Prevalence and antimicrobial resistance patterns of Campylobacter jejuni isolated from beef and milk in Gondar town, Amhara region, Ethiopia.

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N Seleshe, B Dejene, B Adugna, H Belete, M Sadam, Ahmed G Abdelhamid, and 3 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6915572/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 24 Mar, 2026 Read the published version in One Health Outlook → Version 1 posted 9 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background Campylobacter jejuni is one of the top five leading causes of foodborne diarrheal zoonotic diseases globally, frequently transmitted through consumption of contaminated foods, such as milk and meat. In Ethiopia, the common practice of consuming raw, unpasteurized milk and undercooked beef, coupled with weak regulations on antibiotic use, increases the risk of foodborne infections and the development of drug resistance. Objective This study aimed to investigate the prevalence and antimicrobial resistance patterns of Campylobacter jejuni isolated from fresh raw cow’s milk and beef carcass swabs in Gondar town, Ethiopia. Methods A cross-sectional study was conducted from October 2022 to June 2023. Raw cow milk samples were collected from dairy farms and cafeterias (n = 194), and beef carcass swabs were taken from municipal abattoirs and butcher shops (n = 196) using a stratified multistage sampling method. For identification, biochemical tests, including Hippurate hydrolysis and confirmatory amplification of the 735 bp “hipO” Campylobacter jejuni gene, were performed. Antibiotic resistance patterns were assessed using the Kirby-Bauer disk-diffusion method. Results The study revealed a high prevalence of Campylobacter jejuni , with rates of 19.6% in raw cow’s milk and 21.9% in beef carcass swabs. Notably, the relative prevalence was 20% in cafeteria milk samples and 36.2% in beef swabs collected after evisceration. This research also found substantial antimicrobial resistance: 100% to tetracyclines, 74.1% to polymyxin B, 71.6% to vancomycin, and 61.7% to erythromycin. Additionally, 49.4% of the isolates exhibited multidrug resistance to three different antibiotic groups (tetracyclines, polymyxin-B, and vancomycin), and notably, one isolate showed resistance to all ten tested antibiotics. Conclusion This study identified a higher overall prevalence of Campylobacter jejuni (20.8%) in milk and beef compared to previous reports. It also revealed a concerning level of multidrug resistance to antibiotics that are used in both humans and animals. Therefore, it is recommended to adopt an integrated One Health approach to prevent and control zoonotic pathogens, including Campylobacter jejuni , and the overwhelming challenge of drug resistance. Antibiotic resistance Beef Campylobacter jejuni Ethiopia Milk One-health Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Introduction Campylobacter is one of the leading food-borne zoonotic pathogens, considered the most common cause of bacterial gastroenteritis in both developed and developing countries, including Ethiopia [ 1 , 2 , 3 ]. Within the Campylobacter genus, thermophilic Campylobacter species, particularly C. jejuni and C. coli , have been recognized as a major cause of acute bacterial gastroenteritis in humans [ 4 , 5 , 6 ]. In severe cases, Campylobacter infection has been linked to post-infection complications, such as Guillain-Barré syndrome and Reiter’s syndrome, in addition to the typical diarrheal syndrome [ 7 ]. Campylobacter jejuni is a zoonotic pathogen, where poultry, wild birds, cattle, sheep, and pigs are recognized as sources of infection [ 8 ]. In Ethiopia, the incidence of foodborne diseases associated with Campylobacter is increasing due to various risk factors. These include close contact with carrier animals such as cattle and chickens, lack of access to safe drinking water, socioeconomic challenges, and limited awareness of proper hygiene practices [ 9 ]. The existing expanded mixed farming system in the country, which combines livestock production, chicken farm, and agriculture, also creates high risk for cross-contamination and adversely increases the prevalence of Campylobacter jejuni [ 10 ]. Previous studies in Ethiopia have highlighted a high prevalence of Campylobacter , with rates reaching 56.5% in animals [ 11 ], 50% among children in Eastern Ethiopia [ 12 ], 10.5% in water [ 13 ], and 9.3% in animal-sourced foods [ 14 ]. In the Amhara region, some researchers reported 21.5% in cattle and 28.9% in poultry fecal samples from backyard farms in Gondar town [ 15 ], 15.4% in children from Dembia district [ 16 ], and 10.5% in diarrheic children at the University of Gondar hospital [ 17 ]. Campylobacter spp. are frequently transmitted to humans through the consumption of contaminated animal products, such as meat and milk. The pathogen is often isolated from raw meat products due to a high likelihood of carcass contamination during slaughter, handling, and further processing [ 18 ]. The efficiency of foodborne disease treatments in Ethiopia is adversely affected by the development of drug resistance, particularly stemming from the unregulated accessibility and utilization of antibiotics for poultry production, as well as for human and animal treatment [ 19 , 20 ]. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the prevalence and antimicrobial resistance patterns of C. jejuni isolated from raw cow’s milk and beef carcasses swabs in Gondar town, Ethiopia, to support the development of effective strategies to prevent and control Campylobacter infections. Materials and methods Study area The study was conducted from October 2022 to June 2023 in Gondar town, Amhara Region, Ethiopia, located in the Northwestern highlands of Ethiopia, at approximately 12°3′N latitude and 37°28′E (Fig. 1 ). The city has a total area of 192.3 km 2 , with an average elevation of 2200 m above sea level. The annual temperature ranges from 22°C to 30.7°C, with an average of 26°C. Relative humidity varies from 60–70% during the rainy season and from 30–40% during the dry season, with a mean annual rainfall of nearly 1025 mm [ 21 , 22 ]. According to the district administration office report, the human population is 355,857, and there are 10,112 cattle, 24,690 goats, 3,830 sheep, 2,165 horses, 9,891 donkeys, and 75,834 poultry. Sample size determination To determine the sample size, we referred to previous reports to fix the expected prevalence rates: 13.4% for raw milk [ 23 ] and 7.4% for carcass swabs [ 24 ]. The minimum required sample size was then calculated at 95% confidence interval (CI) and 5% desired precision using the formula: N = Z² * P * (1-P) / d² where: N = minimum required sample size; Z = desired level of confidence at 95% CI, which is 1.96; d = margin of error set at 5%; and P = expected prevalence [ 25 ]. As a result, the minimum required sample size was 103 for milk and 57 for beef carcasses. To increase the precision of the study, we raised the sample size by decreasing the margin of error to 0.01% and collected a total of 194 milk samples and 196 beef carcass swab samples. Study design and sampling method A cross-sectional, multistage random sampling was applied to investigate the prevalence and antibiotic resistance patterns of C. jejuni in raw cow’s milk and swabs from beef carcasses. The primary unit of analysis was Kebele, which represents the lowest-level administrative division within the town. The secondary unit comprises dairy farms, while the tertiary units include individual lactating cows, cafeterias, slaughtered cattle, and beef in butchers’ shops. Among the 21 kebeles in the town, 10 kebeles, which included 40 dairy farms that were randomly selected, 169 milk samples were collected (from 2–10 healthy lactating cows per farm based on the availability), and a total of 25 milk samples were collected from cafeterias that are distributed with in these kebeles. Fifty-five beef carcass swabs from various butcher shops and 141 carcass swabs from the municipal abattoir were randomly collected using the list obtained from local administrative offices and the municipal abattoir record sheets. Inclusion and exclusion criteria All randomly selected animals were included in the study; however, animals that had received antibiotic treatment in the last two weeks were excluded, and the next available animal was included instead. Sample collection Samples were collected from October 2022 to June 2023, following the guidelines provided by the World Organization for Animal Health (WOHA) [ 26 ]. Samples of raw cow’s milk were collected from dairy farms and cafeterias. On dairy farms, milk samples were collected individually from each animal's milk, while in cafeterias, samples were taken from bulk milk tanks before heat treatment. To assess potential risk factors, the body condition score (BCS) of the cattle was ranked on a scale of 1 to 5, as described in a previous study [ 27 ]. The scoring categories were: poor (scores 1–2), medium (score 3), and good (scores 4–5). Additionally, the hygiene conditions of the farms were categorized as high, medium, or poor based on their adherence to basic hygiene practices. A high hygiene score is granted when the farm demonstrates excellent cleanliness and sanitation practices, including daily cleaning with disinfectants, restricted access to the farm, regular washing of udders with antiseptics before milking, and proper handwashing of milkers with antiseptics. Medium hygiene is given to farms that regularly clean floors with water, limit access to the farm, wash udders with water before milking, and ensure milkers wash their hands with antiseptics. A poor hygiene score indicates inadequate hygiene, characterized by infrequent cleaning and insufficient attention to the cleanliness of animals and milkers. Cattle breeds were classified as either local or crossbred, and animals were categorized by age as young (5–8 years) or old (9–12 years), based on information provided by the farm owners. During milk sampling, approximately 15 ml were aseptically collected using a sterile, screw-capped test tube and stored in an insulated box with ice packs before being transported to the University of Gondar (UoG) food safety laboratory for analysis. Beef carcass swab samples were collected from the municipal abattoir and butcher shops following previously established protocols [ 28 ], with some modifications. Briefly, wet cotton swabs were used to sample a 50 cm² area (10 cm x 5 cm) in four carcass regions: the neck, brisket, flank, and rump. These pulled swab samples were placed in 5 mL of sterile buffered peptone water (BPW) (Oxoid Ltd., Hampshire, UK). After the swabbing was completed, the shaft of the swab handle was broken, leaving the cotton swab inside the collection test tube. The test tube was then sealed with a screw cap. Sampling at the abattoir was conducted on three separate operation lines, before evisceration, after evisceration, and after the final carcass wash. All samples were submitted to the University of Gondar food safety laboratory in a cold box and processed immediately. Isolation of Campylobacter jejuni The isolation and identification of C. jejuni were conducted according to the enrichment methods previously outlined [ 28 , 29 , 30 ]. Briefly, 15 ml of milk samples were centrifuged at 10,000 rpm for 10 minutes. After discarding the fat layer and supernatant, the pellets were resuspended in 1.0 ml buffered peptone water and vortexed. Subsequently, 9 ml Bolton broth (Oxoid, Hants, UK) with a selective supplement and laked horse blood (HemoStat Laboratories, Dixon, USA) were added and pre-enriched by incubating the samples for 4 hours at 37°C, under microaerobic conditions which was generated using airtight jars containing a gas generating kit (CampyGen™ 3.5L, Oxoid, Basingstoke, UK). Enrichment was achieved by extending the incubation time for an additional 18 hours at 42°C under the same microaerobic conditions. After enrichment, 30 µl (three loopfuls) were spread onto Campylobacter blood-free modified charcoal-cefoperazone-deoxycholate selective agar (mCCDA-Preston; Oxoid, Basingstoke, Hants, UK) containing the Campylobacter CCDA selective supplement (Oxoid, Hants, UK). Following 16 to 18 hours of incubation at 42°C under microaerophilic conditions, as mentioned above, the plates were examined for the growth of colonies. When no colony growth was observed, the incubation was extended for an additional 24 hours under the same conditions and reobserved. All colonies that appeared grayish, flat, moist, often with a metallic sheen, and a tendency to spread were considered presumptive Campylobacter spp. and those that are Gram-negative, with spiral, “S” or a “V” shape roads, catalase and oxidase positive, and hydrolyze Hippurate were taken as presumptive C. jejuni . Molecular detection of Campylobacter jejuni DNA preparation Template DNA was prepared by the heat lysis method [ 31 ]. Briefly, a loopful of bacterial colonies from an agar plate was suspended in 1 mL of Tris-EDTA buffer, boiled for 10 minutes, and immediately chilled on ice for 5 minutes. Further, it was centrifuged for 10 min. at 10,000 rpm, and 5 µL of supernatant was used as PCR template DNA. PCR-based identification of Campylobacter jejuni For detection of hippuricase gene ( hipO ) of C. jejuni by PCR, a forward primer (HIP400F): 5’-GAA GAG GGT TTG GGT GGT G-3’, and a reverse primer (HIP1134R): 5’-AGC TAG CTT CGC ATA ATA ACT TG3’ were used to amplify a 735 bp product size using protocol reported by previous research with slight modification [ 32 ]. A 25 µl volume PCR protocol for the detection of hip0 gene