Hydrogeological and speleological characterization of a karstic spring: Cokragan Cave System

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Karst aquifers, vital for over 25% of the world's drinking water, offer a sustainable resource but are vulnerable to human activities. Their diverse plant, animal, and geological features contribute significantly to our planet's ecosystem. Notably, 49% of European geoparks contain karst, highlighting their importance in geoheritage and geotourism. Studying karst requires precise mapping of springs, ponors, channels, and caves to understand their unique hydrogeological processes. Here, we present a rare integrated study of Cokragan Cave (Spring) using both speleology and hydrogeology. This complex 2,050-meter cave system reveals multiple past groundwater levels through its geometry, with elevation differences suggesting tectonic influence. From 2003 to 2007, Cokragan Spring discharged and recharged 63.5 and 62.37 million cubic meters annually, respectively. Measured discharge ranged from a maximum of 1.488 cubic meters per second to a minimum of 0.108 cubic meters per second. In situ measurements and analysis of 13 samples revealed the groundwater's physicochemical characteristics, including major ions like calcium, magnesium, and bicarbonate, and trace elements like iron, manganese, and zinc. Cave Groundwater flow Hydrogeochemistry Karst Speleology Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Introduction Water is vitally important for humanity to survive. However, in developing countries like Turkey, issues like overpopulation, unplanned urbanization, and industrialization have redefined the concept of "water." Simply saying "water" is no longer sufficient, requiring qualifiers like "fresh" and "usable" to indicate its safety for consumption. Climate change and its impacts have become prominent topics in recent decades. Managing water supplies against these negative effects is a top priority on both national and international agendas. The United Nations defined the theme of studies conducted between 2005 and 2015 as "water for life" (Hiwasaki 2011 ). Moreover, understanding hydrological changes in the Mediterranean region is especially important because IPCC models predict droughts in the next 30 years for other countries in the Eastern Mediterranean Basin, including Turkey (Collins et al. 2013 ). Effective water management begins with active protection. To create a robust protection and management model for both water quantity and quality, the physical characteristics (geological parameters, such as lithology, structure, and topography) and dynamic features (precipitation, infiltration, recharge, and circulation) of water systems must be accurately defined and evaluated within the context of a conceptual hydrogeological model (Aydın and Ekmekçi 2005 ). Karstic terrain covers a third of Turkey's territory, encompassing numerous large and small springs. Karstic aquifers contribute roughly 33% of the overall water potential within Turkish surface hydrological basins (Baran et al 1995 ). The Cokragan Karstic Spring, despite the region's low water potential, stands out due to its significant flow volume. The Spring is located near the village of Y.Karacahisar, in the Banaz district of Usak province, situated in the inner-western Anatolian Region of Turkey (Fig. 1 ). The Cokragan Spring emerges from a karstic opening known as the Cokragan Cave. This cave, formed in Jurassic-aged, recrystallized limestone, is located on the Calustu Hill (1520 m) and has a total measured length of 2050 meters (Dokuz Eylul University Cave Research Club 2004). Geology The rocks in this area are composed of regional metamorphics, sedimentary rocks of Tertiary in age, ultrabasic rocks, andesite, and silicified rocks. The regional metamorphics contain sandstone, schist, green schist, schistose limestone, and recrystallized limestone (Fig. 2 ). The sediments of Tertiary in age, consisting of conglomerate, volcanic conglomerate, basic tuff, and sandstone, are confined to the south-eastern part of the area where they cover the unconformable regional metamorphics, and the ultrabasic rocks. It is estimated that these sedimentary rocks are of early Tertiary (Palaeogene) in age because the effect of diagenesis such as compaction and consolidation are much noticeable in them than Neogene rocks which are widely distributed throughout the south of this area. Recrystallized limestone which hosted the Cokragan Cave was seen in the Calustu Hill. Generally, recrystallized limestone is in grey-white color and its structure is usually massif, which has 10–20 cm thickness, but rarely layered. The limestones have small grain shale, sandstone, and chert bands. Massif recrystallized limestones have solution structures, cavities, and fissures. Lower layers of the limestones have lateral and vertical transitive with metasediments (Fig. 3 ). Hydrology The Cokragan Karstic Spring is placed in USAK K23-a2 topographic map, 35 S 0728593/4309331 UTM coordinates, and formed at the intersection point of the Karacahisar Fault and the Calustu Fault. The recrystallized limestone which was formed in the Calustu Hill is highly karstified, and it is in aquifer characteristic. The Cokragan Karstic Spring that emerges at an elevation of 1740 m is an important drinking water supply for the region and has been coming out from three different closer points through the Cokragan Cave (Fig. 4 ). Although the points are very close to each other, their hydrogeochemical characteristics are dissimilar. The water that flows through the three different points is brought together by catchment which was built by DSI (General Directorate of State Hydraulic Works). Eventually, the water is conveyed to Usak city by water pipes. The analyses of spring hydrograph recession curves offer a possibility to study and define the regime of flow of a spring and to evaluate groundwater development potential of the spring drainage area. The hydrograph of the Cokragan Spring is obtained by subtracting the monthly flows observed by DSI. The maximum and minimum measured discharge of the spring is 1.488 m 3 /s and 0.108 m 3 /s, the discharge data for the spring is given in Table 1 . It appears that a general recession starts in about May and continues until October. Table 1 Average discharge of the Cokragan Spring according to years (m 3 /s) Average discharge of the Cokragan Spring according to years (m 3 /s) Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2002 0.236 0.527 1.328 1.206 0.796 0.424 0.307 0.227 0.185 0.202 0.211 2003 0.289 0.269 0.276 0.481 1.156 0.596 0.395 0.253 0.241 0.193 0.161 0.146 2004 0.176 0.233 0.476 1.019 0.976 0.562 0.420 0.305 0.215 0.181 0.151 0.134 2005 0.146 0.108 0.304 0.208 1.115 0.762 0.466 0.329 0.229 0.172 0.148 0.203 2006 0.157 0.148 0.230 1.067 1.060 0.657 0.391 0.296 0.188 0.198 0.166 0.165 2007 0.149 0.154 Groundwater circulation in karstic aquifers is very different than non-karstic aquifers. Water, in karstic aquifers, is gathered by fissures, caves, and channels. The hydraulic permeability of karstic aquifers is determined by the flowing water and anisotropic character (Huntoon 1995 ). The flow regimes of some large springs discharging from karst aquifer systems can be analyzed using discharge hydrographs. Maillet offered that the discharge of a spring is a function (Maillet 1905 ) of the water volume held in storage (V s ). The simple exponential relation (Ford and Williams 1989) describes the discharge: Q t =Q b .e −α (t−to) Where Q t is the discharge (m 3 .s − 1 ) at time t; Q b is the previously measured discharge at time zero, (t o ) is the time elapsed between Q t and Q b , e is the base of the natural logarithm, and α is termed the recession (discharge) coefficient (T − 1 ). The value of the recession coefficient α derives from hydrogeological characteristics of the aquifer, especially effective porosity, and transmissivity. It represents the capability of the aquifer to release water. The analyses of the recession curves offer a possibility to study and define the regime of flow of a spring, and to evaluate groundwater development potential of spring drainage area. Small values of α indicate a very slow rate of drainage of the aquifer and a large underground storage capacity. Springs emerging from this type of aquifer are mostly perennial. Large values of α indicate a rapid rate of drainage and a small underground storage capacity (Milanovic 1981 ). The magnitude of α also indicates the maturity of the flow in an aquifer. If the flow of groundwater is primarily through joints