Sleep Health Behind Bars: A Global Scoping Review of Sleep in Carceral Settings
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Background Sleep is a fundamental determinant of health, yet little is known about sleep in carceral environments where structural, environmental, and psychosocial factors uniquely disrupt rest. Incarcerated individuals face disproportionately high burdens of illness, with sleep disturbances contributing to these disparities. Understanding the evidence on sleep in incarceration is essential for informing care, policy, and research. Methods We conducted a scoping review of peer-reviewed literature on sleep in incarcerated populations, following the Joanna Briggs Institute Manual and PRISMA-ScR guidelines. Ten databases were searched from inception to March 2025 for studies addressing sleep among currently incarcerated individuals. Two reviewers screened and extracted data, with quality appraisal adapted from Joanna Briggs Institute tools. Results Of 5,518 records identified, 63 studies published between 1978 and 2025 met inclusion criteria. Most were observational (75%), cross-sectional (59%), and published after 2014, with studies conducted mostly outside the United States. Research clustered into three domains: (1) descriptions of sleep quality and insomnia; (2) sleep and health outcomes, particularly depression, anxiety, PTSD, aggression, and suicidality, with limited study of cardiometabolic risk; and (3) interventions including cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia, mindfulness, yoga, and relaxation, which showed feasibility but were limited by small samples, lack of controls, or short follow-up. Objective measures were rarely used. Conclusions Evidence demonstrates compromised sleep health in carceral settings due to psychiatric comorbidity, environmental stressors, and restricted care. Gaps remain in physical health outcomes, women’s experiences, and post-release effects. Interventions tailored to carceral realities and adapted evidence-based interventions showed promise.
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Sleep Health Behind Bars: A Global Scoping Review of Sleep in Carceral Settings | medRxiv /* */ /* */ <!-- <!-- /*! * yepnope1.5.4 * (c) WTFPL, GPLv2 */ (function(a,b,c){function d(a){return"[object Function]"==o.call(a)}function e(a){return"string"==typeof a}function f(){}function g(a){return!a||"loaded"==a||"complete"==a||"uninitialized"==a}function h(){var a=p.shift();q=1,a?a.t?m(function(){("c"==a.t?B.injectCss:B.injectJs)(a.s,0,a.a,a.x,a.e,1)},0):(a(),h()):q=0}function i(a,c,d,e,f,i,j){function k(b){if(!o&&g(l.readyState)&&(u.r=o=1,!q&&h(),l.onload=l.onreadystatechange=null,b)){"img"!=a&&m(function(){t.removeChild(l)},50);for(var d in y[c])y[c].hasOwnProperty(d)&&y[c][d].onload()}}var j=j||B.errorTimeout,l=b.createElement(a),o=0,r=0,u={t:d,s:c,e:f,a:i,x:j};1===y[c]&&(r=1,y[c]=[]),"object"==a?l.data=c:(l.src=c,l.type=a),l.width=l.height="0",l.onerror=l.onload=l.onreadystatechange=function(){k.call(this,r)},p.splice(e,0,u),"img"!=a&&(r||2===y[c]?(t.insertBefore(l,s?null:n),m(k,j)):y[c].push(l))}function j(a,b,c,d,f){return q=0,b=b||"j",e(a)?i("c"==b?v:u,a,b,this.i++,c,d,f):(p.splice(this.i++,0,a),1==p.length&&h()),this}function k(){var a=B;return a.loader={load:j,i:0},a}var l=b.documentElement,m=a.setTimeout,n=b.getElementsByTagName("script")[0],o={}.toString,p=[],q=0,r="MozAppearance"in l.style,s=r&&!!b.createRange().compareNode,t=s?l:n.parentNode,l=a.opera&&"[object Opera]"==o.call(a.opera),l=!!b.attachEvent&&!l,u=r?"object":l?"script":"img",v=l?"script":u,w=Array.isArray||function(a){return"[object Array]"==o.call(a)},x=[],y={},z={timeout:function(a,b){return b.length&&(a.timeout=b[0]),a}},A,B;B=function(a){function b(a){var a=a.split("!"),b=x.length,c=a.pop(),d=a.length,c={url:c,origUrl:c,prefixes:a},e,f,g;for(f=0;f<d;f++)g=a[f].split("="),(e=z[g.shift()])&&(c=e(c,g));for(f=0;f<b;f++)c=x[f](c);return c}function g(a,e,f,g,h){var i=b(a),j=i.autoCallback;i.url.split(".").pop().split("?").shift(),i.bypass||(e&&(e=d(e)?e:e[a]||e[g]||e[a.split("/").pop().split("?")[0]]),i.instead?i.instead(a,e,f,g,h):(y[i.url]?i.noexec=!0:y[i.url]=1,f.load(i.url,i.forceCSS||!i.forceJS&&"css"==i.url.split(".").pop().split("?").shift()?"c":c,i.noexec,i.attrs,i.timeout),(d(e)||d(j))&&f.load(function(){k(),e&&e(i.origUrl,h,g),j&&j(i.origUrl,h,g),y[i.url]=2})))}function h(a,b){function c(a,c){if(a){if(e(a))c||(j=function(){var a=[].slice.call(arguments);k.apply(this,a),l()}),g(a,j,b,0,h);else if(Object(a)===a)for(n in m=function(){var b=0,c;for(c in a)a.hasOwnProperty(c)&&b++;return b}(),a)a.hasOwnProperty(n)&&(!c&&!--m&&(d(j)?j=function(){var a=[].slice.call(arguments);k.apply(this,a),l()}:j[n]=function(a){return function(){var b=[].slice.call(arguments);a&&a.apply(this,b),l()}}(k[n])),g(a[n],j,b,n,h))}else!c&&l()}var h=!!a.test,i=a.load||a.both,j=a.callback||f,k=j,l=a.complete||f,m,n;c(h?a.yep:a.nope,!!i),i&&c(i)}var i,j,l=this.yepnope.loader;if(e(a))g(a,0,l,0);else if(w(a))for(i=0;i (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0];var j=d.createElement(s);var dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.src='//www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;j.type='text/javascript';j.async=true;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-P4HH5NV'); Skip to main content Home About Submit ALERTS / RSS Search for this keyword Advanced Search Sleep Health Behind Bars: A Global Scoping Review of Sleep in Carceral Settings Victoria Hummel , Jerimiah Kouka , Patrick Li , Alyssa Grimshaw , Chante-Colleen Lewis , Ella Suh , Gabriel Paglia , Cassandra Michel , Johanna E. Elumn doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2025.10.08.25337513 Victoria Hummel 1 SEICHE Center for Health and Justice, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine , New Haven, Connecticut M.P.P. Find this author on Google Scholar Find this author on PubMed Search for this author on this site Jerimiah Kouka 1 SEICHE Center for Health and Justice, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine , New Haven, Connecticut B.S. Find this author on Google Scholar Find this author on PubMed Search for this author on this site Patrick Li 2 Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University , Philadelphia, PA B.A. Find this author on Google Scholar Find this author on PubMed Search for this author on this site Alyssa Grimshaw 3 Harvey Cushing/John Hay Whitney Medical Library, Yale University , New Haven, CT M.B.A., M.L.I.S., M.P.H. Find this author on Google Scholar Find this author on PubMed Search for this author on this site Chante-Colleen Lewis 1 SEICHE Center for Health and Justice, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine , New Haven, Connecticut M.P.H. Find this author on Google Scholar Find this author on PubMed Search for this author on this site Ella Suh 4 Yale School of Public Health B.A. Find this author on Google Scholar Find this author on PubMed Search for this author on this site Gabriel Paglia 1 SEICHE Center for Health and Justice, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine , New Haven, Connecticut