Assessing the physicochemical profile and presence of Escherichia coli on water from hand water pumps in selected areas in Central Mindanao, Philippines

Assessing the physicochemical profile and presence of Escherichia coli on water from hand water pumps in selected areas in Central Mindanao, Philippines | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Assessing the physicochemical profile and presence of Escherichia coli on water from hand water pumps in selected areas in Central Mindanao, Philippines Lars Reznik D. Agan, Alnorjereah Fatma L. Datugiwa, Beyonce Andrea M. Estalilla, and 6 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8537483/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Water is a basic natural resource for human well-being and survival. However, many communities still face challenges related to water quality. The study aimed to 1) assess the physicochemical parameters of water samples from various hand water pumps, namely pH, nitrate, nitrite, mercury, lead, iron, copper, fluoride, chromium, and total dissolved solids; 2) determine the presence of E. coli in the water samples; and 3) compare the results with Standards set by the Department of Health (Administrative Order No. 2017-0010) in order to determine compliance with safe drinking water regulations. The data collected from the physicochemical and microbial tests were analyzed and compared with the maximum allowable levels (MAL) set by the Department of Health (Administrative Order No. 2017-0010): Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water of 2017. Data revealed that all locations maintained acceptable pH values while location 2 has reached beyond the maximum allowable limit for nitrates and showed detectable mercury levels. None of the locations has been positive form lead, while iron levels were within the safe limits. However, copper was high in every location. Further, it also showed that location 3 had high levels of E.coli contaminations. This evidence was shared with relevant authorities for timely consideration. The study presents the need for improved access to clean drinking water, regular monitoring of water quality, and community health education to improve the health outcomes of the vulnerable communities. Drinking Water Environment Public Health Physicochemical Profile Microbial Presence 1. Introduction Water is a natural resource for human support and survival. It is used for various purposes such as drinking, cooking, and sanitation. Though, there are rich water resources in the Philippines, with an average annual rainfall of 2,400 mm and a lot of rivers and lakes (Senate Economic Planning Office, 2023), but it is still struggling for the access of clean drinking water. The country also faces the challenge of the unavailability of access to safe drinking water (National Water Resources Board, 2023). Locally, this issue is particularly pressing in some areas in South Central Mindanao, Philippines where hand water pumps still serve as a water source for selected locations. It is imperative for public health to understand the quality of water from these pumps because contaminated water can cause serious health problems, including outbreaks of diseases caused by pathogens such as Escherichia coli (E. coli). According to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (2022), groundwater is generally safe; however, it can also contain bacteria, viruses, and chemicals. The safety of these present hand water pumps is uncertain, and in fact suspicious whether it can potentially be harmful to human health. Although water quality has been investigated in numerous studies, there is still a lack of localized literature that specifically explores the physicochemical and microbial characteristics of water derived from hand water pumps. Previous literature tends to focus on larger national topics rather than how these water sources impact communities that rely on them. Such a study can contribute to the accumulation of evidence and guide local public health policies and measures. The study aimed to 1) assess the physicochemical parameters of water samples from various hand water pumps, namely pH, nitrate, nitrite, mercury, lead, iron, copper, fluoride, chromium, and total dissolved solids; 2) determine the presence of E. coli in the water samples; and 3) compare the results with Standards set by the Department of Health (Administrative Order No. 2017-0010) in order to determine compliance with safe drinking water regulations. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Research Design This study used a non-experimental, descriptive-comparative research design in systematically determining the physicochemical and microbial quality of water obtained from hand water pumps in selected strategic location. Such design offers the potential to measure, describe and compare different water quality parameters without manipulating the environment or conditions of the water sources. The descriptive content of the design helps in understanding current state of the water quality, while the comparative phase allows assessing the differences among different sample sites. 2.2. S ampling The study focuses on water samples taken from four (4) different hand water pump locations from sample households in Cotabato City, South Central Mindanao, Philippines. The pumps included were selected based on availability and willingness of the pump owners to participate in the study. Before collecting samples, researchers communicated with barangay officials to secure the required permissions, and informed the pump owners regarding the objectives and procedures of the study. 2.3. Data Gathering Procedure Sample Collection. To avoid contamination, water samples were collected in 100 mL sterilized bottles. The water outlet was cleaned up with alcohol and pumped water for 2min to flush out stagnant water as part of the sampling process. Such procedure guarantees that the final samples represent the water quality at the time of sampling. Storage and Transport. The samples were labeled and placed in an ice chest to maintain a low temperature, which will prevent the growth of bacteria in the samples before processing them at the Bacteriology Laboratory of Cotabato Regional and Medical Center. Physicochemical Analysis . To test the physicochemical characteristics, a 16-in-1 reagent strip was used to assess pH, nitrate, nitrite, mercury, lead, iron, copper, fluoride, chromium, and total dissolved solids (TDS). The TDS was measured using a Portable E-1 TDS & EC meter, which provides an accurate measurement of dissolved solids in parts per million (ppm). Microbial Testing. Multiple Tube Fermentation Technique was used in the analysis of the water samples to confirm the presence of E. coli.This technique is based on pipetting the samples into a selective medium and observing for gas as an indicator of microbial activity. 