in fields such as public health nutrition. The literature describes leaders as individuals who articulate a clear vision, make decisive choices based on available information, and are committed to building capacity and empowering others. Leaders are respectful and consultative but willing to make difficult decisions when necessary. Credibility, earned through ethical and transparent practice, is a core attribute of leadership. Leaders take calculated risks, challenge the status quo, assume responsibility, and demonstrate initiative. Such behaviour requires strategic thinking, interpersonal communication skills, and emotional intelligence. As leaders advance within organisations, they are expected to engage more with colleagues and stakeholders, requiring strong communication and public speaking abilities (Farrell, 2017 ). Developing such leadership qualities requires what John Ryan terms the ‘Right Talent.’ Without this, initiatives may fail or benefit only a select few – a situation with serious consequences for society (TPR, 2018 ). Horner ( 1997 ) notes that, although research on leadership failure is limited, success appears to depend on demonstrating positive behaviours while avoiding negative or derailing ones, such as arrogance, untrustworthiness, moodiness, insensitivity, compulsiveness, and abrasiveness. These negative traits are difficult to identify in assessments, as they may or may not coexist with the ‘Big Five’ personality traits. However, if they are present, even leaders who exhibit positive behaviours may be less effective and at risk of failure unless these negative traits are addressed. Van de Vliert ( 2006 ) argues that autocratic leadership characteristics in organisations can be understood as cultural adaptations. Accordingly, this study assumes that the six most prominent characteristics of rural leaders in Arab countries are autocracy, tribalism, introversion, myopia or short-sightedness, apathy, and vision for the future. This study therefore examines the relationship between rural upbringing – considering six factors (autocracy, tribalism, introversion, myopia or short-sightedness, apathy, and vision for the future) – and its effect on leadership behaviour. 2.2 Factors Affecting Leadership Behaviour To begin with, this part examines autocratic leadership as an obstacle to success in academic libraries and other institutions where it is practised. Leaders in higher education institutions have been observed to employ autocratic leadership styles (Chukwusa, 2018 ). Autocratic leadership is characterised by the leader asserting absolute authority over employees and demanding complete obedience. This style is also commonly referred to as authoritarian leadership, with the two terms often used interchangeably. Leaders who adopt this approach typically centralise decision-making and seek to maintain control over their staff. An autocratic leader establishes a ‘clearly defined intra-team hierarchy,’ which is strictly enforced; any deviation from this hierarchy is not tolerated and may result in negative consequences for employees (Ahmed & Simha, 2023 ). Although autocratic leadership was traditionally associated with military organisations, many corporate leaders in the early twentieth century – including prominent industrialists and company executives – employed this style to varying degrees of effectiveness (Chishty-Mujahid, 2016 ). Research by Sorenson ( 2000 ), Bhatti et al. ( 2012 ), De Hoogh et al. ( 2015 ), and Jony et al. ( 2019 ) has found that autocratic leadership negatively affects job satisfaction. Van de Vliert ( 2006 ) observed that autocratic leadership is generally perceived as less effective in wealthier countries with more demanding climates, but more effective in poorer countries with similarly demanding climates. De Hoogh et al. ( 2015 ) found that when power struggles within teams are low, autocratic leadership is positively associated with team psychological safety and, by extension, team performance. Conversely, when power struggles are high, autocratic leadership is negatively associated with team psychological safety and performance, even when controlling for leader consideration. Luthar ( 1996 ) investigated the impact of autocratic and democratic leadership styles on perceptions of male and female managers’ performance and leadership abilities. The study found that, overall, democratic managers are perceived as higher performers and more effective leaders than their autocratic counterparts. Finally, Flynn, ( 2015 ). Authoritarian leadership demonstrates incompatibility with contexts characterized by members' aspirations for opinion-sharing and involvement in decision-making. Furthermore, critics contend that this leadership style precipitates elevated levels of member dissatisfaction, staff turnover, and absenteeism Next, the concept of ‘tribal society’ is one of the most prominent notions in contemporary anthropology (Sneath, 2016 ). The term ‘tribe’ originates from the Latin tribus , which referred not to groups of people with shared interests, but to units of voting and administration in ancient Rome (Davis, 2020 ). The term ‘tribe’ originally had a precise meaning, but the concept of tribes and tribal identities has been criticised by many social anthropologists for its evolutionary connotations. This critique forms part of a broader disciplinary response to classical theories equating tribalism with segmentation (Vismara, 2018 ). Zaidi ( 2010 ) contends that a deeper understanding of assabiyya (social solidarity) may provide a more comprehensive explanation than other hypotheses. Mafeje ( 1971 ) notes that anthropologists have used the concept of tribe to explain both successes and failures in modernisation, while political scientists have tended to use it only to explain failures. This study sought to explore the effect of tribalism on leadership. According to Alesina et al. ( 2000 ), tribal affiliation negatively affects industrial productivity, leading to a reduced willingness to accept, endorse, or interact with non-tribal members (Emam et al., 2019 ). Karim ( 2012 ) argues that, in an increasingly interconnected world, balancing the opposing forces of globalism and tribalism is of critical importance. The article suggests that moderate forms of both globalism and tribalism are necessary to maintain global and local identities, but warns that an imbalance in favour of either could have serious consequences. Shufutinsky ( 2019 ) discusses the interconnected nature of organisational leadership, culture, structure, and systems, and how these elements are influenced by specific conditions and behaviours, as well as how they affect organisational outcomes. The study highlights leadership behaviours, structures, cultures, and subcultures that predate the arrival or promotion of new leaders and create conditions for leadership ineffectiveness, particularly through leadership cloning and intra-organisational tribalism within toxic leadership teams. The researcher concludes that the combination of leadership and tribalisation can foster increasingly hostile cultures, adversely affecting organisational systems, teamwork, behaviours, strategy, and environment, ultimately impeding productivity and degrading quality and performance. Moriba and Edwards ( 2009 ) argue that tribalism, along with its associated problems of corruption and professional negligence, remains a major obstacle to effective leadership in much of West Africa. Mafeje ( 1971 ) suggests that the issue in Africa is not so much one of empirically diverse behaviour, but rather one of ideology – specifically, the ideology of tribalism. Conversely, Zaidi ( 2010 ) observes that the tribal and cliquish mindset of leaders, evident in present-day Iraq, Afghanistan, and Pakistan, persists even within state frameworks, having emerged from historical tribalism. Kuir ë Garang addressed the issue of tribalism at the South Sudan Youth of Canada Conference at Grant MacEwan University on 28 July 2018, saying that: Tribe is one of the easiest ‘indices of differentiation,’ as Paul Gilroy would say, which we use to determine who to value and who to exclude; whose ideas we should respect and whose we should discard; whose moral wrongs we should condemn and whose moral wrongs we should excuse. The problem is always the other tribe, not us. There’s never a reflexive rationalisation of inter-tribal relations where internal tribal wrongs and shortcomings are corrected. This makes leaders associate with people from their own tribes either out of tribal allegiance or out of the fact that these are mostly the social groups with which they associate on a regular basis. Given the segregative nature of tribalism, it becomes nearly impossible to know others intimately in order to value them for what they bring to society rather than valuing them because of their tribes. Undoubtedly, this leads to the employment of less qualified, single-tribal cohorts in the name of tribal solidarity. In addition to the term ‘introvert’ derives from two Latin roots: intro , meaning inward, and vertere , meaning to turn. Carl Jung, who is credited with popularising the concept of introversion, likely drew on these linguistic origins when he first defined the term in the early 1920s. Jung described extroverts as individuals oriented towards the external world, while introverts are oriented towards their inner, subjective experiences. The terms ‘extraversion’ and ‘introversion,’ as used by Jung, describe different psychological attitudes regarding how individuals direct their energy. These terms have specific meanings in psychology that differ from their everyday usage. Extroverts tend to draw energy and inspiration from external sources, using social interactions to generate ideas and process information, often thinking through problems in groups and discussing ideas with others. More recently, Susan Cain, author of the best-selling book Quiet: The Power of Introverts in a World That Can’t Stop Talking , has characterised introverts as preferring quiet, minimally stimulating environments and typically possessing a reflective, independent temperament. By contrast, extroverts tend to thrive in more stimulating environments (Lebin et al., 2019 ). Historically, and even in contemporary contexts, it has often been assumed that only extroverted leaders are most effective (Kuofie et al., 2015 ). Spark (2018) notes that introverts are less likely to emerge as leaders than extroverts, though the existing literature provides little explanation for this phenomenon. Stephens-Craig et al. ( 2015 ) observe that extroverts generally focus on the broader picture rather than details when making decisions, which contributes to their tendency to make quick judgements. Extroverts typically perform well in busy, stimulating environments and are outwardly oriented. Introverts, by contrast, draw energy from their inner world of ideas and concepts. They are introspective, analyse details carefully, think before speaking, and are comfortable working independently. Introverts’ orientation is inward, as they reflect on situations or assimilate information before reaching conclusions. This deliberative approach may lead others to perceive introverts as cautious and slow decision-makers (Farrell, 2017 ). Lebin et al. ( 2019 ) report that approximately one-third to one-half of the population exhibits a preference for introversion, yet introverts remain underrepresented in leadership roles. Kuofie et al. ( 2015 ) and Stephens-Craig et al. ( 2015 ) suggest that introverted leaders must learn to exhibit extroverted qualities to succeed, though this does not mean that all introverted leaders are successful. Spark (2018) argues that introverts are less likely to emerge as leaders because they anticipate higher levels of negative affect, which may hinder their potential for leadership emergence. Furthermore, the metaphor of myopia has a well-established history in management literature. Originally used to explain business failures linked to cognitive limitations among managers, the concept of managerial myopia has become influential in management and strategy research, particularly within behavioural approaches. In this context, ‘myopia,’ ‘short-sightedness,’ or ‘near-sightedness’ refers to the systematic cognitive limitations that managers may exhibit (Czakon et al., 2023 b). Paukku and Välikangas ( 2021 ) argue that decisions driven by immediate pressures and shaped by myopic organisational routines often result in poor leadership, particularly in times of crisis or challenge. Similarly, Czakon et al. ( 2023 a) note that strategic myopia can be especially detrimental to institutions. A narrow perspective on actors, events, and trends in a firm’s environment, coupled with a preference for short-term outcomes, is widely recognised in the literature as leading to delayed or inadequate responses to challenges. Managerial myopia is typically portrayed as a systematic bias that results in underperformance, though empirical evidence on this point is nuanced. Mizik ( 2010 ) reviews the theory and empirical evidence regarding myopic management in the context of marketing practice, demonstrating that myopic management has a significant negative impact on future financial performance. Ding et al. ( 2024 ) found that managerial myopia undermines both financial and legal responsibilities, thereby affecting commitments to social responsibility. Qian and Ren ( 2024 ) present a network-based simulation model to examine the effects of executive myopia and industry partnerships on corporate performance in the context of green innovation. Their findings indicate that enterprises with foresighted leadership and strong industry partnerships are better positioned to achieve both competitive advantage and environmental sustainability. Beside this, Apathy is commonly defined as a lack of emotion, interest, or involvement, often manifesting as an indifferent attitude. However, in organisational contexts, leaders are expected to engage with all members and take into account what matters to the group as a whole (Hobbs, 2001 ). As an absence of feeling, apathy is frequently cited as a primary cause of inaction. Human behaviour is influenced and motivated by emotions; when individuals lack emotional engagement with personal, social, or political issues, they are less able to respond effectively to emerging challenges (Zhelnina, 2024 ). Zhelnina ( 2020 ) notes that the emotional processes underlying apathy and disengagement remain insufficiently studied. Ugwu et al. ( 2019 ), in an investigation involving 206 Nigerian employees of a major mass transit company, found that higher levels of job apathy among leaders were associated with reduced work engagement. In conclusion, the study of leadership encompasses a wide array of cultures, time periods, and theoretical perspectives (Horner, 1997 ). Effecting significant change in complex organisations is greatly facilitated by ‘future state visioning’ – a process for identifying desired outcomes and the strategic path to reach them. Leaders begin by assessing the anticipated future environment and the interests of key stakeholders, after which they articulate the values and principles that should guide progress towards the envisioned future (Stewart, 1993 ). Vision can refer to a long-term goal or an idealised future state but also denotes the capacity to perceive and anticipate future developments (Wanasika & Krahnke, 2016 ). Such visions typically present an idealised depiction of what the organisation could become, often reflecting the leader’s aspirations rather than its current reality (Zaccaro & Banks, 2001 ). Kantabutra ( 2010 ) observes that although leaders are widely believed to utilise visions, little is known about what makes a vision ‘effective’ – particularly within higher education. According to Bennis and Nanus ( 1974 ), leaders set direction, create an inspiring vision, and drive innovation. Leadership involves charting a course towards success for the team or organisation, characterised by dynamism, excitement, and inspiration. Morden ( 1997 ) asserts that the optimal approach is to integrate strong visionary leadership with effective management so that their combined strengths benefit the organisation. Leaders inevitably carry influences from their past into both the present and the future. This study therefore contends that leaders from rural backgrounds tend to focus on their history and present circumstances, often struggling to conceptualise or envision future possibilities. 2.3 Trait Leadership Theory The paramount challenges confronting modern leadership entail adaptive capacity within dynamic environments and the strategic deployment of influence tactics. Leaders are compelled to utilize leadership styles that maximally efficacy in framing followers' perceptual constructs regarding organizational goals and implementation pathways (Verawati & Hartono, 2020 ). Scholarly discourse continues to examine whether leadership should be classified as a behaviour, trait, or skill. This inquiry originated with an emphasis on delineating the characteristics of rural leaderships. Leadership capabilities were originally considered hereditary: leaders were born, not made. Only individuals of appropriate breeding were considered capable of leadership; all others were consigned to being led. Notwithstanding any degree of aspiration or acquired knowledge, an individual's destiny was regarded as fixed. The academic discourse subsequently progressed to encompass situational determinants of leadership. Contemporary investigations, however, have reverted to underscoring the paramount significance of dispositional attributes in leadership effectiveness. The trait paradigm thus endures robustly in current leadership studies (Germain, 2012 ). The trait theory of leadership suggests that personality traits influence leader emergence and effectiveness (Colbert et al., 2012 ). Penney et al., ( 2015 ) argued thta there are inconsistencies in the early literature regarding personality and leadership. Nonetheless, one thing researchers can agree on is that numerous traits have consistently been examined under different terminology and operationalised differently across studies for decades. One explanation for this is the lack of a consistent organisational framework for traits. Modern trait theories have typically adopted one of two organising frameworks for characterising traits; the Big Five model of personality (Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to experience, Agreeableness and, Conscientiousness). Moreover, the Dark Triad model of personality (Narcissism, Machiavellianism and, Psychopathy). This study argued that the traits of rural leaders include autocracy, tribalism, introversion, myopia, apathy, and future visioning. 