B.S. Find this author on Google Scholar Find this author on PubMed Search for this author on this site Cassandra Michel 1 SEICHE Center for Health and Justice, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine , New Haven, Connecticut M.P.H. Find this author on Google Scholar Find this author on PubMed Search for this author on this site Johanna E. Elumn 1 SEICHE Center for Health and Justice, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine , New Haven, Connecticut Ph.D, M.S.W. Find this author on Google Scholar Find this author on PubMed Search for this author on this site For correspondence: johanna.elumn{at}yale.edu Abstract Full Text Info/History Metrics Data/Code Preview PDF Abstract Background Sleep is a fundamental determinant of health, yet little is known about sleep in carceral environments where structural, environmental, and psychosocial factors uniquely disrupt rest. Incarcerated individuals face disproportionately high burdens of illness, with sleep disturbances contributing to these disparities. Understanding the evidence on sleep in incarceration is essential for informing care, policy, and research. Methods We conducted a scoping review of peer-reviewed literature on sleep in incarcerated populations, following the Joanna Briggs Institute Manual and PRISMA-ScR guidelines. Ten databases were searched from inception to March 2025 for studies addressing sleep among currently incarcerated individuals. Two reviewers screened and extracted data, with quality appraisal adapted from Joanna Briggs Institute tools. Results Of 5,518 records identified, 63 studies published between 1978 and 2025 met inclusion criteria. Most were observational (75%), cross-sectional (59%), and published after 2014, with studies conducted mostly outside the United States. Research clustered into three domains: (1) descriptions of sleep quality and insomnia; (2) sleep and health outcomes, particularly depression, anxiety, PTSD, aggression, and suicidality, with limited study of cardiometabolic risk; and (3) interventions including cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia, mindfulness, yoga, and relaxation, which showed feasibility but were limited by small samples, lack of controls, or short follow-up. Objective measures were rarely used. Conclusions Evidence demonstrates compromised sleep health in carceral settings due to psychiatric comorbidity, environmental stressors, and restricted care. Gaps remain in physical health outcomes, women’s experiences, and post-release effects. Interventions tailored to carceral realities and adapted evidence-based interventions showed promise. Introduction The incarceration rate in the United States is the highest in the world, with about two million people behind bars and 11 million people cycling in and out of carceral facilities annually ( Fair & Walmsley, 2024 ). While incarcerated people have a constitutional right to healthcare (“Estelle v. Gamble”, 1976), the reality within carceral facilities often creates barriers to receiving it, especially for sleep-related issues. These limitations exist in environments that are stressful, with aspects of the social and physical environment that adversely impact sleep. The lack of research into the sleep health of currently and formerly incarcerated individuals results in a limited understanding of how these environments aRect sleep, feasible interventions for sleep issues in highly restrictive environments, and the broader impact on health outcomes, including mental health and cardiovascular disease risk. Just as food, water, air, and shelter are necessary for human survival, so too is sleep a basic physiological need ( Maslow, 1943 ; NHLBI-NIH, 2022 ). Poor sleep quality and sleep deprivation are known to negatively impact growth, immune health, memory, mood, cardiovascular health, hormone regulation, metabolism, and more ( Lloyd-Jones et al., 2022 ; NHLBI-NIH, 2022 ; Thompson et al., 2022 ). Both acute total and chronic partial sleep deprivation have both been shown to impair cognitive function ( Alhola & Polo-Kantola, 2007 ; Belenky et al., 2003 ; Thompson et al., 2022 ). While minor sleep deprivation in the modern workplace has become banal, extreme forms of sleep deprivation nonetheless constitute cruel and unusual punishment and torture ( Cakal, 2021 ; Jaech, 2022 ). Long sleep, defined as sleeping greater than nine hours per night, similarly constitutes a slew of negative health measures ranging from depression to impaired fertility and higher all-cause mortality ( Jike et al., 2018 ; Medic et al., 2017 ; Osmun, 2023 ). Incarcerated people may have unique individual-level reasons for being sleep deficient. For instance, incarcerated people have higher rates of mood disorders and chronic pain, which amplify sleep deficiency, compared with those who have never been incarcerated ( Herrero Babiloni et al., 2020 ; Kundermann et al., 2004 ; Williams et al., 2014 ). Sleep deficiency, in return, aRects stress, anger, and suicidality, which can further influence. Qualitative exploration of trauma of incarceration and sleep shows that fear of violence, untreated health conditions, and lack of access to appropriate treatment all contribute to pervasive sleep problems during incarceration and persisting after ( Elumn et al., 2024 ). Within carceral settings where artificial lights are on day and night, and violence, noise, and surveillance abound, sleep may be especially fraught ( Dewa et al., 2015 ; Elumn et al., 2024 ). Life within carceral facilities is often marked by little autonomy over one’s sleep environment, daily schedule, and medical care, and is often the site of physical and emotional trauma, which can lead to sleep problems ( Dewa et al., 2017 ; Elger, 2009 ; Elumn et al., 2024 ). In addition, limited access to physical activity, meal timing and content, boredom, and stress can all contribute to poor sleep quality, including not enough sleep, oversleeping, and sleep disturbance( Dewa et al., 2015 ). Incarcerated individuals experience a disproportionately high prevalence of both mental and physical health disorders, with sleep disturbances exacerbating these conditions. Sleep health is intricately linked to cardiovascular, metabolic, and psychiatric outcomes, yet remains an underexplored aspect of incarceration-related health disparities. The Sleep Justice Study, a prospective cohort of individuals recently released from incarceration, assessed sleep using both subjective measures and actigraphy to examine associations with cardiometabolic risk factor control ( Elumn et al., 2023 ). This work recognizes sleep as a determinant of cardiometabolic health in justice-involved populations and demonstrates the need for complementary reviews to map the current evidence base. Despite the importance of sleep in maintaining good health and wellbeing, our review revealed a limited literature on experiences and health implications of sleep in carceral settings. Existing scoping and systematic reviews on sleep and incarceration have primarily focused on sleep quality or specific disorders such as insomnia, with some attention to sleep