2.4. Data Analysis Procedure The data collected from the physicochemical and microbial tests were analyzed and compared with the maximum allowable levels (MAL) set by the Department of Health (Administrative Order No. 2017-0010): Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water of 2017 as shown in Table 1. Compliance of each physico-chemical parameters was evaluated against the standards provided by the DOH. Mean and range calculations were performed for each parameter and descriptive statistics were used to summarize the data. The findings were analyzed in the context of public health implications, especially concerning the presence of E.coli and other contaminants. The results were discussed in relation to currently available literature to identify potential health threats associated with the consumption of the tested water. Table 1 Maximum allowable levels (MAL) for each water quality parameter Parameters MAL Parameters MAL Parameters Standard Value pH level 6.5-8.5 Lead 0.01 mg/L E.coli <1.1 MPN/100mL Nitrate 50.00 mg/L Nitrite 3.00 mg/L Fluoride 1.50 mg/L Iron 1.0 mg/L Chromium 0.05 mg/L Copper 1.0 mg/L Mercury 0.001 mg/L Total Dissolved Solids 600.7 ppm Source: Department of Health (Administrative Order No. 2017-0010): Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water of 2017 3. Results and Discussion Table 2 presents a comparative analysis of the physicochemical properties of water from four distinct locations. Different key parameters including pH level, nitrate, nitrite, mercury, lead, iron, copper, fluoride, chromium, and total dissolved solids (TDS) serve as indicators of water quality. The significance of this data highlights the need for interventions to address these exceedances and guarantee the provision of safe drinking water to the affected communities. Proper monitoring and remediation strategies are critical for maintaining water quality and public health. Table 2 Physicochemical Properties of Water in Four Different Locations Parameters Location 1 Location 2 Location 3 Location 4 pH level 8.4 8.4 8.4 8.4 Nitrate (mg/L) 25 50 10 10 Nitrite (mg/L) 0 0 0 0 Mercury (mg/L) 0 0.001* 0 0 Lead (mg/L) 0 0 0 0 Iron (mg/L) 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 Copper (mg/L) 2.5* 2.5* 2.5* 2.5* Fluoride (mg/L) 0 0 0 0 Chromium (mg/L) 0 0 0 0 TDS in ppm 704.5* 779* 524.5 713.5* Note: *= The values that exceeds the DOH’s standard for drinking water 3.1 Physicochemical Parameters Reyes-Toscano et al. (2020) evaluated the quality of drinking water and advocated interdisciplinary approaches that combine public health and environmental science, emphasizing how urban water sources are often neglected in quality evaluations, which can exacerbate health risks in densely populated areas. Thus, examining the physicochemical and bacteriological quality of these water sources (Sila, 2019) and the potential human impacts of water contaminant (Zhao et al., 2019 ) is deemed important to ensure sustainable practices and their effects on the water sources citing Nedeljković et al. (2021). Local governmental and non-governmental units should collaborate to develop and implement effective monitoring systems that regularly evaluate the water quality of manual pumps. The challenge remains significant, but with combined effort, the way to healthier communities and environments is possible. Shown in Table 2 are the test results of the different physicochemical parameters across the four locations involved. These values were compared to the following maximum allowable level for safe drinking water, such as pH level- 6.5-7.5, nitrate- 50 mg/L, nitrite- 3.00 mg/L, mercury- 0.001 mg/L, lead- 0.01 mg/L, iron- 1 mg/L, copper- 1.0 mg/L, fluoride- 1.50 mg/L, chromium- 0.05 mg/L, and total dissolved solids- 600.7 ppm. 3.1.1. pH Level The pH Level of all the locations is 8.4 as shown in Table 2, which means that it is alkaline and within the allowable level for drinking water. Bonvissuto (2023) described that water below 7 on the pH scale is deemed acidic while if it is above 7, it is alkaline. The World Health Organization (2007) stated that it is impossible to determine the exact effects of pH level on human health due to pH being connected to other parameters of water quality. Having an alkaline water has direct effects on improving solubility & bioavailability of nutrients and contaminants. The lowest pH levels, meaning acidic, usually increase metal availability, which may be detrimental to organisms (Amen et al., 2020). 3.1.2. Nitrates and Nitirtes Table 2 shows that nitrate content found at location 2 is at its maximum allowable limit of 50 mg/L. Nitrates are important nutrients, however increased levels may implicate contamination due to wastewater. High nitrates in drinking water can cause health problems, particularly among infants. Locations 1, 3 and 4 are low, with that of Location 3 and 4 particularly at low level of 10 mg/L. On the other hand, nitrites are not found in any of the locations (0 mg/L), thus, indicates no present contamination. The results are good because nitrite at increased levels can be toxic itself, causing health problems similar to those caused by nitrates. The World Health Organization (2016) said that numerous scientific studies have shown methemoglobinemia as the concern for exposure to nitrate or nitrite (Toure and Wenbiao, 2020). Methemoglobinemia is a disorder in blood where production of methemoglobin is abnormal. With this, the releasing of oxygen to the body tissues cannot be done effectively despite the hemoglobin being able to carry oxygen. Nitrite is the toxic moiety of concern whether it is consumed from drinking water or formed endogenously from nitrate which binds hemoglobins and interrupts oxygen transport to the tissues, causing methemoglobinemia. Determination of nitrate levels in water sources can be hampered by the lack of effective detection methods, which were examined by Alahi & Mukhopadhyay (2018), identifying traditional and emerging techniques to assess water potability. One technology that is suggested by Hernández-Alpizar et al (2020) is the application of Internet of Objects (IoT) technologies for real-time monitoring of water quality problems, focusing on nitrate levels. The health risks associated with high nitrate levels require an approach that considers both human health and the environment, and there must be public awareness concerning potential health risks (Baffa, 2022). 3.1.3. Mercury In view of the Mercury (Hg) content, location 2 has reached the permissible limit of 0.001 mg/L. Locations 1, 3, and 4 show that there is no mercury present, whereas location 2 has mercury level of 0.001 mg/L which is the precise maximum permitted limit as reflected in Table 2. According to the US EPA (2024), Mercury has known potential health effects when consumed in water or inhaled in air and high exposure to mercury may lead to mercury poisoning. Mercury is a highly toxic heavy metal which can cause severe health issues like neurological & developmental issues. The World Health Organization (2017) stated that even little amounts of mercury can cause severe illness. It can affect the nervous, digestive, and immune systems, and even lungs, kidneys, skin and eyes (World Health Organization, 2005). Byrd (2024) recommends switching to bottled water when choosing an appropriate water treatment system to eliminate the contamination if the water test results reveal elevated amounts of mercury, particularly organic mercury. 