Assessment of Accessibility, Efficiency, Constraint of Artificial Insemination and Estrus Synchronization Services on Dairy Cows in Legambo District, South Wollo Zone, Ethiopia

Assessment of Accessibility, Efficiency, Constraint of Artificial Insemination and Estrus Synchronization Services on Dairy Cows in Legambo District, South Wollo Zone, Ethiopia | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Assessment of Accessibility, Efficiency, Constraint of Artificial Insemination and Estrus Synchronization Services on Dairy Cows in Legambo District, South Wollo Zone, Ethiopia seid This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8744329/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Dairy cow production supports income and nutrition in Ethiopia, but limited access to breeding technologies like AI and ES reduces adoption and reproductive performance. Scarce information on their efficiency, accessibility, and constraints further hinders dairy productivity in Legambo District. Thus, a cross-sectional survey was conducted from September–January 2025 to assess the accessibility, efficiency, and constraints of AI and ES services on dairy cows in Legambo District, South Wollo Zone, Ethiopia. The relevant data were collected purposively among 96 dairy cow farmers using structured questionnaires. Data were analyzed descriptively to evaluate service accessibility, efficiency, and constraints. Most respondents were male (66.7%), engaged in mixed farming (62.5%), and owned more than two dairy cows (42.8%). Access to AI services was low (31.3%), and ES programs were nearly nonexistent (2.08%). Utilization of services was limited (20.8%), but users reported relatively good outcomes 71.9% of cows conceived after a single insemination, 75% observed improved calving intervals, and 78.1% noted improved herd genetics. The major constraints identified were delayed service (26%), shortage of semen and materials (20.8%), limited technician skill (15.5%), lack of awareness (15.7%), and absence of structured ES programs (42.7%). Despite these challenges, 83.3% of farmers expressed willingness to adopt ES if services were improved. In conclusion, access and utilization of AI and ES services are limited in Legambo District, although farmers recognize their benefits. Improving dairy reproduction requires nearby AI centers, reliable supplies, skilled technicians, and farmer education on AI and ES. Animal Science Breeding technologies Legambo districts Livestock development Reproductive performance Smallholder dairy farming Figures Figure 1 INTRODUCTION Dairy farming is a cornerstone of rural livelihoods in Ethiopia, contributing significantly to household nutrition, income, and agricultural sustainability. In Legambo District of the South Wollo Zone, the sector holds considerable potential, yet productivity is constrained by reproductive inefficiencies and limited access to modern breeding technologies [ 1 ]. With a population of about 165,026, the district is predominantly rural, and its agricultural economy is shaped by smallholder farmers. Delivery of artificial insemination (AI) and estrus synchronization (ES) services faces challenges, including inadequately trained technicians, poor infrastructure, limited farmer awareness, and logistical issues related to semen storage and transport, thereby reducing both efficiency and accessibility [ 2 ] Most smallholder dairy farmers rely on indigenous cattle characterized by low milk yield and poor reproductive performance. Traditional management practices, including inadequate heat detection, use of low-quality genetic material, inconsistent artificial insemination (AI) services, and shortages of liquid nitrogen and essential equipment, further compromise reproductive efficiency [ 3 ]. Despite these challenges, Ethiopia possesses significant potential for dairy development, supported by a large livestock population, diverse agroecology (highland, midland, and lowland), increasing urban demand for dairy products, and favorable livestock development policies [ 4 ]. Artificial insemination remains a key strategy for genetic improvement through crossbreeding, particularly in areas with high milk consumption, but its success depends on semen quality, technician competence, and effective coordination between service providers and farmers [ 5 , 6 ]. Nevertheless, AI service delivery in Ethiopia has remained weak and, in some areas, is declining due to inconsistency and technical limitations within smallholder production systems [ 7 , 8 ]. Nationally, conception rates from AI range between 7.14% and 40.23%, well below acceptable standards, reflecting challenges such as poor heat detection, improper insemination timing, inadequate technician training, weak cold-chain systems, and poor record-keeping [ 1 ]. Estrus synchronization (ES) has been introduced to improve reproductive efficiency by reducing labor requirements, shortening postpartum anestrus intervals, and increasing the proportion of cows conceiving early in the breeding season [ 9 ]. However, the effectiveness of ES is similarly constrained by poor cow body condition, delayed insemination, and limited technical support [ 4 ]. Most existing studies focus on broader or urban-adjacent areas, leaving rural districts like Legambo underexplored. Its unique agro-ecological conditions, limited veterinary infrastructure, and socio-economic realities warrant a localized assessment. Without reliable data on farmer demand, service quality, and reproductive outcomes, the potential of AI and ES to enhance dairy productivity remains underutilized. This study, therefore, aims to evaluate the accessibility, efficiency, and constraints of AI and ES services in the Legambo District, providing evidence-based insights to improve dairy cattle reproduction and productivity. MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1. Description of the Study Area and period The study was conducted from September to January 2025 in Legambo District, South Wollo Zone, Amhara Regional State, Ethiopia. The district’s capital, Akesta, is located 501 km from Addis Ababa. Geographically, Legambo lies at 39°00′ N latitude and 11°00′ E longitude, with altitudes ranging from 1,500 to 3,700 meters above sea level. It is one of the 22 districts in South Wollo and comprises 40 rural kebeles. The district is bordered by Lagahida and Kalala to the south, Borena to the west, Dessie Zuria to the northeast, and Wara Ilu to the southeast. Legambo experiences annual rainfall between 700 and 1,200 mm, with a mean of about 900 mm. The temperature ranges from 0°C to 21°C, reflecting its diverse agro-ecological conditions [ 10 ]. These climatic features support mixed crop-livestock farming systems, which dominate the local economy. According to population data from 2023, Legambo District has 165,026 residents, of whom 86,294 are female, and 78,732 are male. The district includes 5,645 households, most of which are smallholder farmers engaged in subsistence agriculture (Legambo Woreda Agricultural Office, 2023). 3.2. Study design and population A cross-sectional study design was applied from September to January 2025 to assess the status of artificial insemination and estrus synchronization services in Legambo Districts, South Wollo, Ethiopia. A questionnaire survey was used to gather relevant data from the owners of dairy cows in the study area. The study population was owners of dairy cows. During data collection, socio-demographic characteristics like education, age, sex, type of experts, working experience, marital status, and job type were recorded. 3.3. Sample Size Determination and Sampling Techniques The sample size of the households was determined according to the formula given by [ 11 ]. $$\:n=\frac{{\text{z}}^{\text{2}}\text{*(}\text{p}\text{)(}\text{q}\text{)}}{{\text{e}}^{\text{2}}}$$ Where, n=Sample size; z = standard normal deviation (1.96 for 95% confidence level); P = 0.5 (estimated population variability proportion, 50%); q = 1-P, i.e., (0.5); e = 0.1 (level of precision, 10%), due to limited time and resources Based on the formula, n \(\:=\) \(\:\frac{{\text{z}}^{2}\times\:\text{p}\left(\text{q}\right)}{\text{e}2}=\frac{{\left(1.96\right)}^{2}\times\:0.5(1-0.5)}{{\left(0.1\right)}^{2}}=\frac{3.8416\times\:0.25}{0.1\times\:0.1}=\frac{0.9604}{0.01}=96\) . Therefore, a total of 96 respondents was selected based on Cochran’s (1977) formula reason limited by time and resources. Legambo Woreda was purposively selected as the study district due to its accessibility, transportation facilities, time limitations, and financial constraints. Within the district, three kebeles, Tulu Awulia, Segno Gebiya, and Chiro, were chosen using random sampling techniques. Purposive sampling was then applied to identify households owning dairy cows. An equal number of respondents (32 dairy cow owners) were allocated from each kebele, ensuring balanced representation across the study sites. 3.4. Methods of data collection To collect data for this study, both primary and secondary data sources will be used. 3.4.1. Primary source of data Primary data for this study were collected through a structured questionnaire survey. A semi-structured questionnaire will be initially prepared in English and then translated into Amharic to ensure clarity and cultural relevance for local respondents. The survey was administered through face-to-face interviews to facilitate better understanding and accurate responses, especially considering varying literacy levels among participants. The questionnaire covered key areas including the status and accessibility of artificial insemination (AI) and estrus synchronization (ES) services, reproductive management practices, socio-demographic characteristics of dairy farmers, and their perceptions and attitudes toward AI and ES technologies. This approach allows for both quantitative and qualitative insights, enabling a comprehensive assessment of the challenges and opportunities related to reproductive technologies in Legambo District. 