2.4 Behaviour Leadership Theory Calhoun and El Hady (2023) argue that whilst 'behaviour' is fundamental to diverse disciplines, academics infrequently specify its meaning, raising questions about definitional variation across fields. In alignment with this, Lazzeri ( 2014 ) documents the abundance of 'behaviour' definitions in scientific and philosophical literature, affirming the lack of agreement – even among practitioners of particular behavioural research programmes – on its exact formulation. Remarkably, neither Yukl (2002; 2012; 2013) nor Bass (2008) considers defining the term pertinent, even within the specific context of leadership behaviour (Sørensen, 2017 ). The second theoretical school focuses on the behavioural patterns demonstrated by leaders. Leader behaviour encompasses observable styles and interpersonal interactions directed toward accomplishing goals. Scholarship investigating these leadership attributes established what is now termed the behavioural theory of leadership. This theoretical framework contends that leader behaviour operates along two primary axes: task-performance orientation and relational/people orientation. The literature reveals that leaders who demonstrate proficiency across both relationship and task-orientation dimensions are significantly more likely to attain effective outcomes (Bhattacharyya & Jha, 2018 ). Therefore, Behavioural theory represents a conceptual shift from trait-based approaches, asserting that leadership capabilities are primarily developed through learning, not innate qualities, and that deliberate behavioural practices can be cultivated to optimise leadership efficacy. The theory emphasises demonstrated behaviours as opposed to dispositional attributes, while failing to account for the leader’s situational context and broader environmental dynamics (Benmira & Agboola, 2021 ). Leadership's complexity and importance derive from its function in guiding followers through integrated leader-subordinate relationships. This influential function has developed progressively over the last 50 years, manifesting in various leadership approaches that significantly shape team efficacy and organisational outcomes. Furthermore, transformative changes across cultural, economic, historical, and political spheres demand emergent leadership behaviours. Simply put, previously acquired leadership styles and skills may lack efficacy amidst current societal and environmental shifts (lsarrani et al., 2021). A significant challenge within leadership research and theory has been the absence of consensus regarding which behaviour categories are pertinent and meaningful. It presents difficulties to synthesise findings across five decades of research unless the numerous diverse leadership behaviours can be accommodated within a parsimonious and coherent conceptual framework. A suggested approach is a hierarchical taxonomy comprising three metacategories (task, relations, and change behaviour) (Yukl et al. 2002 ). Yüksel Sakınç & Ergün ( 2024 ) classified leadership behaviours into three categories. Task-oriented leadership encompasses activities such as short-term planning, elucidating roles and performance objectives, and monitoring operations and performance. Plans are typically forward-looking, envisaging what's to come based on present circumstances. Professionals traditionally depend on historical data to assess the current situation and subsequently develop their future strategies (Wu et al. 2025 ). Accordingly, short-term planning refers to the process of determining what, how, when, and by whom tasks will be carried out for organisational effectiveness. Clarifying responsibilities and goals entails delineating job responsibilities and requirements, establishing performance objectives, and allocating specific tasks to ensure that staff understand what is expected of them and how to execute their duties (Yüksel Sakınç & Ergün, 2024 ). Monitoring indirectly focusses attention on measured aspects of performance and enables the effective application of other behaviours, such as recognition or clarification. Two observational studies revealed that leaders who engaged in more monitoring demonstrated greater efficacy. However, survey research indicated that monitoring was associated with leader effectiveness across certain samples but not others (Yukl et al. 2002 ). 3. Research Methodology This study employed a qualitative research approach, in line with Conger’s ( 1998 ) recommendation that qualitative methods are particularly well suited to exploring the multifaceted nature of leadership. When implemented rigorously, these methods enable researchers to examine phenomena in depth and with nuance, while also providing the flexibility to investigate unanticipated findings. Participants were selected using purposive sampling, targeting individuals with direct experience of the research topic. The sample was chosen based on length of employment in higher education and included leaders from diverse backgrounds. As noted by Vasileiou et al. ( 2018 ), the principle of saturation is widely used to determine sample size and assess its adequacy in qualitative research. The concept of saturation originates in grounded theory, a methodological approach focused on theory development from empirical data and closely associated with theoretical sampling. Saturation – sometimes referred to as data or thematic saturation – has been adopted by various qualitative research communities beyond its grounded theory roots. It is commonly understood as the point at which no new data, themes, or codes emerge from additional interviews. Saturation is now regarded as a key benchmark in qualitative inquiry. Interviews were conducted in Arabic between March and April 2025. To ensure confidentiality and anonymity, respondents’ names were not disclosed. Saturation was achieved after the 23th interview, as subsequent interviews produced little new information; thus, the final sample size for this study was 23. Interview questions were distributed through multiple channels: face-to-face interviews, direct delivery, and via WhatsApp. Before each interview, respondents were asked to describe their personal and professional backgrounds. The interview questions then focused on the influence of rural background on leadership behaviours. Interviewees received a list of themes in advance, which enhanced the validity and reliability of the study by allowing participants time to reflect on the topics and gather supporting documentation (Saunders et al., 2003). Table 1 presents the distribution of respondents from various Iraqi universities. Table 1 Profile of participants (n = 23) No Degree Academic title Specialty of Service years 1 Master Assistant Professor Business Administration 13 2 PhD Assistant Professor Sharia/ Tafser 7 3 Master lecturer Business Administration 18 4 PhD Assistant Professor Computer Science 4 5 PhD lecturer Public administration 10 6 PhD Professor Mathematics 25 7 PhD Assistant Professor Business Administration 15 8 PhD lecturer Production and Operations Management 13 9 PhD Professor Physics 24 10 Master Assistant Professor Financial accounting 20 11 Master Assistant Professor Accounting 15 12 PhD Professor History of international relations 25 13 PhD Professor Accounting 30 14 PhD lecturer Business Administration 18 15 PhD Assistant Professor Business Administration 14 16 PhD lecturer Computer science 19 17 PhD Assistant Professor Economics 12 18 PhD Professor Public management 27 19 PhD Assistant Professor Accounting 28 20 Master lecturer Engineering 9 21 Master lecturer Business Administration 8 22 PhD Assistant Professor Accounting 19 23 PhD lecturer Financial 9 4. Results and Discussion The interview method was chosen to clarify the effect of rural background on leadership behaviours in higher education. The selected sample was expected to provide meaningful insights into this issue and address the research questions. Prior to analysis, it should be noted that several interview questions were excluded from the final analysis because responses were limited to simple ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answers, which lacked sufficient detail for substantive interpretation. 4.1 Results While respondents expressed a range of views, when asked ‘to what extent are leadership behaviours influenced by cultural and social factors,’ all agreed that these factors have a significant impact on leadership style – with the exception of Participant 9, who did not observe such an effect. Following are a selection of respondents’ answers to this question. Respondent 3 Leadership styles are fundamentally influenced by cultural and social factors due to the profound impact these factors have on shaping the traits, principles, and values of an individual’s personality and controlling his behaviour, interaction, and methods of communication, influence, and impact on others. Respondent 4 Leadership style is influenced by cultural and social factors, which shape the principles and values a leader adopts. Traditions and customs, in particular, are key determinants of a leader’s flexibility and adaptability. Respondent 15 Cultural and social factors are the foundation upon which human relations between leaders and their subordinates are built. The responses were largely consistent among all respondents, but Respondent 9 held a different view, reporting that ‘there is no effect.’ He added, It’s important to remain unaffected by these issues. The leader should focus solely on adhering to the established laws and regulations of the field, rather than getting involved in such matters. He also stated, In my opinion, rural leaders are more distinguished by their community customs and traditions than city dwellers. The second question was ‘how, if at all, does a rural background affect an individual’s leadership style in an organisational setting?’ Following are a selection of respondents’ answers to this question. Respondent 14 Leadership styles are heavily shaped by cultural and social factors because culture dictates how people think and interact. Respondents 1 and 2 assigned percentage ratings between 50% and 75% to the negative effect of a rural background on leadership. Respondent 16 The patterns of human interaction in the rural environment differ from those in the urban environment. Consequently, this impact is reflected in the individual’s behaviour within his organisation. Furthermore, rural background affects leadership. Leaders from rural environments may have a strong sense of responsibility and teamwork but may have difficulty accepting modern management methods. Respondent 6 The rural background of leaders often affects the leadership style, as the leader with a rural background tends to rely on personal relationships, paternal leadership, and decisions that reflect a high sense of responsibility towards the team, given the values of community solidarity he was raised on in the rural environment. Respondent 3 The individual with a rural background is characterised by seriousness, toughness, challenge, and self-reliance. Respondent 4 Leaders from rural backgrounds may have a strong sense of responsibility and teamwork. Leaders appear to be adopting an approach that is not inclusive of everyone. In this regard, they need to accommodate diverse perspectives, approaches, and opinions of the individuals they interact with daily (Mafigu & Ncube 2020). Every participant hopes to see leaders adopt a sound leadership approach in higher education and to see leaders adapt to the ever-evolving concepts of contemporary leadership. Regarding the six factors identified in this study, respondents’ opinions varied as follows: 1- 82% of respondents agreed that leaders from rural backgrounds are mostly characterised as autocratic in higher education. Respondent 3 Authoritarian leadership is more common in leaders from rural backgrounds than urban ones in higher education, as in other sectors, because rural individuals (so to speak) are characterised by self-reliance and therefore self-esteem in their decisions. Respondent 6 Sometimes this is because rural culture may tend towards a hierarchy of authority and respect for elders, which causes some leaders to adopt an authoritarian or despotic style. However, this does not apply to everyone. Respondent 10 It may be more common because leaders from rural backgrounds were raised in highly hierarchical societies where their authority is rarely questioned. Respondent 11 This tendency is more pronounced among leaders from rural backgrounds. Respondent 18 If a leader continues to act as a father, tribal sheikh, or chief to their people and moves away from participative leadership, as a result, he will be prone to imposing his will on others. The remaining 18% of respondents had a different opinion regarding the autocratic factor. Respondent 22 said, ‘it may or may not have an effect.’ Respondent 20 contended that ‘this scale is not suitable.’ 2 - Concerning the second factor, respondents were asked, ‘does tribalism among leaders of rural origin function as an enhancement or a hindrance to effective leadership in higher education?’ A majority (73%) of respondents agreed that tribalism hindered effective leadership. Following are a selection of respondents’ answers to this question. Respondent 3 The hindrance to effective leadership posed by tribalism stems from its defining characteristics: a narrow, limited, and acquisitive outlook that precludes openness, participation, and exchange. Respondent 7 Tribalism hinders effective leadership within education due to the prevalence of bias in favour of individuals belonging to the same tribe, prioritising personal and tribal interests over education and university affiliation. Respondents 6 and 23 stated, Tribalism may hinder effective leadership if tribal loyalties are prioritised over competence and the institution, creating an unfair environment that leads to weak productivity and innovation. However, it may enhance leadership in certain cases if it is invested in building trust and belonging among members of the institution. Respondents 10, 20, and 25 stated, Tribalism is a double-edged sword. It may foster loyalty and cohesion within an organisation on one side; however, it can undermine effective leadership by prioritising favouritism over competence or fostering divisions in the workplace on the other side. The remaining 27% of respondents held a different view on the tribalism factor. Respondents 1, 8, and 17 said, ‘no, it can be good.’ Respondent 22 stated, ‘it may or may not have an effect.’ This result goes in line with the literature (Zaidi, 2010; Karim 2012; Shufutinsky 2019; Emam et al., 2019). 3 - Concerning the third factor, the respondents were asked, ‘are rural leaders introverted?’ In this case, 88% of respondents were unsupportive. Respondent 1 Actually, he exemplifies simplicity and good rapport with people. Respondent 3 On the contrary, it is characterised by emotional and social balance, given that social relations in the rural environment, when compared to the city, are healthier. Many rural leaders bear great responsibilities and make clear efforts to achieve success. Respondent 4 A leader of rural origins is not necessarily an introvert, but growing up in an environment that may be characterised by privacy or social conservatism may make him more reserved in expressing his opinions or in communicating with others, especially in the early stages of his leadership experience. Respondent 6 Respondents 10 and 11 Leaders from rural backgrounds are usually more sociable and skilled at building strong relationships. However, Respondent 11 stated: Within an academic setting, these leaders may have difficulty adapting to modern leadership approaches, making them appear less open to new ideas. Respondent 22 expressed a distinct opinion, stating that: Introversion is not determined by the environment, but by an individual’s personal qualities. Respondent 7 said: They derive most of their energy from their inner world, clinging to their own ideas without considering the opinions and ideas of others. Respondent 9 said: He may be introverted or the opposite, depending on upbringing, education, experience, and training. 4 - Regarding the fourth factor, respondents were asked, ‘do leaders from rural backgrounds exhibit more myopia than their urban counterparts in higher education?’ The vast majority (88%) of respondents did not support this assertion. Respondent 3 stated: No, on the contrary, the rural environment is characterised by a valuable store of customs and traditions that endow its people with deep thinking and logical analysis of variables to reach more accurate conclusions . Respondents 10 and 12 said: This attribute does not belong to everyone from a rural background. Respondent 7 stated: Rural leaders suffer from a lack of experience in making sound decisions due to a lack of academic qualifications and the influence of the rural and ideological nature of the tribe to which they belong. 5 - For the fifth factor, participants were asked, ‘do leaders from rural backgrounds exhibit a higher degree of apathy?’ About half (50%) supported this, meaning that the other half did not. Respondent 7 said: Leaders from rural backgrounds are characterised by apathy, a behavioural and emotional state. They are individuals who are indifferent to emotional, social, and economic aspects and suffer from laziness, making them incapable of solving the problems they face. Respondent 2 said: ‘Somewhat.’ Respondent 3 provided an alternative explanation for apathy, saying: It can be called (result satisfaction) instead of (indifference), as the rural individual is by nature prepared for unplanned results due to the multiplicity of factors influencing the processes that achieve the goal. Respondent 10 stated: The rural leader takes his responsibilities seriously. Respondent 4 stated: Not necessarily, but some leaders who have not been exposed to modern leadership concepts may face challenges in developing long-term strategies. Respondent 20 stated: That is a faulty generalisation; some rural leaders may prefer to maintain the status quo rather than risk the change or development needed in the organisation… If pressured by his environment, a leader may prioritise meeting its demands over improving organisational performance, which can be perceived as apathy. 6 - The sixth factor identified was vision, based on respondents’ answers concerning rural leaders’ vision for the future. Respondent 6 said: Some leaders who have not been exposed to modern leadership concepts may face challenges in developing long-term strategies. Respondent 13 stated: This is not the general rule, but the tendency may be more prevalent in specific instances, particularly when a leader relies on traditional experience while being resistant to modern management and strategic planning methods. Respondent 18 said: An over-reliance on rural customs that are incongruent with the multicultural and multi-environmental context of higher education institutions may prevent a leader from cultivating a long-term vision, resulting in a focus on short-term interests rather than strategic reforms. After respondents answered the six factors above, they largely agreed that tribalism, authoritarianism, and lack of vision for the future directly influence a leader's behaviour and are regarded as enduring traits of leaders from rural backgrounds. Therefore, focusing on these factors, particularly for those from rural backgrounds before they assume leadership roles in higher education, is essential, as these qualities directly influence educational processes in higher education. Other factors (short-sightedness, apathy, and introversion), however, were deemed to be of lesser importance. According to Hogan and Kaiser (2005), although urban and rural social systems share the common denominator of belonging to the human system and being united by citizenship and national identity, the mechanisms of social control in urban systems arise from the distinctive characteristics of urban populations, which tend to be more culturally diverse and socially dynamic than their rural counterparts. Urban residents are generally more open to education, change, and cultural influences, which can lead to improvements in quality of life and sustained economic growth. These positive outcomes are amplified in urban settings due to the scale and density of human interaction. The question of this study was: ‘How have the growing connections between rural and urban communities and the rise of the internet/social media influenced what it means to be a rural background leader today?’ Based on their engagement with rural leaders, 90% of participants indicated that tribalism and authoritarianism persist as the most influential factors determining the behaviour of rural leaders. This means that despite the overlap of communities and the disappearance of the divide between rural and urban areas, these two factors are still rooted in leaders from rural backgrounds. Penney et al. (2015) emphasised contemporary society's exponential acceleration of change. Merely for years ago, the internet was novel in homes worldwide; now, life without it seems fantastical. Facebook's evolution—from emerging platform to billion-dollar corporation—exemplifies this accelerating change, which organisations must navigate. Effective leaders adapt decisively to relentless uncertainty. In an era of flux, stasis equates to suicide. Leadership has thus metamorphosed: archaic ideals of stable authority are ill-suited to our chaotic reality.. Some responses added new insights to this study, as follows. Respondent 5 Genetic factors contribute to personality traits and cognitive abilities that can influence leaders, particularly those from rural backgrounds . These leaders may be the first in their families to hold such positions, which likely explains why they fight so hard to maintain them – it’s a source of significant reputation and pride. Respondent 6 highlighted the most prominent challenges facing rural leaders, including: Challenges in conforming to the norms of modern urban institutions. Underdeveloped skills in dealing with advanced technology. Possible gaps in language or formal communication skills. Struggles with accepting criticism and making independent decisions separate from group consensus. This result goes in line with the study by (Shufutinsky, 2019). Respondent 7 stated: Rural leaders face the challenge of shifting their thinking from the simple, traditional approach applied in rural areas to a scientific approach based on extensive foundations and studies. Finally, to identify practical solutions, the study sought respondents’ input on strategies to curb tribalism, authoritarianism and its adverse consequences within higher education institutions. Several key strategies were identified: The state should administer a scientific selection process for leadership positions, ensuring impartiality and rejecting favouritism towards any political or social faction. Importantly, it must maintain its authority by deterring the emergence of rival power structures through the enforcement of sanctions. A strategy focused on enhancing institutional culture, fostering interaction among staff, and strengthening the role of management should be implemented. To improve leadership quality, universities should prioritise the provision of training programmes in contemporary leadership and actively promote a culture of efficiency and transparency. There is a clear need for the establishment of a continuous monitoring and evaluation mechanism. It is essential to develop a robust administrative system that enables individuals to be assessed according to criteria based solely on competence and the ability to perform. Accountability mechanisms should be established for anyone who tends to make decisions that serve their own interests rather than those of the institution. This means that the study revealed solutions that can be adopted to enable leaders from rural backgrounds to adapt to the higher education environment. Therefore, focusing on training and development is seen as essential for developing such leaders in higher education. As per Shufutinsky (2019), new leaders face many challenges, and without comprehensive leadership development programmes to aid them in their new roles, they may encounter significant obstacles to effective decision-making, management, and leadership. 4.2 Discussion This study presents findings based on the researcher’s deliberate selection of the most representative and consistent responses provided by respondents. The notion of leaders emerging from rural backgrounds persists in certain countries (see Atkinson et al., 2024), particularly in developing nations where tribal affiliations remain influential. Drawing on data from academics of diverse orientations and backgrounds at Iraqi universities, the analysis indicates that this concept endures despite societal development, increased interconnectedness, and the proliferation of internet and social media tools. The results show that a significant majority (at least 80%) of participants perceive tribalism, authoritarianism, and lack in the future vision as enduring characteristics of leaders from rural backgrounds (see e.g. Sorenson, 2000; Bhatti et al., 2012; De Hoogh et al., 2015; Chishty-Mujahid, 2016; Chukwusa, 2018; Ahmed & Simha, 2023). Concerning future vision, many academics argue that an over-reliance on rural customs – which may be incompatible with the multicultural environment of higher education – can hinder leaders from developing a long-term perspective, leading to a focus on short-term interests rather than strategic reforms. Conversely, more than 80% of respondents agreed that myopia is not typically a trait of such leaders, although a notable minority still viewed it as a potential limitation. Opinions regarding apathy and introversion were evenly divided, reflecting a lack of consensus, as illustrated in the data above. Finally, a clear bias towards people with a rural background was evident in Respondent 9's responses, contrasting sharply with the balanced nature of other respondents' answers. 5. Conclusion and Future Research Despite the substantial body of research on leadership, the role of rural upbringing as a formative influence on leadership behaviour remains under-investigated. Although the distinction between urban and rural societies is longstanding and universal, the specific impact of an individual’s upbringing in either context on their leadership potential is significant. Such upbringing profoundly shapes perspectives, values, and behaviours. To access research results, 23 participants from different universities were interviewed. In summary, the focus of this study was determined following a thorough assessment of the current state of Iraqi higher education. This assessment is not intended to evaluate individuals or their backgrounds; rather, its objective is to propose solutions that enhance institutional quality and ensure the selection of highly qualified leaders. Given the diversity of the sample, their perspectives on leadership behaviour were expected to vary. Based on trait and behavioural theories, the study concludes that: Leadership style is significantly influenced by cultural and social factors, which mould the principles and values a leader adopts. Traditions and customs, in particular, are critical determinants of a leader’s flexibility and adaptability. Within the higher education sector, leaders from rural backgrounds are more likely to adopt an authoritarian style than their urban counterparts, a trend also observed in other professional sectors. The prevalence of tribalism within educational leadership creates a significant barrier to effectiveness. This occurs through systemic bias that advantages those with tribal affiliations, thereby subordinating the institution’s educational mission to personal and tribal allegiances. Leaders raised in private or socially conservative environments may exhibit greater reserve in expressing opinions or communicating with others, particularly in the initial stages of their leadership roles. A defining characteristic of individuals from rural backgrounds is a propensity for satisfaction with outcomes, rather than indifference. This adaptability stems from their readiness for unforeseen results, a trait developed through exposure to the multiple factors influencing goal achievement. An excessive adherence to rural customs, which are often misaligned with the multicultural and multi-environmental nature of higher education institutions, may impede a leader’s capacity to develop a long-term vision. This can result in a prioritisation of short-term interests over the implementation of strategic reforms. The leaders from rural backgrounds face specific challenges, the most prominent of which are: (1) difficulties in adapting to the norms of modern urban institutions; (2) limited proficiency in using advanced technology; (3) potential gaps in language or formal communication skills; (4) struggles with accepting criticism and making independent decisions separate from group consensus. Higher education institutions can employ various strategies to cultivate different leadership styles. For example, (1) promoting a culture of efficiency, transparency, interaction, and effective management; (2) implementing continuous monitoring and evaluation mechanisms; (3) selecting leaders based solely on competence and ability to perform; (4) ensuring that the state oversees a scientific selection process for leadership positions, guaranteeing impartiality and rejecting favouritism toward any political or social faction. Crucially, the state enforces its authority through the threat of sanctions, thereby preventing the emergence of rival power structures; (5) controlling the tribal and personal tendencies of leaders. The study proposes that future research should investigate the role of genetic factors and family history in shaping leadership personality. Declarations this research did not receive funding Ethics Statement The study received ethical approval from the University of Anbar – Ethical Approval Committee. The committee issued an official Certificate of Ethical Approval on 3 August 2025 with Approval Number ID: EAC110. Therefore, the ethical approval is referenced using the issued certificate. All procedures conducted in this research adhered to the ethical guidelines of the University of Anbar and complied with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Informed Consent Statement Written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to their involvement in the study. Participants were informed about the purpose of the research, the voluntary nature of their participation, and the confidentiality measures applied to their data. The informed consent process was conducted and completed during the data collection period between March and April 2025, in accordance with the procedures approved by the University of Anbar Ethical Approval Committee. 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Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe terms \u0026lsquo;rural\u0026rsquo; and \u0026lsquo;urban\u0026rsquo; represent distinct and often contrasting contexts, shaped by a long history of separation, tension, and perceived differences in status. This divide remains pronounced in the Arab world (Abd Allah, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1989\u003c/span\u003e; Ghosn, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Against this backdrop, this study examines a complex issue: how individuals within Iraqi higher education organisations perceive leaders, particularly in relation to the leader\u0026rsquo;s environmental background and the impact of their behaviour on the organisation. Rural areas are defined as regions with a population density of fewer than 150 inhabitants per square kilometre, though their demographic, social, economic, historical, and cultural characteristics can vary greatly (Greinke \u0026amp; Rammelmeier, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). While each rural community is unique, many share common features and challenges, including (Budge, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Ismael \u0026amp; Ngah, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Farah et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Campbell-Halfaker \u0026amp; Gregor, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Gimpel \u0026amp; Reeves, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Li et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e), \u003csup\u003e(1)\u003c/sup\u003e low population density and geographic isolation, \u003csup\u003e(2)\u003c/sup\u003e interdependence between schools and communities, \u003csup\u003e(3)\u003c/sup\u003e experiences of marginalisation and oppression, \u003csup\u003e(4)\u003c/sup\u003e historical conflicts over educational aims, \u003csup\u003e(5)\u003c/sup\u003e emigration of young talent and, \u003csup\u003e(6)\u003c/sup\u003e a strong sense of place attachment. By contrast, urban areas are characterised by larger, densely populated settlements and their surrounding regions (Kahl, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Luca et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe distinctions and tensions between urban and rural societies are longstanding and universal (Murphey, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1972\u003c/span\u003e; OECD, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Luca et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). A leader\u0026rsquo;s upbringing in either context can profoundly influence their perspectives, values, and behaviours. Urban identity encompasses a sense of belonging to a community described in \u0026ldquo;we\u0026rdquo; terms, shared values and norms, and a feeling of historical continuity of the life experience within the city. The concept of the \u0026lsquo;urbanite\u0026rsquo; reflects the experience of urban life and its associated social and political practices (i.e. \u0026lsquo;civil\u0026rsquo;), often contrasted with rural practices, which are sometimes perceived as less developed in terms of civic engagement (Vendina et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR94\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). This study focuses on the rural background of leaders, as leadership styles and effectiveness \u0026ndash; shaped by cultural context \u0026ndash; have long been subjects of scholarly interest (Letcher, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Lerutla \u0026amp; Steyn, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study of \u0026lsquo;place\u0026rsquo; has gained increasing attention in disciplines such as architecture, ecology, geography, anthropology, philosophy, sociology, literary theory, psychology, and cultural studies (Budge, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Understanding place is essential to comprehending human relationships and societal processes. Tradition, as a mechanism of historical and cultural continuity, plays a vital role in socio-cultural development; without it, such processes would not be possible (Mustafaevich \u0026amp; Sirazhudinovna, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). The conceptual and critical significance of tradition in contemporary anthropology is extensive, particularly as it involves the element of cultural continuity. Nevertheless, it is possible to identify several areas of empirical, conceptual, and critical interest in which the notion of tradition is particularly prominent. Traditions and customary behaviours are intimately connected to ways of life in earlier periods, reflecting how people managed the challenges of daily existence. As a result, customs and behaviours serve as indicators of the relationships between individuals and their environment. At the same time, social and cultural lifestyles are shaped not only by enduring customs and traditions, but also by evolving needs. While new technologies exert a considerable influence on the nature of work, work itself remains deeply rooted in culture and traditions (Chadwick, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo elucidate the complex relationship between culture and leadership, various theoretical perspectives have been advanced in management and social science. The GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organizational Behaviour Effectiveness) Project (House, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e) provides a comprehensive framework for understanding cultural dimensions and their influence on leadership behaviours. Similarly, House\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1971\u003c/span\u003e) Path-Goal Theory highlights the importance of aligning leadership styles with cultural expectations, emphasising adaptability across different contexts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeadership is a significant and consequential phenomenon, central to the performance of teams, groups, and organisations (Hogan \u0026amp; Kaiser, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). Personality is a key predictor of leadership (\u0026lsquo;who we are is how we lead\u0026rsquo;), and this understanding can inform leader selection, development, and performance. Researchers have identified several ways in which urban and rural environments may shape leadership development (Bowman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Sanfo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Atkinson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), \u003csup\u003e(1)\u003c/sup\u003e growing up in an urban setting often exposes individuals to diverse cultures, ideas, and social issues, potentially enhancing their ability to empathise with varied perspectives and make inclusive decisions and, \u003csup\u003e(2)\u003c/sup\u003e urban environments typically offer greater access to educational resources, extracurricular activities, and professional networks, which can further shape leadership values and behaviours.