3.1.4. Lead As revealed in Table 2, there was no lead content (0 mg/mL) present in all the locations examined, which has passed the maximum allowable amount of 0.01 mg/L for lead set by the Department of Health. This finding guarantees that there is no risk of lead-related health problems, such as lead poisoning or brain damage, from drinking water. The US EPA and the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (2023) concur that there is no established safe level of Lead in a child's blood. This finding th erefore is an encouraging finding because lead is a toxic contaminant in water that can cause several serious health problems, particularly among children. No lead implies good water quality for this parameter. The World Health Organization (2016) claims that lead is harmful to health, especially for children. Lead is poisonous, in fants, children up to 6 years old, fetus, and pregnant women are the most vulnerable to adverse effects on health. Blood lead levels of 100–120 µg/dl in adults and 80–100 µg/dl in children can show acute intoxication signs such as dullness, restlessness, irritability, kidney damage, headaches, muscle tremor, abdominal cramps, and loss of memory. In India, Mawari et al. (2022) carried out a complete risk assessment, revealing a strong correlation between the concentration of heavy metals such as lead in water sources and the prevalence of various diseases among local populations. 3.1.5. Iron For all locations, the Iron concentration (0.3 mg/L) was below the maximum permissible level (1 mg/L), indicating that water met the standard from this parameter, as shown in Table 2. High concentrations of iron can cause water to become discolored and taste bad. Citing What are the effects of iron in water? (2022), iron in water usually exists in one of two forms, specifically ferrous iron, which is soluble in water, and ferric iron, which is insoluble. Water with ferrous iron is usually visually indistinguishable from pure water due to the rapid solvation of the iron and the clarity of the water. The presence of high levels of iron in your home water can cause dramatic differences in the appearance, smell and taste of the water. Iron can also damage your skin and plumbing fixtures and create perfect breeding grounds for certain kinds of bacteria. 3.1.6. Copper Copper levels at all four sites, as shown in Table 2, are above the maximum allowable value of the Department of Health (1.0 mg/L), each site has the copper content of 2.5 mg/L above the limit value for drinking water. This is very dangerous if ingested, causing intestinal obstruction and prolonged exposure can damage the liver or kidneys (Washington State Department of Health, 2018). Conversely, copper provided in lower doses can lead to symptoms of common food poisoning such as nausea, headache, vomiting, and diarrhea (World Health Organization, 2004). As a result, it underlines the importance of promptly reducing copper to meet legislative orders and minimize public health threats. 3.1.7. Fluoride The four locations have 0 mg/L amount of fluoride, indicating that none of the sites have any fluoride detected as revealed in Table 2. The Department of Health's requirements were met at all four locations, with a maximum permissible level of 1.50 mg/L. Children under the age of 8 may experience dental fluorosis when too much fluoride is consumed over a long period of time when the teeth are developing under the gums. Dental fluorosis changes the appearance of tooth enamel. Its severity varies on the dose, duration, and timing fluoride is consumed (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2019). This finding also means that people are not at risk of having skeletal fluorosis, caused by consuming fluorides at concentrations of 1.5 ppm or consuming large amounts of fluoride over a long period of time (Cafasso, J., 2019; Srivastava S, Flora, S., 2020). Early signs of skeletal fluorosis include joint pain and stiffness, it changes the bone structure and weakens it (Cafasso, J., 2019). 3.1.8. Chromium Table 2 shows that all four locations have 0 mg/L of chromium. All of them did not go beyond the Department of Health’s standard for drinking water, therefore, they are safe with regards to the potability of water. Based on MyHealth.Alberta.ca. (2022), exposure to chromium may cause liver damage, nerve tissue damage, kidney problems or if exposed for a long time, it may cause death. This is a good result because chromium is toxic, especially in its hexavalent form. No chromium means the community is not at risk of getting any of these problems. 3.1.9. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) In Table 2, only location 3 passed the standards set by the Department of Health since it had 524.5 ppm TDS. Locations 1, 2, and 4 had TDS levels of 704.5 ppm, 779 ppm, and 713.5 mg/L respectively which all exceed the maximum amount allowed of 600.7 ppm. Presence of TDS can change water taste and also represent presence of other harmful contaminants. Though the World Health Organization (2003) stated that there are no recent studies that show how consuming total dissolved solids in drinking water can affect human health, hig total dissolved solids are composed of dissolved organic matters and inorganic salts such as calcium, chloride, lead, fluoride, magnesium, etc. (Woodward, 2021), which may suggest a wider problem with the quality of water. This is supported in an assessment of groundwater sources in Pakistan, which revealed significant health risks resulting from contaminated drinking water, where there is a correlation between TDS levels and various health problems (Daud et al., 2017). The safety of the presence of total dissolved solids in water is based on what salts or compounds are present that can affect human health, even so it is important to measure and avoid ingesting water with high levels of total dissolved solids (Garg, 2024; Ravindra et al., 2019). As per Saalidong et al. (2022), alongside TDS, pH and various other more parameters can dynamically influence water quality, pointing to the need for complete water quality assessments. 3.2 Presence of Escherichia coli The microbial analysis, specifically E. coli for the four different sampled locations, is shown in Table 3. All results in this table are reported in MPN/100mL. The standard safe drinking water according to recognized health guidelines is < 1.1 MPN/100mL. In terms of the presence of e.coli, locations 1,2, and 4 have very low risk of contamination based on data; they had less than 1.1 MPN/100mL. This suggests that the risk of waterborne illnesses resulting from drinking water from these places is low. Table 3 Presence of E. coli across the four locations Parameter (MPN/100mL) Location 1 Location 2 Location 3 Location 4 E.coli <1.1 8.0* <1.1 Note: Negative: 8.0 MPN/100mL *= The presence of the E . coli exceeds the DOH’s standard for drinking water At Location 3, the reported value of > 8.0 MPN/100mL indicates a high degree of E. coli contamination. This degree of contamination is well above the safe drinking water threshold, thus there is a likelihood of fecal contamination. Drinking water from location 3 is a serious health hazard. It is most commonly linked to gastrointestinal illness, and elevated levels of E. coli can trigger severe illness in vulnerable populations, including children, the elderly and those with compromised immune systems. This is the same with the study in Kola treien, Ethiopia, found that 46.6% of the water samples of manual pumps were positive for E. coli , highlighting a prevailing problem in rural water access (Bekuretsion et al., 2018). Similarly, in Nigeria, Samuel et al (2018) reported the alarming levels of E. coli contamination in the public water of the manual pump in the state of Ebonyi. While a study in the suburbs and rural Laos and Thailand found that several factors, including the proximity to livestock and the socioeconomic state of households, contributed significantly to the presence of E. coli in drinking water (Vannavong et al., 2018). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2019) and Mayo Clinic (2022) both made this list of symptoms of an e.coli infection, such as fever, vomiting, watery or bloody diarrhea, nausea, and abdominal cramps. NHS inform (2023) reported a small number of people with the infection can develop haemolytic uraemic syndrome (HUS), which can lead to kidney failure and even death, although rarely. HUS is most common in children under 5. Khan et al. (2022) demonstrated a direct correlation between the domestic drinking water of E. coli contamination and increased incidents of child diarrhea in Bangladesh, which implies dysentery and gastroenteritis such as immediate health problems. Therefore, effective interventions may include the implementation of sanitary inspections together with microbial water analysis, as demonstrated by research focused on rural sub -Saharan Africa (Kelly et al., 2021). 4. Conclusion This study critically assessed the physicochemical and microbial quality of water obtained from hand water pumps in Cotabato City, South Central Mindanao, Philippines. The results indicate that the pH of water is within the acceptable range over the sampling locations. Nitrate level in location 2 exceeded the maximum allowable limit, thereby requiring close monitoring as the site could be contaminated with wastewater. Mercury was recorded only at location 2 within the threshold limits, while lead was absent across all sampling sites, thus implying that there is no public risk for lead poisoning. Iron concentrations were below the maximum limit, ensuring no adverse impacts on ae sthetic quality in the quality of water. Fluoride and chromium levels were undetected in any sample, which is preferable because exposure to them over long periods would lead to serious health problems. Moreover, total dissolved solids (TDS) showed that only location 3 conformed to Department of Health standards, whereaslocation 1,2, and 4 already exceeded their allowable limit. High TDS levels may indicate a presence of harmful contaminants requiring further confirmation of water quality. Concern also arises from high levels of copper in all sites, wherein one site revealing high E. coli contamination that offers more direct health risks to the community. 5. Implications In the context of public health and water safety, drinking water gets polluted with E.coli or copper will lead to various illnesses such as gastrointestinal ailments and lifelong diseases resulting from exposure to heavy metals. Since the selected households in this community heavily rely on/prefers to use hand water pumps, then the study highlights the need for safe drinking water access intervention for the residents. This study also contributes to the broader understanding of the water quality problems, particularly those affecting community-based areas in the Philippines and in other developing areas of the region, and therefore, important to public health strategies. 6. Recommendation Based on the outcome of the study, it is fundamental to: 1) prioritize the upgrading of the overall infrastructure associated with water sourcing, including regular maintenance, better filtration systems, as well as proper sanitation practices; 2) establish a much more systematic program in monitoring water quality within the city; 3) conduct initiatives to educate the public on the quality of water; and 4) conduct studies on the sources of contamination from water supplied by hand pumps and investigate the different methods of treating the water. Declarations Acknowledgment The authors would like to thank the Mindanao State University- Maguindanao and Notre Dame of Cotabato for their invaluable support, which greatly contributed to the completion of this research article. Ethical considerations Not applicable Conflict of Interest The authors declare no conflicts of interest. Funding This research did not receive any financial support. References Alahi, M. E. 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Basic Information about Lead in Drinking Water https://www.epa.gov/ground-water-and-drinking-water/basic-information-about-lead-drinking-water?fbclid=IwAR0qh0ltoV9fFY45UFX8ZG4KRiOauKjD_jUbnwCdD9iUi_GJ2-0rdIbz-OM_aem_AZHfDX15LGZUnDoAYodBbEHAcAs3E8x6wcTZeTpn Ue13DQoBEXBntg0ZZtndRgbIf3BAkD5GWw99DV1DKnLM2_Rk#reDucehome. Accessed January 16, 2025. US EPA. (2024). Health effects of exposures to mercury https://www.epa.gov/mercury/health-effects-exposures-mercury. Accessed January 20, 2025. Vannavong, N., Overgaard, H. J., Chareonviriyaphap, T., Dada, N., Rangsin, R., Sibounhom, A., ... & Seidu, R. (2018). Assessing factors of E. coli contamination of household drinking water in suburban and rural Laos and Thailand. Water Science and Technology: Water Supply, 18(3), 886-900. Washington State Department of Health. (2018). Copper in Drinking Water.https://doh.wa.gov/sites/default/files/legacy/Documents/Pubs/331-178.pdf?fbclid=IwAR34F6IXuo2I5lsZda4BAR3pv7P9dfAm5zI_4fwb3fsKMpBX1fy0hhtMTYc_aem_AaimpO3SLOSKF7AzBXlcnNoBFP-5pajyaVmf_Tcar5wmdRaJSeMUwSB6_54VILuIW-q-NZ0zDVCKHdOSxdjysWvB. Accessed March 10, 2025. What are the effects of iron in water? (2022). https://longsecowater.com/blog/effects-of-iron-in-water?fbclid=IwAR3UZ8AQ1ygypyxWvNA_bDFg3UYaqLPyLsrynBmOhFCN32TVTRoEvxPdvws_aem_AZFHeEyweH2vGxDsq M0R0R06XAyeBMDKuRW2HEp1sjLUh0jhDUDMc-dymfcp7_d02ueE8DH7ay99aGKQ0Mxr8XMu. Accessed March 1, 2025. Woodward, J. (2021). What is TDS in Water & Why Should You Measure It?https://www.freshwatersystems.com/blogs/blog/what-is-tds-in-water-why-should-you-measure-it. Accessed March 3, 2025. World Health Organization. (2003). Total dissolved solids in Drinking-water. https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/wash-documents/wash-chemicals/tds.pdf?sfvrsn=3e6d651e_4. Accessed January 13, 2025. World Health Organization. (2004). Copper in Drinking-waterhttps://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/wash-documents/wash-chemicals/cOpper.pdf. Accessed February 17, 2025. World Health Organization. (2005). Mercury in Drinking-water.https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/wash-documents/wash-chemicals/mercury-2003.pdf?sfvrsn=f2804f45_3. Accessed February 17, 2025. World Health Organization. (2007). Lead in Drinking-waterhttps://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/wash-documents/wash-chemicals/lead-background-feb17.pdf?sfvrsn=fc50727b_4 . Accessed February 17, 2025. World Health Organization. (2007). pH in drinking water.https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/wash-documents/wash-chemicals/ph.pdf?sfvrsn=16b10656_4. Accessed February 17, 2025. World Health Organization. (2016). Nitrate and Nitrite in Drinking-waterhttps://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/wash-documents/wash-chemicals/nitrate-nitrite-background-jan17.pdf?sfvrsn=1c1e1502_4. Accessed February 17, 2025. World Health Organization. (2017). Mercury and health. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mercury-and-health#:~:text=Exposure%20to%20mercury%20%E2%80%93%20even% 20small,%2C%20kidneys%2C%20skin%20and %20eyes. Accessed February 17, 2025. Zhao, Z., Ukidve, A., Krishnan, V., & Mitragotri, S. (2019). Effect of physicochemical and surface properties on in vivo fate of drug nanocarriers. Advanced drug delivery reviews, 143, 3-21. Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8537483","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":570597862,"identity":"6980b6bc-0f87-45e4-a39d-778f4f540ead","order_by":0,"name":"Lars Reznik D. Agan","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Notre Dame of Marbel University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Lars","middleName":"Reznik D.","lastName":"Agan","suffix":""},{"id":570597863,"identity":"04519363-021b-4c00-a80c-f227dd1d61ce","order_by":1,"name":"Alnorjereah Fatma L. Datugiwa","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Notre Dame of Marbel University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Alnorjereah","middleName":"Fatma L.","lastName":"Datugiwa","suffix":""},{"id":570597864,"identity":"5c29c27c-ad28-44b0-85d7-f39eab92d80e","order_by":2,"name":"Beyonce Andrea M. Estalilla","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"San Pedro College","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Beyonce","middleName":"Andrea M.","lastName":"Estalilla","suffix":""},{"id":570597865,"identity":"3b386234-6bc2-484e-9637-4d8c51a3187b","order_by":3,"name":"Shinehah Oleah T. Tindoc","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Missionary at The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Shinehah","middleName":"Oleah T.","lastName":"Tindoc","suffix":""},{"id":570597866,"identity":"a673f4bd-a4c1-4875-bfb6-3c00e84f0038","order_by":4,"name":"Leslie Joy O. Callado","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"San Pedro College","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Leslie","middleName":"Joy O.","lastName":"Callado","suffix":""},{"id":570597867,"identity":"3957e915-97a5-4bb7-b7a0-3bc3599df43d","order_by":5,"name":"John Louie N. Dangate","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Notre Dame Hospital and Sienna College of Cotabato","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"John","middleName":"Louie N.","lastName":"Dangate","suffix":""},{"id":570597868,"identity":"bfb7a231-78c5-4c16-845a-d8c6b28ce0e3","order_by":6,"name":"Princess May G. Fernando","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Cotabato State University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Princess","middleName":"May G.","lastName":"Fernando","suffix":""},{"id":570597869,"identity":"4b26be76-3811-4d6e-8efd-d25a4aab6880","order_by":7,"name":"Claire Anne B. Beljot","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Notre Dame Hospital and Sienna College of Cotabato","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Claire","middleName":"Anne B.","lastName":"Beljot","suffix":""},{"id":570597870,"identity":"5acc5b70-5e69-4540-8a7e-920221e3ee41","order_by":8,"name":"Rolly James F. Cheng","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3552-1116","institution":"Mindanao State University- Maguindanao","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Rolly","middleName":"James F.","lastName":"Cheng","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-01-07 06:24:58","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":false,"vertebrateSubjects":false,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false,"humanSubjectConsent":false,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8537483/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8537483/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":99798885,"identity":"c0f9d958-9db0-4361-bcd8-181db7900dcd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-08 13:48:59","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":664836,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8537483/v1/fee5e29e-314b-4fd1-9a0e-5fffba93e1ae.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAssessing the physicochemical profile and presence of \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e on water from hand water pumps in selected areas in Central Mindanao, Philippines\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eWater is a natural resource for human support and survival. It is used for various purposes such as drinking, cooking, and sanitation. Though, there are rich water resources in the Philippines, \u0026nbsp;with an average annual rainfall of 2,400 mm and a lot of \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;rivers and lakes (Senate Economic Planning Office, 2023), but it is still struggling for the \u0026nbsp; access of clean drinking water. The country also faces the challenge of the unavailability of \u0026nbsp; access to safe drinking water (National Water Resources Board, 2023). Locally, this issue is particularly pressing in some areas in South Central Mindanao, Philippines where hand water pumps still serve as a water source for selected locations. It is imperative for public health to understand the quality of water from these pumps because contaminated water can cause serious health problems, including outbreaks of diseases caused by pathogens such as \u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli (E. coli).\u003c/em\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAccording\u0026ensp;to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (2022), groundwater is generally safe; however, it can also contain bacteria, viruses, and chemicals. The safety of these present hand water pumps is uncertain, and in fact \u0026nbsp;suspicious whether it \u0026nbsp;can potentially be harmful to human health. Although water quality has been investigated in numerous studies, there is still a lack of localized literature that specifically explores\u0026ensp;the physicochemical and microbial characteristics of water derived from hand water pumps. Previous literature tends to focus on larger national topics rather than how these water sources\u0026ensp;impact communities that rely on them. Such a study can contribute to the accumulation of evidence and guide local public health policies and\u0026ensp;measures. The study aimed to 1) assess the physicochemical parameters of water samples from various hand water pumps, namely pH, nitrate, nitrite, mercury, lead, iron, copper,\u0026ensp;fluoride, chromium, and total dissolved solids; 2) determine the presence of \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e in the water samples; and 3) compare the\u0026ensp;results with Standards set by the Department of Health (Administrative Order No. 2017-0010) in order to determine compliance with safe drinking water regulations.