of C. jejuni was: 10X Buffer (15mM Mg Cl 2 ; 2.5 µl); MgCl 2 (25 mMol; 1 µl); dNTP mix (25 mMol; 0.2 µl); HIP400F primer (with 10 pmol / µl; 1µl); HIP1134R primer (with 10 pmol / µl;1µl); Taq polymerase (3 Ս/ µl ; 0.4 µl); Template DNA(2.5 µl) and nuclease-free water (16.4 µl). The genes were amplified in a PCR thermocycler (Mastercycler, China), which was adjusted at initial denaturation of 94 o C for 5 minutes; followed by 30 cycles, each consisting of 1 minute at 94°C, 1 minute at 56°C, and 2 minutes at 72°C, concluding with a final extension cycle of 7 minutes at 72°C. Before electrophoresis, 10 µl of each PCR product was mixed with 2 µl of a dye (EZ-Vision One™ DNA dye) and loaded into wells of a 1.5% agarose gel. For reference, a 100-bp DNA ladder (Quick-Load ® Purple DNA Ladder; Biolabs, UK) was used, and electrophoresis was performed at 70 V. The image of the gel was captured using the gel documentation system (BioTop, gel documentation system, China). Antimicrobial resistance test Antimicrobial resistance testing was carried out using the Kirby–Bauer disk-diffusion method [ 33 ]. Ten different antimicrobial disks, including the broad spectrum that acts on both gram-positive and negative bacteria, were tested: cefoxitin (CTX)-30µg, cefotaxime (CX)-30µg, vancomycin (VA)-5µg, polymyxin-B (PB)-30µg, tetracycline (TE)-30µg, nalidixic acid (NA)-30µg, norfloxacin (NX)-10µg, erythromycin (E)-15µg, streptomycin (S)-10µg, and co-trimoxazole (COT)-25µg. Confirmed Campylobacter jejuni isolates, from overnight subcultures, were tested for antibiotic resistance as follows: Colonies were suspended in 10 mL sterile normal saline solution (0.9% NaCl), and after vortex mixing, the turbidity was adjusted to the 0.5 McFarland standard. Muller-Hinton agar was streaked using a sterile cotton swab dipped into the inoculum tube and the antimicrobial discs were placed on the surface of the agar using sterile forceps. Further overnight incubation were performed under microaerobic conditions at 42°C as described earlier. The resulting zone of inhibition was measured in mm with a caliper, recorded, and interpreted using the published zone diameter standards for Campylobacter and the standard zone diameter interpretive chart for gram negative, microaerophilic rods, as susceptible (S), intermediate (I), or resistant (R) to the antimicrobial agent (Table − 1) [ 23 , 33 – 36 ]. Table 1 The guidelines used to determine the antimicrobial resistance breakpoints for the disk-diffusion methods. Antimicrobial agent Disk Conc. (µg) Zone diameter breakpoint (mm) S I R Cefotaxime 30 µg ≥ 23 15–22 ≤ 14 Cefoxitin 30 µg ≥ 20 15–19 ≤ 14 Polymyxin-B 30 µg ≥ 21 13–20 15 12–14 < 11 Tetracycline 30 µg ≥ 15 12–14 < 11 Erythromycin 15 µg ≥ 23 14–22 ≤ 13 Co-Trimoxazole 25 µg ≥ 17 13–16 ≤ 12 S- Susceptible; I- Intermediate; R- Resistant; Conc - Concentrations. Data management and analysis methods Raw data and laboratory results were recorded into a Microsoft Excel sheet and analyzed using STATA software version 14.0. Descriptive statistics were conducted to compute the number of samples positive for C. jejuni. A multivariate logistic regression test was used to assess the association between variables (breed, age, BCS, and Hygienic system) and the occurrence of C. jejuni . Results Prevalence of Campylobacter jejuni The overall prevalence of PCR-confirmed C. jejuni isolates from samples of raw cow’s milk and beef carcass swabs, collected from Gondar town, was 20.8% (81/390) as shown in Table 2 and confirmed using PCR (Fig. 2). Among the milk samples collected, 19.6% (38/194) were positive for C jejuni, and beef carcass swabs were 21.9% (43/196) positive. In raw milk samples collected, dairy farms showed a prevalence of 19.5% (33/169), whereas milk from the cafeteria had 20% (5/25). The highest prevalence, 24.8% (35/141), was observed in beef carcass swabs from municipal abattoirs, whereas butcher shops had a prevalence of 14.5% (8/55). In the case of beef carcass swabs from the abattoir, the highest level was noted in samples collected after evisceration (36.2%), followed by those collected after carcass washing (23.4%), with the lowest level recorded for samples collected before evisceration (14.9%) (Table 2). Table 2: Prevalence of Campylobacter jejuni from milk and beef carcass swabs in Gondar town, Ethiopia, 2022-2023. Sample type Samples’ source Total examined C. jejuni positive Prevalence (%) Carcass swab in the abattoir Beef carcass swab before evisceration 47 7 14.9 Beef carcass swab after evisceration 47 17 36.2 Beef carcass swab after final wash 47 11 23.4 Subtotal 141 35 24.8 Carcass swab in the butcher's house Beef carcass swab in the butcher's shop 55 8 14.5 Beef carcass swab subtotal 196 43 21.9 Raw cow’s milk Dairy farms 169 33 19.5 Cafeteria 25 5 20 Raw milk subtotal 194 38 19.6 Total 390 81 20.8 Milk samples collected from 40 dairy farms were assessed based on breed, age group, body condition score, and farm hygiene as described in the methodology part. Among C. jejuni positive cows, relatively higher proportion of C. jejuni was observed in crossbreds (54.5%) than local breeds (45.5%); in the older age group (57.6%) than younger groups (42.4%); in medium body condition score (BCS) (54.5%) than good BCS (45.5%); and in poor (36.4%) and medium hygienic farms (39.4%) than good hygiene farms (24.2%). Despite the differences in C. jejuni occurrence among potential risk factors, these differences were not statistically significant ( p > 0.05) (Table 3). Table 3: Prevalence of Campylobacter jejuni and risk factors in milk samples in Gondar, Ethiopia, 2022-2023. Variables Group Total examined C. jejuni positive Relative prevalence (%) p. value Breed Cross 100 18 54.5 0.791 Local 69 15 45.5 Age Young 93 14 42.4 0.122 Old 76 19 57.6 BCS Good 88 15 45.5 0.473 Medium 81 18 54.5 Hygienic system High 37 8 24.2 0.384 Medium 81 13 39.4 Poor 51 12 36.4 Antimicrobial resistance patterns of isolated Campylobacter jejuni Confirmed C. jejuni isolates (a total of 81) were tested for antimicrobial resistance against 10 commonly used antibiotics. The highest resistance was observed for tetracycline at (100%), followed by polymyxin-B (74.1%) and vancomycin (71.6%). Among the sample sources, the majority of the tetracycline-resistant isolates were from beef carcass swabs (53.1%), while 46.9% were from milk samples. Additionally, a notable proportion of isolates, 24.7%, showed resistance to the third-generation antibiotic, cefotaxime (see Table 4). Table 4 : Antimicrobial-resistance patterns of Campylobacter jejuni isolates from milk and beef in Gondar town, Ethiopia, 2022-2023. Antibiotics Conc. C. jejuni isolates (%) Resistant C. jejuni from raw cow’s milk (%) Resistant C. jejuni from carcass swab (%) S* I* R* Caffe Farm Sub Total Abattoir Butchers Sub Total Cephalosporins: Cefotaxime 30 µg 44 (54.3) 17 (21) 20 (24.7) 0 6 6 (7.4) 14 0 14 (17.3) Cefoxitin 30 µg 65 (80.2) 2 (2.5) 14 (17.3) 0 2 2 (2.5) 10 2 12 (14.8) Polymyxin: Polymyxin-B 30 µg 18 (22.2) 3 (3.7) 60 (74.1) 4 26 30 (37) 24 6 30 (37) Glycopeptide: Vancomycin 5 µg 23 (28.4) 0 58 (71.6) 3 15 18 (22.2) 32 8 40 (49.4) Quinolone: Norfloxacin 10 µg 66 (81.5) 10 (12.3) 5 (6.2) 0 0 0 (0) 5 0 5 (6.2) Nalidixic acid 30 µg 28 (34.6) 18 (22.2) 35 (43.2) 1 9 10 (12.3) 17 8 25 (30.9) Aminoglycoside: Streptomycin 10 µg 20 (24.7) 24 (29.6) 37 (45.7) 3 13 16 (19.8) 20 1 21 (25.9) Tetracycline: Tetracycline 30 µg 0 0 81 (100.0) 5 33 38 (46.9) 35 8 43 (53.1) Macrolide: Erythromycin 15 µg 19 (23.5) 12 (14.8) 50 (61.7) 3 15 18 (22.2) 29 3 32 (39.5) Sulfonamides: Co-Trimoxazole 25 µg 67 (82.7) 3 (3.7) 11 (13.6) 0 4 4 (4.9) 7 0 7 (8.6) Results are presented numerically, with percentages in parentheses. S*- Susceptible; I*- Intermediate; R*- Resistant; Conc - Concentrations . Multi-drug resistance (MDR) patterns of Campylobacter jejuni Among a total of 81 tested isolates of C. jejuni , nearly half demonstrated resistance to three or more classes of antimicrobial drugs. Resistance levels were highest for tetracycline, polymyxin-B, and vancomycin at 49.4%, followed by tetracycline, polymyxin-B, and erythromycin at 44.4%. All the isolates in this study were resistant to tetracyclines, and one isolate (from a beef swab after evisceration) was resistant to the ten tested antibiotics. The majority (33.3%) of the multidrug-resistant isolates originated from beef carcasses, compared to isolates from milk samples (16.1%). Among the isolates obtained from milk samples, the majority demonstrating multidrug resistance were sourced from the farm (13.6%). Additionally, similar findings were observed in beef carcass swabs collected from the abattoir (see Table 5). Table 5: Multidrug-resistant patterns of 81 Campylobacter jejuni isolates from milk and beef in Gondar, Ethiopia, 2022-2023. Antibiotics Resistant isolates (%) Source and number of resistant isolates (%) Milk Beef carcass swab Farm Caffe Abattoir Butchers’ shop TE/PB/VA 40(49.4) 11(13.6) 2(2.5) 21(25.9) 6(7.4) TE/PB/E 36(44.4) 11(13.6) 2(2.5) 21(25.9) 2(2.5) TE/PB/NA 29(35.8) 9(11.1) 1(1.2) 13(16.0) 6(7.4) TE/PB/S 28(34.6) 10(12.3) 2(2.5) 15(18.5) 1(1.2) TE/PB/VA/E 29(35.8) 7(8.6) 1(1.2) 19(23.5) 2(2.5) TE/PB/VA/NA 21(25.9) 4(4.9) 0 11(13.6) 6(7.4) TE/PB/E/NA 18(22.2) 4(4.9) 1(1.2) 11(13.6) 2(2.5) TE/PB/NA/S 18(22.2) 5(6.2) 1(1.2) 11(13.6) 1(1.2) TE/PB/VA/S 17(21.0) 2(2.5) 1(1.2) 13(16.0) 1(1.2) TE/PB/E/S 17(21.0) 3(3.7) 2(2.5) 12(14.8) 0 TE/PB/VA/E/NA 15(18.5) 3(3.7) 0 10(12.3) 2(2.5) TE/PB/VA/E/S 13(16.0) 1(1.2) 1(1.2) 11(13.6) 0 TE/PB/VA/S/NA 12(14.8) 2(2.5) 0 9(11.1) 1(1.2) TE/PB/E/S/NA 12(14.8) 2(2.5) 1(1.2) 9(11.1) 0 TE/VA/E/S/NA 10(12.3) 1(1.2) 0 9(11.1) 0 TE/PB/VA/E/S/NA 9(11.1) 1(1.2) 0 8(9.9) 0 TE/PB/VA/E/NA/CTX 9(11.1) 2(2.5) 0 7(8.6) 0 TE/PB/VA/S/NA/CTX 9(11.1) 1(1.2) 0 8(9.9) 0 TE/PB/E/S/NA/CTX 9(11.1) 2(2.5) 0 7(8.6) 0 TE/VA/E/S/NA/CTX 8(9.9) 1(1.2) 0 7(8.6) 0 TE/PB/VA/E/S/NA/CTX 7(8.6) 1(1.2) 0 6(7.4) 0 TE/PB/VA/E/S/NA/CX/COT 2(2.5) 0 0 2(2.5) 0 TE/PB/VA/E/S/NA/CTX/CX/COT/NX 1(1.2) 0 0 1(1.2) 0 Notes : Multidrug resistance patterns of the 81 C. jejuni isolates to a combination of different antibiotics, with percentages in parentheses. Discussion This study focused on assessing the prevalence of lesser-studied and underreported pathogens that frequently cause foodborne infectious diseases in Ethiopia, specifically C. jejuni and its drug resistance patterns in milk and beef isolates, which are most commonly consumed raw or undercooked. Transmission of Campylobacter infections to humans via the consumption of raw milk has been reported in numerous outbreaks [ 37 ]. In this study, 19.6% of raw cow’s milk samples tested were positive for C. jejuni , which aligns with a previous study that reported 18% [ 38 ]. Cattle are typical carriers of C. jejuni ; therefore, cross-contamination of milk can occur from the animal's feces during milking [ 28 , 39 ]. In this study, we observed that the occurrence of C. jejuni was slightly higher in cafeteria milk samples compared to milk samples from the farm. This difference may be attributed to a higher likelihood of contamination, which could arise from the extensive supply chain or possible adulteration of milk with water, which is a common practice in the study area [ 40 ]. The results of the multivariate logistic regression analysis indicate an association between the probable predictor variable and the occurrences of C. jejuni (Table 3 ). Milk samples from lactating cows in poor hygienic systems are relatively more likely (12.2%) to be contaminated with C. jejuni than from higher hygienic systems, though statistically not significant ( p- value > 0.05). Breed, age, and body condition scores also indicated some differences in the prevalence of C. jejuni , although these differences were statistically insignificant. This observation underscores the presence of additional confounding factors that extend beyond the aforementioned potential predictors of milk contamination. Factors such as the health and hygiene of the milker, poor post-harvest handling, and the cleanliness of the milk tank and utensils used for transporting and preserving the milk can significantly influence contamination, beyond the hygiene of the lactating cow [ 41, 42]. The results of this study also indicate that milk from cross-bred cattle has a higher relative prevalence of C. jejuni compared to milk from local breeds; milk from older cattle than from younger ones, and milk from cattle with a medium body condition score than from those with a good body condition score (see Table 3 ). This trend may be linked to the limited capacity and awareness of traditionally managed small dairy farm owners to maintain the hygienic status of higher milk-yielding, genetically improved, and older cattle with greater milk-producing potential in the post-harvest milkshed. Campylobacter can colonize most warm-blooded animals and poultry, and it is the leading cause of bacterial-derived foodborne diarrheal disease in humans, which may arise from contamination of meat and meat products [ 43 , 44 , 45 ]. In this study, an overall 21.9% positivity rate was found in beef carcass swabs (with relative prevalence of 23.4% from abattoir samples and 14.5% from butcher shop samples). The result is relatively higher than earlier study reports: 5.3% in Addis Ababa and Debrezeyit abattoirs [ 44 ], 7.3% in Addis Ababa [ 46 ], and 11.8% in Arba Minch, Ethiopia [ 47 ]. These variations could be due to multiple confounding factors, including climate, seasonal variations, farm sanitation practices, and farmers’ level of awareness of zoonotic diseases [ 48 , 49 ]. It is well known that during the slaughtering process, the main sources of contamination are the slaughtered animals