and fissures, the order of magnitude of the discharge coefficient α is 10 − 3 day − 1 , and if the order of magnitude of α is 10 − 2 to 10 − 1 day, the flow is in massive karstic limestone primarily drained through large flow channels (Kranjac 1977). The average recession coefficient (α) of the Cokragan Karstic Spring was detected as 0.0102 day − 1 . The result shows that the flow of the groundwater is primarily through drainage through the large channels and high permeability coefficient and/or low storage coefficient (Fig. 5 ). The discharge of the Cokragan Spring changes from wet to dry seasons, it can be concluded that variations in monthly precipitation have an immediate effect on the total discharge of the spring, which is related to mature karstification and groundwater flow. The recession coefficients were given in Table 2 between 2002 and 2006. The recession coefficient values can be different according to changes in season, temperature, and precipitation. The mean of the recession coefficient values gives the recession coefficient of the reservoir. Table 2 The recession coefficient values and the average coefficient of the Cokragan Spring according to years. Year t Q b R.Coef. (α) (day) (m 3 /s) (day − 1 ) 2002 180 1.47 0.0120 2003 210 0.80 0.0090 2004 240 1.02 0.0093 2005 180 1.02 0.0115 2006 240 1.04 0.0090 Mean Recession Coefficient (α m ) 0.0102 The recharge values are given in Table 3 between 2003 and 2007. The negative (-) value of ∆V shows that the water is diminished in the reservoir according to the former water year. Table 3 Recharge and discharge values of the Cokragan Spring. (Qs-1 discharge of the end of previous water year; Qs discharge of the end of water year; Vs-1 remained water volume; Vs storage capacity; ∆V dynamic volume; Qtop total annual discharge; Rtop total annual recharge; end of the water year is taken as February) Water Year February Q s−1 February Q s V s−1 V s ∆V Q top R top (m 3 /s) (10 6 m 3 ) (10 6 m 3 /year) 2003 0.236 0.269 1.99 2.28 0.29 15.71 16.00 2004 0.269 0.223 2.28 1.89 -0.39 11.35 10.96 2005 0.223 0.108 1.89 0.92 -0.97 12.36 11.39 2006 0.108 0.148 0.92 1.25 0.33 11.20 11.53 2007 0.148 0.154 1.25 1.31 0.06 12.43 12.49 Total -0.68 63.05 62.37 Mean 12.61 12.47 Hydrogeochemistry 13 water samples were collected from the study area for chemical analyses for major ions, hardness, and heavy metal contents by using the methods suggested by APHA et al. (1981). During sampling, in situ measurement of pH, electrical conductivity (EC), temperature (T) and total dissolved solids (TDS) parameters were taken (Table 4). There are three dissimilar water sources named Cokragan Main Spring (CMS), Cokragan Side Spring (CSS) and Cokragan Yellow Spring (CYS), coming out from the Cokragan Karstic Spring. The Samples U8-U9 (CMS), U10-U11 (CSS) and U12-U13 (CYS) were taken in different seasons to observe the effects of the circulation. The representation of the chemical composition of spring waters is shown on a piper and schoeller diagram (Fig. 6 ), regardless of the sampling period, emphasizing the homogeneity between sources. The change in chemical composition of the spring water in time is related with the recharge regime, circulation, and storage of the groundwater system. The difference of the chemical composition of the Cokragan spring is evaluated as an indicator of the shallow circulation spring which is affected form recharge area. Chemical analysis of karst springs reveals that they are suitable for drinking, agriculture, and industrial purposes. The mean temperature varied between 5.6 and 25 0 C, the pH was 6.85–8.97 and electrical conductivity ranged between 205 and 1032 µS/cm. Water samples were generally characterized as follows: cold (< 20 0 C, except sample u2) and fresh (TDS < 1000 mg/l). On the other hand, the waters in the study area are generally calcium-magnesium-sulphate-bicarbonate type waters. Carbonate hardness of the springs is higher than 50%, and the source of the dominant Mg, Ca and HCO 3 ions is related to the dolomitic level of the recrystallized limestone. Speleology Tectonic forces play a crucial role in shaping cave systems, as demonstrated by various authors (Ford and Ewers 1978 ; Palmer 1991 ; Klimchouk and Ford 2000 ; Tognini and Bini 2001 ; Faulkner 2006 ; and Sauro et al. 2013 ). Although Turkey is a region teeming with both geologic movement and cave formations, the intimate relationship between these two phenomena has yet to be comprehensively examined. This study aims to bridge this gap by investigating the link between tectonics and cave formation in this captivating region. Focusing on Cokragan Cave system, this paper dissects the structural controls on cave passage morphology and assesses the impact of neotectonics processes on the overall cave pattern. The Cokragan Cave is found at the exit point of the Cokragan Spring, and it is a multi-layer cave which is developed in different periods of time. It is formed in recrystallized limestones which were found in Calustu Hill and developed along Karacahisar Fault. The cave has three layers. The third layer is in phereatic zone and the current level. The first two levels are found in vadose zone because of the water level drop offs. It can be concluded that these drop offs reflect the three periods of faulting that occurred in the region which Mariko ( 1970 ) mentioned because the geometry of the longitudinal and cross-profiles of the caves characterize the karstic base-level changes (Fig. 7 ), litho-stratigraphic features, and tectonic movements (Ford and Cullingford 1978 ; Nazik 1989 ). The Cokragan Cave was formed in recrystalline limestone which was found in the Calüstü Hill. The cave has complex passages due to less limestone thickness and, is bounded by impermeable sandstone schist units. Aggressive waters in the impermeable base accelerated the corrosion, and the Cokragan Cave has become a complex cave system. The total length of the Cokragan Cave is 2050 meters, and the deepest point is 37 meters based on the entrance, which was surveyed by Dokuz Eylul University Cave Research Club (Fig. 8 ). The Calüstü Fault and the Karacahisar Fault affected the development of the Cokragan Cave. Caves are developed along the fissures with limited layers, and the caves extend through parallel, or they are cut perpendicularly to these layers (Aygen 1959 ). In a multi-layer cave, connection with shafts indicates that the cave is keeping step with the tectonic and geomorphologic rejuvenation of the area (Nazik 1994 ). The connection of the second level to the third level with shafts denotes that there is a tectonic and geomorphologic rejuvenation between these levels by tectonic movements. The Cokragan Cave pattern is heavily influenced by tectonic features, primarily faults and associated fractures that formed or reactivated during late Miocene extension (Mariko 1970 ). These "tectonic inceptions" guided the flow of corrosive water under both phreatic and vadose conditions, sculpting passages along faults and, in some cases, bedding joints. Interestingly, younger neotectonic features have minimal impact on cave morphology, causing only minor displacements and fractures. The Cokragan Cave system has three distinct (Fig. 7 ) levels: Level 3, The youngest and active passages, developing under both phreatic and epiphreatic conditions. Level 2: Inactive middle passages, formed under phreatic conditions water table cave theory (Ford and Williams 2007 ), with an upper section developing under epiphreatic conditions. Level 1 is the oldest and inactive channels likely formed water table cave theory (Ford and Williams 2007 ). Cross-sections from the map of the Cokragan Cave (Fig. 8 ) were observed to determine the geomorphological phases. During the observations, the geometry of the cavities was taken into consideration, hence the drawings are exaggerated and schematic (Fig. 9 ). The Cokragan Cave morphology is caused by a lowering of the local base level (negative shift of the Cokragan spring). This process led to old level dry and elevated as elevated cave terraces at the gorge edges. Additionally, the opening of new pools upstream led to shafts between levels due to the backward movement of water and the formation of a lower, active level. The Fig. 8 shows three different levels, which mostly reflect changes in water table over time. The highest cave terrace, situated in the dry section, is the oldest (Level 1). This terrace represents a phreatic phase where water flowed southward from the current highest dry level. With the opening of one of the vertical connections in the passage's