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecent scholarship indicates that the backgrounds of leaders significantly influence their behaviour once in office (Goldfien et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Contemporary leadership demands empathy, collaboration, curiosity, and creativity. Rather than imposing feasible solutions, effective leaders design thoughtful ones; instead of acting as authoritative custodians of the status quo, they serve as optimistic agents of change. Tomorrow\u0026rsquo;s leaders are not commanders but innovators, and in this respect, they have a natural ally in designers, the poster children of innovation (Handa \u0026amp; Vashisht, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). By contrast, destructive or counterproductive forms of leadership and management have received comparatively little attention in the empirical literature, which has focused more on positive outcomes (Harris \u0026amp; Jones, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Kuofie et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) suggest that future research should explore societal and employee perceptions of introverted leaders and how shifting perceptions can enable leaders to effect organisational change. Work on defining and measuring authentic leadership remains at an early stage, and future research will need to clarify how authentic leadership relates to other constructs within its nomological network (Avolio et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Liden et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e) conclude that future leadership studies should pay greater attention to behavioural profiles, leader-centric perspectives, and leadership differentiation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn summary, this study is motivated by the understanding that effective leadership enhances team and group performance, thereby improving the well-being of organisational members, while poor leadership diminishes quality of life for all involved (Hogan \u0026amp; Kaiser, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). Accordingly, the central research question of this study is: \u0026lsquo;does rural background affect leadership behaviours?\u0026rsquo; From the perspectives of historians, evolutionists, biologists, sociologists, psychologists, and others, leadership remains a topic of enduring significance, relevant both to the past and the future (Liden et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Accordingly, this study contributes to the existing literature by providing background and detailed insights into the factors affecting rural leadership. In addition, it aims to evaluate these factors in terms of their effectiveness within the organization. Finally, this study encourages further discussion on organizational reform initiatives aimed at improving leadership within the organization.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Literature Review","content":"\u003cp\u003eDespite the extensive literature on leadership, the influence of rural upbringing on leadership has been largely overlooked. Recent scholarship has continued to focus on leadership within educational institutions (see, for example, Spendlove (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e); Einarsen et al., (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e); Bolden et al. (2008); Alonderiene \u0026amp; Majauskaite, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e); Hassan et al., (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e); Aldulaimi and Abdeldayem (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e); Lumby (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e); Akanji et al., (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e); Ghamrawi et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e); Salendab's (2025); Omori et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e)). Dopson et al., (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) stated that the effectiveness of leadership development initiatives within evolving global university settings remains under-researched. As tertiary education undergoes radical transformation worldwide, professionals face increasingly uncertain environments, prompting leaders to adopt more complex and diverse approaches. Consequently, leadership development programmes are vital in navigating this complexity, yet their impact within higher education remains poorly documented in existing literature. Bryman, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e) argued that leadership which erodes the collegiate spirit, autonomy, and opportunities to participate in decision-making, whilst fostering perceptions of unfairness and failing to act in higher education's best interests, will likely prove ineffectual as it diminishes the dedication of academic staff. He pointed out that whilst this field deserves empirical investigation, it has thus far received little direct academic scrutiny.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpendlove (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e) set out to explore university leadership roles and the necessary competencies (attitudes, knowledge, behaviour) for effective leadership in tertiary education. Key findings indicated that respondents overwhelmingly viewed academic credibility and university experience as fundamental, concurrently sustaining research and teaching alongside management functions. People skills, especially communication and negotiation, were also highlighted as vital. Critically, the study exposed a widespread absence of systematic frameworks within universities for leadership skill identification or development.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEinarsen et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e) put forward a definition and descriptive model of destructive leadership behaviour. Their proposed model identifies three categories: tyrannical, derailed, and supportive\u0026ndash;disloyal leadership. This conceptual framework enhances understanding of destructive leadership by presenting a comprehensive definition encompassing behaviours targeting both subordinates and the wider organisation. Moreover, the model offers a nuanced perspective, highlighting how destructive leaders may exhibit both destructive and constructive behaviours concurrently. Ultimately, it provides a taxonomy that clearly delineates the principal forms of such behaviours.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBolden et al. (2008) aimed to reveal leadership elements often overlooked: the clash of multiple identities (personal, professional, social, organisational), the varied nature of leader influence, and the dynamic, informal social influence processes within complex university settings. This focus explains why higher education leaders frequently sense tension between competing demands. The author, however, argued that by rigorously examining the personal, structural, social, contextual, and temporal dimensions of leadership, the level of conflict arising from these forces could potentially be reduced.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA paper by Alonderiene \u0026amp; Majauskaite (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) examined how leadership styles influenced academic staff job satisfaction in Lithuania's higher education sector. Empirical findings revealed a statistically significant positive association between leadership style and job satisfaction, with servant leadership demonstrating the strongest positive impact, whereas autocratic leadership showed the weakest effect when other variables were controlled for.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHassan et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) have examined determinants of leadership in higher education settings, identifying follower acceptance as a universal prerequisite for leadership effectiveness, transcending national and institutional boundaries. The findings indicated that leadership effectiveness functions both as an independent challenge and as an outcome influenced by other challenges, notably leadership practices and stylistic approaches.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAldulaimi and Abdeldayem (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) contend that the future viability of academic institutions hinges upon cultivating effective leadership capabilities across all organisational tiers. Their research, situated within Arab cultural contexts, consequently examines the interplay between cultural dimensions and leadership paradigms. The scholars advocate for further investigation into the detrimental impacts of traditional hierarchical leadership models on organisational change processes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFocusing on power dynamics, Lumby (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) argues power is an indispensable yet intricate component of leadership. Her study investigates how UK university leaders navigate and deploy power amidst cultural resistance. Findings demonstrate leaders habitually utilise varying power modalities, though this is often obfuscated by defensive strategies. Lumby interprets this not as mere image management but as a necessary adaptation for operational efficacy in a leadership-averse context. Crucially, she asserts that enhanced self-awareness\u0026mdash;promoted by both leaders and their appointers/developers\u0026mdash;is essential for ethical decision-making regarding power. Rational, psychodynamic, and political lenses are recommended as instruments for profound critical reflection\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA study by Akanji et al., (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) aims to investigate the influence of organisational culture upon leadership approaches within Nigerian universities. The research employs Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory alongside the social exchange concept as theoretical frameworks to analyse these phenomena. The outcomes demonstrate that hierarchical, patriarchal, servile, and interdependent values form the fundamental attributes of organisational culture, thereby determining the selection of leadership styles in Nigerian university management. Consequently, the study revealed that positional leadership, formalised exchanges, paternalism, relational approaches, and gendered responses to leadership are commonly adopted in university administration in this particular context. The study's findings contribute to addressing the research gap regarding organisational culture's consequences and its influence on leadership conduct in the Sub-Saharan African context. Additionally, the research deepens comprehension of cultural dimensions, informing leadership methods adopted within tertiary education settings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGhamrawi et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) conducted a study examining destructive leadership behaviours among academic managers in higher education, as perceived by academic staff. Six participants from six Arab States engaged in three interview phases to document their lived experiences. Researcher diaries supplemented the data, enabling examination of preconceptions about the phenomenon. Analysis employed a whole-part-whole approach. Findings revealed specific destructive leadership practices: micromanagement and excessive control, hostile communication, detrimental organisational culture, and infringement of staff work-life balance. The study further explored these behaviours' impact on morale, work output, and institutional culture.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSalendab's (2025) study addresses the intricate nature of leadership within higher education, positioning it as fundamental to both educational success and institutional performance. After defining effective leadership and its critical role in shaping academic environments, the research evaluates multiple leadership styles\u0026mdash;including transformational, transactional, servant, distributed, and adaptive approaches\u0026mdash;and their specific effects on higher education operations. The analysis then identifies core requirements for effective academic management: visionary leadership, clear communication, staff empowerment and collaboration, innovation and adaptability, commitment to diversity and inclusivity, and sound financial oversight. To translate theory into practice, the study suggests actionable techniques for strengthening leadership in higher education: diversifying leadership profiles, supporting continuous professional development, building leadership resilience, and leveraging technological integration.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOmori et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e) investigated the relationship between education administrators' leadership styles and academic workforce performance in Nigerian public universities. Specifically, the research examined how autocratic, democratic, and transformational leadership approaches influenced lecturer effectiveness. Underpinned by three hypotheses, the study employed an ex post facto design, focusing on lecturers across Cross River State's public universities. A sample of 450 participants was randomly selected from these institutions. Analysis revealed that transformative, democratic, and authoritarian leadership styles significantly impacted academic workforce performance. The study concluded that administrators' leadership approaches are critical determinants of lecturer effectiveness in public universities, contributing valuable insights into how leadership styles enhance academic performance across higher education settings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, based on the studies above, researchers observed a scarcity of literature precisely identifying negative factors affecting rural leaders' behaviours, indicating an absence of rural background factors influencing leadership behaviour in higher education.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Leadership\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeadership is a concept that remains difficult to define. More than four decades ago, Stogdill (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR89\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1974\u003c/span\u003e) observed that \u0026lsquo;there are almost as many different definitions of leadership as there are persons who have attempted to define the concept.\u0026rsquo; There is still no consensus on the definition of leadership, and the search for a clearer understanding continues (Silva, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Warren G. Bennis distinguishes leaders as those who \u0026lsquo;do the right thing,\u0026rsquo; while managers are those who \u0026lsquo;do things right.\u0026rsquo; Dwight D. Eisenhower defined leadership as \u0026lsquo;the art of getting someone else to do something you want done because he wants to do it\u0026rsquo; (Bennis \u0026amp; Nanus, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1974\u003c/span\u003e). Kjellstr\u0026ouml;m et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) note that, collectively, scholars have failed to agree on a definition of leadership throughout its modern history. They argue that the diversity of interpretations reflects individual value systems and perspectives or mindsets rather than a lack of conceptual sophistication.