3.4.2. Secondary source of data In addition to primary data, secondary data was collected to enrich the study and provide contextual background. These data were sourced from the Legambo District Agricultural Office, including official case book records, annual reports, and relevant documentation on artificial insemination and estrus synchronization services. Specifically, the Legambo Woreda Agricultural Office (2025) will serve as a key reference for understanding the historical and operational status of AI and ES programs in the district. 3.5. Data Analysis and Management Methods The collected data were coded and entered into Microsoft Excel, and it was analyzed using SPSS statistical software version 20. Descriptive statistics means frequencies, percentages, and cross-tabulations was used to summarize socio-demographic characteristics, accessibility of services, reproductive management practices, and farmer perceptions regarding artificial insemination (AI) and estrus synchronization (ES). The results were presented in tables to facilitate interpretation and discussion. RESULTS 4.1. Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Respondents The majority were male (66.7%) and within the productive age groups (34.3% aged 18–30 and 43.7% aged 31–50). Most participants had primary-level education or were illiterate. A high proportion were married (85.4%) and predominantly Muslim (81.2%). Farming was the main occupation (70.8%), with mixed farming serving as the major livelihood source (62.5%). Most respondents owned more than two dairy cows (42.8%) and had 5–10 years of dairy farming experience (59.3%) as described (Table 1 ). Table 1 Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents (n = 96) Variable Category Frequency(n) Percentage (%) Gender Male 64 66.7% Female 32 33.3% Age 18–30 years 33 34.3% 31–50 years 42 43.7% > 50 years 21 21.87% Education Level Illiterate 24 25% Primary 34 35.4% Secondary 23 23.9% Tertiary 15 15.6% Marital Status Married 82 85.4% Unmarried 14 14.5% Religious Muslim 78 81.2% Orthodox 17 17.7% Protestant 1 1.0% Occupation Farmers 68 70.8% Experts 8 8.3% Others 20 20.9% Main livelihood source Crop production 15 15.6% Livestock production 21 21.9% Mixed farming 60 62.5% Number of dairy cows owned 1 25 26% 2 30 31.2% More than 2 41 42.8% Years of experience in dairy cow farming 10 years 22 23% 4.2. Accessibility of AI and Estrus Synchronization Services Table 2 shows that access to artificial insemination (AI) services in the study area is extremely limited, with only 31.3% having access, and estrus synchronization programs are nearly nonexistent (2.08%). Service regularity is poor, and delays are common. Most farmers wait 6–12 hours for AI and resort to natural mating when services are unavailable. All respondents indicated that the nearest AI center is far and that they rely solely on woreda mobile services. Visits from AI technicians are rare, and service provision is largely dependent on government institutions, as shown in (Table 2 ). Table 2 Accessibility of AI and estrus synchronization services (n = 96) Question Reponses Frequency (n) Percentage (%) 1. Do you have access to AI services in your kebele? Yes 30 31.3% No 66 68.7% 3. Do you have access to estrus synchronization programs? Yes 2 2.08% No 94 99.92% 5. Do you get the AI/ES service regularly as required? Yes 19 19.8% No 77 80.2% 7. How long do you wait after requesting an AI service? < 6 hours 43 44.8% 6–12 hours 51 53.2% 1 day 2 2.0% 10. What will you do when you do not get the AI service on time? Wait for the other 21 days 26 27.1% Use natural mating 70 72.9% 12. How far is the nearest AI service center Nearby 0 0 Long distance (far) 96 100% 14. Where do you get AI services when you need? From the nearby veterinary clinic 0 0 From woreda mobile AI services 96 100% 16. How often do AI technicians visit your area? Monthly 0 0 Yearly 0 0 Occasionally 16 16.7% Never 80 83.3% 20. Who provides these services? Government 86 89.6% Private 0 0 NGO 10 10.4% 4.3. Efficiency of AI and Estrus Synchronization Services Table 3 indicates low utilization of AI/ES services, with only 20.8% having used them. Despite this, most respondents reported relatively good conception outcomes, with 71.9% stating cows conceive after one insemination and 47.9% reporting high conception rates. However, heat detection accuracy by technicians is moderate, and the availability of AI materials is inconsistent. Nevertheless, respondents observed improvements in calving interval (75%) and herd genetics (78.1%), and most expressed overall satisfaction with AI efficiency (76%) as mentioned in (Table 3 ). Table 3 Efficiency of AI and estrus synchronization services (n = 96) Question Reponses Frequency (n) Percentage (%) 1. Have you ever used AI and ES for your dairy cows? Yes 20 20.8% No 76 80.2% 3. How many times does a cow usually require insemination before conception? Once 69 71.9% Twice 21 21.9% More than twice 6 6.2% 6. What is the average conception rate in your cow after AI? High (> 70%) 46 47.9% Moderate (40–70%) 34 35.4% Low (< 40%) 16 16.6% 9. Do AI technicians properly detect heat signs? Yes 37 38.5% Somehow 49 51.0% No 10 10.5% 12. Are AI materials (semen, equipment) consistently available? Yes 11 11.5% No 85 99.5% 14. Have you observed improvement in calving interval after AI and synchronization? Yes 72 75% No 24 25% 16. Do you think AI has improved your herd’s genetic quality? Yes 75 78.1% No 21 21.9% 8. How satisfied are you with the efficiency of AI services? Satisfied 73 76.1% Neutral 10 10.4% Dissatisfied 13 13.5% 4.4. Constraints of AI and Estrus Synchronization Services Major constraints for AI included delayed service (26%), shortage of semen and facilities (20.8%), limited technician skill (15.5%), lack of awareness (15.7%), poor heat detection (10.4%), and long distance to AI centers (11.5%). For estrus synchronization, the key challenges were absence of structured programs (42.7%), hormone shortages (25%), lack of awareness (20.8%), and poor follow-up (10.4%). Only 20.8% of respondents had received any training on AI/ES. Farmers suggested establishing nearby AI centers (38.5%), ensuring skilled technicians and material availability (34.3%), and providing education on AI/ES (27.2%). Despite these challenges, 83.3% expressed willingness to adopt ES programs if accessible, indicating strong potential for uptake as described in Table 4 . Table 4 Constraints of AI and estrus synchronization services (n = 96) Question Reponses Frequency (n) Percentage (%) 1. What are the major constraints you face in AI service delivery? Shortage of AI facilities (like semen) 20 20.8% Lack of skilled technicians 15 15.5% Poor heat detection 10 10.4% Delayed service 25 26% Long distance to the AI center 11 11.5% Lack of awareness about AI 15 15.7% 2. What are the major constraints in estrus synchronization programs? Lack of ES program 41 42.7% Lack of hormones 24 25% Poor follow-up 10 10.4% Lack of awareness 20 20.8% 3. Do you receive training or awareness programs on AI/estrus synchronization? Yes 20 20.8% No 76 80.2% 4. What improvements do you suggest for better service delivery? Should present nearby AI center 37 38.5% Should be available skilled AI technician and materials 33 34.3% Should provide education on AI and ES 26 27.2% 5. Did you have an interest to use ES service to breed your dairy cattle? Yes 80 83.3% No 16 16.7% DISCUSSION The socio-demographic characteristics of respondents in the present study show several patterns. Gender distribution in this study was dominated by males (66.7%), while females accounted for 33.3%. Similar male-dominated participation was reported by [ 5 ], who found that 70% of dairy farmers were men. This may be due to the cultural perception that livestock and dairy management are male responsibilities. Regarding age, most respondents (43.7%) were between 31 and 50 years, followed by 18–30 years (34.3%). This indicates that dairy farming is largely practiced by economically active adults. Comparable findings were reported by [ 12 ], where 45% of respondents were aged 31–50 years, suggesting that middle-aged individuals have both the experience and physical capacity needed for dairy production. The educational level of respondents varied, with 35.4% having primary education and 25% being illiterate. These results are consistent with [ 13 ], who reported that more than one-third of smallholder farmers had only basic literacy. Limited educational attainment may influence record-keeping and adoption of improved dairy technologies. The main occupation of respondents was farming (70.8%). This is consistent with most smallholder dairy studies, for example, [ 14 ] reported that 72% of dairy producers were crop–livestock farmers. Only 8.3% were experts, indicating that dairy farming is largely a smallholder livelihood activity. Regarding the main livelihood source, 62.5% practiced mixed farming, while 21.9% and 15.6% relied primarily on livestock and crop production, respectively. This mirrors the findings of [ 15 ], who reported that mixed farming is the predominant system in