quality and mental health outcomes ( Dewa et al., 2015 ; GriRiths & Hina, 2022; Sheppard & Hogan, 2022 ). Previous studies rarely focus on the connection between sleep and physical health conditions or the sleep. Many health concerns are associated with being incarcerated, but while there is currently a growing body of literature on sleep and incarceration, these studies focused on sleep within prisons in the United States. This scoping review will examine existing literature on sleep during incarceration regardless of the region where the study took place. The articles highlighted focus on a range of topics including sleep quality, insomnia, and the role of environmental factors and mental health on sleep health. In this scoping review of the literature, we focused on any article related to sleep, not just insomnia, to see what other types of sleep problems have been studied in this population and what interventions have been tested in carceral settings to address sleep. Our review is intended to orient future research on sleep in carceral settings and health care to improve the sleep health of people living in carceral facilities. Methods This scoping review was conducted and reported in accordance with Levac et al’s recommendations for scoping review methodology and the JBI Manual for Evidence Synthesis, Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 2020 and the PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews (Supplementary Table 1).( JBI Manual for Evidence Synthesis , 2020; Levac et al., 2010 ; Page et al., 2021 ; Tricco et al., 2018 ) The study protocol was published on Open Science Framework (osf.io/hn5tp/). Data Sources and Search Strategy An exhaustive search of the literature was conducted by a medical research librarian (AAG) in Cochrane Library, Criminal Justice Abstracts, Ovid Embase, Google Scholar, Ovid Medline, National Criminal Justice Reference Services Abstracts, PsycExtra, PsycInfo, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science Core Collection databases to find relevant articles published from the inception of each database to March 5, 2025. Databases were searched using a combination of keywords and controlled vocabulary for justice involved individuals and sleep disturbances. The search was not limited by language, publication type, or year (full search strategies available in Supplementary Table 2). The search was peer-reviewed by a second medical librarian using the Peer Review of Electronic Search Strategies (PRESS).( McGowan et al., 2016 ) Forward and backward citation chasing was performed using CitationChaser to identify additional relevant studies not retrieved by the database search.( Haddaway et al., 2021 ) Eligibility criteria and Study Selection Articles needed to be investigative and have a primary focus on sleep, sleep interventions, or include sleep as a secondary variable. Studies must be full articles published in peer reviewed journals between 1978 and 2025, written in English, involve human participants, and measure some aspect of sleep (e.g. duration, quality). The 1978 cut oR marks the year the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) placed regulations on research involving prisoners, designating them as a vulnerable research population. Studies, however, were not limited to the U.S. Participants were required to be incarcerated during the duration of the study in a jail or prison. Forensic use of sleep as defense for a crime and studies on individuals in psychiatric hospitals and group homes were excluded. Papers were excluded if they were about the sleep of carceral staR. Search results from all databases were imported into an Endnote 25 library. Duplicates were removed using the Yale Reference Deduplicator.(Yale University Harvey Cushing/ John Hay Whitney Medical, 2021 ) The deduplicated results were then imported into Covidence, a systematic review software for screening and data extraction. Two independent screeners performed title/abstract review followed by full text review. Screening disagreements were resolved by a third investigator. Data Extraction and Risk of Bias Data extraction was completed in Qualtrics using a standardized form to capture study characteristics (design, setting, sample size, participant demographics), sleep measures ( Sylvia et al., 2021 ), exposures, and reported outcomes. Two reviewers independently extracted data and assessed study quality using criteria adapted from the Joanna Briggs Institute critical appraisal tools, with a third investigator reviewing and resolving discrepancies. Risk of bias domains included clarity of aims, appropriateness of methods, validity of sleep measures, and transparency of reporting, and extracted data were synthesized narratively according to scoping review methodology. Results Database searches resulted in 5,518 citations ( Figure 1 ). After removing duplicates, 3,342 citations underwent title and abstract screening. Of these, 330 citations met the criteria for full-text review. Subsequently, 62 studies met the inclusion criteria for the study. An additional study was found through citation chasing for a total of 63 manuscripts included. We excluded 268 studies from the search results and one study in citation chasing results due to the focus not being on sleep, wrong study population, non-peer reviewed publications, no original data, wrong study design, non- English language, wrong setting, sleep not discussed, year limitation, and wrong outcomes ( Supplementary Table 3 ). View this table: View inline View popup Supplementary Table 3: Excluded Studies Table Study Characteristics All 63 of the studies included in this review were published between 1978 and 2025, with most occurring after 2014 (n=48), indicating that this is a growing body of research. Most of the studies were observational (75%). More than half of the studies were cross-sectional (59%), and randomized/quasi-randomized control trials made up 13% of the studies. Qualitative studies made up 6% of the studies included in the scoping review. Study Populations The studies all took place among people who were currently incarcerated, with most taking place in prisons and the remainder taking place in a jail or carceral psychiatric unit. The studies were mostly conducted among adults (83%), 56% were among incarcerated males, 14% incarcerated females, and 27% of studies included both genders. Study Locations The studies took place across the world, with 37% from Europe, 21% from North America (12 U.S. and 1 in Canada), 14% from Asia, 14% from the Middle East, 11% from Africa, and 1 study each in South America and New Zealand. Study focus The studies described sleep among incarcerated people, including the quality, types of sleep problems, and causes. They fit into three main categories: 1) descriptive of sleep problems and causes, 2) sleep and associated health outcomes, and 4) interventions that assessed their impact on sleep. Sleep Quality and Insomnia Among Incarcerated Individuals Sleep Quality and Insomnia The articles reviewed mainly focused on sleep quality and insomnia among incarcerated individuals, showing a consistent