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e2.1.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003eResearch Design\u003c/em\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study used a non-experimental, descriptive-comparative research\u0026ensp;design in systematically determining the physicochemical and microbial quality of water obtained from hand water pumps in selected strategic location. \u0026nbsp;Such design offers the potential to measure, describe and compare different water quality parameters without manipulating the environment or conditions of the water sources. The descriptive content of the\u0026ensp;design helps in understanding current state of the water quality, while the comparative phase allows assessing the differences among different sample sites. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e2.2.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003eS\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003eampling\u003c/em\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study focuses on water\u0026ensp;samples taken from four (4) different hand water pump locations from sample households in Cotabato City, South Central Mindanao, Philippines. The pumps included\u0026ensp;were selected based on availability and willingness of the pump owners to participate in the study. Before collecting samples, researchers communicated\u0026ensp;with barangay officials to secure the required permissions, and informed the pump owners regarding the \u0026nbsp;objectives and procedures of the study. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e2.3. Data Gathering Procedure\u003c/em\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSample Collection.\u003c/em\u003e To avoid contamination, water samples were collected in 100 mL sterilized bottles. The water outlet \u0026nbsp;was cleaned up \u0026nbsp; with alcohol and pumped water for 2min \u0026nbsp;to flush out stagnant water as part of\u0026ensp;the sampling process. Such procedure guarantees that the final samples represent the water quality at \u0026nbsp; the time of sampling.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStorage and Transport.\u003c/em\u003e The samples were labeled\u0026ensp;and placed in an ice chest to maintain a low temperature, which will prevent the growth of bacteria in the samples before processing them at the Bacteriology Laboratory of Cotabato Regional and \u0026nbsp; Medical Center.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePhysicochemical Analysis\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eTo test the physicochemical characteristics, a 16-in-1 reagent strip was used to assess pH, nitrate, nitrite, mercury, lead, iron, copper, fluoride, chromium, and total dissolved solids (TDS). The TDS was measured using a Portable E-1 TDS \u0026amp; EC meter, which\u0026ensp;provides an accurate measurement of dissolved solids in parts per million (ppm).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMicrobial\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003eTesting.\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eMultiple Tube Fermentation Technique was used in the analysis of the water\u0026ensp;samples to confirm the presence of E. coli.This technique is based on pipetting the samples into a selective medium and observing for gas as an indicator\u0026ensp;of microbial activity.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e2.4.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003eData Analysis Procedure\u003c/em\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data collected from the physicochemical and microbial tests were analyzed and compared with the maximum allowable levels (MAL) set by the\u0026ensp;Department of Health (Administrative Order No. 2017-0010): Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water of 2017 as shown in Table 1. \u0026nbsp;Compliance\u0026ensp;of each physico-chemical parameters \u0026nbsp; was evaluated against the standards provided by the DOH. Mean and range calculations were performed for each parameter \u0026nbsp; and descriptive statistics were used\u0026ensp;to summarize the data. The findings were analyzed in the context of public health implications, especially concerning the presence of\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;E.coli\u003c/em\u003e and other contaminants. The results were discussed in relation to currently available literature to identify potential \u0026nbsp;health threats associated with the consumption of the tested water.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eTable 1\u0026nbsp;Maximum allowable levels (MAL) for each water quality parameter\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cdiv align=\"\"\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"637\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParameters\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMAL\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParameters\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMAL\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParameters\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 110px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStandard Value\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;pH level\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.5-8.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLead\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01 mg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eE.coli\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 110px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;1.1 MPN/100mL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNitrate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50.00 mg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNitrite\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.00 mg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 110px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFluoride\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.50 mg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIron\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.0 mg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 110px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eChromium\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.05 mg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCopper\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.0 mg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 110px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMercury\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.001 mg/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal Dissolved Solids\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e600.7 ppm\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 110px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSource: Department of Health (Administrative Order No. 2017-0010): Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water of 2017\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eTable 2 presents a comparative analysis of the physicochemical properties of water from four distinct locations. Different key parameters \u0026nbsp; including pH level, nitrate, nitrite, mercury, lead, iron, copper, fluoride, chromium, and total dissolved solids (TDS) \u0026nbsp;serve as indicators of water quality. The significance of this data highlights the need for interventions to address these exceedances and guarantee \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;the provision of safe drinking water to the affected communities. Proper monitoring and remediation strategies are critical for maintaining water quality and public health.