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffective leaders take a personal interest in the long-term development of their employees, employing tact and social skills to motivate them to perform at their best. Leadership is not simply about being \u0026lsquo;nice\u0026rsquo; or \u0026lsquo;understanding,\u0026rsquo; but about tapping into individual motivations to advance organisational goals. Analysts of leadership often focus on popularity, power, charisma, or strategic wisdom in long-range planning, but none of these alone captures the essence of leadership. Leadership is the achievement of a goal through the guidance of others \u0026ndash; a human and social accomplishment that depends on the leader\u0026rsquo;s understanding of their colleagues and the relationship between individual and group objectives. Successful leaders recognise that people are complex and diverse, responding not only to traditional incentives but also to ambition, patriotism, aesthetic appreciation, boredom, self-doubt, and a range of other desires and emotions (Prentice, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). Organisational continuity depends on the emergence of new leaders as others retire, move on, or are promoted. New leaders face many challenges, and without comprehensive leadership development programmes to aid them in their new roles, they may encounter significant obstacles to effective decision-making, management, and leadership (Shufutinsky, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePenney et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) emphasized that contemporary society is characterized by an exponential acceleration in the pace of change. It is hard to recall that merely twenty years ago, the internet was a newcomer in homes around the world. Now, contemplating life without it feels almost like fantasy. The transformation of Facebook over the past decade\u0026mdash;from an emerging platform to a billion-dollar corporation\u0026mdash;serves as a stark illustration. This corporation commands a population-scale user base, exemplifying the accelerating velocity of change that organizations must navigate. The best leaders are those who adapt decisively to relentless change and uncertainty. Stasis is suicide in an era of flux. Thus, leadership itself has undergone metamorphosis\u0026mdash;archaic ideals of stable, directive authority are ill-suited to our chaotic modern reality.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to Hughes et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e), the ability to influence others effectively is central to leadership, particularly in fields such as public health nutrition. The literature describes leaders as individuals who articulate a clear vision, make decisive choices based on available information, and are committed to building capacity and empowering others. Leaders are respectful and consultative but willing to make difficult decisions when necessary. Credibility, earned through ethical and transparent practice, is a core attribute of leadership. Leaders take calculated risks, challenge the status quo, assume responsibility, and demonstrate initiative. Such behaviour requires strategic thinking, interpersonal communication skills, and emotional intelligence. As leaders advance within organisations, they are expected to engage more with colleagues and stakeholders, requiring strong communication and public speaking abilities (Farrell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Developing such leadership qualities requires what John Ryan terms the \u0026lsquo;Right Talent.\u0026rsquo; Without this, initiatives may fail or benefit only a select few \u0026ndash; a situation with serious consequences for society (TPR, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR90\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHorner (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e) notes that, although research on leadership failure is limited, success appears to depend on demonstrating positive behaviours while avoiding negative or derailing ones, such as arrogance, untrustworthiness, moodiness, insensitivity, compulsiveness, and abrasiveness. These negative traits are difficult to identify in assessments, as they may or may not coexist with the \u0026lsquo;Big Five\u0026rsquo; personality traits. However, if they are present, even leaders who exhibit positive behaviours may be less effective and at risk of failure unless these negative traits are addressed. Van de Vliert (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR92\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e) argues that autocratic leadership characteristics in organisations can be understood as cultural adaptations. Accordingly, this study assumes that the six most prominent characteristics of rural leaders in Arab countries are autocracy, tribalism, introversion, myopia or short-sightedness, apathy, and vision for the future.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study therefore examines the relationship between rural upbringing \u0026ndash; considering six factors (autocracy, tribalism, introversion, myopia or short-sightedness, apathy, and vision for the future) \u0026ndash; and its effect on leadership behaviour.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Factors Affecting Leadership Behaviour\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo begin with, this part examines autocratic leadership as an obstacle to success in academic libraries and other institutions where it is practised. Leaders in higher education institutions have been observed to employ autocratic leadership styles (Chukwusa, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Autocratic leadership is characterised by the leader asserting absolute authority over employees and demanding complete obedience. This style is also commonly referred to as authoritarian leadership, with the two terms often used interchangeably. Leaders who adopt this approach typically centralise decision-making and seek to maintain control over their staff. An autocratic leader establishes a \u0026lsquo;clearly defined intra-team hierarchy,\u0026rsquo; which is strictly enforced; any deviation from this hierarchy is not tolerated and may result in negative consequences for employees (Ahmed \u0026amp; Simha, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough autocratic leadership was traditionally associated with military organisations, many corporate leaders in the early twentieth century \u0026ndash; including prominent industrialists and company executives \u0026ndash; employed this style to varying degrees of effectiveness (Chishty-Mujahid, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Research by Sorenson (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e), Bhatti et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e), De Hoogh et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), and Jony et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) has found that autocratic leadership negatively affects job satisfaction. Van de Vliert (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR92\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e) observed that autocratic leadership is generally perceived as less effective in wealthier countries with more demanding climates, but more effective in poorer countries with similarly demanding climates. De Hoogh et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) found that when power struggles within teams are low, autocratic leadership is positively associated with team psychological safety and, by extension, team performance. Conversely, when power struggles are high, autocratic leadership is negatively associated with team psychological safety and performance, even when controlling for leader consideration. Luthar (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e) investigated the impact of autocratic and democratic leadership styles on perceptions of male and female managers\u0026rsquo; performance and leadership abilities. The study found that, overall, democratic managers are perceived as higher performers and more effective leaders than their autocratic counterparts. Finally, Flynn, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Authoritarian leadership demonstrates incompatibility with contexts characterized by members' aspirations for opinion-sharing and involvement in decision-making. Furthermore, critics contend that this leadership style precipitates elevated levels of member dissatisfaction, staff turnover, and absenteeism\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNext, the concept of \u0026lsquo;tribal society\u0026rsquo; is one of the most prominent notions in contemporary anthropology (Sneath, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). The term \u0026lsquo;tribe\u0026rsquo; originates from the Latin \u003cem\u003etribus\u003c/em\u003e, which referred not to groups of people with shared interests, but to units of voting and administration in ancient Rome (Davis, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The term \u0026lsquo;tribe\u0026rsquo; originally had a precise meaning, but the concept of tribes and tribal identities has been criticised by many social anthropologists for its evolutionary connotations. This critique forms part of a broader disciplinary response to classical theories equating tribalism with segmentation (Vismara, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR96\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Zaidi (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR103\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) contends that a deeper understanding of \u003cem\u003eassabiyya\u003c/em\u003e (social solidarity) may provide a more comprehensive explanation than other hypotheses. Mafeje (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1971\u003c/span\u003e) notes that anthropologists have used the concept of tribe to explain both successes and failures in modernisation, while political scientists have tended to use it only to explain failures.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study sought to explore the effect of tribalism on leadership. According to Alesina et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e), tribal affiliation negatively affects industrial productivity, leading to a reduced willingness to accept, endorse, or interact with non-tribal members (Emam et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Karim (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) argues that, in an increasingly interconnected world, balancing the opposing forces of globalism and tribalism is of critical importance. The article suggests that moderate forms of both globalism and tribalism are necessary to maintain global and local identities, but warns that an imbalance in favour of either could have serious consequences.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eShufutinsky (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) discusses the interconnected nature of organisational leadership, culture, structure, and systems, and how these elements are influenced by specific conditions and behaviours, as well as how they affect organisational outcomes. The study highlights leadership behaviours, structures, cultures, and subcultures that predate the arrival or promotion of new leaders and create conditions for leadership ineffectiveness, particularly through leadership cloning and intra-organisational tribalism within toxic leadership teams. The researcher concludes that the combination of leadership and tribalisation can foster increasingly hostile cultures, adversely affecting organisational systems, teamwork, behaviours, strategy, and environment, ultimately impeding productivity and degrading quality and performance. Moriba and Edwards (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) argue that tribalism, along with its associated problems of corruption and professional negligence, remains a major obstacle to effective leadership in much of West Africa. Mafeje (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1971\u003c/span\u003e) suggests that the issue in Africa is not so much one of empirically diverse behaviour, but rather one of ideology \u0026ndash; specifically, the ideology of tribalism. Conversely, Zaidi (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR103\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) observes that the tribal and cliquish mindset of leaders, evident in present-day Iraq, Afghanistan, and Pakistan, persists even within state frameworks, having emerged from historical tribalism.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eKuir \u0026euml; Garang addressed the issue of tribalism at the South Sudan Youth of Canada Conference at Grant MacEwan University on 28 July 2018, saying that:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eTribe is one of the easiest \u0026lsquo;indices of differentiation,\u0026rsquo; as Paul Gilroy would say, which we use to determine who to value and who to exclude; whose ideas we should respect and whose we should discard; whose moral wrongs we should condemn and whose moral wrongs we should excuse. The problem is always the other tribe, not us. There\u0026rsquo;s never a reflexive rationalisation of inter-tribal relations where internal tribal wrongs and shortcomings are corrected. This makes leaders associate with people from their own tribes either out of tribal allegiance or out of the fact that these are mostly the social groups with which they associate on a regular basis. Given the segregative nature of tribalism, it becomes nearly impossible to know others intimately in order to value them for what they bring to society rather than valuing them because of their tribes. Undoubtedly, this leads to the employment of less qualified, single-tribal cohorts in the name of tribal solidarity.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition to the term \u0026lsquo;introvert\u0026rsquo; derives from two Latin roots: \u003cem\u003eintro\u003c/em\u003e, meaning inward, and \u003cem\u003evertere\u003c/em\u003e, meaning to turn. Carl Jung, who is credited with popularising the concept of introversion, likely drew on these linguistic origins when he first defined the term in the early 1920s. Jung described extroverts as individuals oriented towards the external world, while introverts are oriented towards their inner, subjective experiences. The terms \u0026lsquo;extraversion\u0026rsquo; and \u0026lsquo;introversion,\u0026rsquo; as used by Jung, describe different psychological attitudes regarding how individuals direct their energy. These terms have specific meanings in psychology that differ from their everyday usage. Extroverts tend to draw energy and inspiration from external sources, using social interactions to generate ideas and process information, often thinking through problems in groups and discussing ideas with others.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMore recently, Susan Cain, author of the best-selling book \u003cem\u003eQuiet: The Power of Introverts in a World That Can\u0026rsquo;t Stop Talking\u003c/em\u003e, has characterised introverts as preferring quiet, minimally stimulating environments and typically possessing a reflective, independent temperament. By contrast, extroverts tend to thrive in more stimulating environments (Lebin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Historically, and even in contemporary contexts, it has often been assumed that only extroverted leaders are most effective (Kuofie et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Spark (2018) notes that introverts are less likely to emerge as leaders than extroverts, though the existing literature provides little explanation for this phenomenon. Stephens-Craig et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) observe that extroverts generally focus on the broader picture rather than details when making decisions, which contributes to their tendency to make quick judgements. Extroverts typically perform well in busy, stimulating environments and are outwardly oriented. Introverts, by contrast, draw energy from their inner world of ideas and concepts. They are introspective, analyse details carefully, think before speaking, and are comfortable working independently. Introverts\u0026rsquo; orientation is inward, as they reflect on situations or assimilate information before reaching conclusions. This deliberative approach may lead others to perceive introverts as cautious and slow decision-makers (Farrell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLebin et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) report that approximately one-third to one-half of the population exhibits a preference for introversion, yet introverts remain underrepresented in leadership roles. Kuofie et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) and Stephens-Craig et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) suggest that introverted leaders must learn to exhibit extroverted qualities to succeed, though this does not mean that all introverted leaders are successful. Spark (2018) argues that introverts are less likely to emerge as leaders because they anticipate higher levels of negative affect, which may hinder their potential for leadership emergence.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, the metaphor of myopia has a well-established history in management literature. Originally used to explain business failures linked to cognitive limitations among managers, the concept of managerial myopia has become influential in management and strategy research, particularly within behavioural approaches. In this context, \u0026lsquo;myopia,\u0026rsquo; \u0026lsquo;short-sightedness,\u0026rsquo; or \u0026lsquo;near-sightedness\u0026rsquo; refers to the systematic cognitive limitations that managers may exhibit (Czakon et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003eb). Paukku and V\u0026auml;likangas (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) argue that decisions driven by immediate pressures and shaped by myopic organisational routines often result in poor leadership, particularly in times of crisis or challenge. Similarly, Czakon et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003ea) note that strategic myopia can be especially detrimental to institutions. A narrow perspective on actors, events, and trends in a firm\u0026rsquo;s environment, coupled with a preference for short-term outcomes, is widely recognised in the literature as leading to delayed or inadequate responses to challenges. Managerial myopia is typically portrayed as a systematic bias that results in underperformance, though empirical evidence on this point is nuanced.