pattern of poor sleep and widespread sleep disturbances in this group. Goudard et al. (2017) carried out a study in a French prison using questionnaires and medical chart reviews to evaluate sleep quality, causes of sleep problems, and insomnia treatments. They found that 56% of participants were dissatisfied with their sleep, with 57% reporting that sleep issues began after incarceration and 31% experiencing a deterioration of pre-existing sleep problems. Hypnotic drugs were prescribed to 25% of the incarcerated individuals, mostly benzodiazepines ( Adornetti et al., 2023 ), but only 42% believed these medications were eNective. Similarly, Fakorede et al. (2023) reported a high rate of insomnia (45.7%) among 300 male inmates in a Nigerian maximum-security prison, which was closely linked to poor quality of life. Sleep and Circadian Patterns in Youth Adornetti et al. (2023) explored sleep and circadian patterns in juveniles across 11 carceral facilities using various sleep measures, including the Sleep-Wake Behavior Problems Scale and a daily sleep diary. Despite the juveniles obtaining the recommended 8-10 hours of sleep on average, they took significantly longer to fall asleep (47 minutes compared to the recommended 10-20 minutes). This delay was attributed to environmental factors such as constant lighting and rigid facility schedules. The study’s recommendations included adjusting schedules and lighting conditions, providing eye shades, and oNering sleep health education to staN. Environmental and Social Determinants of Sleep Elger (2004) examined insomnia prevalence in Switzerland through a year-long study of medical consultations, finding that 44.3% of prisoners reported insomnia, often linked to psychiatric disorders such as depression and prison-related stress. In another intervention study, Elger (2003) tracked the sleep quality of 52 incarcerated individuals with insomnia treated with hypnotics over two months. Initial findings showed significant improvements in sleep quality, latency, and duration within the first two weeks, but many participants continued to experience clinically significant insomnia, underscoring the need for comprehensive mental health interventions. Other studies provide broader insights into sleep issues in prisons. Geng et al. (2020) investigated the correlation between psychosocial factors and sleep patterns in a Chinese carceral setting. They found that although 47% of participants slept seven or more hours, poor sleep quality was reported by 45.9%. Insomnia was most prevalent among older individuals, those in poor physical health, and those with PTSD or depression. However, one study by Camplain et. al (2022), showed that sleep improved in a carceral setting when examining sleep in relation to pre-carceral housing environments of incarcerated individuals while in a rural county jail in FlagstaN, Arizona. Using cross- sectional survey methods, 194 individuals incarcerated in jail reported sleep quality prior to and during incarceration (two question Likert scale) and pre-incarceration housing status. Results showed that individuals in non-permanent housing before incarceration were less likely to experience worsening sleep quality during incarceration, compared to those in permanent housing ( Camplain et al., 2022 ). Objective Sleep Assessment Methods involving actigraphy provided objective data on sleep-wake patterns. D’Aurizio et al. (2020) assessed sleep quality in Italian prisoners using actigraphy, comparing their sleep to a control group of non-incarcerated males. The prisoners exhibited poorer sleep quality, longer sleep latency, and shorter total sleep time compared to the control group, reinforcing the challenges of sleeping in a highly controlled environment. Summary Collectively, these studies illustrate the significant issue of poor sleep quality and high insomnia rates among incarcerated individuals, with contributing factors including psychiatric disorders, environmental conditions, and pre-existing health issues. The findings suggest that improving carceral environments, along with expanding access to comprehensive mental health care and targeted insomnia treatments, is crucial for enhancing sleep quality in this population. Sleep and Health Outcomes Mental health disorders such as depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and personality disorders are significantly more prevalent among incarcerated individuals than in the general population. These conditions have direct eNects on sleep quality, including nightmares and insomnia, and are exacerbated by associated behaviors such as substance use. Among the studies reviewed, several articles addressed the relationship between sleep and health conditions, emphasizing the significant co-occurrence of sleep disturbances with depression, anxiety, PTSD, personality disorders, and substance use. Two studies examined sleep and cardiovascular disease risk. Depression and Anxiety Several studies across diverse contexts consistently identify strong associations between sleep disturbances and depression, anxiety, and related mood disorders in incarcerated populations ( Raha et al., 2018 )( D’Aurizio et al., 2020 ; Zhang et al., 2023 )( Carli et al., 2011 ; Oniszczenko & Romsicka, 2020 ; Vogler et al., 2014 ). Depression is especially prevalent among incarcerated women. Raha et al. (2018) identified that 85% of women at Guwahati Central Jail exhibit depressive symptoms, compared to 62.5% of men. Childhood trauma, pervasive in prison populations, is strongly associated with PTSD and depression ( Carli et al., 2011 ). The compounding impact of incarceration, coupled with additional stressors like the COVID-19 pandemic ( Zhang et al., 2023 ), exacerbates these conditions. D’Aurizio et al. (2020) reported that, in Italian prisoners, poor sleep quality corresponded with increased anxiety and mood disorders, highlighting the complex emotional regulation required by incarceration. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Sleep Disturbances Sleep disturbances are often early indicators of PTSD, with aNected individuals experiencing chronic nightmares and various other sleep disorders ( Acar et al., 2019 ; Dos Santos et al., 2017 ; Eichelman & Dorava, 2021 ; Eichelman & Dorava, 2022 ; Sylvia et al., 2021 ; Tussey et al., 2024 ; Woolhouse et al., 2018 ). Neurobiological findings suggest that disrupted REM sleep and heightened limbic activity contribute to PTSD in incarcerated populations ( Acar et al., 2019 ). One study of women in a Wisconsin facility, found high incidences of traumatic dreams in incarcerated women, beyond the incidence of PTSD, indicating potential undertreatment of these symptoms by prison mental health professionals ( Eichelman & Dorava, 2022 ). Two subpopulations of incarcerated people stood out in the discussion connection between sleep and PTSD, veterans and women. Incarcerated veterans face unique mental health challenges, including high rates of PTSD, depression, and related sleep disturbances. They report more nightmares, insomnia, and sleep fragmentation compared to non-veterans, often due to