continuation, the present-day lower level began to form. A new spring opening (Level 2) and a new bottom cut started to develop, rendering the previous Level 1 dry and elevated. This marked the beginning of the epiphreatic and vadose phase. Today, it is visible as a well-preserved 1st and 2nd level cave terrace characterized by meanders (Fig. 8 ). The next stage involved the widening of the fault plane (Level 2), opening a new passage. Since the cave rocky relief is an important indicator of speleogenesis (Bočić and Buzjak 1998 ), Cokragan Cave system has well-preserved rock relief and sediments, the hydrological conditions likely changed quite rapidly. It's probable that neotectonic movements triggered this activation. The ceiling slope behind Level 2 and the preserved rock relief suggest that the remaining section of the passage above was flooded (siphon). Water level horizons and wall deposits of clay indicate water level fluctuations due to inflow (Fig. 4 ). Level 3's opening, also located on the fault plane, caused a further drop in water level. Currently, the active Ponor/ Cokragan Karstic spring (Level 3) aligns with the impermeable rock level. In front of the 3rd layer, a human-made water catchment was constructed. Fluvial sediments are also visible within the fissures. While the narrower parts of the passages are washed out due to faster water flow, the wider sections showcase well-preserved sediments on the walls and at the bottom. In all year-round active section, the lower stream sediment cover differs from the rest. The cessation of water flow has led to clay washout and replacement by pebbles. The openings of the ponors along the passages streambed resulted in a retrograde movement of water flow activity upstream. This created a steep transition profile as the earlier active transition segments behind the new ponor incision were arrested and remained as higher transition level segments (Fig. 9 ). However, sections of the passage that were still active continued to experience water flow interruption and passage strengthening. Conclusion In this study, the Cokragan Karstic Spring is characterized by using hydrogeological, hydrogeochemical and speleological methods. Due to its volume of flow and lack of water potential of the region, the Cokragan Karstic Spring is an important one for its territory. The average recession coefficient (α) of the Cokragan Karstic Spring and the map of the Cokragan Cave show that the flow of the groundwater is primarily through drainage through the large channels, and it is high permeability coefficient and/or low storage coefficient. The discharge of the Cokragan Spring changes from wet to dry seasons which is related to mature karstification. There are three dissimilar waters (Cokragan Main Spring, Cokragan Side Spring and Cokragan Yellow Spring) coming out from the Cokragan Cave. Water quality of the spring is suitable for drinking, agriculture, and industrial purposes. Water samples are generally characterized as cold, fresh, and calcium-magnesium-sulphate-bicarbonate type waters. The Cokragan Cave is a multi-layer cave which is developed in different periods of time. The groundwater level drops off that happened twice by the tectonic movements in the area caused three layers in the cave. The Cokragan Cave pattern is heavily influenced by tectonic features, primarily faults and associated fractures that formed or reactivated during late Miocene extension. These "tectonic inceptions" guided the flow of corrosive water under both phreatic and vadose conditions, sculpting passages along faults and, in some cases, bedding joints. Aggressive waters in the impermeable sandstone schist units accelerated the corrosion, and the Cokragan Cave has become a complex cave system. Declarations Author Contribution M.O.B and Ü.G. conceived of the original idea. M.O.B. developed the research methodolgy. M.O.B collected the field data, conducted experiments. Ü.G. encouraged M.O.B and supervised the findings of this work. M.O.B created figures, tables and draft. M.O.B. and Ü.G. participated in revising and editing the manuscript. All authors certify that they have no affiliations with or involvement in any organization or entity with any financial interest or non-financial interest in the subject matter or materials discussed in this manuscript. References APHA, AWWA, WPCF (1981) Standard methods for the determination of water and waste water, 15th edn. pp 1134 Aydın H, Ekmekçi M, (2005) Sızır (Gemerek-Sivas) kaynakları akiferinin hidrojeolojik ve hidrojeokimyasal özellikleri. Yerbilimleri, 26 (2), 15-32. Aygen T, (1959) Mağaralar ve yeraltı ırmakları. D.S.İ. yayınları. Baran T, Harmancioglu N, Ozis U (1995) Average base flow rates of karst spring effluents in Turkey; International Symposium and Field Seminar on Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts, September 10–20 Antalya Turkey. Bočić N, Buzjak N (1998) Speleomorphology of Dry passage in Provala cave (Croatia). Acta carsologica, 27(2). 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Water Resources Publications, Littleton, Colorado Nazik L (1989) Mağara morfolojisinin belirlediği jeolojik-jeomorfolojik ve ekolojik özellikler. Jeomorfoloji Dergisi, 17, 53-62, Ankara. Nazik L (1994) Türkiye karst bölgeleri ve bu bölgelerdeki mağaraların gelişimlerini denetleyen parametreler. Yerbilimlerinin 25. Yıl Sempozyumu, Hacettepe Üniversitesi, Ankara. Palmer AN (1991) Origin and morphology of limestone caves. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 103(1), 1-21. Sauro F, Zampieri D, Filipponi M (2013) Development of a deep karst system within a transpressional structure of the Dolomites in north-east Italy. Geomorphology, 184, 51-63. Telbisz T, Mari L (2020) The significance of karst areas in European national parks and geoparks. Open Geosciences, 12(1), 117-132 Tognini P, Bini A (2001) Effects of structural setting endokarst system geometry in the Valle del Nose (Como Lake, Northern Italy). Geologica Belgica Table 4 Table 4 is available in the Supplementary Files section. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files table4.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 07 Jun, 2024 Read the published version in Carbonates and Evaporites → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 11 Mar, 2024 Reviews received at journal 07 Mar, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 22 Feb, 2024 Reviewers invited by journal 22 Feb, 2024 Editor assigned by journal 22 Feb, 2024 Submission checks completed at journal 22 Feb, 2024 First submitted to journal 20 Feb, 2024 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-3973997","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":274683953,"identity":"c22d4d99-21db-492c-aec0-c7b46a52edc4","order_by":0,"name":"Mehmet Oruç 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22:59:05","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3973997/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3973997/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s13146-024-00981-2","type":"published","date":"2024-06-07T14:46:54+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":51655385,"identity":"c7ee9353-3565-4772-8172-0a5e86a13341","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-26 16:58:40","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":108350,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe study area and the locations of the water samples\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3973997/v1/651f122fcc91dd3d0b501aae.png"},{"id":51655383,"identity":"cf1c92dc-ba32-4131-89fc-0a9e7b7e511c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-26 16:58:39","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":198219,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGeology map of the Cokragan Spring (adapted from Mariko 1970).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3973997/v1/06a20ca44e71526cdc02ae56.png"},{"id":51655380,"identity":"651065e8-c15f-4fdd-bc0d-de1f8a7ac465","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-26 16:58:38","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":95004,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGeological cross-sections of the study area (adapted from Mariko, 1970).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3973997/v1/acca09e4beb02013b5a526c5.png"},{"id":51655382,"identity":"70cf76fe-4dfe-45c6-a5c8-f7eeebc95324","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-26 16:58:39","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":298580,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eUnderground Lake (1), underground river (2) and a view from vadose zone (3).