Ethiopian highlands due to its risk-spreading advantages. The number of dairy cows owned showed that 42.8% kept more than two cows, 31.2% owned two cows, and 26% owned one cow. These values are slightly higher than those of [ 16 ], who found that most households kept only one or two cows. The higher cow ownership in this study may indicate improved household investment in dairy farming. Experience in dairy cow farming was relatively high, with 59.3% having 5–10 years of experience and 23% having more than 10 years. This agrees with [ 17 ], who reported that over 60% of farmers had more than five years of dairy experience, contributing to better management practices and productivity. The findings of this study reveal significant gaps in access to reproductive technologies such as Artificial Insemination (AI) and estrus synchronization, which are essential for improving dairy productivity. Only 31.3% of respondents reported having access to AI services in their kebele, while 68.7% did not. This limited access is consistent with the findings of [ 18 ], who reported that less than 35% of farmers in rural areas had reliable AI access. Similarly, [ 19 ] noted that AI coverage in many districts of Ethiopia remains below 40%, primarily due to shortages of trained technicians and inadequate infrastructure. The study showed extremely low access to estrus synchronization services, with only 2.08% using the service and 97.92% lacking access. Comparable results were observed by [ 20 ], who found that < 5% of smallholder farmers participate in synchronization programs. This demonstrates that synchronization technology is still in its infancy and has not been widely scaled to rural communities. Only 19.8% reported receiving AI/ES services regularly, while 80.2% did not. This aligns with [ 21 ], who reported that over 75% of farmers do not receive timely AI services due to logistical constraints and technician shortages. All respondents (100%) indicated that AI service centers were far from their location. This finding is supported by [ 13 ], who noted that long distances to service points are a major obstacle affecting AI adoption in rural Ethiopia. Transport limitations and poor road infrastructure further complicate access. All participants (100%) reported receiving AI from woreda mobile AI services, with no one accessing services from a nearby veterinary clinic. This is consistent with [ 22 ], who found that mobile AI delivery is the dominant model in many remote districts due to the absence of permanent AI stations. Most respondents (89.6%) received services from the government, while only 10.4% received NGO-based support, and none reported private services. This is in agreement with [ 23 ], who reported that government technicians provide more than 85% of AI services in Ethiopia. The absence of private sector involvement highlights a structural gap that limits service expansion. In this study, only 20.8% of respondents had ever used AI or estrus synchronization, while 80.2% had not. This low adoption rate is consistent with the findings of [ 19 ], who reported that less than 25% of smallholder farmers in Ethiopia utilize AI services. Similarly, [ 24 ] found that AI adoption remained below 30% in most mixed farming systems due to limited access, poor service delivery, and low awareness. A majority of respondents (71.9%) indicated that cows conceive after one AI attempt, while 21.9% required two attempts and 6.2% more than two. These results reflect better than the national average reported by [ 18 ], where only 55–60% of cows conceived after a single insemination. The relatively higher first-service conception rate observed here may indicate good heat detection or appropriate timing of insemination among those who actually received the service. Nearly half of the farmers (47.9%) reported a high conception rate (> 70%), while 35.4% had moderate rates (40–70%) and 16.6% reported low conception rates (< 40%). These results align partly with [ 25 ], who found conception rates ranging between 40% and 60% for most rural dairy systems. The higher self-reported conception rate in the present study may reflect the selective use of AI on healthier cows or improved technician skills among mobile service teams. Three-quarters of the respondents (75%) observed improvements in calving interval after using AI or synchronization. This is similar to the findings of [ 26 ], who reported shortened calving intervals among synchronized cows compared to natural mating. Improved calving intervals reflect better reproductive efficiency and enhanced management. A large proportion (78.1%) believed that AI improved their herd’s genetic quality, while 21.9% did not. This aligns with [ 13 ], who reported that 70–80% of dairy farmers recognize the genetic benefits of AI, especially in producing crossbreeds with higher milk yields, better growth, and disease resistance. Most respondents (76.1%) reported being satisfied with AI service efficiency, while 10.4% were neutral and 13.5% dissatisfied. [ 27 ] similarly observed that 70–75% of farmers expressed moderate satisfaction with AI services despite various challenges. Higher satisfaction may be linked to perceived genetic gains and improved reproductive performance among cows. The results reveal multiple constraints affecting AI service efficiency. The most frequently mentioned challenge was delayed service (26%), followed by shortage of AI facilities such as semen (20.8%). These findings are consistent with [ 23 ], who reported that more than 25% of farmers experienced delays due to limited technician availability and transportation difficulties. Similarly, [ 22 ] found that semen shortages affected more than 22% of AI users in rural Ethiopia. Lack of awareness (15.7%) and lack of skilled technicians (15.5%) were also major issues. Comparable figures were reported by [ 28 ], where 18% of farmers identified technician skill gaps as a constraint. Poor technician capacity often contributes to low conception rates and farmer dissatisfaction. Poor heat detection (10.4%) was another constraint noted by respondents. This echoes findings by [ 25 ], who identified heat detection problems among 12–15% of respondents, reflecting widespread challenges in identifying the optimal insemination time. Furthermore, long distances to AI centers (11.5%) align with earlier reports by [ 13 ], who found that 10–20% of farmers had difficulty accessing AI centers because of geographic barriers and inadequate infrastructure. The most critical constraint in estrus synchronization (ES) programs was the absence of ES programs themselves, reported by 42.7% of respondents. This result agrees with Alemayehu et al. (2019), who noted that over 40% of rural areas lack structured synchronization initiatives due to insufficient funding and poor institutional coordination. Lack of hormonal drugs (25%) was also widely reported, consistent with [ 18 ], who observed that 20–30% of synchronization failures are due to shortages of prostaglandins and other hormones. Lack of awareness (20.8%) mirrors earlier findings, indicating that low knowledge about ES protocols limits adoption. [ 17 ] similarly reported that 19–24% of farmers lacked understanding of synchronization benefits and timing. Poor follow-up after treatment (10.4%) is also consistent with [ 26 ], who documented insufficient monitoring and follow-up as a constraint among 10–15% of participants in synchronization programs. Conclusion and Recommendations The study revealed that access to artificial insemination (AI) and estrus synchronization (ES) services among dairy farmers is limited, with low utilization despite positive perceptions of the technologies. While farmers who used AI reported improvements in conception rates, calving intervals, and herd genetics. The major constraints were shortages of semen and materials, lack of skilled technicians, service delays, and limited awareness, which hindered broader adoption. Farmers’ willingness to use ES services indicates strong potential for improving dairy reproductive performance if service delivery is enhanced. Based on the above conclusion, the following recommendations were forwarded It should improve accessibility by establishing nearby AI centers and expanding mobile service coverage. Concerned body should be ensured consistent supply of AI materials, semen, and synchronization hormones. It should strengthen human capacity through training and deployment of skilled AI/ES technicians. It should enhance farmer awareness through targeted education programs on AI and ES benefits. It should develop structured ES programs with regular follow-up to support adoption and efficiency. Declarations Ethical statement This study was conducted in strict adherence to ethical principles for research involving human subjects. Participants were fully informed of the study's purpose, procedures, and implications, and their participation was voluntary. Anonymity and confidentiality were assured, with only de-identified data used in analysis and publication. Informed consent was obtained from each participant, who had the right to withdraw at any time. The study protocol was approved by the Institutional Research Ethics Review Committee of Mekdela Amba University, Ethiopia, (Ref.No: ANRAnSc /17.282025), in compliance with national and international ethical standards. Acknowledgments Not applicable Data Availability The datasets generated during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request: Competing Interests The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose. Funding Statement The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript. Statement of Informed Consent to Participate Informed consent was obtained through verbal consent from all individual participants that included in the study. Author Contributions Tadese Girma, Melkamu Likayo, Negasa Diro, Marye Sisay, Mahlet Dirbabew, Megersa Dibaba: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – Original Draft, and Writing – Review and Editing. Seid Kassaw: Methodology, Investigation, Supervision, Conceptualization, Writing – Review and Editing, Writing – Original Draft. All authors have approved the final version of the manuscript. 