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eTable 2\u0026nbsp;Physicochemical Properties of\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;Water\u0026nbsp;in\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;Four Different\u0026ensp;Locations\u0026nbsp;\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cdiv align=\"\"\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"632\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParameters\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLocation 1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 143px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLocation 2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 130px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLocation 3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLocation 4\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;pH level\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 143px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 130px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNitrate (mg/L)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 143px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 130px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNitrite (mg/L)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 143px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 130px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMercury (mg/L)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 143px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.001*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 130px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLead (mg/L)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 143px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 130px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIron (mg/L)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 143px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 130px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCopper (mg/L)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.5*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 143px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.5*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 130px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.5*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.5*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFluoride (mg/L)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 143px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 130px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChromium (mg/L)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 143px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 130px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTDS \u0026nbsp;in ppm\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 129px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e704.5*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 143px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e779*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 130px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e524.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e713.5*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e*= The values that exceeds the DOH\u0026rsquo;s standard for drinking water\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e3.1 \u0026nbsp;Physicochemical Parameters\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eReyes-Toscano et al. (2020) evaluated the quality of drinking water and advocated interdisciplinary approaches that combine public health and environmental science, emphasizing how urban water sources are often neglected in quality evaluations, which can exacerbate health risks in densely populated areas. Thus, examining the physicochemical and bacteriological quality of these water sources (Sila, 2019) and the potential human impacts of water contaminant \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;(Zhao et al., 2019 ) \u0026nbsp;is deemed important to ensure sustainable practices and their effects on the water sources citing \u0026nbsp;Nedeljković et al. (2021). Local governmental and non-governmental units should collaborate to develop and implement effective monitoring systems that regularly evaluate the water quality of manual pumps. The challenge remains significant, but with combined effort, the way \u0026nbsp; to healthier communities and environments is possible.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShown in Table 2 are the test results of the different physicochemical parameters across the four locations involved. \u0026nbsp;These values were compared to the following maximum allowable\u0026nbsp;level for safe drinking water, such as pH level- 6.5-7.5, nitrate- 50 mg/L, nitrite- 3.00 mg/L, mercury- 0.001 mg/L, lead- 0.01 mg/L, iron- 1 mg/L, copper- 1.0 mg/L, fluoride- 1.50 mg/L, chromium- 0.05 mg/L, and \u0026nbsp;total dissolved solids- 600.7 ppm.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e3.1.1. pH Level\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe pH Level of all the locations is\u0026ensp;8.4 as shown in Table 2, which means that it is \u0026nbsp;alkaline and within the allowable level for drinking water. Bonvissuto (2023) described that water below 7 on the pH scale is deemed acidic while if it is above 7, it is alkaline. The World Health Organization (2007) stated that it is impossible to determine the exact effects of pH level on human health due to pH being connected to other parameters of water quality. Having an alkaline water has direct effects on improving solubility \u0026amp; bioavailability of nutrients\u0026ensp;and contaminants.\u0026nbsp;The lowest pH levels, meaning acidic,\u0026nbsp;usually increase metal availability, which may be\u0026nbsp;detrimental\u0026nbsp;to organisms (Amen et al., 2020).