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3973997/v1/fb1779345716226239451861.png"},{"id":51655386,"identity":"373bad56-8ce1-4bda-a9fc-6c2fcb1d4a17","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-26 16:58:40","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":214598,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe recession curves of the Cokragan Spring between 2002-2006\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3973997/v1/632f127b0701fa18578ea0db.png"},{"id":51655387,"identity":"c9a13daa-0a86-4a86-b5bf-908b15a1459a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-26 16:58:40","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":55308,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eA) Piper diagram of the water samples B) Schoeller diagram of the water samples\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3973997/v1/34c70250fc06712cb274fa29.png"},{"id":51655388,"identity":"6a5cc206-b7eb-433c-9a40-6369c9bdf8a4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-26 16:58:40","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":359432,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eA) A schematic cross-section representing the conceptual model of the Cokragan cave system. (VZ: Vadose zone, PZ: Phereatic zone, DPZ: Deep phereatic zone, IZ: Impermeable zone) B) Layers of the Cokragan cave, 1\u003csup\u003est\u003c/sup\u003e level is the oldest paleo-spring opening, 2\u003csup\u003eth\u003c/sup\u003e level is older than 3\u003csup\u003erd\u003c/sup\u003e but spring opening was closed because of tectonic actions, 3rd level, the catchment, is the recent exit point of the Cokragan Karstic Spring.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3973997/v1/be013e2a3301fcfb43a0df93.png"},{"id":51655384,"identity":"a5b5cbb4-41e9-4c42-babb-2210c3f9919f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-26 16:58:40","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":131568,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMap and Lengthwise opened cross-section of the Cokragan Cave\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3973997/v1/bb0b94dad9e87b318178634a.png"},{"id":51655381,"identity":"42848210-b348-4c11-8670-74e9e01a7f87","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-26 16:58:39","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":97402,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe cross-section 1-1′ states the rejuvenation. The thin and long section on the right side is the present bed of the underground river. In 2-2′, water level was decreased twice. The cavity on the top was the first groundwater level. The cavity which is at the bottom is typical for phreatic zone. 4-4′ is the best cross-section that indicates the rejuvenation. It is also called keyhole cross-section. 5-5′ indicates the decrease of the base level through the same direction. The cross-section 7-7′ shows the connection of the second level to the recent level by shafts after rejuvenation. 8-8′ shows a waterfall along the underground river.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3973997/v1/7a732441ca447694b756bd94.png"},{"id":58821699,"identity":"1cc55374-c314-49c6-b9b5-b49cc849c9ef","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-06-21 16:10:10","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2286455,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3973997/v1/99404a36-32cd-4c42-92da-b9750ff30ba3.pdf"},{"id":51655379,"identity":"41ecb874-89f5-41d5-97a8-4489e89dad56","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-26 16:58:38","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":27563,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"table4.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3973997/v1/9f11921db4846089624f16e3.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Hydrogeological and speleological characterization of a karstic spring: Cokragan Cave System","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eWater is vitally important for humanity to survive. However, in developing countries like Turkey, issues like overpopulation, unplanned urbanization, and industrialization have redefined the concept of \"water.\" Simply saying \"water\" is no longer sufficient, requiring qualifiers like \"fresh\" and \"usable\" to indicate its safety for consumption.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eClimate change and its impacts have become prominent topics in recent decades. Managing water supplies against these negative effects is a top priority on both national and international agendas. The United Nations defined the theme of studies conducted between 2005 and 2015 as \"water for life\" (Hiwasaki \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, understanding hydrological changes in the Mediterranean region is especially important because IPCC models predict droughts in the next 30 years for other countries in the Eastern Mediterranean Basin, including Turkey (Collins et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Effective water management begins with active protection. To create a robust protection and management model for both water quantity and quality, the physical characteristics (geological parameters, such as lithology, structure, and topography) and dynamic features (precipitation, infiltration, recharge, and circulation) of water systems must be accurately defined and evaluated within the context of a conceptual hydrogeological model (Aydın and Ekmekçi \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eKarstic terrain covers a third of Turkey's territory, encompassing numerous large and small springs. Karstic aquifers contribute roughly 33% of the overall water potential within Turkish surface hydrological basins (Baran et al \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e). The Cokragan Karstic Spring, despite the region's low water potential, stands out due to its significant flow volume. The Spring is located near the village of Y.Karacahisar, in the Banaz district of Usak province, situated in the inner-western Anatolian Region of Turkey (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The Cokragan Spring emerges from a karstic opening known as the Cokragan Cave. This cave, formed in Jurassic-aged, recrystallized limestone, is located on the Calustu Hill (1520 m) and has a total measured length of 2050 meters (Dokuz Eylul University Cave Research Club 2004).\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"Geology","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe rocks in this area are composed of regional metamorphics, sedimentary rocks of Tertiary in age, ultrabasic rocks, andesite, and silicified rocks. The regional metamorphics contain sandstone, schist, green schist, schistose limestone, and recrystallized limestone (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). The sediments of Tertiary in age, consisting of conglomerate, volcanic conglomerate, basic tuff, and sandstone, are confined to the south-eastern part of the area where they cover the unconformable regional metamorphics, and the ultrabasic rocks. It is estimated that these sedimentary rocks are of early Tertiary (Palaeogene) in age because the effect of diagenesis such as compaction and consolidation are much noticeable in them than Neogene rocks which are widely distributed throughout the south of this area.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRecrystallized limestone which hosted the Cokragan Cave was seen in the Calustu Hill. Generally, recrystallized limestone is in grey-white color and its structure is usually massif, which has 10–20 cm thickness, but rarely layered. The limestones have small grain shale, sandstone, and chert bands. Massif recrystallized limestones have solution structures, cavities, and fissures. Lower layers of the limestones have lateral and vertical transitive with metasediments (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Hydrology","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe Cokragan Karstic Spring is placed in USAK K23-a2 topographic map, 35 S 0728593/4309331 UTM coordinates, and formed at the intersection point of the Karacahisar Fault and the Calustu Fault. The recrystallized limestone which was formed in the Calustu Hill is highly karstified, and it is in aquifer characteristic. The Cokragan Karstic Spring that emerges at an elevation of 1740 m is an important drinking water supply for the region and has been coming out from three different closer points through the Cokragan Cave (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlthough the points are very close to each other, their hydrogeochemical characteristics are dissimilar. The water that flows through the three different points is brought together by catchment which was built by DSI (General Directorate of State Hydraulic Works). Eventually, the water is conveyed to Usak city by water pipes. The analyses of spring hydrograph recession curves offer a possibility to study and define the regime of flow of a spring and to evaluate groundwater development potential of the spring drainage area. The hydrograph of the Cokragan Spring is obtained by subtracting the monthly flows observed by DSI. The maximum and minimum measured discharge of the spring is 1.488 m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e/s and 0.108 m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e/s, the discharge data for the spring is given in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. It appears that a general recession starts in about May and continues until October.