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Int J Livest Prod 10(3):77–88 Additional Declarations The authors declare potential competing interests as follows: no Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8744329","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":583251340,"identity":"fd90f976-1b34-4106-bb52-57bf5f501a08","order_by":0,"name":"seid","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAyklEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFACxgbJhgobORDzwAPitZxJMwZrSSDWHsnGtsOJDSAWUVrk25sbb85gO5w+P+zwQ6AtdnK6DQS0GJw52Gy5gSc9d+PtNAOglmRjswOEtEgktkk+kLDO3Tg7AaTlQOI2Qlrk5z8EajFgTjecnf6BOC0MNxjbJDckOCfIS+cQaYvBmcRmyxkH0gw3SOcUHEgwIMIv8u3HH97s/WcjLz87ffOHDxV2cgS1IKwDqzQgVjnYugZSVI+CUTAKRsGIAgD3ZkrOjCWDOAAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0001-9670-0284","institution":"kassaw","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"","middleName":"","lastName":"seid","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-01-30 19:07:16","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":true,"vertebrateSubjects":false,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":true,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":true,"humanSubjectConsent":true,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":true,"humanSubjectCaseReport":true,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8744329/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8744329/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":101927871,"identity":"1b262eaa-772a-4632-90f3-00f44208f199","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-05 06:52:09","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":304332,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eUnnumbered image in the Materials And Methods section\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8744329/v1/59fb866cc3e124864e958293.png"},{"id":101943375,"identity":"66383b41-fede-4c55-b87e-d801cc678dbe","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-05 09:41:48","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1655479,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8744329/v1/8aa3a888-f4cf-41c9-81f0-c99a864f321a.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare potential competing interests as follows: no","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAssessment of Accessibility, Efficiency, Constraint of Artificial Insemination and Estrus Synchronization Services on Dairy Cows in Legambo District, South Wollo Zone, Ethiopia\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eDairy farming is a cornerstone of rural livelihoods in Ethiopia, contributing significantly to household nutrition, income, and agricultural sustainability. In Legambo District of the South Wollo Zone, the sector holds considerable potential, yet productivity is constrained by reproductive inefficiencies and limited access to modern breeding technologies [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. With a population of about 165,026, the district is predominantly rural, and its agricultural economy is shaped by smallholder farmers. Delivery of artificial insemination (AI) and estrus synchronization (ES) services faces challenges, including inadequately trained technicians, poor infrastructure, limited farmer awareness, and logistical issues related to semen storage and transport, thereby reducing both efficiency and accessibility [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMost smallholder dairy farmers rely on indigenous cattle characterized by low milk yield and poor reproductive performance. Traditional management practices, including inadequate heat detection, use of low-quality genetic material, inconsistent artificial insemination (AI) services, and shortages of liquid nitrogen and essential equipment, further compromise reproductive efficiency [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. Despite these challenges, Ethiopia possesses significant potential for dairy development, supported by a large livestock population, diverse agroecology (highland, midland, and lowland), increasing urban demand for dairy products, and favorable livestock development policies [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. Artificial insemination remains a key strategy for genetic improvement through crossbreeding, particularly in areas with high milk consumption, but its success depends on semen quality, technician competence, and effective coordination between service providers and farmers [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNevertheless, AI service delivery in Ethiopia has remained weak and, in some areas, is declining due to inconsistency and technical limitations within smallholder production systems [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Nationally, conception rates from AI range between 7.14% and 40.23%, well below acceptable standards, reflecting challenges such as poor heat detection, improper insemination timing, inadequate technician training, weak cold-chain systems, and poor record-keeping [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. Estrus synchronization (ES) has been introduced to improve reproductive efficiency by reducing labor requirements, shortening postpartum anestrus intervals, and increasing the proportion of cows conceiving early in the breeding season [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. However, the effectiveness of ES is similarly constrained by poor cow body condition, delayed insemination, and limited technical support [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMost existing studies focus on broader or urban-adjacent areas, leaving rural districts like Legambo underexplored. Its unique agro-ecological conditions, limited veterinary infrastructure, and socio-economic realities warrant a localized assessment. Without reliable data on farmer demand, service quality, and reproductive outcomes, the potential of AI and ES to enhance dairy productivity remains underutilized. This study, therefore, aims to evaluate the accessibility, efficiency, and constraints of AI and ES services in the Legambo District, providing evidence-based insights to improve dairy cattle reproduction and productivity.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1. Description of the Study Area and period\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted from September to January 2025 in Legambo District, South Wollo Zone, Amhara Regional State, Ethiopia. The district\u0026rsquo;s capital, Akesta, is located 501 km from Addis Ababa. Geographically, Legambo lies at 39\u0026deg;00\u0026prime; N latitude and 11\u0026deg;00\u0026prime; E longitude, with altitudes ranging from 1,500 to 3,700 meters above sea level. It is one of the 22 districts in South Wollo and comprises 40 rural kebeles. The district is bordered by Lagahida and Kalala to the south, Borena to the west, Dessie Zuria to the northeast, and Wara Ilu to the southeast. Legambo experiences annual rainfall between 700 and 1,200 mm, with a mean of about 900 mm. The temperature ranges from 0\u0026deg;C to 21\u0026deg;C, reflecting its diverse agro-ecological conditions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. These climatic features support mixed crop-livestock farming systems, which dominate the local economy. According to population data from 2023, Legambo District has 165,026 residents, of whom 86,294 are female, and 78,732 are male. The district includes 5,645 households, most of which are smallholder farmers engaged in subsistence agriculture (Legambo Woreda Agricultural Office, 2023).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2. Study design and population\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA cross-sectional study design was applied from September to January 2025 to assess the status of artificial insemination and estrus synchronization services in Legambo Districts, South Wollo, Ethiopia. A questionnaire survey was used to gather relevant data from the owners of dairy cows in the study area. The study population was owners of dairy cows. During data collection, socio-demographic characteristics like education, age, sex, type of experts, working experience, marital status, and job type were recorded.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3. Sample Size Determination and Sampling Techniques\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe sample size of the households was determined according to the formula given by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e].