pre-incarceration trauma and military stressors ( Sylvia et al., 2021 ). The transition from military service to incarceration further heightens sleep-related health disparities. Studies focusing on incarcerated women also reveal significant connections between trauma and sleep disturbances. A qualitative study in Rio De Janeiro found chronic insomnia, hypersomnia, and nightmares prevalent among incarcerated women and attributable to prior trauma and ongoing psychological distress, with some women using excessive sleep as a maladaptive coping mechanism ( Dos Santos et al., 2017 ). Factors like depressive symptoms and PTSD were significantly associated with insomnia and poor sleep quality in a study of incarcerated women in Idaho with excessive noise, poor bedding, and mental health being commonly cited factors disrupting sleep ( Tussey et al., 2024 ). Additionally, women with traumatic brain injuries in New Zealand also reported poor sleep quality, stemming from both structural regulations and the prison environment ( Woolhouse et al., 2018 ). Sleep Deprivation and Aggression Sleep deprivation in prisons is linked to increased psychological distress and aggression, with findings emerging primarily from studies of men ( Barker et al., 2016 ; Ireland & Culpin, 2006 ; Meijers et al., 2015 ; Vogler et al., 2014 ). In one of/the only study that used actigraphy, nocturnal restlessness was strongly correlated with daytime aggression, likely reflecting impaired inhibitory control from sleep loss ( Meijers et al., 2015 ). Other work has shown that perceived poor sleep quality predicts aggressive behavior even when sleep duration does not ( Barker et al., 2016 ), and that both short sleep and poor quality are associated with greater aggression, as well as co-occurring symptoms such as ADHD, rumination, and somatic complaints ( Vogler et al., 2014 ). Among incarcerated adolescents and young adults (14-21 years), aggression was linked to both reduced sleep duration and poorer sleep quality, with heightened hostility particularly predictive of fewer hours of sleep and lower sleep quality ( Ireland & Culpin, 2006 ). Substance Use Substance use complicates the relationship between poor sleep and health outcomes in incarcerated populations with use as self-medication for sleep and as a contributor to poor sleep ( Chinichian & Alemohammad, 2020 ; Cope, 2003 ; Haghighat & Tabatabaee, 2014 ). Many incarcerated people use substances like cannabis to help them cope with sleep disturbances or to counteract boredom and inactivity, which can destabilize natural sleep patterns. Abrupt cessation of substance use upon incarceration further disrupts sleep, particularly in people dependent on substances like alcohol, where withdrawal is linked to higher rates of self-harm and aggression. Chinchian and Alemohammad (2020) reported that 87.7% of prisoners with substance use disorders experienced poor sleep quality, which was associated with total duration of imprisonment, the remainder of the prison term, history of sedative use, and poly-substance use in an Iranian prison. Personality Disorders Some of the studies focused specifically on sleep and personality disorders, linking antisocial personality disorder ( Oniszczenko & Romsicka, 2020 ) and borderline personality disorder ( Harty et al., 2010 ) to distinct patterns of sleep disturbances. Lindberg et al. (2003) found that incarcerated individuals with ASP exhibited increased slow-wave sleep, particularly in the deepest stage (S4), suggesting a compensatory response to the intense psychological and social diNiculties they face. Sleep disturbances in ASP also overlap with those commonly observed in BPD, including frequent awakenings and poor sleep eNiciency ( Harty et al., 2010 ). Despite these shared symptoms, sleep disruptions in ASP cannot be fully attributed to comorbid conditions such as depression or substance dependence, indicating that ASP itself plays a distinct role in altering sleep patterns. Sleep and Physical Health Only two studies focus specifically on the relationship between sleep and physical health in incarcerated populations. In Ghana, a cardiovascular risk assessment reported an average sleep duration of 5.5 hours per night among incarcerated individuals, with nearly 90% having trouble sleeping ( Abukari et al., 2024 ). These disturbances were associated with elevated rates of pre-hypertension (54.5%), dyslipidemia (48.1%), and overweight/obesity (24.6%). In Turkey, 43% of incarcerated men were found to have experienced poor sleep quality, which was significantly associated with obesity and cardiometabolic disease risk ( Atan et al., 2025 ). While both studies demonstrate links between disrupted sleep and cardiometabolic vulnerability, the Ghana study’s reliance on self-reported sleep duration without a standardized instrument limits comparability with research using validated measures. Interventions Several interventions sought to improve sleep through mind-body practices, including mindfulness and relaxation programs focused on improving sleep and reducing anxiety and depression. Five of these studies involved mindfulness techniques ( An et al., 2019 ; Ferszt et al., 2015 ; Poorebrahim et al., 2022 ; Sylvia et al., 2021 ; Zhang et al., 2022 ), three focused on relaxation ( Jacob & Sharma, 2019 ; Lutz, 1990 ; Toler, 1978 ), and two assessing yoga programs ( Habibzadeh & Nosratabad, 2024 ; Kerekes et al., 2017 ). Across these studies, such approaches were generally eNective in improving sleep and reducing anxiety and depression. A randomized control trial by Kerekes et al (2017) examined the outcomes of a 10-week yoga program in Sweden on participants mental health and sleep. Within group analysis showed some improvements in the PSQI global score for those who were in the yoga group and when compared to the control group, there was a close to significant (0.06) decrease in PSQI scores. Participants also showed improvements in the other outcomes measured including reduced perceived stress, increased psychological and emotional well-being, decreased aggressive and antisocial behavior, and improved attention and impulse control. Two studies focused on assessing whether using physical activity could improve sleep ( Adri et al., 2022 ; Johnson et al., 2019 ). One study by Adri et al. (2022) enrolled a small sample of adolescents evaluating whether individual and group-based activities improved sleep. They found that group games did improve sleep quality, however, the study only included three sessions over a one-week period. The authors posited that engaging with peers as part of physical activity may have improved sleep by reducing stress and improving mood. Johnson et al. (2019) was the only intervention study to look at a physical health outcome, focusing on whether physical activity, screen time and sleep impacted body mass index (BMI). While they found no significant association between sleep duration and weight gain, long sleepers gained more weight per year. Three studies in the United Kingdom looked at the treatment of insomnia with cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT-I) in