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAverage discharge of the Cokragan Spring according to years (m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e/s)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"13\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAverage discharge of the Cokragan Spring according to years (m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e/s)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJan\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFeb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMar\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApr\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMay\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJun\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJul\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAug\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSep\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOct\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNov\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDec\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2002\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.236\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.527\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.328\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.206\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.796\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.424\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.307\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.227\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.185\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.202\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.211\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2003\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.289\u003c/p\u003e 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colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.161\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.146\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2004\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.176\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.233\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.476\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.976\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.562\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.420\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.305\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.215\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.181\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.151\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.134\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2005\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.146\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.108\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.304\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.208\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.115\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.762\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.466\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.329\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.229\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.172\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.148\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.203\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2006\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.157\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.148\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.230\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.067\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.060\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.657\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.391\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.296\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.188\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.198\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.166\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.165\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2007\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.149\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.154\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003eGroundwater circulation in karstic aquifers is very different than non-karstic aquifers. Water, in karstic aquifers, is gathered by fissures, caves, and channels. The hydraulic permeability of karstic aquifers is determined by the flowing water and anisotropic character (Huntoon \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e). The flow regimes of some large springs discharging from karst aquifer systems can be analyzed using discharge hydrographs. Maillet offered that the discharge of a spring is a function (Maillet \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1905\u003c/span\u003e) of the water volume held in storage (V\u003csub\u003es\u003c/sub\u003e). The simple exponential relation (Ford and Williams 1989) describes the discharge:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eQ\u003csub\u003et\u003c/sub\u003e=Q\u003csub\u003eb\u003c/sub\u003e.e\u003csup\u003e−α (t−to)\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhere Q\u003csub\u003et\u003c/sub\u003e is the discharge (m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e.s\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e) at time t; Q\u003csub\u003eb\u003c/sub\u003e is the previously measured discharge at time zero, (t\u003csub\u003eo\u003c/sub\u003e) is the time elapsed between Q\u003csub\u003et\u003c/sub\u003e and Q\u003csub\u003eb\u003c/sub\u003e, e is the base of the natural logarithm, and α is termed the recession (discharge) coefficient (T\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e). The value of the recession coefficient α derives from hydrogeological characteristics of the aquifer, especially effective porosity, and transmissivity. It represents the capability of the aquifer to release water. The analyses of the recession curves offer a possibility to study and define the regime of flow of a spring, and to evaluate groundwater development potential of spring drainage area. Small values of α indicate a very slow rate of drainage of the aquifer and a large underground storage capacity. Springs emerging from this type of aquifer are mostly perennial. Large values of α indicate a rapid rate of drainage and a small underground storage capacity (Milanovic \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1981\u003c/span\u003e). The magnitude of α also indicates the maturity of the flow in an aquifer. If the flow of groundwater is primarily through joints and fissures, the order of magnitude of the discharge coefficient α is 10\u003csup\u003e− 3\u003c/sup\u003e day\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e, and if the order of magnitude of α is 10\u003csup\u003e− 2\u003c/sup\u003e to 10\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e day, the flow is in massive karstic limestone primarily drained through large flow channels (Kranjac 1977).