themselves, the staff, and the work environment [ 50 ]. Findings from this study reinforce this fact. In three different operational systems of municipal abattoirs, the highest isolation rate was found in carcass swabs collected after the evisceration process, with a rate of 36.2%. This was followed by samples collected after washing, which had an isolation rate of 23.4% (Table 2 ). The high occurrence of C. jejuni after evisceration may result from contamination of carcasses with intestinal contents or improperly cleaned equipment during evisceration and subsequent processing in the slaughterhouse. Likewise, after washing the carcass, there were relatively higher levels of C. jejuni isolates compared to before evisceration. This may be linked to slaughter practices, poor water quality used, and the usage of cold water for carcass washing, which did not significantly contribute to the removal of bacterial contamination [ 13 , 51 ]. Antibiotic resistance has been reported as a global public health concern. Different studies indicated that antimicrobial resistance (AMR) profiles show an increase in some Campylobacter spp. [ 34, 48]. Previous studies have shown that the most commonly used antibiotics for treating animals in smallholder livestock farming systems in Ethiopia are tetracyclines (36.4%), aminoglycosides (31.3%), and trimethoprim-sulfonamides (6.2%) [ 52 ]. This study has revealed a high level of resistance to frequently used antibiotics as well as not commonly used for animal treatment: - resistance to tetracycline was found to be 100%, followed by polymyxin B at 74.1%, vancomycin at 71.6%, streptomycin at 45.7%, and nalidixic acid at 43.2% (see Table 4 ). Among the 100% tetracycline-resistant isolates, 46.9% were from milk sample isolates (mainly from dairy farms, 40.7%) and 53.1% were from carcass swab isolates, mainly from the abattoir (43.2%). This finding supports earlier research, indicating a strong connection between antimicrobial resistance (AMR) development, widely used antimicrobials, and possible resistant gene transfer between human and animal isolates [ 35, 53, 54]. The weight of tetracycline resistance in this study is nearly in agreement with the previous study (82.2%) reported in Jimma, Ethiopia [ 11 ]. The current findings indicate a significantly higher tetracycline resistance compared to older reports: 13.5% in poultry and 22.2% in human samples from Bahirdar in 2010 [ 55 ], as well as 39.5% in 2014 and 42.1% in 2022 in Jimma [ 56 , 57 ]. This also suggests an increasing trend of tetracycline resistance associated with prolonged use over the years. In this study, nearly half of the C. jejuni isolates (49.4%) exhibited multidrug resistance to three or more different groups of tested antimicrobial agents (Table 5 ). The highest resistance observed for four different antibiotics (TE/PB/VA/E) was 35.8% (that included 26% of isolates from carcass swabs and 9.8% from milk samples). Resistance to five different antibiotics (TE/PB/VA/E/NA) was noted in 18.5% of the isolates, and one isolate from a carcass swab exhibited resistance to all tested antimicrobial drugs. Overall, the isolates from carcass swabs showed a higher proportion of resistance to the tested antibiotics compared to those from milk samples. The high levels of resistance to various antimicrobial agents may be attributed to several factors, including the unrestricted use of these agents in treating animals, insufficient infection prevention and control measures, and a lack of surveillance and monitoring laboratory capabilities in Ethiopia [ 52 , 58 ]. Limitations Despite broader assessments of Campylobacter jejuni , specifically the drug resistance patterns related to multiple, commonly used antimicrobials, this study has limitations in the identification of responsible genes for the developed drug resistance, which require advanced technology and funding. Additionally, the study area coverage is limited, which may make the study deficient in generalizing at the country level, even though the implementation of drug administration rules and regulations, as well as farm management practices and traditions, are similar across the regions. Conclusion and recommendation This study reveals that animal products, especially raw milk and beef, are often contaminated with Campylobacter jejuni , which presents a significant risk of foodborne zoonotic infections for consumers. Furthermore, the study indicates the development of high-level drug resistance among C. jejuni isolates, including resistance to certain third-generation antibiotics that are not used for animal treatments in the country. This situation threatens human health by reducing available treatment options and contributing to the emergence and spread of this pathogen to human, animal, and environmental health. Therefore, to mitigate the risks associated with foodborne zoonotic diseases such as C. jejuni in the food chain, it is recommended to adopt a One Health approach by enabling surveillance of Campylobacter throughout the food supply chain, implementing strict antimicrobial use programs in both human and veterinary sectors, and enhancing personnel hygiene during milking and slaughter. Abbreviations BCS Body condition scores BPW Buffered Peptone Water CSA Central Statistical Agency CI Confidence interval WOHA World Organization for Animal Health PCR Polymerase Chain Reaction UoG University of Gondar Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate This research work was carried out after receiving ethical clearance from the College of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences Research Ethics Review Committee (CVMASc-RERC), University of Gondar, Ethiopia, with a reference number CVMASc/UoG/RERC/2521. Consent for publication Not applicable Availability of data and materials All the data concerning this manuscript are contained within the text. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests Funding This research was partially supported by the University of Gondar (UoG) laboratory facility in Ethiopia. Authors' contributions S.N. : conceptualization, data curation, formal analysis, investigation, methodology, visualization, writing original draft. D. B. : conceptualization, data curation, investigation, methodology, writing – reviewing & editing. A. B. : conceptualization, writing, reviewing & editing. B.H. : conceptualization, writing, reviewing & editing. S.M. : conceptualization, writing, reviewing & editing. A.G.A.: writing, reviewing & editing. A.E.Y.: supervision , writing, reviewing & editing. G. A. : supervision, writing, reviewing & editing. A. M. : supervision, writing, reviewing & editing. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Acknowledgments The authors express their gratitude to the Ethiopian field assistants for their help during sample collection and to the leaders of the Ohio State University Global One Health Initiative (GOHi) for their encouragement and supervision. We thank the staff of the Food Safety Laboratory at the College of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, University of Gondar, for their unreserved assistance during the laboratory work. Authors’ information *1 Department of Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health, College of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, University of Gondar, P.O. Box 196, Gondar, Ethiopia. Email. [email protected] 1 Department of Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health, College of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, University of Gondar, P.O. Box 196, Gondar, Ethiopia 2 College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Department of Veterinary Sciences, Assosa University, Ethiopia. 3 Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA 4 Department of Food Science and Technology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA. 5 Institute of Public Health, College of Medicine, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6915572","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":486556773,"identity":"1d77e77d-b5e1-4430-bbc4-af04391892c5","order_by":0,"name":"N Seleshe","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA20lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBAC+QbmBgbGBgY5fhAvoYAILQYHGMFajCUbQFoMiNHCANGSuOEAhEuEFvbGxoc/d9gwbj6/OvHDAwMGeX6xA/i1yPccbDbmPZPGbHbj7WYJoMMMZ85OIGDNjcQ2aca2w2xmN85uAGlJMLhNSMv9h+0/f7b95zGecXbzD+K03GBsY+BtOyBhwN+7jThbDM4kNkvztiUbSNzg3WaRYCBB2C/y7YcPfvzZZlff3392880fFTby/NKEHAYHEmCVEsQqBwH+A6SoHgWjYBSMgpEEAGvbSYXaVrHEAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"University of Gondar","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"N","middleName":"","lastName":"Seleshe","suffix":""},{"id":486556774,"identity":"00750712-bac5-4b09-9036-ebbe1e94ecf7","order_by":1,"name":"B Dejene","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Asossa University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"B","middleName":"","lastName":"Dejene","suffix":""},{"id":486556775,"identity":"e77640b0-8289-4afe-999a-248e4dee689e","order_by":2,"name":"B Adugna","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Gondar","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"B","middleName":"","lastName":"Adugna","suffix":""},{"id":486556776,"identity":"5cdbded1-1f00-480a-9a88-d9f36627ba76","order_by":3,"name":"H Belete","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Gondar","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"H","middleName":"","lastName":"Belete","suffix":""},{"id":486556777,"identity":"5bd841d8-b10d-407c-9233-81953128100a","order_by":4,"name":"M Sadam","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Gondar","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"M","middleName":"","lastName":"Sadam","suffix":""},{"id":486556778,"identity":"eeca68c8-127c-4ce6-9358-b95bc31fe779","order_by":5,"name":"Ahmed G Abdelhamid","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Michigan State University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ahmed","middleName":"G","lastName":"Abdelhamid","suffix":""},{"id":486556779,"identity":"7ab06e2b-79f3-407b-8f2a-74e77755f0e2","order_by":6,"name":"Ahmed E Yousef","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"The Ohio State University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ahmed","middleName":"E","lastName":"Yousef","suffix":""},{"id":486556780,"identity":"fffc991c-51d6-43da-98fb-619660ac95a4","order_by":7,"name":"Gashaw AB","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Gondar","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Gashaw","middleName":"","lastName":"AB","suffix":""},{"id":486556781,"identity":"c4fad20b-47f9-4b84-b08d-646b61b148d0","order_by":8,"name":"M Araya","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Gondar","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"M","middleName":"","lastName":"Araya","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-06-17 14:53:26","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6915572/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6915572/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s42522-026-00208-5","type":"published","date":"2026-03-24T16:08:47+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":87218298,"identity":"19ecc370-3ea5-4fad-9f45-a86a425b4665","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-21 15:50:11","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":133225,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eStudy area, Gondar town, Ethiopia. \u003cem\u003e(Map developed using QGIS-2.18.0 software).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6915572/v1/d3d7812953d339c2cd4dbc89.png"},{"id":87218296,"identity":"63516f1c-cc4a-4556-9d8a-6a358d13994b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-21 15:50:10","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":33827,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAgarose gel electrophoresis of \u003cem\u003ehipO\u003c/em\u003egene (735 bp) for \u003cem\u003eCampylobacter jejuni.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eBCBE-2, \u003c/strong\u003ebeef carcass swab before evisceration; \u003cstrong\u003eBCAE-3, \u003c/strong\u003ebeef carcass swab after evisceration; \u003cstrong\u003eBCAW-4, \u003c/strong\u003ebeef carcass swab after final wash; \u003cstrong\u003eBCBS-5, \u003c/strong\u003ebeef carcass swab in the butcher's shop; \u003cstrong\u003eMSDF-6, \u003c/strong\u003edairy farms; and \u003cstrong\u003eNFW, n\u003c/strong\u003euclease-free water, negative control.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6915572/v1/78a274910df81fdf92cc1306.png"},{"id":105755728,"identity":"27fa8784-160c-423b-a945-9f0b4f193c3c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-30 16:29:58","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1577005,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6915572/v1/7eaa5875-f452-4173-a563-2aa4a01ec5f2.