carceral settings: a single-session CBT-I with self- management materials for men in prison ( Randall et al., 2019 ); a stakeholder-informed design of a prison-specific stepped-care insomnia pathway ( Dewa et al., 2018 ); and a feasibility evaluation of the stepped-care pathway that incorporates peer support, environmental aids, selective hypnotic prescribing, and CBT-I ( Dewa et al., 2024 ).Collectively, these studies indicates that CBT-I-based approaches are feasible and acceptable in prisons and, in uncontrolled evaluations, are associated with clinically meaningful reductions in insomnia severity and improvements in mood symptoms. In a single-session trial, Randall et al. (2019) observed short-term decreases in insomnia among men after one CBT-I session supplemented by a self-management pamphlet and optional weekly support sessions. This approach was designed to address insomnia in a setting where the carceral environment limits access to treatment. Among the limitations were the lack of a control group and the short follow-up period of the study. Dewa et al (2018) sought stakeholder feedback from prison staN, incarcerated people, and sleep researchers about the design of a treatment pathway for insomnia in prisons and building on this work, Dewa et al. (2024) found the stepped-care pathway to be feasible and acceptable in a high-secure prison, with 96.4% of participants reporting improvements in their sleep and also improved depression, anxiety, cognitive function, and general wellbeing. Both studies were done with men in prison and neither of the studies to test the intervention eNectiveness used a control group. Testing these two approaches in diNerent settings and with women is an important next step. Each of these studies examines diNerent types of interventions across various global settings. Collectively, they show that interventions in carceral environments—ranging from mindfulness and relaxation to yoga programs, physical activities, and prison-adapted CBT- I—are practical and produce short-term gains in self-reported sleep and mood. To identify what truly works for sleep problems, replicating studies in other settings with control groups is an essential next step. Since individual-level programs cannot fully address the structural causes of sleep loss in prisons, future eNorts should combine behavioral strategies with environmental changes—such as noise and light reduction, schedule modifications—and medication stewardship policies, developed collaboratively with incarcerated peer facilitators and staN. Where sleep deprivation, whether intentional or unintentional, exists, prison leadership and staN must work to transform the facility culture to tackle the underlying causes and eNects of poor sleep health. Discussion Even in community settings, individuals often face challenges accessing specialized sleep care ( Collen et al., 2020 ; Singh et al., 2023 ). These barriers are amplified in carceral systems, where access to primary care, specialty services, pharmacological treatments, and behavioral interventions is highly restricted. Evidence consistently shows that sleep health in these environments is compromised, supporting the need for interventions that simultaneously address environmental conditions (e.g., lights, noise, schedules, violence), access to medical care, and individual-level supports ( D’Aurizio et al., 2023 ; Dewa et al., 2015 ; Sheppard & Hogan, 2022 ). Most research on sleep in carceral settings has focused narrowly on insomnia and poor sleep quality, with limited attention to other clinically significant disorders such as sleep apnea, parasomnias, PTSD, and hypersomnolence. Mental health outcomes have been most consistently examined, particularly depression and anxiety, with some studies addressing aggression and suicidality, often among men, and personality disorders. Where women were included, samples were typically small. Only one study enrolled a larger women’s sample ( Eichelman & Dorava, 2022 ), which limits precision and generalizability for women and gender-diverse people. The concentration on psychiatric correlates reflects both the high prevalence of mental illness in this population and the relative feasibility of assessing mental health outcomes through self-report and short-term designs. By contrast, the relationship between sleep and physical health has been examined far less extensively. Although community-based data show that inadequate or poor-quality sleep is a determinant of obesity, hypertension, diabetes, cardiometabolic risk, and impair immune function ( Itani et al., 2017 ; St-Onge et al., 2016 ), only a small subset of prison- based studies directly assesses these outcomes. This limited attention is significant given the elevated burden of chronic disease in incarcerated populations and the likelihood that carceral conditions exacerbate these risks. Sleep apnea, for example, is presumed to be common due to high rates of obesity, substance use, and psychiatric comorbidity, yet its long-term consequences in prisons and jails remain poorly characterized. The imbalance between mental and physical health research leaves substantial uncertainty about how sleep contributes to chronic disease disparities in justice-involved populations. Across studies, environmental stressors – including noise, constant or bright night lighting, limited autonomy over routines, and safety concerns - were consistently identified as barriers to sleep and as constraints on the effectiveness of behavioral interventions ( Dewa et al., 2017 ; Elumn et al., 2023 ; Sheppard & Hogan, 2022 ; Tussey et al., 2024 ). Because incarcerated people have little control over their sleep environment, conventional “sleep hygiene” approaches are poorly suited to these contexts. Importantly, no studies assessed how exposures during incarceration extend into the post-release period, leaving questions about the persistence of sleep-related harms and their contribution to reentry challenges and long-term health outcomes. Emerging work focused on the post-release period points to this as a critical gap (( Elumn et al., 2023 ). Future research—both quantitative and qualitative—should examine how carceral conditions shape sleep and identify and test interventions at both individual and systemic levels. Measurement approaches also vary widely by country, facility type, and security level, limiting comparability. Few studies incorporated objective measures such as actigraphy or polysomnography ( D’Aurizio et al., 2023 ; Meijers et al., 2015 ). For example, Camplain et al. (2022) demonstrated that pre-incarceration housing instability influenced sleep during incarceration, illustrating the importance of collecting data across pre-, peri-, and post- incarceration periods to capture continuity in sleep patterns. Without more standardized measures and longitudinal designs, it is difficult to draw conclusions about causal pathways or the durability of intervention effects. The U.S. context warrants particular attention. Much of the existing literature originates from international settings with distinct legal, cultural, and institutional