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMizik (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) reviews the theory and empirical evidence regarding myopic management in the context of marketing practice, demonstrating that myopic management has a significant negative impact on future financial performance. Ding et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) found that managerial myopia undermines both financial and legal responsibilities, thereby affecting commitments to social responsibility. Qian and Ren (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) present a network-based simulation model to examine the effects of executive myopia and industry partnerships on corporate performance in the context of green innovation. Their findings indicate that enterprises with foresighted leadership and strong industry partnerships are better positioned to achieve both competitive advantage and environmental sustainability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBeside this, Apathy is commonly defined as a lack of emotion, interest, or involvement, often manifesting as an indifferent attitude. However, in organisational contexts, leaders are expected to engage with all members and take into account what matters to the group as a whole (Hobbs, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). As an absence of feeling, apathy is frequently cited as a primary cause of inaction. Human behaviour is influenced and motivated by emotions; when individuals lack emotional engagement with personal, social, or political issues, they are less able to respond effectively to emerging challenges (Zhelnina, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR105\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Zhelnina (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR104\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) notes that the emotional processes underlying apathy and disengagement remain insufficiently studied. Ugwu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR91\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), in an investigation involving 206 Nigerian employees of a major mass transit company, found that higher levels of job apathy among leaders were associated with reduced work engagement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, the study of leadership encompasses a wide array of cultures, time periods, and theoretical perspectives (Horner, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e). Effecting significant change in complex organisations is greatly facilitated by \u0026lsquo;future state visioning\u0026rsquo; \u0026ndash; a process for identifying desired outcomes and the strategic path to reach them. Leaders begin by assessing the anticipated future environment and the interests of key stakeholders, after which they articulate the values and principles that should guide progress towards the envisioned future (Stewart, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR88\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e). Vision can refer to a long-term goal or an idealised future state but also denotes the capacity to perceive and anticipate future developments (Wanasika \u0026amp; Krahnke, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR97\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Such visions typically present an idealised depiction of what the organisation could become, often reflecting the leader\u0026rsquo;s aspirations rather than its current reality (Zaccaro \u0026amp; Banks, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR102\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). Kantabutra (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) observes that although leaders are widely believed to utilise visions, little is known about what makes a vision \u0026lsquo;effective\u0026rsquo; \u0026ndash; particularly within higher education.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to Bennis and Nanus (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1974\u003c/span\u003e), leaders set direction, create an inspiring vision, and drive innovation. Leadership involves charting a course towards success for the team or organisation, characterised by dynamism, excitement, and inspiration. Morden (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e) asserts that the optimal approach is to integrate strong visionary leadership with effective management so that their combined strengths benefit the organisation. Leaders inevitably carry influences from their past into both the present and the future. This study therefore contends that leaders from rural backgrounds tend to focus on their history and present circumstances, often struggling to conceptualise or envision future possibilities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Trait Leadership Theory\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe paramount challenges confronting modern leadership entail adaptive capacity within dynamic environments and the strategic deployment of influence tactics. Leaders are compelled to utilize leadership styles that maximally efficacy in framing followers' perceptual constructs regarding organizational goals and implementation pathways (Verawati \u0026amp; Hartono, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR95\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Scholarly discourse continues to examine whether leadership should be classified as a behaviour, trait, or skill. This inquiry originated with an emphasis on delineating the characteristics of rural leaderships. Leadership capabilities were originally considered hereditary: leaders were born, not made. Only individuals of appropriate breeding were considered capable of leadership; all others were consigned to being led. Notwithstanding any degree of aspiration or acquired knowledge, an individual's destiny was regarded as fixed. The academic discourse subsequently progressed to encompass situational determinants of leadership. Contemporary investigations, however, have reverted to underscoring the paramount significance of dispositional attributes in leadership effectiveness. The trait paradigm thus endures robustly in current leadership studies (Germain, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe trait theory of leadership suggests that personality traits influence leader emergence and effectiveness (Colbert et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Penney et al., (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) argued thta there are inconsistencies in the early literature regarding personality and leadership. Nonetheless, one thing researchers can agree on is that numerous traits have consistently been examined under different terminology and operationalised differently across studies for decades. One explanation for this is the lack of a consistent organisational framework for traits. Modern trait theories have typically adopted one of two organising frameworks for characterising traits; the Big Five model of personality (Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to experience, Agreeableness and, Conscientiousness). Moreover, the Dark Triad model of personality (Narcissism, Machiavellianism and, Psychopathy). This study argued that the traits of rural leaders include autocracy, tribalism, introversion, myopia, apathy, and future visioning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4 Behaviour Leadership Theory\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCalhoun and El Hady (2023) argue that whilst 'behaviour' is fundamental to diverse disciplines, academics infrequently specify its meaning, raising questions about definitional variation across fields. In alignment with this, Lazzeri (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) documents the abundance of 'behaviour' definitions in scientific and philosophical literature, affirming the lack of agreement \u0026ndash; even among practitioners of particular behavioural research programmes \u0026ndash; on its exact formulation. Remarkably, neither Yukl (2002; 2012; 2013) nor Bass (2008) considers defining the term pertinent, even within the specific context of leadership behaviour (S\u0026oslash;rensen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe second theoretical school focuses on the behavioural patterns demonstrated by leaders. Leader behaviour encompasses observable styles and interpersonal interactions directed toward accomplishing goals. Scholarship investigating these leadership attributes established what is now termed the behavioural theory of leadership. This theoretical framework contends that leader behaviour operates along two primary axes: task-performance orientation and relational/people orientation. The literature reveals that leaders who demonstrate proficiency across both relationship and task-orientation dimensions are significantly more likely to attain effective outcomes (Bhattacharyya \u0026amp; Jha, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, Behavioural theory represents a conceptual shift from trait-based approaches, asserting that leadership capabilities are primarily developed through learning, not innate qualities, and that deliberate behavioural practices can be cultivated to optimise leadership efficacy. The theory emphasises demonstrated behaviours as opposed to dispositional attributes, while failing to account for the leader\u0026rsquo;s situational context and broader environmental dynamics (Benmira \u0026amp; Agboola, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeadership's complexity and importance derive from its function in guiding followers through integrated leader-subordinate relationships. This influential function has developed progressively over the last 50 years, manifesting in various leadership approaches that significantly shape team efficacy and organisational outcomes. Furthermore, transformative changes across cultural, economic, historical, and political spheres demand emergent leadership behaviours. Simply put, previously acquired leadership styles and skills may lack efficacy amidst current societal and environmental shifts (lsarrani et al., 2021).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA significant challenge within leadership research and theory has been the absence of consensus regarding which behaviour categories are pertinent and meaningful. It presents difficulties to synthesise findings across five decades of research unless the numerous diverse leadership behaviours can be accommodated within a parsimonious and coherent conceptual framework. A suggested approach is a hierarchical taxonomy comprising three metacategories (task, relations, and change behaviour) (Yukl et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR100\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). Y\u0026uuml;ksel Sakın\u0026ccedil; \u0026amp; Erg\u0026uuml;n (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR101\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) classified leadership behaviours into three categories. Task-oriented leadership encompasses activities such as short-term planning, elucidating roles and performance objectives, and monitoring operations and performance. Plans are typically forward-looking, envisaging what's to come based on present circumstances. Professionals traditionally depend on historical data to assess the current situation and subsequently develop their future strategies (Wu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR99\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Accordingly, short-term planning refers to the process of determining what, how, when, and by whom tasks will be carried out for organisational effectiveness. Clarifying responsibilities and goals entails delineating job responsibilities and requirements, establishing performance objectives, and allocating specific tasks to ensure that staff understand what is expected of them and how to execute their duties (Y\u0026uuml;ksel Sakın\u0026ccedil; \u0026amp; Erg\u0026uuml;n, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR101\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Monitoring indirectly focusses attention on measured aspects of performance and enables the effective application of other behaviours, such as recognition or clarification. Two observational studies revealed that leaders who engaged in more monitoring demonstrated greater efficacy. However, survey research indicated that monitoring was associated with leader effectiveness across certain samples but not others (Yukl et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR100\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Research Methodology","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study employed a qualitative research approach, in line with Conger\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e) recommendation that qualitative methods are particularly well suited to exploring the multifaceted nature of leadership. When implemented rigorously, these methods enable researchers to examine phenomena in depth and with nuance, while also providing the flexibility to investigate unanticipated findings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants were selected using purposive sampling, targeting individuals with direct experience of the research topic. The sample was chosen based on length of employment in higher education and included leaders from diverse backgrounds. As noted by Vasileiou et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR93\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), the principle of saturation is widely used to determine sample size and assess its adequacy in qualitative research. The concept of saturation originates in grounded theory, a methodological approach focused on theory development from empirical data and closely associated with theoretical sampling. Saturation \u0026ndash; sometimes referred to as data or thematic saturation \u0026ndash; has been adopted by various qualitative research communities beyond its grounded theory roots. It is commonly understood as the point at which no new data, themes, or codes emerge from additional interviews. Saturation is now regarded as a key benchmark in qualitative inquiry.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInterviews were conducted in Arabic between March and April 2025. To ensure confidentiality and anonymity, respondents\u0026rsquo; names were not disclosed. Saturation was achieved after the 23th interview, as subsequent interviews produced little new information; thus, the final sample size for this study was 23. Interview questions were distributed through multiple channels: face-to-face interviews, direct delivery, and via WhatsApp. Before each interview, respondents were asked to describe their personal and professional backgrounds. The interview questions then focused on the influence of rural background on leadership behaviours. Interviewees received a list of themes in advance, which enhanced the validity and reliability of the study by allowing participants time to reflect on the topics and gather supporting documentation (Saunders et al., 2003). Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e presents the distribution of respondents from various Iraqi universities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProfile of participants (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;23)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDegree\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcademic title\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecialty of\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eService years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaster\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssistant Professor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBusiness Administration\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssistant Professor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSharia/ Tafser\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaster\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003electurer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBusiness Administration\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssistant Professor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComputer Science\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003electurer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePublic administration\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProfessor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMathematics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssistant Professor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBusiness Administration\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003electurer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProduction and Operations Management\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProfessor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaster\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssistant Professor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinancial accounting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaster\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssistant Professor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccounting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProfessor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHistory of international relations\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProfessor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccounting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003electurer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBusiness Administration\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssistant Professor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBusiness Administration\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003electurer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComputer science\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssistant Professor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEconomics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProfessor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePublic management\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssistant Professor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccounting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaster\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003electurer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEngineering\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaster\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003electurer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBusiness Administration\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssistant Professor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccounting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003electurer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinancial\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe interview method was chosen to clarify the effect of rural background on leadership behaviours in higher education. The selected sample was expected to provide meaningful insights into this issue and address the research questions. Prior to analysis, it should be noted that several interview questions were excluded from the final analysis because responses were limited to simple \u0026lsquo;yes\u0026rsquo; or \u0026lsquo;no\u0026rsquo; answers, which lacked sufficient detail for substantive interpretation.