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Prevalence and antimicrobial resistance patterns of Campylobacter jejuni isolated from beef and milk in Gondar town, Amhara region, Ethiopia.","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCampylobacter\u003c/em\u003e is one of the leading food-borne zoonotic pathogens, considered the most common cause of bacterial gastroenteritis in both developed and developing countries, including Ethiopia [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. Within the \u003cem\u003eCampylobacter\u003c/em\u003e genus, thermophilic \u003cem\u003eCampylobacter\u003c/em\u003e species, particularly \u003cem\u003eC. jejuni\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eC. coli\u003c/em\u003e, have been recognized as a major cause of acute bacterial gastroenteritis in humans [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. In severe cases, \u003cem\u003eCampylobacter\u003c/em\u003e infection has been linked to post-infection complications, such as Guillain-Barr\u0026eacute; syndrome and Reiter\u0026rsquo;s syndrome, in addition to the typical diarrheal syndrome [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. \u003cem\u003eCampylobacter jejuni\u003c/em\u003e is a zoonotic pathogen, where poultry, wild birds, cattle, sheep, and pigs are recognized as sources of infection [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn Ethiopia, the incidence of foodborne diseases associated with \u003cem\u003eCampylobacter\u003c/em\u003e is increasing due to various risk factors. These include close contact with carrier animals such as cattle and chickens, lack of access to safe drinking water, socioeconomic challenges, and limited awareness of proper hygiene practices [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. The existing expanded mixed farming system in the country, which combines livestock production, chicken farm, and agriculture, also creates high risk for cross-contamination and adversely increases the prevalence of \u003cem\u003eCampylobacter jejuni\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. Previous studies in Ethiopia have highlighted a high prevalence of \u003cem\u003eCampylobacter\u003c/em\u003e, with rates reaching 56.5% in animals [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e], 50% among children in Eastern Ethiopia [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e], 10.5% in water [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e], and 9.3% in animal-sourced foods [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. In the Amhara region, some researchers reported 21.5% in cattle and 28.9% in poultry fecal samples from backyard farms in Gondar town [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e], 15.4% in children from Dembia district [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e], and 10.5% in diarrheic children at the University of Gondar hospital [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCampylobacter\u003c/em\u003e spp. are frequently transmitted to humans through the consumption of contaminated animal products, such as meat and milk. The pathogen is often isolated from raw meat products due to a high likelihood of carcass contamination during slaughter, handling, and further processing [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. The efficiency of foodborne disease treatments in Ethiopia is adversely affected by the development of drug resistance, particularly stemming from the unregulated accessibility and utilization of antibiotics for poultry production, as well as for human and animal treatment [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the prevalence and antimicrobial resistance patterns of \u003cem\u003eC. jejuni\u003c/em\u003e isolated from raw cow\u0026rsquo;s milk and beef carcasses swabs in Gondar town, Ethiopia, to support the development of effective strategies to prevent and control \u003cem\u003eCampylobacter\u003c/em\u003e infections.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eStudy area\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted from October 2022 to June 2023 in Gondar town, Amhara Region, Ethiopia, located in the Northwestern highlands of Ethiopia, at approximately 12\u0026deg;3\u0026prime;N latitude and 37\u0026deg;28\u0026prime;E (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The city has a total area of 192.3 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, with an average elevation of 2200 m above sea level. The annual temperature ranges from 22\u0026deg;C to 30.7\u0026deg;C, with an average of 26\u0026deg;C. Relative humidity varies from 60\u0026ndash;70% during the rainy season and from 30\u0026ndash;40% during the dry season, with a mean annual rainfall of nearly 1025 mm [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. According to the district administration office report, the human population is 355,857, and there are 10,112 cattle, 24,690 goats, 3,830 sheep, 2,165 horses, 9,891 donkeys, and 75,834 poultry.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSample size determination\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo determine the sample size, we referred to previous reports to fix the expected prevalence rates: 13.4% for raw milk [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e] and 7.4% for carcass swabs [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. The minimum required sample size was then calculated at 95% confidence interval (CI) and 5% desired precision using the formula: N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Z\u0026sup2; * P * (1-P) / d\u0026sup2; where: N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;minimum required sample size; Z\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;desired level of confidence at 95% CI, which is 1.96; d\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;margin of error set at 5%; and P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;expected prevalence [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. As a result, the minimum required sample size was 103 for milk and 57 for beef carcasses. To increase the precision of the study, we raised the sample size by decreasing the margin of error to 0.01% and collected a total of 194 milk samples and 196 beef carcass swab samples.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eStudy design and sampling method\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA cross-sectional, multistage random sampling was applied to investigate the prevalence and antibiotic resistance patterns of \u003cem\u003eC. jejuni\u003c/em\u003e in raw cow\u0026rsquo;s milk and swabs from beef carcasses. The primary unit of analysis was Kebele, which represents the lowest-level administrative division within the town. The secondary unit comprises dairy farms, while the tertiary units include individual lactating cows, cafeterias, slaughtered cattle, and beef in butchers\u0026rsquo; shops. Among the 21 kebeles in the town, 10 kebeles, which included 40 dairy farms that were randomly selected, 169 milk samples were collected (from 2\u0026ndash;10 healthy lactating cows per farm based on the availability), and a total of 25 milk samples were collected from cafeterias that are distributed with in these kebeles. Fifty-five beef carcass swabs from various butcher shops and 141 carcass swabs from the municipal abattoir were randomly collected using the list obtained from local administrative offices and the municipal abattoir record sheets.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eInclusion and exclusion criteria\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll randomly selected animals were included in the study; however, animals that had received antibiotic treatment in the last two weeks were excluded, and the next available animal was included instead.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSample collection\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSamples were collected from October 2022 to June 2023, following the guidelines provided by the World Organization for Animal Health (WOHA) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. Samples of raw cow\u0026rsquo;s milk were collected from dairy farms and cafeterias. On dairy farms, milk samples were collected individually from each animal's milk, while in cafeterias, samples were taken from bulk milk tanks before heat treatment. To assess potential risk factors, the body condition score (BCS) of the cattle was ranked on a scale of 1 to 5, as described in a previous study [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. The scoring categories were: poor (scores 1\u0026ndash;2), medium (score 3), and good (scores 4\u0026ndash;5). Additionally, the hygiene conditions of the farms were categorized as high, medium, or poor based on their adherence to basic hygiene practices. A high hygiene score is granted when the farm demonstrates excellent cleanliness and sanitation practices, including daily cleaning with disinfectants, restricted access to the farm, regular washing of udders with antiseptics before milking, and proper handwashing of milkers with antiseptics. Medium hygiene is given to farms that regularly clean floors with water, limit access to the farm, wash udders with water before milking, and ensure milkers wash their hands with antiseptics. A poor hygiene score indicates inadequate hygiene, characterized by infrequent cleaning and insufficient attention to the cleanliness of animals and milkers. Cattle breeds were classified as either local or crossbred, and animals were categorized by age as young (5\u0026ndash;8 years) or old (9\u0026ndash;12 years), based on information provided by the farm owners.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDuring milk sampling, approximately 15 ml were aseptically collected using a sterile, screw-capped test tube and stored in an insulated box with ice packs before being transported to the University of Gondar (UoG) food safety laboratory for analysis. Beef carcass swab samples were collected from the municipal abattoir and butcher shops following previously established protocols [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e], with some modifications. Briefly, wet cotton swabs were used to sample a 50 cm\u0026sup2; area (10 cm x 5 cm) in four carcass regions: the neck, brisket, flank, and rump. These pulled swab samples were placed in 5 mL of sterile buffered peptone water (BPW) (Oxoid Ltd., Hampshire, UK). After the swabbing was completed, the shaft of the swab handle was broken, leaving the cotton swab inside the collection test tube. The test tube was then sealed with a screw cap. Sampling at the abattoir was conducted on three separate operation lines, before evisceration, after evisceration, and after the final carcass wash. All samples were submitted to the University of Gondar food safety laboratory in a cold box and processed immediately.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eIsolation of\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eCampylobacter jejuni\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe isolation and identification of \u003cem\u003eC. jejuni\u003c/em\u003e were conducted according to the enrichment methods previously outlined [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. Briefly, 15 ml of milk samples were centrifuged at 10,000 rpm for 10 minutes. After discarding the fat layer and supernatant, the pellets were resuspended in 1.0 ml buffered peptone water and vortexed. Subsequently, 9 ml Bolton broth (Oxoid, Hants, UK) with a selective supplement and laked horse blood (HemoStat Laboratories, Dixon, USA) were added and pre-enriched by incubating the samples for 4 hours at 37\u0026deg;C, under microaerobic conditions which was generated using airtight jars containing a gas generating kit (CampyGen\u0026trade; 3.5L, Oxoid, Basingstoke, UK). Enrichment was achieved by extending the incubation time for an additional 18 hours at 42\u0026deg;C under the same microaerobic conditions. After enrichment, 30 \u0026micro;l (three loopfuls) were spread onto \u003cem\u003eCampylobacter\u003c/em\u003e blood-free modified charcoal-cefoperazone-deoxycholate selective agar (mCCDA-Preston; Oxoid, Basingstoke, Hants, UK) containing the \u003cem\u003eCampylobacter\u003c/em\u003e CCDA selective supplement (Oxoid, Hants, UK). Following 16 to 18 hours of incubation at 42\u0026deg;C under microaerophilic conditions, as mentioned above, the plates were examined for the growth of colonies. When no colony growth was observed, the incubation was extended for an additional 24 hours under the same conditions and reobserved. All colonies that appeared grayish, flat, moist, often with a metallic sheen, and a tendency to spread were considered presumptive \u003cem\u003eCampylobacter\u003c/em\u003e spp. and those that are Gram-negative, with spiral, \u0026ldquo;S\u0026rdquo; or a \u0026ldquo;V\u0026rdquo; shape roads, catalase and oxidase positive, and hydrolyze Hippurate were taken as presumptive \u003cem\u003eC. jejuni\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMolecular detection of\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eCampylobacter jejuni\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eDNA preparation\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTemplate DNA was prepared by the heat lysis method [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. Briefly, a loopful of bacterial colonies from an agar plate was suspended in 1 mL of Tris-EDTA buffer, boiled for 10 minutes, and immediately chilled on ice for 5 minutes. Further, it was centrifuged for 10 min. at 10,000 rpm, and 5 \u0026micro;L of supernatant was used as PCR template DNA.