systems. U.S. prisons, by contrast, are shaped by the legacies of slavery, racialized punishment, and Jim Crow segregation. Because racial and ethnic minorities are disproportionately incarcerated, understanding how incarceration contributes to racial disparities in sleep, and, by extension, disparities in cardiovascular and metabolic disease, remains a research priority. Positioning sleep as both an outcome of carceral conditions and a mechanism through which incarceration drives broader health inequities can inform more targeted policy and health interventions. Finally, methodological and ethical considerations merit attention. Person-first language is encouraged across health and social science fields but remains inconsistently used in sleep research on incarceration; adopting it can reduce stigma and aligns with best practices in correctional health epidemiology ( Bedell et al., 2018 ). Dewa et al. (2018) explicitly included people who are incarcerated, sleep researchers, and prison staff from the participating facility in a structured co-design (Modified Delphi) of a prison-specific stepped-care pathway for insomnia and subsequent feasibility work showed promise ( Dewa et al., 2024 ). Without the engagement of incarcerated and formerly incarcerated individuals, alongside carceral staff and sleep experts, interventions risk being ill-suited to carceral realities and perpetuating inequities. Addressing these methodological and ethical limitations is essential to building an evidence base that informs structural reforms, clinical interventions, and policies to protect the sleep and health of justice involved populations. Data Availability All data produced in the present work are contained in the manuscript. Declaration of Interest Statement The authors declare no competing interests. Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) Checklist Supplementary Digital Appendix 2: Search Strategies Ovid Embase Prison/ Prisoner/ Offender/ (incarcerat* or decarcerat* or prison* or jail* or criminal* or correctional or corrections officer* or inmate* or convict* or offender* or detained or detainee or imprison* or behind bars or penitentiar* or detention*).mp. (justice-involve* or justice involve* or ex-con or ex-cons or felon* or parol* or probat*).mp. or/1-5 exp Sleep Disorders/ (sleep* or narcoleps* or somnolen* or drowsiness or exploding head syndrome* or hypersomni* or hypnagogic hallucination* or hypnic headache* or insomni* or nightmare* or parasomnia* or paroniria* or periodic limb movement disorder* or sopor or agrypnia* or hyposomnia* or nocturnal apnea* or nocturnal apnoea* or dyssomnia* or night terror* or pavor nocturnus).mp. ((abnormal or excessive or unpleasant or vivid or fragmented) adj3 dream*).mp. or/7-9 6 and 10 Ovid MEDLINE(R) ALL Prisons/ Prisoners/ Criminals/ (incarcerat* or decarcerat* or prison* or jail* or criminal* or correctional or corrections officer* or inmate* or convict* or offender* or detained or detainee or imprison* or behind bars or penitentiar* or detention*).mp. (justice-involve* or justice involve* or ex-con or ex-cons or felon* or parol* or probat*).mp. or/1-5 exp Sleep Wake Disorders/ (sleep* or narcoleps* or somnolen* or drowsiness or exploding head syndrome* or hypersomni* or hypnagogic hallucination* or hypnic headache* or insomni* or nightmare* or parasomnia* or paroniria* or periodic limb movement disorder* or sopor or agrypnia* or hyposomnia* or nocturnal apnea* or nocturnal apnoea* or dyssomnia* or night terror* or pavor nocturnus).mp. ((abnormal or excessive or unpleasant or vivid or fragmented) adj3 dream*).mp. or/7-9 6 and 10 Ovid APA PsycInfo exp Prisons/ exp incarcerated/ exp criminal offenders/ (incarcerat* or decarcerat* or prison* or jail* or criminal* or correctional or corrections officer* or inmate* or convict* or offender* or detained or detainee or imprison* or behind bars or penitentiar* or detention*).mp. (justice-involve* or justice involve* or ex-con or ex-cons or felon* or parol* or probat*).mp. or/1-5 exp Sleep Wake Disorders/ (sleep* or narcoleps* or somnolen* or drowsiness or exploding head syndrome* or hypersomni* or hypnagogic hallucination* or hypnic headache* or insomni* or nightmare* or parasomnia* or paroniria* or periodic limb movement disorder* or sopor or agrypnia* or hyposomnia* or nocturnal apnea* or nocturnal apnoea* or dyssomnia* or night terror* or pavor nocturnus).mp. ((abnormal or excessive or unpleasant or vivid or fragmented) adj3 dream*).mp. 7 or 8 or 9 6 and 10 Ovid APA PsycExtra exp Prisons/ exp incarcerated/ exp criminal offenders/ (incarcerat* or decarcerat* or prison* or jail* or criminal* or correctional or corrections officer* or inmate* or convict* or offender* or detained or detainee or imprison* or behind bars or penitentiar* or detention*).mp. (justice-involve* or justice involve* or ex-con or ex-cons or felon* or parol* or probat*).mp. 6 or/1-5 exp Sleep Wake Disorders/ (sleep* or narcoleps* or somnolen* or drowsiness or exploding head syndrome* or hypersomni* or hypnagogic hallucination* or hypnic headache* or insomni* or nightmare* or parasomnia* or paroniria* or periodic limb movement disorder* or sopor or agrypnia* or hyposomnia* or nocturnal apnea* or nocturnal apnoea* or dyssomnia* or night terror* or pavor nocturnus).mp. ((abnormal or excessive or unpleasant or vivid or fragmented) adj3 dream*).mp. 7 or 8 or 9 6 and 10 PubMed (sleep*[Title/Abstract] OR narcoleps*[Title/Abstract] OR somnolen*[Title/Abstract] OR drowsiness[Title/Abstract] OR exploding head syndrome*[Title/Abstract] OR hypersomni*[Title/Abstract] OR hypnagogic hallucination*[Title/Abstract] OR hypnic headache*[Title/Abstract] OR insomni*[Title/Abstract] OR nightmare*[Title/Abstract] OR parasomnia*[Title/Abstract] OR paroniria*[Title/Abstract] OR periodic limb movement disorder*[Title/Abstract] OR sopor[Title/Abstract] OR agrypnia*[Title/Abstract] OR hyposomnia*[Title/Abstract] OR nocturnal apnea*[Title/Abstract] OR nocturnal apnoea*[Title/Abstract] OR dyssomnia*[Title/Abstract] OR night terror*[Title/Abstract] OR pavor nocturnus[Title/Abstract] OR abnormal dream*[Title/Abstract] OR excessive dream*[Title/Abstract] OR unpleasant dream*[Title/Abstract] OR vivid dream*[Title/Abstract] OR fragmented dream*[Title/Abstract]) AND (incarcerat*[Title/Abstract] OR decarcerat*[Title/Abstract] OR prison*[Title/Abstract] OR jail*[Title/Abstract] OR criminal*[Title/Abstract] OR correctional[Title/Abstract] OR corrections officer*[Title/Abstract] OR inmate*[Title/Abstract] OR convict*[Title/Abstract] OR offender*[Title/Abstract] OR detained[Title/Abstract] OR detainee[Title/Abstract] OR imprison*[Title/Abstract] OR behind bars[Title/Abstract] OR penitentiar*[Title/Abstract] OR detention*[Title/Abstract] OR justice- involve*[Title/Abstract] OR justice involve*[Title/Abstract] OR ex-con[Title/Abstract] OR ex- cons[Title/Abstract] OR felon*[Title/Abstract] OR parol*[Title/Abstract] OR probat[Title/Abstract]) Criminal Justice Abstracts S1 (TI food-secur* OR food-insecur* OR “food basket*” OR “food bank*” OR foodbank* OR “food pantr*” OR “food suppl*” OR “food insufficien*” OR