\u003cdiv id=\"Equa\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equa\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:n=\\frac{{\\text{z}}^{\\text{2}}\\text{*(}\\text{p}\\text{)(}\\text{q}\\text{)}}{{\\text{e}}^{\\text{2}}}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere, n=Sample size; z\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;standard normal deviation (1.96 for 95% confidence level); P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.5 (estimated population variability proportion, 50%); q\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1-P, i.e., (0.5); e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.1 (level of precision, 10%), due to limited time and resources\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on the formula,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003en \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:=\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\frac{{\\text{z}}^{2}\\times\\:\\text{p}\\left(\\text{q}\\right)}{\\text{e}2}=\\frac{{\\left(1.96\\right)}^{2}\\times\\:0.5(1-0.5)}{{\\left(0.1\\right)}^{2}}=\\frac{3.8416\\times\\:0.25}{0.1\\times\\:0.1}=\\frac{0.9604}{0.01}=96\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e. Therefore, a total of 96 respondents was selected based on Cochran\u0026rsquo;s (1977) formula reason limited by time and resources.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLegambo Woreda was purposively selected as the study district due to its accessibility, transportation facilities, time limitations, and financial constraints. Within the district, three kebeles, Tulu Awulia, Segno Gebiya, and Chiro, were chosen using random sampling techniques. Purposive sampling was then applied to identify households owning dairy cows. An equal number of respondents (32 dairy cow owners) were allocated from each kebele, ensuring balanced representation across the study sites.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4. Methods of data collection\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo collect data for this study, both primary and secondary data sources will be used.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4.1. Primary source of data\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrimary data for this study were collected through a structured questionnaire survey. A semi-structured questionnaire will be initially prepared in English and then translated into Amharic to ensure clarity and cultural relevance for local respondents. The survey was administered through face-to-face interviews to facilitate better understanding and accurate responses, especially considering varying literacy levels among participants. The questionnaire covered key areas including the status and accessibility of artificial insemination (AI) and estrus synchronization (ES) services, reproductive management practices, socio-demographic characteristics of dairy farmers, and their perceptions and attitudes toward AI and ES technologies. This approach allows for both quantitative and qualitative insights, enabling a comprehensive assessment of the challenges and opportunities related to reproductive technologies in Legambo District.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4.2. Secondary source of data\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition to primary data, secondary data was collected to enrich the study and provide contextual background. These data were sourced from the Legambo District Agricultural Office, including official case book records, annual reports, and relevant documentation on artificial insemination and estrus synchronization services. Specifically, the Legambo Woreda Agricultural Office (2025) will serve as a key reference for understanding the historical and operational status of AI and ES programs in the district.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.5. Data Analysis and Management Methods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe collected data were coded and entered into Microsoft Excel, and it was analyzed using SPSS statistical software version 20. Descriptive statistics means frequencies, percentages, and cross-tabulations was used to summarize socio-demographic characteristics, accessibility of services, reproductive management practices, and farmer perceptions regarding artificial insemination (AI) and estrus synchronization (ES). The results were presented in tables to facilitate interpretation and discussion.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1. Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Respondents\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe majority were male (66.7%) and within the productive age groups (34.3% aged 18\u0026ndash;30 and 43.7% aged 31\u0026ndash;50). Most participants had primary-level education or were illiterate. A high proportion were married (85.4%) and predominantly Muslim (81.2%). Farming was the main occupation (70.8%), with mixed farming serving as the major livelihood source (62.5%). Most respondents owned more than two dairy cows (42.8%) and had 5\u0026ndash;10 years of dairy farming experience (59.3%) as described (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocio-demographic characteristics of respondents (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;96)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequency(n)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentage (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66.7%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u0026ndash;30 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u0026ndash;50 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43.7%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;50 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.87%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEducation Level\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIlliterate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrimary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.4%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecondary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTertiary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.6%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarital Status\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarried\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85.4%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnmarried\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReligious\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMuslim\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e81.2%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrthodox\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.7%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProtestant\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.0%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOccupation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFarmers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70.8%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExperts\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOthers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMain livelihood source\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrop production\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.6%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLivestock production\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMixed farming\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of dairy cows owned\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.2%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMore than 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42.8%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYears of experience in dairy cow farming\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;5 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.7%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u0026ndash;10 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59.3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;10 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2. Accessibility of AI and Estrus Synchronization Services\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e shows that access to artificial insemination (AI) services in the study area is extremely limited, with only 31.3% having access, and estrus synchronization programs are nearly nonexistent (2.08%). Service regularity is poor, and delays are common. Most farmers wait 6\u0026ndash;12 hours for AI and resort to natural mating when services are unavailable. All respondents indicated that the nearest AI center is far and that they rely solely on woreda mobile services. Visits from AI technicians are rare, and service provision is largely dependent on government institutions, as shown in (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccessibility of AI and estrus synchronization services (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;96)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuestion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReponses\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequency (n)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentage (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. \u003cb\u003eDo you have access to AI services in your kebele?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68.7%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. \u003cb\u003eDo you have access to estrus synchronization programs?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.08%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99.92%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5. \u003cb\u003eDo you get the AI/ES service regularly as required?