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePCR-based identification of Campylobacter jejuni\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor detection of hippuricase gene (\u003cem\u003ehipO\u003c/em\u003e) of \u003cem\u003eC. jejuni\u003c/em\u003e by PCR, a forward primer (HIP400F): 5\u0026rsquo;-GAA GAG GGT TTG GGT GGT G-3\u0026rsquo;, and a reverse primer (HIP1134R): 5\u0026rsquo;-AGC TAG CTT CGC ATA ATA ACT TG3\u0026rsquo; were used to amplify a 735 bp product size using protocol reported by previous research with slight modification [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. A 25 \u0026micro;l volume PCR protocol for the detection of \u003cem\u003ehip0\u003c/em\u003e gene of \u003cem\u003eC. jejuni\u003c/em\u003e was: 10X Buffer (15mM Mg Cl\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e ; 2.5 \u0026micro;l); MgCl\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e (25 mMol; 1 \u0026micro;l); dNTP mix (25 mMol; 0.2 \u0026micro;l); HIP400F primer (with 10 pmol / \u0026micro;l; 1\u0026micro;l); HIP1134R primer (with 10 pmol / \u0026micro;l;1\u0026micro;l); \u003cem\u003eTaq\u003c/em\u003e polymerase (3 Ս/ \u0026micro;l ; 0.4 \u0026micro;l); Template DNA(2.5 \u0026micro;l) and nuclease-free water (16.4 \u0026micro;l). The genes were amplified in a PCR thermocycler (Mastercycler, China), which was adjusted at initial denaturation of 94\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC for 5 minutes; followed by 30 cycles, each consisting of 1 minute at 94\u0026deg;C, 1 minute at 56\u0026deg;C, and 2 minutes at 72\u0026deg;C, concluding with a final extension cycle of 7 minutes at 72\u0026deg;C. Before electrophoresis, 10 \u0026micro;l of each PCR product was mixed with 2 \u0026micro;l of a dye (EZ-Vision One\u0026trade; DNA dye) and loaded into wells of a 1.5% agarose gel. For reference, a 100-bp DNA ladder (Quick-Load \u0026reg; Purple DNA Ladder; Biolabs, UK) was used, and electrophoresis was performed at 70 V. The image of the gel was captured using the gel documentation system (BioTop, gel documentation system, China).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAntimicrobial resistance test\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAntimicrobial resistance testing was carried out using the Kirby\u0026ndash;Bauer disk-diffusion method [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. Ten different antimicrobial disks, including the broad spectrum that acts on both gram-positive and negative bacteria, were tested: cefoxitin (CTX)-30\u0026micro;g, cefotaxime (CX)-30\u0026micro;g, vancomycin (VA)-5\u0026micro;g, polymyxin-B (PB)-30\u0026micro;g, tetracycline (TE)-30\u0026micro;g, nalidixic acid (NA)-30\u0026micro;g, norfloxacin (NX)-10\u0026micro;g, erythromycin (E)-15\u0026micro;g, streptomycin (S)-10\u0026micro;g, and co-trimoxazole (COT)-25\u0026micro;g. Confirmed \u003cem\u003eCampylobacter jejuni\u003c/em\u003e isolates, from overnight subcultures, were tested for antibiotic resistance as follows: Colonies were suspended in 10 mL sterile normal saline solution (0.9% NaCl), and after vortex mixing, the turbidity was adjusted to the 0.5 McFarland standard. Muller-Hinton agar was streaked using a sterile cotton swab dipped into the inoculum tube and the antimicrobial discs were placed on the surface of the agar using sterile forceps. Further overnight incubation were performed under microaerobic conditions at 42\u0026deg;C as described earlier. The resulting zone of inhibition was measured in mm with a caliper, recorded, and interpreted using the published zone diameter standards for \u003cem\u003eCampylobacter\u003c/em\u003e and the standard zone diameter interpretive chart for gram negative, microaerophilic rods, as susceptible (S), intermediate (I), or resistant (R) to the antimicrobial agent (Table \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR34 CR35\" citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe guidelines used to determine the antimicrobial resistance breakpoints for the disk-diffusion methods.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAntimicrobial agent\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDisk Conc.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(\u0026micro;g)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eZone diameter breakpoint (mm)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eI\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCefotaxime\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30 \u0026micro;g\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u0026ndash;22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCefoxitin\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30 \u0026micro;g\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u0026ndash;19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePolymyxin-B\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30 \u0026micro;g\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u0026ndash;20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVancomycin\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5 \u0026micro;g\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNorfloxacin\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10 \u0026micro;g\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u0026ndash;16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNalidixic acid\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30 \u0026micro;g\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u0026ndash;18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStreptomycin\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10 \u0026micro;g\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u0026ndash;14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTetracycline\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30 \u0026micro;g\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u0026ndash;14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eErythromycin\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15 \u0026micro;g\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u0026ndash;22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCo-Trimoxazole\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25 \u0026micro;g\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u0026ndash;16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS- Susceptible; I- Intermediate; R- Resistant; Conc\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e-\u003c/b\u003e \u003cem\u003eConcentrations.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData management and analysis methods\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eRaw data and laboratory results were recorded into a Microsoft Excel sheet and analyzed using STATA software version 14.0. Descriptive statistics were conducted to compute the number of samples positive for \u003cem\u003eC. jejuni.\u003c/em\u003e A multivariate logistic regression test was used to assess the association between variables (breed, age, BCS, and Hygienic system) and the occurrence of \u003cem\u003eC. jejuni\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePrevalence of \u003cem\u003eCampylobacter jejuni\u003c/em\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp id=\"_Toc43956262\"\u003eThe overall prevalence of PCR-confirmed \u003cem\u003eC. jejuni\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eisolates from samples of raw cow\u0026rsquo;s milk and beef carcass swabs, collected from Gondar town, was 20.8% (81/390) as shown in Table 2 and confirmed using PCR (Fig. 2). Among the milk samples collected, 19.6% (38/194) were positive for \u003cem\u003eC jejuni,\u003c/em\u003e and beef carcass swabs were 21.9% (43/196) positive. \u0026nbsp;In raw milk samples collected, dairy farms showed a prevalence of 19.5% (33/169), whereas milk from the cafeteria had 20% (5/25). The highest prevalence, 24.8% (35/141), was observed in beef carcass swabs from municipal abattoirs, whereas butcher shops had a prevalence of 14.5% (8/55). In the case of beef carcass swabs from the abattoir, the highest level was noted in samples collected after evisceration (36.2%), followed by those collected after carcass washing (23.4%), with the lowest level recorded for samples collected before evisceration (14.9%) (Table 2).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003ePrevalence of\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;Campylobacter jejuni\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003efrom milk and beef carcass swabs in Gondar town, Ethiopia, 2022-2023.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"634\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 134px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSample type\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 262px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSamples\u0026rsquo; source\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal examined\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eC. jejuni\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;positive\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePrevalence (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"4\" style=\"width: 134px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCarcass swab in the abattoir\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 262px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBeef carcass swab before evisceration\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 262px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBeef carcass swab after evisceration\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 262px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBeef carcass swab after final wash\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 262px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSubtotal\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e141\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 134px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCarcass swab in the butcher\u0026apos;s house\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 262px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBeef carcass swab in the butcher\u0026apos;s shop\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 396px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBeef carcass swab subtotal\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e196\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 134px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRaw cow\u0026rsquo;s milk\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 262px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDairy farms\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e169\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 262px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCafeteria\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 396px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRaw milk subtotal\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e194\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 396px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e390\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp id=\"_Toc43956263\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMilk samples collected from 40 dairy farms were assessed based on breed, age group, body condition score, and farm hygiene as described in the methodology part. Among \u003cem\u003eC. jejuni\u003c/em\u003e positive cows, relatively higher proportion of \u003cem\u003eC. jejuni\u003c/em\u003e was observed in crossbreds (54.5%) than local breeds (45.5%); in the older age group (57.6%) than younger groups (42.4%); in medium body condition score (BCS) (54.5%) than good BCS (45.5%); and in poor (36.4%) and medium hygienic farms (39.4%) than good hygiene farms (24.2%). Despite the differences in \u003cem\u003eC. jejuni\u003c/em\u003e occurrence among potential risk factors, these differences were not statistically significant (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026gt; 0.05) (Table 3).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp id=\"_Toc43956267\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 3:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003ePrevalence of Campylobacter jejuni and risk factors in milk samples in Gondar, Ethiopia,\u0026nbsp;2022-2023.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"615\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 120px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVariables\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGroup\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 105px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal examined\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eC. jejuni\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;positive\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 114px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRelative prevalence (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003ep.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;value\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 120px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBreed\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCross\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 105px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 114px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e54.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.791\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLocal\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 105px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e69\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 114px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 120px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAge\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYoung\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 105px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e93\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 114px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e42.