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.1 Results\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhile respondents expressed a range of views, when asked \u0026lsquo;to what extent are leadership behaviours influenced by cultural and social factors,\u0026rsquo; all agreed that these factors have a significant impact on leadership style \u0026ndash; with the exception of Participant 9, who did not observe such an effect.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFollowing are a selection of respondents\u0026rsquo; answers to this question.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondent 3\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLeadership styles are fundamentally influenced by cultural and social factors due to the profound impact these factors have on shaping the traits, principles, and values of an individual\u0026rsquo;s personality and controlling his behaviour, interaction, and methods of communication, influence, and impact on others.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondent 4\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLeadership style is influenced by cultural and social factors, which shape the principles and values a leader adopts. Traditions and customs, in particular, are key determinants of a leader\u0026rsquo;s flexibility and adaptability.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondent 15\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCultural and social factors are the foundation upon which human relations between leaders and their subordinates are built. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe responses were largely consistent among all respondents, but Respondent 9 held a different view, reporting that \u003cem\u003e\u0026lsquo;there is no effect.\u0026rsquo;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe added,\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIt\u0026rsquo;s important to remain unaffected by these issues. The leader should focus solely on adhering to the established laws and regulations of the field, rather than getting involved in such matters.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHe also stated,\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIn my opinion, rural leaders are more distinguished by their community customs and traditions than city dwellers.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe second question was \u0026lsquo;how, if at all, does a rural background affect an individual\u0026rsquo;s leadership style in an organisational setting?\u0026rsquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFollowing are a selection of respondents\u0026rsquo; answers to this question.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondent 14\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLeadership styles are heavily shaped by cultural and social factors because culture dictates how people think and interact.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondents 1 and 2 assigned percentage ratings between 50% and 75% to the negative effect of a rural background on leadership.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondent 16\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe patterns of human interaction in the rural environment differ from those in the urban environment. Consequently, this impact is reflected in the individual\u0026rsquo;s behaviour within his organisation.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003eFurthermore, rural background affects leadership. Leaders from rural environments may have a strong sense of responsibility and teamwork but may have difficulty accepting modern management methods.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondent 6\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe rural background of leaders often affects the leadership style, as the leader with a rural background tends to rely on personal relationships, paternal leadership, and decisions that reflect a high sense of responsibility towards the team, given the values of community solidarity he was raised on in the rural environment.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondent 3\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe individual with a rural background is characterised by seriousness, toughness, challenge, and self-reliance.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondent\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e4\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLeaders from rural backgrounds may have a strong sense of responsibility and teamwork.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLeaders appear to be adopting an approach that is not inclusive of everyone. In this regard, they need to accommodate diverse perspectives, approaches, and opinions of the individuals they interact with daily\u0026nbsp;(Mafigu \u0026amp; Ncube 2020). Every participant hopes to see leaders adopt a sound leadership approach in higher education and to see leaders adapt to the ever-evolving concepts of contemporary leadership.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRegarding the six factors identified in this study, respondents\u0026rsquo; opinions varied as follows:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1- 82% of respondents agreed that leaders from rural backgrounds are mostly characterised as autocratic in higher education.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondent 3\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAuthoritarian leadership is more common in leaders from rural backgrounds than urban ones in higher education, as in other sectors, because rural individuals (so to speak) are characterised by self-reliance and therefore self-esteem in their decisions.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondent 6\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSometimes this is because rural culture may tend towards a hierarchy of authority and respect for elders, which causes some leaders to adopt an authoritarian or despotic style. However, this does not apply to everyone.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondent 10\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIt may be more common because leaders from rural backgrounds were raised in highly hierarchical societies where their authority is rarely questioned.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondent 11\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThis tendency is more pronounced among leaders from rural backgrounds.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondent 18\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIf a leader continues to act as a father, tribal sheikh, or chief to their people and moves away from participative leadership, as a result, he will be prone to imposing his will on others.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe remaining 18% of respondents had a different opinion regarding the autocratic factor.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondent 22 said,\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026lsquo;it may or may not have an effect.\u0026rsquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondent 20 contended that \u003cem\u003e\u0026lsquo;this scale is not suitable.\u0026rsquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2 - Concerning the second factor, respondents were asked, \u0026lsquo;does tribalism among leaders of rural origin function as an enhancement or a hindrance to effective leadership in higher education?\u0026rsquo; A majority (73%) of respondents agreed that tribalism hindered effective leadership.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFollowing are a selection of respondents\u0026rsquo; answers to this question.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondent 3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe hindrance to effective leadership posed by tribalism stems from its defining characteristics: a narrow, limited, and acquisitive outlook that precludes openness, participation, and exchange.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondent 7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTribalism hinders effective leadership within education due to the prevalence of bias in favour of individuals belonging to the same tribe, prioritising personal and tribal interests over education and university affiliation.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondents 6 and 23 stated,\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTribalism may hinder effective leadership if tribal loyalties are prioritised over competence and the institution, creating an unfair environment that leads to weak productivity and innovation. However, it may enhance leadership in certain cases if it is invested in building trust and belonging among members of the institution. \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondents 10, 20, and 25 stated,\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTribalism is a double-edged sword. It may foster loyalty and cohesion within an organisation on one side; however, it can undermine effective leadership by prioritising favouritism over competence or fostering divisions in the workplace on the other side.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe remaining 27% of respondents held a different view on the tribalism factor.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondents 1, 8, and 17 said, \u003cem\u003e\u0026lsquo;no, it can be good.\u0026rsquo;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondent 22 stated, \u003cem\u003e\u0026lsquo;it may or may not have an effect.\u0026rsquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis result goes in line with the literature (Zaidi, 2010; Karim 2012; Shufutinsky 2019;\u0026nbsp;Emam et al., 2019).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3 - Concerning the third factor, the respondents were asked, \u0026lsquo;are rural leaders introverted?\u0026rsquo; In this case, 88% of respondents were unsupportive.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondent 1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eActually, he exemplifies simplicity and good rapport with people.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondent 3\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOn the contrary, it is characterised by emotional and social balance, given that social relations in the rural environment, when compared to the city, are healthier.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMany rural leaders bear great responsibilities and make clear efforts to achieve success.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondent 4\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eA leader of rural origins is not necessarily an introvert, but growing up in an environment that may be characterised by privacy or social conservatism may make him more reserved in expressing his opinions or in communicating with others, especially in the early stages of his leadership experience.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondent 6\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondents 10 and 11\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLeaders from rural backgrounds are usually more sociable and skilled at building strong relationships.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHowever, Respondent 11 stated:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eWithin an academic setting, these leaders may have difficulty adapting to modern leadership approaches, making them appear less open to new ideas.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondent 22 expressed a distinct opinion, stating that:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIntroversion is not determined by the environment, but by an individual\u0026rsquo;s personal qualities.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondent 7 said:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThey derive most of their energy from their inner world, clinging to their own ideas without considering the opinions and ideas of others.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondent 9 said:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHe may be introverted or the opposite, depending on upbringing, education, experience, and training.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4 - Regarding the fourth factor, respondents were asked, \u0026lsquo;do leaders from rural backgrounds exhibit more myopia than their urban counterparts in higher education?\u0026rsquo; The vast majority (88%) of respondents did not support this assertion.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondent 3 stated:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNo, on the contrary, the rural environment is characterised by a valuable store of customs and traditions that endow its people with deep thinking and logical analysis of variables to reach more accurate conclusions\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondents 10 and 12 said:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThis attribute does not belong to everyone from a rural background.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondent 7 stated:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRural leaders suffer from a lack of experience in making sound decisions due to a lack of academic qualifications and the influence of the rural and ideological nature of the tribe to which they belong.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5 - For the fifth factor, participants were asked, \u0026lsquo;do leaders from rural backgrounds exhibit a higher degree of apathy?\u0026rsquo; About half (50%) supported this, meaning that the other half did not.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondent 7 said:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLeaders from rural backgrounds are characterised by apathy, a behavioural and emotional state. They are individuals who are indifferent to emotional, social, and economic aspects and suffer from laziness, making them incapable of solving the problems they face.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondent 2 said:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026lsquo;Somewhat.\u0026rsquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondent 3 provided an alternative explanation for apathy, saying:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIt can be called (result satisfaction) instead of (indifference), as the rural individual is by nature prepared for unplanned results due to the multiplicity of factors influencing the processes that achieve the goal.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondent 10 stated:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe rural leader takes his responsibilities seriously.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondent 4 stated:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNot necessarily, but some leaders who have not been exposed to modern leadership concepts may face challenges in developing long-term strategies.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondent 20 stated:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThat is a faulty generalisation; some rural leaders may prefer to maintain the status quo rather than risk the change or development needed in the organisation\u0026hellip; If pressured by his environment, a leader may prioritise meeting its demands over improving organisational performance, which can be perceived as apathy.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6 - The sixth factor identified was vision, based on respondents\u0026rsquo; answers concerning rural leaders\u0026rsquo; vision for the future.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondent 6 said:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSome leaders who have not been exposed to modern leadership concepts may face challenges in developing long-term strategies.