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe average recession coefficient (α) of the Cokragan Karstic Spring was detected as 0.0102 day\u003csup\u003e− 1\u003c/sup\u003e. The result shows that the flow of the groundwater is primarily through drainage through the large channels and high permeability coefficient and/or low storage coefficient (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). The discharge of the Cokragan Spring changes from wet to dry seasons, it can be concluded that variations in monthly precipitation have an immediate effect on the total discharge of the spring, which is related to mature karstification and groundwater flow.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe recession coefficients were given in Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e between 2002 and 2006. The recession coefficient values can be different according to changes in season, temperature, and precipitation. The mean of the recession coefficient values gives the recession coefficient of the reservoir.\u003c/p\u003e \u003ctable id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe recession coefficient values and the average coefficient of the Cokragan Spring according to years.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" style=\"width: 22.3831%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYear\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" style=\"width: 23.4365%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003et\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eQ\u003csub\u003eb\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" style=\"width: 20.5398%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR.Coef. (\u0026alpha;)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" style=\"width: 22.3831%;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" style=\"width: 23.4365%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(day)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e/s)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" style=\"width: 20.5398%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(day\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" style=\"width: 22.3831%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2002\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" style=\"width: 23.4365%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e180\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" style=\"width: 20.5398%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0120\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" style=\"width: 22.3831%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2003\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" style=\"width: 23.4365%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e210\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" style=\"width: 20.5398%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0090\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" style=\"width: 22.3831%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2004\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" style=\"width: 23.4365%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e240\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" style=\"width: 20.5398%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0093\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" style=\"width: 22.3831%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2005\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" style=\"width: 23.4365%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e180\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" style=\"width: 20.5398%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0115\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" style=\"width: 22.3831%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2006\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" style=\"width: 23.4365%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e240\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" style=\"width: 20.5398%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0090\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 59.5128%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMean Recession Coefficient (\u0026alpha;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cstrong\u003em\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" style=\"width: 20.5398%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.0102\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe recharge values are given in Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e between 2003 and 2007. The negative (-) value of ∆V shows that the water is diminished in the reservoir according to the former water year.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecharge and discharge values of the Cokragan Spring. (Qs-1 discharge of the end of previous water year; Qs discharge of the end of water year; Vs-1 remained water volume; Vs storage capacity; ∆V dynamic volume; Qtop total annual discharge; Rtop total annual recharge; end of the water year is taken as February)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater Year\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFebruary Q\u003csub\u003es−1\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFebruary Q\u003csub\u003es\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eV\u003csub\u003es−1\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eV\u003csub\u003es\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e∆V\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQ\u003csub\u003etop\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u003csub\u003etop\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e/s)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e/year)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2003\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.236\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.269\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2004\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.269\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.223\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2005\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.223\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.108\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2006\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.108\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.148\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2007\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.148\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.154\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTotal\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-0.68\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e63.05\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e62.37\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMean\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e12.61\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e12.47\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Hydrogeochemistry","content":"\u003cp\u003e13 water samples were collected from the study area for chemical analyses for major ions, hardness, and heavy metal contents by using the methods suggested by APHA et al. (1981). During sampling, in situ measurement of pH, electrical conductivity (EC), temperature (T) and total dissolved solids (TDS) parameters were taken (Table\u0026nbsp;4).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThere are three dissimilar water sources named Cokragan Main Spring (CMS), Cokragan Side Spring (CSS) and Cokragan Yellow Spring (CYS), coming out from the Cokragan Karstic Spring. The Samples U8-U9 (CMS), U10-U11 (CSS) and U12-U13 (CYS) were taken in different seasons to observe the effects of the circulation. The representation of the chemical composition of spring waters is shown on a piper and schoeller diagram (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e), regardless of the sampling period, emphasizing the homogeneity between sources.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe change in chemical composition of the spring water in time is related with the recharge regime, circulation, and storage of the groundwater system. The difference of the chemical composition of the Cokragan spring is evaluated as an indicator of the shallow circulation spring which is affected form recharge area. Chemical analysis of karst springs reveals that they are suitable for drinking, agriculture, and industrial purposes. The mean temperature varied between 5.6 and 25 \u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003eC, the pH was 6.85\u0026ndash;8.97 and electrical conductivity ranged between 205 and 1032 \u0026micro;S/cm. Water samples were generally characterized as follows: cold (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;20 \u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003eC, except sample u2) and fresh (TDS\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1000 mg/l). On the other hand, the waters in the study area are generally calcium-magnesium-sulphate-bicarbonate type waters. Carbonate hardness of the springs is higher than 50%, and the source of the dominant Mg, Ca and HCO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e ions is related to the dolomitic level of the recrystallized limestone.