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.122\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOld\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 105px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e76\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 114px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e57.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 120px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBCS\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGood\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 105px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e88\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 114px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.473\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMedium\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 105px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 114px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e54.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 120px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHygienic system\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 105px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 114px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.384\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMedium\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 105px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 114px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePoor\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 105px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 114px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp id=\"_Toc48187857\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAntimicrobial resistance patterns\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;of isolated \u003cem\u003eCampylobacter jejuni\u003c/em\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConfirmed \u003cem\u003eC. jejuni\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eisolates (a total of 81) were tested for antimicrobial resistance against 10 commonly used antibiotics. The highest resistance was observed for tetracycline at (100%), followed by polymyxin-B (74.1%) and vancomycin (71.6%). Among the sample sources, the majority of the tetracycline-resistant isolates were from beef carcass swabs (53.1%), while 46.9% were from milk samples. Additionally, a notable proportion of isolates, 24.7%, showed resistance to the third-generation antibiotic, cefotaxime (see Table 4).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 4\u003c/strong\u003e: Antimicrobial-resistance patterns of Campylobacter jejuni isolates from milk and beef in Gondar town, Ethiopia, 2022-2023.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"714\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAntibiotics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConc.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 174px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eC. jejuni\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;isolates (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 174px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResistant \u003cem\u003eC. jejuni\u003c/em\u003e from raw cow\u0026rsquo;s milk (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 162px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResistant \u003cem\u003eC. jejuni\u003c/em\u003e from carcass swab (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eS*\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eI*\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eR*\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCaffe\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFarm\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSub Total\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAbattoir\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eButchers\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSub Total\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCephalosporins:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCefotaxime\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30 \u0026micro;g\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44 (54.3)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17 (21)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20 (24.7)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6 (7.4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14 (17.3)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCefoxitin\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30 \u0026micro;g\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e65 (80.2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 (2.5)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14 (17.3)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 (2.5)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12 (14.8)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePolymyxin:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePolymyxin-B\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30 \u0026micro;g\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18 (22.2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3 (3.7)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60 (74.1)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30 (37)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30 (37)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGlycopeptide:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVancomycin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 \u0026micro;g\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23 (28.4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e58 (71.6)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18 (22.2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40 (49.4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eQuinolone:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNorfloxacin\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10 \u0026micro;g\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e66 (81.5)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10 (12.3)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 (6.2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0 (0)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 (6.2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNalidixic acid\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30 \u0026micro;g\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28 (34.6)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18 (22.2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35 (43.2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10 (12.3)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25 (30.9)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAminoglycoside:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStreptomycin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10 \u0026micro;g\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20 (24.7)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24 (29.6)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37 (45.7)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16 (19.8)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21 (25.9)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTetracycline:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTetracycline\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30 \u0026micro;g\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e81 (100.0)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38 (46.9)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e43 (53.1)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMacrolide:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eErythromycin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15 \u0026micro;g\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19 (23.5)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12 (14.8)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50 (61.7)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18 (22.2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32 (39.5)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSulfonamides:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCo-Trimoxazole\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25 \u0026micro;g\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e67 (82.7)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3 (3.7)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11 (13.6)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4 (4.9)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7 (8.6)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eResults are presented numerically, with percentages in parentheses.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003eS*- Susceptible; I*- Intermediate; R*- Resistant; Conc\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e-\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003eConcentrations\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMulti-drug resistance (MDR) patterns of \u003cem\u003eCampylobacter\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003ejejuni\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAmong a total of 81 tested isolates of \u003cem\u003eC. jejuni\u003c/em\u003e, nearly half demonstrated resistance to three or more classes of antimicrobial drugs. Resistance levels were highest for tetracycline, polymyxin-B, and vancomycin at 49.4%, followed by tetracycline, polymyxin-B, and erythromycin at 44.4%. All the isolates in this study were resistant to tetracyclines, and one isolate (from a beef swab after evisceration) was resistant to the ten tested antibiotics. The majority (33.3%) of the multidrug-resistant isolates originated from beef carcasses, compared to isolates from milk samples (16.1%). Among the isolates obtained from milk samples, the majority demonstrating multidrug resistance were sourced from the farm (13.6%). Additionally, similar findings were observed in beef carcass swabs collected from the abattoir (see Table 5).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 5:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eMultidrug-resistant patterns of 81 \u003cem\u003eCampylobacter jejuni\u003c/em\u003e isolates from milk and beef in Gondar, Ethiopia, 2022-2023.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"660\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAntibiotics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResistant isolates (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"5\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 325px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSource and number of resistant isolates (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 150px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMilk\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 175px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBeef carcass swab\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFarm\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCaffe\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAbattoir\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eButchers\u0026rsquo; shop\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTE/PB/VA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40(49.4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11(13.6)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2(2.5)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21(25.9)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6(7.4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTE/PB/E\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36(44.4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11(13.6)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2(2.5)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21(25.9)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2(2.5)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTE/PB/NA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29(35.8)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9(11.1)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1(1.2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13(16.0)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6(7.4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTE/PB/S\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28(34.6)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10(12.3)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2(2.5)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15(18.5)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1(1.2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTE/PB/VA/E\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29(35.8)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7(8.6)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1(1.2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19(23.5)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2(2.5)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTE/PB/VA/NA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21(25.9)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4(4.9)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11(13.6)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6(7.4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTE/PB/E/NA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18(22.2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4(4.9)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1(1.2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11(13.6)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2(2.5)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTE/PB/NA/S\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18(22.2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5(6.2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1(1.2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11(13.6)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1(1.2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTE/PB/VA/S\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17(21.0)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2(2.5)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1(1.2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13(16.0)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1(1.2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTE/PB/E/S\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17(21.0)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3(3.7)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2(2.5)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12(14.8)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTE/PB/VA/E/NA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15(18.5)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3(3.7)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10(12.3)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2(2.5)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTE/PB/VA/E/S\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13(16.0)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1(1.2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1(1.2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11(13.6)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTE/PB/VA/S/NA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12(14.8)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2(2.5)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9(11.1)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1(1.2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTE/PB/E/S/NA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12(14.8)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2(2.5)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1(1.2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9(11.1)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTE/VA/E/S/NA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10(12.3)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1(1.2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9(11.1)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTE/PB/VA/E/S/NA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9(11.1)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1(1.2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8(9.9)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTE/PB/VA/E/NA/CTX\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9(11.1)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2(2.5)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7(8.6)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTE/PB/VA/S/NA/CTX\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9(11.1)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1(1.2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8(9.9)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTE/PB/E/S/NA/CTX\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9(11.1)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2(2.5)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7(8.6)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTE/VA/E/S/NA/CTX\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8(9.9)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1(1.2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7(8.6)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTE/PB/VA/E/S/NA/CTX\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7(8.6)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1(1.2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6(7.4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTE/PB/VA/E/S/NA/CX/COT\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2(2.5)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2(2.5)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTE/PB/VA/E/S/NA/CTX/CX/COT/NX\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 83px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1(1.2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1(1.2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNotes\u003c/strong\u003e: Multidrug resistance patterns of the 81 C. jejuni isolates to a combination of different antibiotics, with percentages in parentheses.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study focused on assessing the prevalence of lesser-studied and underreported pathogens that frequently cause foodborne infectious diseases in Ethiopia, specifically \u003cem\u003eC. jejuni\u003c/em\u003e and its drug resistance patterns in milk and beef isolates, which are most commonly consumed raw or undercooked. Transmission of \u003cem\u003eCampylobacter\u003c/em\u003e infections to humans via the consumption of raw milk has been reported in numerous outbreaks [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. In this study, 19.6% of raw cow\u0026rsquo;s milk samples tested were positive for \u003cem\u003eC. jejuni\u003c/em\u003e, which aligns with a previous study that reported 18% [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]. Cattle are typical carriers of \u003cem\u003eC. jejuni\u003c/em\u003e; therefore, cross-contamination of milk can occur from the animal's feces during milking [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]. In this study, we observed that the occurrence of \u003cem\u003eC. jejuni\u003c/em\u003e was slightly higher in cafeteria milk samples compared to milk samples from the farm. This difference may be attributed to a higher likelihood of contamination, which could arise from the extensive supply chain or possible adulteration of milk with water, which is a common practice in the study area [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe results of the multivariate logistic regression analysis indicate an association between the probable predictor variable and the occurrences of \u003cem\u003eC. jejuni\u003c/em\u003e (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Milk samples from lactating cows in poor hygienic systems are relatively more likely (12.2%) to be contaminated with \u003cem\u003eC. jejuni\u003c/em\u003e than from higher hygienic systems, though statistically not significant (\u003cem\u003ep-\u003c/em\u003evalue\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Breed, age, and body condition scores also indicated some differences in the prevalence of \u003cem\u003eC. jejuni\u003c/em\u003e, although these differences were statistically insignificant. This observation underscores the presence of additional confounding factors that extend beyond the aforementioned potential predictors of milk contamination. Factors such as the health and hygiene of the milker, poor post-harvest handling, and the cleanliness of the milk tank and utensils used for transporting and preserving the milk can significantly influence contamination, beyond the hygiene of the lactating cow [ 41, 42]. The results of this study also indicate that milk from cross-bred cattle has a higher relative prevalence of \u003cem\u003eC. jejuni\u003c/em\u003e compared to milk from local breeds; milk from older cattle than from younger ones, and milk from cattle with a medium body condition score than from those with a good body condition score (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). This trend may be linked to the limited capacity and awareness of traditionally managed small dairy farm owners to maintain the hygienic status of higher milk-yielding, genetically improved, and older cattle with greater milk-producing potential in the post-harvest milkshed.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCampylobacter\u003c/em\u003e can colonize most warm-blooded animals and poultry, and it is the leading cause of bacterial-derived foodborne diarrheal disease in humans, which may arise from contamination of meat and meat products [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e]. In this study, an overall 21.9% positivity rate was found in beef carcass swabs (with relative prevalence of 23.4% from abattoir samples and 14.5% from butcher shop samples). The result is relatively higher than earlier study reports: 5.3% in Addis Ababa and Debrezeyit abattoirs [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e], 7.3% in Addis Ababa [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e], and 11.8% in Arba Minch, Ethiopia [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e]. These variations could be due to multiple confounding factors, including climate, seasonal variations, farm sanitation practices, and farmers\u0026rsquo; level of awareness of zoonotic diseases [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIt is well known that during the slaughtering process, the main sources of contamination are the slaughtered animals themselves, the staff, and the work environment [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e]. Findings from this study reinforce this fact. In three different operational systems of municipal abattoirs, the highest isolation rate was found in carcass swabs collected after the evisceration process, with a rate of 36.2%. This was followed by samples collected after washing, which had an isolation rate of 23.4% (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). The high occurrence of \u003cem\u003eC. jejuni\u003c/em\u003e after evisceration may result from contamination of carcasses with intestinal contents or improperly cleaned equipment during evisceration and subsequent processing in the slaughterhouse. Likewise, after washing the carcass, there were relatively higher levels of \u003cem\u003eC. jejuni\u003c/em\u003e isolates compared to before evisceration. This may be linked to slaughter practices, poor water quality used, and the usage of cold water for carcass washing, which did not significantly contribute to the removal of bacterial contamination [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAntibiotic resistance has been reported as a global public health concern. Different studies indicated that antimicrobial resistance (AMR) profiles show an increase in some \u003cem\u003eCampylobacter\u003c/em\u003e spp. [ 34, 48]. Previous studies have shown that the most commonly used antibiotics for treating animals in smallholder livestock farming systems in Ethiopia are tetracyclines (36.4%), aminoglycosides (31.3%), and trimethoprim-sulfonamides (6.2%) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e]. This study has revealed a high level of resistance to frequently used antibiotics as well as not commonly used for animal treatment: - resistance to tetracycline was found to be 100%, followed by polymyxin B at 74.1%, vancomycin at 71.6%, streptomycin at 45.7%, and nalidixic acid at 43.2% (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Among the 100% tetracycline-resistant isolates, 46.9% were from milk sample isolates (mainly from dairy farms, 40.7%) and 53.1% were from carcass swab isolates, mainly from the abattoir (43.2%). This finding supports earlier research, indicating a strong connection between antimicrobial resistance (AMR) development, widely used antimicrobials, and possible resistant gene transfer between human and animal isolates [ 35, 53, 54].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe weight of tetracycline resistance in this study is nearly in agreement with the previous study (82.2%) reported in Jimma, Ethiopia [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. The current findings indicate a significantly higher tetracycline resistance compared to older reports: 13.5% in poultry and 22.2% in human samples from Bahirdar in 2010 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e], as well as 39.5% in 2014 and 42.1% in 2022 in Jimma [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e]. This also suggests an increasing trend of tetracycline resistance associated with prolonged use over the years.