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondent 13 stated:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThis is not the general rule, but the tendency may be more prevalent in specific instances, particularly when a leader relies on traditional experience while being resistant to modern management and strategic planning methods.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondent 18 said:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAn over-reliance on rural customs that are incongruent with the multicultural and multi-environmental context of higher education institutions may prevent a leader from cultivating a long-term vision, resulting in a focus on short-term interests rather than strategic reforms.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter respondents answered the six factors above, they largely agreed that tribalism, authoritarianism, and lack of vision for the future directly influence a leader\u0026apos;s behaviour and are regarded as enduring traits of leaders from rural backgrounds. Therefore, focusing on these factors, particularly for those from rural backgrounds before they assume leadership roles in higher education, is essential, as these qualities directly influence educational processes in higher education. Other factors (short-sightedness, apathy, and introversion), however, were deemed to be of lesser importance.\u0026nbsp;According to Hogan and Kaiser (2005), although urban and rural social systems share the common denominator of belonging to the human system and being united by citizenship and national identity, the mechanisms of social control in urban systems arise from the distinctive characteristics of urban populations, which tend to be more culturally diverse and socially dynamic than their rural counterparts. Urban residents are generally more open to education, change, and cultural influences, which can lead to improvements in quality of life and sustained economic growth. These positive outcomes are amplified in urban settings due to the scale and density of human interaction.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe question of this study was: \u0026lsquo;How have the growing connections between rural and urban communities and the rise of the internet/social media influenced what it means to be a rural background leader today?\u0026rsquo; Based on their engagement with rural leaders, 90% of participants indicated that tribalism and authoritarianism persist as the most influential factors determining the behaviour of rural leaders.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis means that despite the overlap of communities and the disappearance of the divide between rural and urban areas, these two factors are still rooted in leaders from rural backgrounds. Penney et al. (2015) emphasised contemporary society\u0026apos;s exponential acceleration of change. Merely for years ago, the internet was novel in homes worldwide; now, life without it seems fantastical. Facebook\u0026apos;s evolution\u0026mdash;from emerging platform to billion-dollar corporation\u0026mdash;exemplifies this accelerating change, which organisations must navigate. Effective leaders adapt decisively to relentless uncertainty. In an era of flux, stasis equates to suicide. Leadership has thus metamorphosed: archaic ideals of stable authority are ill-suited to our chaotic reality..\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSome responses added new insights to this study, as follows.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondent 5\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGenetic factors contribute to personality traits and cognitive abilities that can influence leaders, particularly those from rural backgrounds\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eThese leaders may be the first in their families to hold such positions, which likely explains why they fight so hard to maintain them \u0026ndash; it\u0026rsquo;s a source of significant reputation and pride.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondent 6 highlighted the most prominent challenges facing rural leaders, including:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cem\u003eChallenges in conforming to the norms of modern urban institutions.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cem\u003eUnderdeveloped skills in dealing with advanced technology.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cem\u003ePossible gaps in language or formal communication skills.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cem\u003eStruggles with accepting criticism and making independent decisions separate from group consensus.\u003c/em\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis result goes in line with the study by (Shufutinsky, 2019).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRespondent 7 stated:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRural leaders face the challenge of shifting their thinking from the simple, traditional approach applied in rural areas to a scientific approach based on extensive foundations and studies.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFinally, to identify practical solutions, the study sought respondents\u0026rsquo; input on strategies to curb tribalism, authoritarianism and its adverse consequences within higher education institutions. Several key strategies were identified:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe state should administer a scientific selection process for leadership positions, ensuring impartiality and rejecting favouritism towards any political or social faction. Importantly, it must maintain its authority by deterring the emergence of rival power structures through the enforcement of sanctions.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cem\u003eA strategy focused on enhancing institutional culture, fostering interaction among staff, and strengthening the role of management should be implemented.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cem\u003eTo improve leadership quality, universities should prioritise the provision of training programmes in contemporary leadership and actively promote a culture of efficiency and transparency.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cem\u003eThere is a clear need for the establishment of a continuous monitoring and evaluation mechanism.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;It is essential to develop a robust administrative system that enables individuals to be assessed according to criteria based solely on competence and the ability to perform.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cem\u003eAccountability mechanisms should be established for anyone who tends to make decisions that serve their own interests rather than those of the institution.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis means that the study revealed solutions that can be adopted to enable leaders from rural backgrounds to adapt to the higher education environment. Therefore, focusing on training and development is seen as essential for developing such leaders in higher education. As per Shufutinsky (2019), new leaders face many challenges, and without comprehensive leadership development programmes to aid them in their new roles, they may encounter significant obstacles to effective decision-making, management, and leadership.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.2 Discussion\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study presents findings based on the researcher\u0026rsquo;s deliberate selection of the most representative and consistent responses provided by respondents. The notion of leaders emerging from rural backgrounds persists in certain countries (see Atkinson et al., 2024), particularly in developing nations where tribal affiliations remain influential.\u0026nbsp;Drawing on data from academics of diverse orientations and backgrounds at Iraqi universities, the analysis indicates that this concept endures despite societal development, increased interconnectedness, and the proliferation of internet and social media tools.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results show that a significant majority (at least 80%) of participants perceive tribalism, authoritarianism, and lack in the future vision as enduring characteristics of leaders from rural backgrounds (see e.g. Sorenson, 2000; Bhatti et al., 2012; De Hoogh et al., 2015; Chishty-Mujahid, 2016; Chukwusa, 2018; Ahmed \u0026amp; Simha, 2023). Concerning future vision, many academics argue that an over-reliance on rural customs \u0026ndash; which may be incompatible with the multicultural environment of higher education \u0026ndash; can hinder leaders from developing a long-term perspective, leading to a focus on short-term interests rather than strategic reforms. Conversely, more than 80% of respondents agreed that myopia is not typically a trait of such leaders, although a notable minority still viewed it as a potential limitation. Opinions regarding apathy and introversion were evenly divided, reflecting a lack of consensus, as illustrated in the data above.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFinally, a clear bias towards people with a rural background was evident in Respondent 9\u0026apos;s responses, contrasting sharply with the balanced nature of other respondents\u0026apos; answers.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Conclusion and Future Research","content":"\u003cp\u003eDespite the substantial body of research on leadership, the role of rural upbringing as a formative influence on leadership behaviour remains under-investigated. Although the distinction between urban and rural societies is longstanding and universal, the specific impact of an individual\u0026rsquo;s upbringing in either context on their leadership potential is significant. Such upbringing profoundly shapes perspectives, values, and behaviours. To access research results, 23 participants from different universities were interviewed.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn summary, the focus of this study was determined following a thorough assessment of the current state of Iraqi higher education. This assessment is not intended to evaluate individuals or their backgrounds; rather, its objective is to propose solutions that enhance institutional quality and ensure the selection of highly qualified leaders. Given the diversity of the sample, their perspectives on leadership behaviour were expected to vary.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBased on trait and behavioural theories, the study concludes that:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eLeadership style is significantly influenced by cultural and social factors, which mould the principles and values a leader adopts. Traditions and customs, in particular, are critical determinants of a leader\u0026rsquo;s flexibility and adaptability.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWithin the higher education sector, leaders from rural backgrounds are more likely to adopt an authoritarian style than their urban counterparts, a trend also observed in other professional sectors.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThe prevalence of tribalism within educational leadership creates a significant barrier to effectiveness. This occurs through systemic bias that advantages those with tribal affiliations, thereby subordinating the institution\u0026rsquo;s educational mission to personal and tribal allegiances.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eLeaders raised in private or socially conservative environments may exhibit greater reserve in expressing opinions or communicating with others, particularly in the initial stages of their leadership roles.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eA defining characteristic of individuals from rural backgrounds is a propensity for satisfaction with outcomes, rather than indifference. This adaptability stems from their readiness for unforeseen results, a trait developed through exposure to the multiple factors influencing goal achievement.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAn excessive adherence to rural customs, which are often misaligned with the multicultural and multi-environmental nature of higher education institutions, may impede a leader\u0026rsquo;s capacity to develop a long-term vision. This can result in a prioritisation of short-term interests over the implementation of strategic reforms.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThe leaders from rural backgrounds face specific challenges, the most prominent of which are: \u003csup\u003e(1)\u003c/sup\u003e difficulties in adapting to the norms of modern urban institutions; \u003csup\u003e(2)\u003c/sup\u003e limited proficiency in using advanced technology; \u003csup\u003e(3)\u003c/sup\u003e potential gaps in language or formal communication skills; \u003csup\u003e(4)\u003c/sup\u003e struggles with accepting criticism and making independent decisions separate from group consensus.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eHigher education institutions can employ various strategies to cultivate different leadership styles. For example, \u003csup\u003e(1)\u003c/sup\u003e promoting a culture of efficiency, transparency, interaction, and effective management; \u003csup\u003e(2)\u003c/sup\u003e implementing continuous monitoring and evaluation mechanisms; \u003csup\u003e(3)\u003c/sup\u003e selecting leaders based solely on competence and ability to perform; \u003csup\u003e(4)\u003c/sup\u003e ensuring that the state oversees a scientific selection process for leadership positions, guaranteeing impartiality and rejecting favouritism toward any political or social faction. Crucially, the state enforces its authority through the threat of sanctions, thereby preventing the emergence of rival power structures; \u003csup\u003e(5)\u003c/sup\u003e controlling the tribal and personal tendencies of leaders.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThe study proposes that future research should investigate the role of genetic factors and family history in shaping leadership personality.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003ethis research did not receive funding\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eEthics Statement\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study received ethical approval from the University of Anbar \u0026ndash; Ethical Approval Committee. The committee issued an official Certificate of Ethical Approval on 3 August 2025 with Approval Number ID: EAC110. Therefore, the ethical approval is referenced using the issued certificate. All procedures conducted in this research adhered to the ethical guidelines of the University of Anbar and complied with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki.\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eInformed Consent Statement\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWritten informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to their involvement in the study. Participants were informed about the purpose of the research, the voluntary nature of their participation, and the confidentiality measures applied to their data. The informed consent process was conducted and completed during the data collection period between March and April 2025, in accordance with the procedures approved by the University of Anbar Ethical Approval Committee.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAl-Rawi and Alnoori conceived the original idea and wrote the manuscript with support from Bin AmlusAli, Ahmed and Hammoodi contributed to the final version of the manuscript and providing resources or funding. All authors discussed the results and contributed to the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAbd Allah, M. Ḥ (1989). The countryside in the Arab novel. Kuwait. al-Majlis al-Waṭani lil-Thaqafah wa-al-Funun wa-al-Adab. https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA08549990\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAhmed, S., \u0026amp; Simha, A. (2023). Autocratic leadership and abuse. In Encyclopedia of Business and Professional Ethics (pp. 159-161). 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Routledge.\u0026rlm; eBook ISBN9781003449829. 1st Edition.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"humanities-and-social-sciences-communications","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"palcomms","sideBox":"Learn more about [Humanities \u0026 Social Sciences Communications](http://www.nature.com/palcomms/)","snPcode":"41599","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/41599/3","title":"Humanities and Social Sciences Communications","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Nature AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"leadership, tribalism, authoritarianism, introversion, short-sightedness, apathy, vision","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7743189/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7743189/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe primary objective of this paper is to investigate the influence of rural background on leadership behaviour in higher education. A qualitative approach was employed, using in-depth semi-structured interviews. The 23 participants were selected based on their experience and knowledge of the topic. The findings showed that respondents held different views regarding the factors affecting leadership behaviour. Respondents largely agreed that tribalism, authoritarianism, and lack in vision for the future directly influence a leader\u0026rsquo;s behaviour and are regarded as enduring traits of leaders from rural backgrounds. Other factors (short-sightedness, apathy, and introversion) were deemed to be of lesser importance. Additionally, this study highlights ways to refine the leader selection process within higher education. This study contributes to the literature by offering new insights and addressing a gap in evidence concerning the characteristics of leaders from rural backgrounds. 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