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Speleology","content":"\u003cp\u003eTectonic forces play a crucial role in shaping cave systems, as demonstrated by various authors (Ford and Ewers \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1978\u003c/span\u003e; Palmer \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e; Klimchouk and Ford \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Tognini and Bini \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Faulkner \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; and Sauro et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Although Turkey is a region teeming with both geologic movement and cave formations, the intimate relationship between these two phenomena has yet to be comprehensively examined. This study aims to bridge this gap by investigating the link between tectonics and cave formation in this captivating region. Focusing on Cokragan Cave system, this paper dissects the structural controls on cave passage morphology and assesses the impact of neotectonics processes on the overall cave pattern.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Cokragan Cave is found at the exit point of the Cokragan Spring, and it is a multi-layer cave which is developed in different periods of time. It is formed in recrystallized limestones which were found in Calustu Hill and developed along Karacahisar Fault. The cave has three layers. The third layer is in phereatic zone and the current level. The first two levels are found in vadose zone because of the water level drop offs. It can be concluded that these drop offs reflect the three periods of faulting that occurred in the region which Mariko (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1970\u003c/span\u003e) mentioned because the geometry of the longitudinal and cross-profiles of the caves characterize the karstic base-level changes (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e), litho-stratigraphic features, and tectonic movements (Ford and Cullingford \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1978\u003c/span\u003e; Nazik \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1989\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Cokragan Cave was formed in recrystalline limestone which was found in the Calüstü Hill. The cave has complex passages due to less limestone thickness and, is bounded by impermeable sandstone schist units. Aggressive waters in the impermeable base accelerated the corrosion, and the Cokragan Cave has become a complex cave system. The total length of the Cokragan Cave is 2050 meters, and the deepest point is 37 meters based on the entrance, which was surveyed by Dokuz Eylul University Cave Research Club (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Calüstü Fault and the Karacahisar Fault affected the development of the Cokragan Cave. Caves are developed along the fissures with limited layers, and the caves extend through parallel, or they are cut perpendicularly to these layers (Aygen \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1959\u003c/span\u003e). In a multi-layer cave, connection with shafts indicates that the cave is keeping step with the tectonic and geomorphologic rejuvenation of the area (Nazik \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e). The connection of the second level to the third level with shafts denotes that there is a tectonic and geomorphologic rejuvenation between these levels by tectonic movements.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Cokragan Cave pattern is heavily influenced by tectonic features, primarily faults and associated fractures that formed or reactivated during late Miocene extension (Mariko \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1970\u003c/span\u003e). These \"tectonic inceptions\" guided the flow of corrosive water under both phreatic and vadose conditions, sculpting passages along faults and, in some cases, bedding joints. Interestingly, younger neotectonic features have minimal impact on cave morphology, causing only minor displacements and fractures. The Cokragan Cave system has three distinct (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e) levels: Level 3, The youngest and active passages, developing under both phreatic and epiphreatic conditions. Level 2: Inactive middle passages, formed under phreatic conditions water table cave theory (Ford and Williams \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e), with an upper section developing under epiphreatic conditions. Level 1 is the oldest and inactive channels likely formed water table cave theory (Ford and Williams \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCross-sections from the map of the Cokragan Cave (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e) were observed to determine the geomorphological phases. During the observations, the geometry of the cavities was taken into consideration, hence the drawings are exaggerated and schematic (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Cokragan Cave morphology is caused by a lowering of the local base level (negative shift of the Cokragan spring). This process led to old level dry and elevated as elevated cave terraces at the gorge edges. Additionally, the opening of new pools upstream led to shafts between levels due to the backward movement of water and the formation of a lower, active level.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e shows three different levels, which mostly reflect changes in water table over time. The highest cave terrace, situated in the dry section, is the oldest (Level 1). This terrace represents a phreatic phase where water flowed southward from the current highest dry level. With the opening of one of the vertical connections in the passage's continuation, the present-day lower level began to form. A new spring opening (Level 2) and a new bottom cut started to develop, rendering the previous Level 1 dry and elevated. This marked the beginning of the epiphreatic and vadose phase. Today, it is visible as a well-preserved 1st and 2nd level cave terrace characterized by meanders (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe next stage involved the widening of the fault plane (Level 2), opening a new passage. Since the cave rocky relief is an important indicator of speleogenesis (Bočić and Buzjak \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e), Cokragan Cave system has well-preserved rock relief and sediments, the hydrological conditions likely changed quite rapidly. It's probable that neotectonic movements triggered this activation. The ceiling slope behind Level 2 and the preserved rock relief suggest that the remaining section of the passage above was flooded (siphon). Water level horizons and wall deposits of clay indicate water level fluctuations due to inflow (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLevel 3's opening, also located on the fault plane, caused a further drop in water level. Currently, the active Ponor/ Cokragan Karstic spring (Level 3) aligns with the impermeable rock level. In front of the 3rd layer, a human-made water catchment was constructed. Fluvial sediments are also visible within the fissures. While the narrower parts of the passages are washed out due to faster water flow, the wider sections showcase well-preserved sediments on the walls and at the bottom. In all year-round active section, the lower stream sediment cover differs from the rest. The cessation of water flow has led to clay washout and replacement by pebbles.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe openings of the ponors along the passages streambed resulted in a retrograde movement of water flow activity upstream. This created a steep transition profile as the earlier active transition segments behind the new ponor incision were arrested and remained as higher transition level segments (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e). However, sections of the passage that were still active continued to experience water flow interruption and passage strengthening.