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn this study, nearly half of the \u003cem\u003eC. jejuni\u003c/em\u003e isolates (49.4%) exhibited multidrug resistance to three or more different groups of tested antimicrobial agents (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). The highest resistance observed for four different antibiotics (TE/PB/VA/E) was 35.8% (that included 26% of isolates from carcass swabs and 9.8% from milk samples). Resistance to five different antibiotics (TE/PB/VA/E/NA) was noted in 18.5% of the isolates, and one isolate from a carcass swab exhibited resistance to all tested antimicrobial drugs. Overall, the isolates from carcass swabs showed a higher proportion of resistance to the tested antibiotics compared to those from milk samples. The high levels of resistance to various antimicrobial agents may be attributed to several factors, including the unrestricted use of these agents in treating animals, insufficient infection prevention and control measures, and a lack of surveillance and monitoring laboratory capabilities in Ethiopia [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eLimitations\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite broader assessments of \u003cem\u003eCampylobacter jejuni\u003c/em\u003e, specifically the drug resistance patterns related to multiple, commonly used antimicrobials, this study has limitations in the identification of responsible genes for the developed drug resistance, which require advanced technology and funding. Additionally, the study area coverage is limited, which may make the study deficient in generalizing at the country level, even though the implementation of drug administration rules and regulations, as well as farm management practices and traditions, are similar across the regions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion and recommendation","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study reveals that animal products, especially raw milk and beef, are often contaminated with \u003cem\u003eCampylobacter jejuni\u003c/em\u003e, which presents a significant risk of foodborne zoonotic infections for consumers. Furthermore, the study indicates the development of high-level drug resistance among \u003cem\u003eC. jejuni\u003c/em\u003e isolates, including resistance to certain third-generation antibiotics that are not used for animal treatments in the country. This situation threatens human health by reducing available treatment options and contributing to the emergence and spread of this pathogen to human, animal, and environmental health. Therefore, to mitigate the risks associated with foodborne zoonotic diseases such as \u003cem\u003eC. jejuni\u003c/em\u003e in the food chain, it is recommended to adopt a One Health approach by enabling surveillance of \u003cem\u003eCampylobacter\u003c/em\u003e throughout the food supply chain, implementing strict antimicrobial use programs in both human and veterinary sectors, and enhancing personnel hygiene during milking and slaughter.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBCS\u003c/b\u003e Body condition scores\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBPW\u003c/b\u003e Buffered Peptone Water\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCSA\u003c/b\u003e Central Statistical Agency\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCI\u003c/b\u003e Confidence interval\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWOHA\u003c/b\u003e World Organization for Animal Health\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePCR\u003c/b\u003e Polymerase Chain Reaction\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eUoG\u003c/b\u003e University of Gondar\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research work was carried out after receiving ethical clearance from the College of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences Research Ethics Review Committee (CVMASc-RERC), University of Gondar, Ethiopia, with a reference number CVMASc/UoG/RERC/2521.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll the data concerning this manuscript are contained within the text.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eFunding\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research was partially supported by the University of Gondar (UoG) laboratory facility in Ethiopia.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eAuthors\u0026apos; contributions\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eS.N.\u003c/strong\u003e: conceptualization, data curation, formal analysis, investigation, methodology, visualization, writing original draft. \u003cstrong\u003eD. B.\u003c/strong\u003e: conceptualization, data curation, investigation, methodology, writing \u0026ndash; reviewing \u0026amp; editing. \u003cstrong\u003eA. B.\u003c/strong\u003e: conceptualization, writing, reviewing \u0026amp; editing. \u003cstrong\u003eB.H.\u003c/strong\u003e: conceptualization, writing, reviewing \u0026amp; editing. \u003cstrong\u003eS.M.\u003c/strong\u003e: conceptualization, writing, reviewing \u0026amp; editing. \u003cstrong\u003eA.G.A.:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003ewriting, reviewing \u0026amp; editing. \u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;A.E.Y.:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003esupervision\u003cstrong\u003e,\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003ewriting, reviewing \u0026amp; editing. \u003cstrong\u003eG. A.\u003c/strong\u003e: supervision, writing, reviewing \u0026amp; editing. \u003cstrong\u003eA. M.\u003c/strong\u003e: supervision, writing, reviewing \u0026amp; editing. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors express their gratitude to the Ethiopian field assistants for their help during sample collection and to the leaders of the Ohio State University Global One Health Initiative (GOHi) for their encouragement and supervision. We thank the staff of the Food Safety Laboratory at the College of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, University of Gondar, for their unreserved assistance during the laboratory work.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eAuthors\u0026rsquo; information\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e*1\u003c/sup\u003eDepartment of Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health, College of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, University of Gondar, P.O. Box 196, Gondar, Ethiopia. Email.\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\[email protected]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003eDepartment of Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health, College of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, University of Gondar, P.O. Box 196, Gondar, Ethiopia\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003eCollege of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Department of Veterinary Sciences, Assosa University, Ethiopia.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003eDepartment of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003eDepartment of Food Science and Technology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003eInstitute of Public Health, College of Medicine, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eFootnotes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBelina D, Hailu Y, Gobena T, Hald T, Njage PMK. 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Infect Immun. 2009 ;77(12):5428-36. doi: 10.1128/IAI.00528-09.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLuangtongkum T, Morishita TY, El-Tayeb AB, Ison AJ, Zhang Q. Comparison of antimicrobial susceptibility testing of Campylobacter spp. by the agar dilution and the agar disk diffusion methods. J Clin Microbiol. 2007;45(2):590\u0026ndash;4. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.00986-06.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTaylor EV, Herman KM, Ailes EC, Fitzgerald C, Yoder JS, Mahon BE, Tauxe RV. Common source outbreaks of Campylobacter infection in the USA, 1997-2008. Epidemiol Infect. 2013; 141(5):987-96. doi: 10.1017/S0950268812001744.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZeinhom MMA, Abdel-Latef GK, Corke H. Prevalence, Characterization, and Control of \u003cem\u003eCampylobacter jejuni\u003c/em\u003e Isolated from Raw Milk, Cheese, and Human Stool Samples in Beni-Suef Governorate, Egypt. 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International journal of bacteriology. 2014; ID 560617. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/560617.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDebelo M, Mohammed N, Tiruneh A, Tolosa T. Isolation, identification, and antibiotic resistance profile of thermophilic \u003cem\u003eCampylobacter\u003c/em\u003e species from Bovine, Knives, and personnel at Jimma Town Abattoir, Ethiopia. PLoS ONE. 2022;17(10): e0276625. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0276625.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWoldu MA. Antimicrobial resistance in Ethiopia: current landscape, challenges, and strategic interventions. Discov Med. 2024; 1: 68. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44337-024-00090-y.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"one-health-outlook","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"oneh","sideBox":"Learn more about [One Health Outlook](https://onehealthoutlook.biomedcentral.com)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/oneh/default.aspx","title":"One Health Outlook","twitterHandle":"@BioMedCentral","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Antibiotic resistance, Beef, Campylobacter jejuni, Ethiopia, Milk, One-health","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6915572/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6915572/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCampylobacter jejuni\u003c/em\u003e is one of the top five leading causes of foodborne diarrheal zoonotic diseases globally, frequently transmitted through consumption of contaminated foods, such as milk and meat. In Ethiopia, the common practice of consuming raw, unpasteurized milk and undercooked beef, coupled with weak regulations on antibiotic use, increases the risk of foodborne infections and the development of drug resistance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eObjective\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study aimed to investigate the prevalence and antimicrobial resistance patterns of \u003cem\u003eCampylobacter jejuni\u003c/em\u003e isolated from fresh raw cow\u0026rsquo;s milk and beef carcass swabs in Gondar town, Ethiopia.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA cross-sectional study was conducted from October 2022 to June 2023. Raw cow milk samples were collected from dairy farms and cafeterias (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;194), and beef carcass swabs were taken from municipal abattoirs and butcher shops (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;196) using a stratified multistage sampling method. For identification, biochemical tests, including Hippurate hydrolysis and confirmatory amplification of the 735 bp \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;hipO\u0026rdquo; Campylobacter jejuni\u003c/em\u003e gene, were performed. Antibiotic resistance patterns were assessed using the Kirby-Bauer disk-diffusion method.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study revealed a high prevalence of \u003cem\u003eCampylobacter jejuni\u003c/em\u003e, with rates of 19.6% in raw cow\u0026rsquo;s milk and 21.9% in beef carcass swabs. Notably, the relative prevalence was 20% in cafeteria milk samples and 36.2% in beef swabs collected after evisceration. This research also found substantial antimicrobial resistance: 100% to tetracyclines, 74.1% to polymyxin B, 71.6% to vancomycin, and 61.7% to erythromycin. Additionally, 49.4% of the isolates exhibited multidrug resistance to three different antibiotic groups (tetracyclines, polymyxin-B, and vancomycin), and notably, one isolate showed resistance to all ten tested antibiotics.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusion\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study identified a higher overall prevalence of \u003cem\u003eCampylobacter jejuni\u003c/em\u003e (20.8%) in milk and beef compared to previous reports. It also revealed a concerning level of multidrug resistance to antibiotics that are used in both humans and animals. Therefore, it is recommended to adopt an integrated One Health approach to prevent and control zoonotic pathogens, including \u003cem\u003eCampylobacter jejuni\u003c/em\u003e, and the overwhelming challenge of drug resistance.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Prevalence and antimicrobial resistance patterns of Campylobacter jejuni isolated from beef and milk in Gondar town, Amhara region, Ethiopia.","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-07-21 15:50:06","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6915572/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-09-28T22:21:37+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-09-23T15:50:03+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"123702534089812475670273878229506955516","date":"2025-09-22T22:54:13+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-08-15T08:34:36+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"254326600559152640135109163713856906034","date":"2025-07-28T21:29:23+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-07-16T22:42:08+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-06-23T10:18:47+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-06-19T09:23:37+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"One Health Outlook","date":"2025-06-17T14:47:11+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"one-health-outlook","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"oneh","sideBox":"Learn more about [One Health Outlook](https://onehealthoutlook.biomedcentral.com)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/oneh/default.aspx","title":"One Health Outlook","twitterHandle":"@BioMedCentral","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"6e9d7b4a-df27-431a-8452-adbc3feb263f","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 21st, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-30T16:24:46+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-6915572","link":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s42522-026-00208-5","journal":{"identity":"one-health-outlook","isVorOnly":false,"title":"One Health Outlook"},"publishedOn":"2026-03-24 16:08:47","publishedOnDateReadable":"March 24th, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-07-21 15:50:06","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1186/s42522-026-00208-5","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s42522-026-00208-5","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6915572","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6915572","identity":"rs-6915572","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}