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.8%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80.2%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7. \u003cb\u003eHow long do you wait after requesting an AI service?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;6 hours\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44.8%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u0026ndash;12 hours\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e53.2%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1 day\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.0%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10. \u003cb\u003eWhat will you do when you do not get the AI service on time?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWait for the other 21 days\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.1%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUse natural mating\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12. \u003cb\u003eHow far is the nearest AI service center\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNearby\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLong distance (far)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14. \u003cb\u003eWhere do you get AI services when you need?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom the nearby veterinary clinic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom woreda mobile AI services\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16. \u003cb\u003eHow often do AI technicians visit your area?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMonthly\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYearly\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOccasionally\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.7%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNever\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e83.3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20. \u003cb\u003eWho provides these services?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGovernment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e89.6%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrivate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNGO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.4%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.3. Efficiency of AI and Estrus Synchronization Services\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e indicates low utilization of AI/ES services, with only 20.8% having used them. Despite this, most respondents reported relatively good conception outcomes, with 71.9% stating cows conceive after one insemination and 47.9% reporting high conception rates. However, heat detection accuracy by technicians is moderate, and the availability of AI materials is inconsistent. Nevertheless, respondents observed improvements in calving interval (75%) and herd genetics (78.1%), and most expressed overall satisfaction with AI efficiency (76%) as mentioned in (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEfficiency of AI and estrus synchronization services (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;96)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuestion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReponses\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequency (n)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentage (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. \u003cb\u003eHave you ever used AI and ES for your dairy cows?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.8%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80.2%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. \u003cb\u003eHow many times does a cow usually require insemination before conception?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOnce\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTwice\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMore than twice\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.2%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6. \u003cb\u003eWhat is the average conception rate in your cow after AI?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;70%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModerate (40\u0026ndash;70%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.4%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLow (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;40%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.6%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9. \u003cb\u003eDo AI technicians properly detect heat signs?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSomehow\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51.0%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12. \u003cb\u003eAre AI materials (semen, equipment) consistently available?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99.5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14. \u003cb\u003eHave you observed improvement in calving interval after AI and synchronization?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16. \u003cb\u003eDo you think AI has improved your herd\u0026rsquo;s genetic quality?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78.1%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8. \u003cb\u003eHow satisfied are you with the efficiency of AI services?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSatisfied\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.1%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNeutral\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.4%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDissatisfied\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.4. Constraints of AI and Estrus Synchronization Services\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMajor constraints for AI included delayed service (26%), shortage of semen and facilities (20.8%), limited technician skill (15.5%), lack of awareness (15.7%), poor heat detection (10.4%), and long distance to AI centers (11.5%). For estrus synchronization, the key challenges were absence of structured programs (42.7%), hormone shortages (25%), lack of awareness (20.8%), and poor follow-up (10.4%). Only 20.8% of respondents had received any training on AI/ES. Farmers suggested establishing nearby AI centers (38.5%), ensuring skilled technicians and material availability (34.3%), and providing education on AI/ES (27.2%). Despite these challenges, 83.3% expressed willingness to adopt ES programs if accessible, indicating strong potential for uptake as described in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConstraints of AI and estrus synchronization services (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;96)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuestion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReponses\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequency (n)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentage (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. \u003cb\u003eWhat are the major constraints you face in AI service delivery?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShortage of AI facilities (like semen)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.8%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLack of skilled technicians\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoor heat detection\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.4%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDelayed service\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLong distance to the AI center\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLack of awareness about AI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.7%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. \u003cb\u003eWhat are the major constraints in estrus synchronization programs?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLack of ES program\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42.7%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLack of hormones\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoor follow-up\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.4%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLack of awareness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.8%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. \u003cb\u003eDo you receive training or awareness programs on AI/estrus synchronization?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.8%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80.2%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4. \u003cb\u003eWhat improvements do you suggest for better service delivery?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShould present nearby AI center\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShould be available skilled AI technician and materials\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShould provide education on AI and ES\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.2%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5. \u003cb\u003eDid you have an interest to use ES service to breed your dairy cattle?