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn this study, the Cokragan Karstic Spring is characterized by using hydrogeological, hydrogeochemical and speleological methods. Due to its volume of flow and lack of water potential of the region, the Cokragan Karstic Spring is an important one for its territory. The average recession coefficient (α) of the Cokragan Karstic Spring and the map of the Cokragan Cave show that the flow of the groundwater is primarily through drainage through the large channels, and it is high permeability coefficient and/or low storage coefficient. The discharge of the Cokragan Spring changes from wet to dry seasons which is related to mature karstification. There are three dissimilar waters (Cokragan Main Spring, Cokragan Side Spring and Cokragan Yellow Spring) coming out from the Cokragan Cave. Water quality of the spring is suitable for drinking, agriculture, and industrial purposes. Water samples are generally characterized as cold, fresh, and calcium-magnesium-sulphate-bicarbonate type waters. The Cokragan Cave is a multi-layer cave which is developed in different periods of time. The groundwater level drops off that happened twice by the tectonic movements in the area caused three layers in the cave. The Cokragan Cave pattern is heavily influenced by tectonic features, primarily faults and associated fractures that formed or reactivated during late Miocene extension. These \"tectonic inceptions\" guided the flow of corrosive water under both phreatic and vadose conditions, sculpting passages along faults and, in some cases, bedding joints. Aggressive waters in the impermeable sandstone schist units accelerated the corrosion, and the Cokragan Cave has become a complex cave system.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eM.O.B and \u0026Uuml;.G. conceived of the original idea. M.O.B. developed the research methodolgy. M.O.B collected the field data, conducted experiments. \u0026Uuml;.G. encouraged M.O.B and supervised the findings of this work. M.O.B created figures, tables and draft. M.O.B. and \u0026Uuml;.G. participated in revising and editing the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll authors certify that they have no affiliations with or involvement in any organization or entity with any financial interest or non-financial interest in the subject matter or materials discussed in this manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAPHA, AWWA, WPCF (1981) Standard methods for the determination of water and waste water, 15th edn. pp 1134\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAydın H, Ekmek\u0026ccedil;i M, (2005) Sızır (Gemerek-Sivas) kaynakları akiferinin hidrojeolojik ve hidrojeokimyasal \u0026ouml;zellikleri. Yerbilimleri, 26 (2), 15-32.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAygen T, (1959) Mağaralar ve yeraltı ırmakları. D.S.İ. yayınları.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBaran T, Harmancioglu N, Ozis U (1995) Average base flow rates of karst spring effluents in Turkey; International Symposium and Field Seminar on Karst Waters \u0026amp; Environmental Impacts, September 10\u0026ndash;20 Antalya Turkey.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBočić N, Buzjak N (1998) Speleomorphology of Dry passage in Provala cave (Croatia). Acta carsologica, 27(2).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCollins M, Knutti R, Arblaster J, Dufresne JL, Fichefet T, Friedlingstein P, Gao X, Gutowski WJ et al (2013) Chapter 12- Long-term climate change: Projections, commitments and irreversibility. In: Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. IPCC Working Group I Contribution to AR5. Eds. IPCC, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFaulkner T (2006) Tectonic inception in Caledonide marbles. Acta Carsologica, 35(1).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFord TD, Cullingford CHD 1978 The science of speleology. 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Open Geosciences, 12(1), 117-132\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTognini P, Bini A (2001) Effects of structural setting endokarst system geometry in the Valle del Nose (Como Lake, Northern Italy). Geologica Belgica\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Table 4","content":"\u003cp\u003eTable 4 is available in the Supplementary Files section.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"carbonates-and-evaporites","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"caev","sideBox":"Learn more about [Carbonates and Evaporites](http://link.springer.com/journal/13146)","snPcode":"13146","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/13146/3","title":"Carbonates and Evaporites","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Cave, Groundwater flow, Hydrogeochemistry, Karst, Speleology","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3973997/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3973997/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eKarstic landscapes, shaped by water dissolving rock, are unique ecosystems with complex water systems. Karst aquifers, vital for over 25% of the world's drinking water, offer a sustainable resource but are vulnerable to human activities. Their diverse plant, animal, and geological features contribute significantly to our planet's ecosystem. Notably, 49% of European geoparks contain karst, highlighting their importance in geoheritage and geotourism. Studying karst requires precise mapping of springs, ponors, channels, and caves to understand their unique hydrogeological processes. Here, we present a rare integrated study of Cokragan Cave (Spring) using both speleology and hydrogeology. This complex 2,050-meter cave system reveals multiple past groundwater levels through its geometry, with elevation differences suggesting tectonic influence. From 2003 to 2007, Cokragan Spring discharged and recharged 63.5 and 62.37\u0026nbsp;million cubic meters annually, respectively. Measured discharge ranged from a maximum of 1.488 cubic meters per second to a minimum of 0.108 cubic meters per second. In situ measurements and analysis of 13 samples revealed the groundwater's physicochemical characteristics, including major ions like calcium, magnesium, and bicarbonate, and trace elements like iron, manganese, and zinc.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Hydrogeological and speleological characterization of a karstic spring: Cokragan Cave System","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-02-26 16:57:46","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3973997/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2024-03-11T12:32:57+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-03-07T13:06:46+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"0313687a-6cba-457a-b420-7bf7bbb5a805","date":"2024-02-22T20:33:23+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2024-02-22T17:06:58+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-02-22T17:01:06+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2024-02-22T13:04:09+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Carbonates and Evaporites","date":"2024-02-20T22:52:58+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"carbonates-and-evaporites","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"caev","sideBox":"Learn more about [Carbonates and Evaporites](http://link.springer.com/journal/13146)","snPcode":"13146","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/13146/3","title":"Carbonates and Evaporites","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"555fea2d-89bb-4189-bf1f-a66e5d888712","owner":[],"postedDate":"February 26th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-06-21T14:46:55+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-3973997","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s13146-024-00981-2","journal":{"identity":"carbonates-and-evaporites","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Carbonates and Evaporites"},"publishedOn":"2024-06-07 14:46:54","publishedOnDateReadable":"June 7th, 2024"},"versionCreatedAt":"2024-02-26 16:57:46","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s13146-024-00981-2","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s13146-024-00981-2","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-3973997","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-3973997","identity":"rs-3973997","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}