AB food-secur* OR food-insecur* OR “food basket*” OR “food bank*” OR foodbank* OR “food pantr*” OR “food suppl*” OR “food insufficien*” OR TI (food secur* or food insecur* or nutrition secur* or nutrition insecur* or urban garden* or urban farmer* or community garden* or community farmer* or community agriculture or home garden*) OR AB (food secur* or food insecur* or nutrition secur* or nutrition insecur* or urban garden* or urban farmer* or community garden* or community farmer* or community agriculture or home garden*)) S2 TX ((Caribbean or Carib or “West Indies” or Anguilla* or Antilles or Antigua* or Aruba* or Barbuda or Bahamas or Bahamian* or Barbados or Barbadian* or Barthelemy or “Saint Barthelemois” or Barts or Bermuda or Bermudian* or Bonaire or Bonairian* or Cuba* or Cayman or Caymanian* or Curacao* or Caicos or Belonger* or croix or Crucian* or Dominica or “Dominican Republic” or Dominican* or “Santo Domingo” or Eustatius or Grenada or Grenadian* or Guadeloupe* or grenadines or Haiti* or Hispaniola or Jamaica* or Martinique or Martiniquais or Martinican* or “Puerto Rico” or “Puerto Rican*” or Nevis or Nevisian* or Montserrat* or “Virgin Island” or “Virgin Islands” or “Virgin Islander S1 TI (incarcerat* or decarcerat* or prison* or jail* or criminal* or correctional or corrections officer* or inmate* or convict* or offender* or detained or detainee or imprison* or behind bars or penitentiar* or detention* or justice-involve* or justice involve* or ex-con or ex-cons or felon* or parol* or probat*) OR AB (incarcerat* or decarcerat* or prison* or jail* or criminal* or correctional or corrections officer* or inmate* or convict* or offender* or detained or detainee or imprison* or behind bars or penitentiar* or detention* or justice-involve* or justice involve* or ex-con or ex- cons or felon* or parol* or probat*) S2 TI (sleep* or narcoleps* or somnolen* or drowsiness or exploding head syndrome* or hypersomni* or hypnagogic hallucination* or hypnic headache* or insomni* or nightmare* or parasomnia* or paroniria* or periodic limb movement disorder* or sopor or agrypnia* or hyposomnia* or nocturnal apnea* or nocturnal apnoea* or dyssomnia* or night terror* or pavor nocturnus or abnormal dream* or excessive dream* or unpleasant dream* or vivid dream* or fragmented dream*) OR AB (sleep* or narcoleps* or somnolen* or drowsiness or exploding head syndrome* or hypersomni* or hypnagogic hallucination* or hypnic headache* or insomni* or nightmare* or parasomnia* or paroniria* or periodic limb movement disorder* or sopor or agrypnia* or hyposomnia* or nocturnal apnea* or nocturnal apnoea* or dyssomnia* or night terror* or pavor nocturnus or abnormal dream* or excessive dream* or unpleasant dream* or vivid dream* or fragmented dream*) S3 S1 and S2 National Criminal Justice Reference Service Abstracts Database abstract((sleep* or narcoleps* or somnolen* or drowsiness or exploding head syndrome* or hypersomni* or hypnagogic hallucination* or hypnic headache* or insomni* or nightmare* or parasomnia* or paroniria* or periodic limb movement disorder* or sopor or agrypnia* or hyposomnia* or nocturnal apnea* or nocturnal apnoea* or dyssomnia* or night terror* or pavor nocturnus or abnormal dream* or excessive dream* or unpleasant dream* or vivid dream* or fragmented dream*)) AND abstract((incarcerat* or decarcerat* or prison* or jail* or criminal* or correctional or corrections officer* or inmate* or convict* or offender* or detained or detainee or imprison* or behind bars or penitentiar* or detention* or justice-involve* or justice involve* or ex-con or ex-cons or felon* or parol* or probat*)) Cochrane Library #1 (incarcerat* or decarcerat* or prison* or jail* or criminal* or correctional or corrections officer* or inmate* or convict* or offender* or detained or detainee or imprison* or behind bars or penitentiar* or detention*):ti,ab or (justice-involve* or justice involve* or ex-con or ex-cons or felon* or parol* or probat*):ti,ab #2 (sleep* or narcoleps* or somnolen* or drowsiness or exploding head syndrome* or hypersomni* or hypnagogic hallucination* or hypnic headache* or insomni* or nightmare* or parasomnia* or paroniria* or periodic limb movement disorder* or sopor or agrypnia* or hyposomnia* or nocturnal apnea* or nocturnal apnoea* or dyssomnia* or night terror* or pavor nocturnus):ti,ab or ((abnormal or excessive or unpleasant or vivid or fragmented) near/3 dream*):ti,ab #3 #1 and #2 The Cochrane Library database includes: Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials Cochrane Clinical Answers Google Scholar (Via Harzig’s Publish or Perlish) prison sleep disorders Scopus (TITLE-ABS-KEY (incarcerat* OR decarcerat* OR prison* OR jail* OR criminal* OR correctional OR corrections officer* OR inmate* OR convict* OR offender* OR detained OR detainee OR imprison* OR “behind bars” OR penitentiar* OR detention*) OR TITLE-ABS- KEY (justice-involve* OR “justice involve*” OR ex-con OR ex-cons OR felon* OR parol* OR probat*)) AND (TITLE-ABS-KEY (sleep* OR narcoleps* OR somnolen* OR drowsiness OR “exploding head syndrome*” OR hypersomni* OR “hypnagogic hallucination*” OR “hypnic headache*” OR insomni* OR nightmare* OR parasomnia* OR paroniria* OR “periodic limb movement disorder*” OR sopor OR agrypnia* OR hyposomnia* OR “nocturnal apnea*” OR “nocturnal apnoea*” OR dyssomnia* OR “night terror*” OR “pavor nocturnus”) OR TITLE- ABS-KEY ((abnormal OR excessive OR unpleasant OR vivid OR fragmented) W/3 dream*)) Web of Science Core Collection TS=(incarcerat* or decarcerat* or prison* or jail* or criminal* or correctional or corrections officer* or inmate* or convict* or offender* or detained or detainee or imprison* or behind bars or penitentiar* or detention*) or TS=(justice-involve* or justice involve* or ex-con or ex-cons or felon* or parol* or probat*) #2 TS=(sleep* or narcoleps* or somnolen* or drowsiness or “exploding head syndrome*” or hypersomni* or “hypnagogic hallucination*” or “hypnic headache*” or insomni* or nightmare* or parasomnia* or paroniria* or “periodic limb movement disorder*” or sopor or agrypnia* or hyposomnia* or “nocturnal apnea*” or “nocturnal apnoea*” or dyssomnia* or “night terror*” or “pavor nocturnus”) or TS=((abnormal or excessive or unpleasant or vivid or fragmented) near/3 dream*) #3 #1 and #2 The Core Collection included in this review is: Science Citation Index Expanded (1900 - Data Searched) Social Sciences Citation Index (1900 - Date Searched) Art & Humanities - (1975 - Date Searched) Conference Proceedings Citation Index - Science (1991 - Date Searched) Conference Proceedings Citation Index - Social Sciences and Humanities (1991 - Date Searched) Book Citation Index - Science (2005 - Date Searched) Book Citation Index - Social Sciences and Humanities (2005 - Date Searched) Emerging Source Citation Index - (2018 - Date Searched) Current Chemical Reactions (1985 - Date Searched) Index Chemicus (1993 - Date Searched) Acknowledgements We thank everyone who contributed to this scoping review, including Dylan Balter, Kathryn Thomas, Amy Du, and Gul Jana Saeed. 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