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e83.3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.7%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe socio-demographic characteristics of respondents in the present study show several patterns. Gender distribution in this study was dominated by males (66.7%), while females accounted for 33.3%. Similar male-dominated participation was reported by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e], who found that 70% of dairy farmers were men. This may be due to the cultural perception that livestock and dairy management are male responsibilities. Regarding age, most respondents (43.7%) were between 31 and 50 years, followed by 18\u0026ndash;30 years (34.3%). This indicates that dairy farming is largely practiced by economically active adults. Comparable findings were reported by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e], where 45% of respondents were aged 31\u0026ndash;50 years, suggesting that middle-aged individuals have both the experience and physical capacity needed for dairy production. The educational level of respondents varied, with 35.4% having primary education and 25% being illiterate. These results are consistent with [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e], who reported that more than one-third of smallholder farmers had only basic literacy. Limited educational attainment may influence record-keeping and adoption of improved dairy technologies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe main occupation of respondents was farming (70.8%). This is consistent with most smallholder dairy studies, for example, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e] reported that 72% of dairy producers were crop\u0026ndash;livestock farmers. Only 8.3% were experts, indicating that dairy farming is largely a smallholder livelihood activity. Regarding the main livelihood source, 62.5% practiced mixed farming, while 21.9% and 15.6% relied primarily on livestock and crop production, respectively. This mirrors the findings of [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e], who reported that mixed farming is the predominant system in Ethiopian highlands due to its risk-spreading advantages. The number of dairy cows owned showed that 42.8% kept more than two cows, 31.2% owned two cows, and 26% owned one cow. These values are slightly higher than those of [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e], who found that most households kept only one or two cows. The higher cow ownership in this study may indicate improved household investment in dairy farming. Experience in dairy cow farming was relatively high, with 59.3% having 5\u0026ndash;10 years of experience and 23% having more than 10 years. This agrees with [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e], who reported that over 60% of farmers had more than five years of dairy experience, contributing to better management practices and productivity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study reveal significant gaps in access to reproductive technologies such as Artificial Insemination (AI) and estrus synchronization, which are essential for improving dairy productivity. Only 31.3% of respondents reported having access to AI services in their kebele, while 68.7% did not. This limited access is consistent with the findings of [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e], who reported that less than 35% of farmers in rural areas had reliable AI access. Similarly, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e] noted that AI coverage in many districts of Ethiopia remains below 40%, primarily due to shortages of trained technicians and inadequate infrastructure.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study showed extremely low access to estrus synchronization services, with only 2.08% using the service and 97.92% lacking access. Comparable results were observed by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e], who found that \u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;5% of smallholder farmers participate in synchronization programs. This demonstrates that synchronization technology is still in its infancy and has not been widely scaled to rural communities. Only 19.8% reported receiving AI/ES services regularly, while 80.2% did not. This aligns with [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e], who reported that over 75% of farmers do not receive timely AI services due to logistical constraints and technician shortages. All respondents (100%) indicated that AI service centers were far from their location. This finding is supported by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e], who noted that long distances to service points are a major obstacle affecting AI adoption in rural Ethiopia. Transport limitations and poor road infrastructure further complicate access. All participants (100%) reported receiving AI from woreda mobile AI services, with no one accessing services from a nearby veterinary clinic. This is consistent with [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e], who found that mobile AI delivery is the dominant model in many remote districts due to the absence of permanent AI stations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost respondents (89.6%) received services from the government, while only 10.4% received NGO-based support, and none reported private services. This is in agreement with [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e], who reported that government technicians provide more than 85% of AI services in Ethiopia. The absence of private sector involvement highlights a structural gap that limits service expansion. In this study, only 20.8% of respondents had ever used AI or estrus synchronization, while 80.2% had not. This low adoption rate is consistent with the findings of [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e], who reported that less than 25% of smallholder farmers in Ethiopia utilize AI services. Similarly, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e] found that AI adoption remained below 30% in most mixed farming systems due to limited access, poor service delivery, and low awareness. A majority of respondents (71.9%) indicated that cows conceive after one AI attempt, while 21.9% required two attempts and 6.2% more than two. These results reflect better than the national average reported by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e], where only 55\u0026ndash;60% of cows conceived after a single insemination. The relatively higher first-service conception rate observed here may indicate good heat detection or appropriate timing of insemination among those who actually received the service. Nearly half of the farmers (47.9%) reported a high conception rate (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;70%), while 35.4% had moderate rates (40\u0026ndash;70%) and 16.6% reported low conception rates (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;40%). These results align partly with [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e], who found conception rates ranging between 40% and 60% for most rural dairy systems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe higher self-reported conception rate in the present study may reflect the selective use of AI on healthier cows or improved technician skills among mobile service teams. Three-quarters of the respondents (75%) observed improvements in calving interval after using AI or synchronization. This is similar to the findings of [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e], who reported shortened calving intervals among synchronized cows compared to natural mating. Improved calving intervals reflect better reproductive efficiency and enhanced management. A large proportion (78.1%) believed that AI improved their herd\u0026rsquo;s genetic quality, while 21.9% did not. This aligns with [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e], who reported that 70\u0026ndash;80% of dairy farmers recognize the genetic benefits of AI, especially in producing crossbreeds with higher milk yields, better growth, and disease resistance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost respondents (76.1%) reported being satisfied with AI service efficiency, while 10.4% were neutral and 13.5% dissatisfied. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e] similarly observed that 70\u0026ndash;75% of farmers expressed moderate satisfaction with AI services despite various challenges. Higher satisfaction may be linked to perceived genetic gains and improved reproductive performance among cows.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results reveal multiple constraints affecting AI service efficiency. The most frequently mentioned challenge was delayed service (26%), followed by shortage of AI facilities such as semen (20.8%). These findings are consistent with [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e], who reported that more than 25% of farmers experienced delays due to limited technician availability and transportation difficulties. Similarly, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e] found that semen shortages affected more than 22% of AI users in rural Ethiopia. Lack of awareness (15.7%) and lack of skilled technicians (15.5%) were also major issues. Comparable figures were reported by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e], where 18% of farmers identified technician skill gaps as a constraint. Poor technician capacity often contributes to low conception rates and farmer dissatisfaction.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoor heat detection (10.4%) was another constraint noted by respondents. This echoes findings by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e], who identified heat detection problems among 12\u0026ndash;15% of respondents, reflecting widespread challenges in identifying the optimal insemination time. Furthermore, long distances to AI centers (11.5%) align with earlier reports by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e], who found that 10\u0026ndash;20% of farmers had difficulty accessing AI centers because of geographic barriers and inadequate infrastructure.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe most critical constraint in estrus synchronization (ES) programs was the absence of ES programs themselves, reported by 42.7% of respondents. This result agrees with Alemayehu \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e (2019), who noted that over 40% of rural areas lack structured synchronization initiatives due to insufficient funding and poor institutional coordination. Lack of hormonal drugs (25%) was also widely reported, consistent with [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e], who observed that 20\u0026ndash;30% of synchronization failures are due to shortages of prostaglandins and other hormones.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLack of awareness (20.8%) mirrors earlier findings, indicating that low knowledge about ES protocols limits adoption. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e] similarly reported that 19\u0026ndash;24% of farmers lacked understanding of synchronization benefits and timing. Poor follow-up after treatment (10.4%) is also consistent with [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e], who documented insufficient monitoring and follow-up as a constraint among 10\u0026ndash;15% of participants in synchronization programs.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion and Recommendations","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study revealed that access to artificial insemination (AI) and estrus synchronization (ES) services among dairy farmers is limited, with low utilization despite positive perceptions of the technologies. While farmers who used AI reported improvements in conception rates, calving intervals, and herd genetics. The major constraints were shortages of semen and materials, lack of skilled technicians, service delays, and limited awareness, which hindered broader adoption. Farmers\u0026rsquo; willingness to use ES services indicates strong potential for improving dairy reproductive performance if service delivery is enhanced.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on the above conclusion, the following recommendations were forwarded\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt should improve accessibility by establishing nearby AI centers and expanding mobile service coverage.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eConcerned body should be ensured consistent supply of AI materials, semen, and synchronization hormones.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt should strengthen human capacity through training and deployment of skilled AI/ES technicians.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt should enhance farmer awareness through targeted education programs on AI and ES benefits.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt should develop structured ES programs with regular follow-up to support adoption and efficiency.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEthical statement This study was conducted in strict adherence to ethical principles for research involving human subjects. Participants were fully informed of the study\u0026apos;s purpose, procedures, and implications, and their participation was voluntary. Anonymity and confidentiality were assured, with only de-identified data used in analysis and publication. Informed consent was obtained from each participant, who had the right to withdraw at any time. The study protocol was approved by the Institutional Research Ethics Review Committee of Mekdela Amba University, Ethiopia, (Ref.No: ANRAnSc /17.282025), in compliance with national and international ethical standards.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting Interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding Statement\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStatement of Informed Consent to Participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInformed consent was obtained through verbal consent from all individual participants that included in the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTadese Girma, Melkamu Likayo, Negasa Diro, Marye Sisay, Mahlet Dirbabew, Megersa Dibaba: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing \u0026ndash; Original Draft, and Writing \u0026ndash; Review and Editing. Seid Kassaw: Methodology, Investigation, Supervision, Conceptualization, Writing \u0026ndash; Review and Editing, Writing \u0026ndash; Original Draft. All authors have approved the final version of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbebe B, Alemayehu M (2021) Challenges and Opportunities on Estrus Synchronization and Mass Artificial Insemination in Dairy Cows for Smallholders in Ethiopia. Int J Zool 2021 Article ID 9914095:6pages. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1155/2021/9914095\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1155/2021/9914095\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGetabalew M, Alemneh T (2019) Status of Artificial Insemination, Its Constraints, and Estrous Synchronization in Ethiopia. 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J Dairy Res 12(1):55\u0026ndash;66\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHaile A, Tesfaye K, Belete A (2018) Conception rates of dairy cows under smallholder systems in Ethiopia. Ethiop J Anim Reprod 9(1):33\u0026ndash;44\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTadese (2021) Bacteriospermia and Sperm Quality of Cryopreserved Bull Semen Used in Artificial Insemination of Cows in South Wollo Zone, Ethiopia. Veterinary Med Int Article ID 2098315:11. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1155/2020/2098315\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1155/2020/2098315\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYimer H, Tesfaye K (2018) Farmer satisfaction with artificial insemination services in Ethiopia. Ethiop J Anim Prod 18(2):99\u0026ndash;110\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMekonnen T, Dejene S (2019) Technician skill gaps and constraints in AI service delivery in Ethiopia. Int J Livest Prod 10(3):77\u0026ndash;88\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"Mekdela Amba University","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Breeding technologies, Legambo districts, Livestock development, Reproductive performance, Smallholder dairy farming","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8744329/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8744329/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eDairy cow production supports income and nutrition in Ethiopia, but limited access to breeding technologies like AI and ES reduces adoption and reproductive performance. Scarce information on their efficiency, accessibility, and constraints further hinders dairy productivity in Legambo District. Thus, a cross-sectional survey was conducted from September\u0026ndash;January 2025 to assess the accessibility, efficiency, and constraints of AI and ES services on dairy cows in Legambo District, South Wollo Zone, Ethiopia. The relevant data were collected purposively among 96 dairy cow farmers using structured questionnaires. Data were analyzed descriptively to evaluate service accessibility, efficiency, and constraints. Most respondents were male (66.7%), engaged in mixed farming (62.5%), and owned more than two dairy cows (42.8%). Access to AI services was low (31.3%), and ES programs were nearly nonexistent (2.08%). Utilization of services was limited (20.8%), but users reported relatively good outcomes 71.9% of cows conceived after a single insemination, 75% observed improved calving intervals, and 78.1% noted improved herd genetics. The major constraints identified were delayed service (26%), shortage of semen and materials (20.8%), limited technician skill (15.5%), lack of awareness (15.7%), and absence of structured ES programs (42.7%). Despite these challenges, 83.3% of farmers expressed willingness to adopt ES if services were improved. In conclusion, access and utilization of AI and ES services are limited in Legambo District, although farmers recognize their benefits. Improving dairy reproduction requires nearby AI centers, reliable supplies, skilled technicians, and farmer education on AI and ES.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Assessment of Accessibility, Efficiency, Constraint of Artificial Insemination and Estrus Synchronization Services on Dairy Cows in Legambo District, South Wollo Zone, Ethiopia","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-02-05 06:52:05","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8744329/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"fcd3861b-2e90-424f-8589-2097bee2014b","owner":[],"postedDate":"February 5th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":62057912,"name":"Animal Science"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-02-05T06:52:05+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-02-05 06:52:05","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8744329","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8744329","identity":"rs-8744329","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}