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e3.1.2. Nitrates and Nitirtes\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 2 shows that nitrate content found at location 2 is at its maximum allowable limit of 50 mg/L. Nitrates are important\u0026ensp;nutrients, however increased levels may implicate contamination due to wastewater. High nitrates in drinking water can \u0026nbsp;cause health problems,\u0026ensp;particularly among infants. Locations 1, 3 and 4 are low,\u0026ensp;with that of Location 3 and 4 particularly at low level of 10 mg/L. \u0026nbsp;On the other hand, nitrites are not found in any of the locations (0 mg/L), thus, indicates no present contamination. The results are good because nitrite at increased levels can be toxic itself, causing health problems similar to those caused by nitrates. The World Health Organization (2016) said that numerous scientific studies have shown methemoglobinemia as the concern for exposure to nitrate or nitrite (Toure and Wenbiao,\u0026nbsp;2020).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMethemoglobinemia is a disorder in blood where production of methemoglobin is abnormal. With this, the releasing of oxygen to the body tissues cannot be done effectively despite the hemoglobin being able to carry oxygen. Nitrite is the toxic moiety of concern whether it is consumed from drinking water or formed endogenously from nitrate which binds hemoglobins and interrupts \u0026nbsp;oxygen transport to the tissues, causing methemoglobinemia. Determination of nitrate levels in water sources can be hampered by the lack of effective detection methods, which were examined by Alahi \u0026amp; Mukhopadhyay (2018), identifying traditional and emerging techniques to assess water potability. One technology that is suggested by Hern\u0026aacute;ndez-Alpizar et al (2020) is the application of Internet of Objects (IoT) technologies for real-time monitoring of water quality problems, focusing on nitrate levels. The health risks associated with high nitrate levels require an approach that considers both human health and the environment, and there must be public awareness concerning \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;potential health risks (Baffa, 2022).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e3.1.3. Mercury\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn view of the Mercury (Hg) content, location 2 has reached the permissible limit of 0.001 mg/L. Locations 1, 3, and 4 show that there is no mercury present, whereas location 2 has mercury level of 0.001 mg/L which is the precise maximum permitted limit as reflected in Table 2. According to the US EPA (2024), Mercury has known potential health effects when consumed in water or inhaled in air and high exposure to mercury may lead to mercury poisoning. Mercury is a highly\u0026ensp;toxic heavy metal which can cause severe health issues like neurological \u0026amp; developmental issues. The World Health Organization (2017) stated that even little amounts of mercury can cause severe illness. It can affect the nervous, digestive, and immune systems, and even lungs, kidneys, skin and eyes (World Health Organization, 2005). Byrd (2024) recommends switching to bottled water when choosing an appropriate water treatment system to eliminate the contamination if the water test results reveal elevated amounts of mercury, particularly organic mercury.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e3.1.4. Lead\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs revealed in Table 2, \u0026nbsp;there was no lead content (0 mg/mL) present in all the locations examined, which has passed \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;the maximum allowable amount of 0.01 mg/L for lead \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;set by the Department of Health. This finding guarantees that there is no risk of lead-related health problems, such as lead poisoning or brain damage, from drinking water. The US EPA and the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (2023) concur that there is no established safe level of Lead \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;in a child\u0026apos;s blood. This finding th \u0026nbsp; erefore is \u0026nbsp; an encouraging finding \u0026nbsp; because lead \u0026nbsp; is a toxic contaminant in water that can cause several serious health problems, particularly among children. No lead \u0026nbsp;implies good\u0026ensp;water quality for this parameter. The World Health Organization (2016) claims \u0026nbsp; that lead is harmful to health, especially for children. Lead is poisonous, in \u0026nbsp; fants, children up to 6 years old, fetus, \u0026nbsp;and pregnant women are the most vulnerable to adverse effects on health. Blood lead levels of 100\u0026ndash;120 \u0026micro;g/dl in adults and 80\u0026ndash;100 \u0026micro;g/dl in children can show acute intoxication signs such as dullness, restlessness, irritability, kidney damage, headaches, muscle tremor, \u0026nbsp;abdominal cramps, and loss of memory. In India,\u0026nbsp;Mawari et al. (2022) carried out a complete risk assessment, revealing a strong correlation between the concentration of heavy metals\u0026nbsp;such as lead\u0026nbsp;in water sources and the prevalence of various diseases among local populations.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e3.1.5. Iron\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor all locations, the Iron \u0026nbsp;concentration (0.3 mg/L) was below the maximum permissible\u0026ensp;level (1 mg/L), indicating that water met the standard from this parameter, as shown in Table 2. High concentrations of iron can cause water to become discolored and taste\u0026ensp;bad. Citing What are the effects of iron in water? (2022), iron in water usually exists in one\u0026ensp;of two forms, specifically \u0026nbsp; ferrous iron, which is soluble in water, and ferric iron, which is insoluble. Water with ferrous iron is usually visually indistinguishable from pure water due to the rapid solvation of the iron\u0026ensp;and the clarity of the water. The presence of high levels of iron in your home water can cause dramatic differences\u0026ensp;in the appearance, smell and taste of the water. Iron can also damage your skin and plumbing fixtures\u0026ensp;and create perfect breeding grounds for certain kinds of bacteria.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e3.1.6. Copper\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCopper levels at all four sites, as shown in Table 2, are above\u0026ensp;the maximum allowable value of the Department of Health (1.0 mg/L), each site has the copper content of 2.5 mg/L above the limit value for drinking water. This is very\u0026ensp;dangerous if ingested, causing \u0026nbsp; intestinal obstruction \u0026nbsp;and prolonged exposure can damage the liver or kidneys (Washington State Department of Health, 2018). Conversely, copper provided in lower doses can lead to symptoms of common food\u0026ensp;poisoning such as nausea, headache, vomiting, and diarrhea (World Health Organization, 2004). As a result, it\u0026ensp;underlines the importance of promptly reducing copper to \u0026nbsp; meet legislative orders and minimize public health threats.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e3.1.7.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003eFluoride\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe four locations have 0 mg/L amount \u0026nbsp; of fluoride, indicating that none of the sites have any fluoride detected as revealed in Table 2. The Department of Health\u0026apos;s requirements were met at all four locations, with a maximum permissible level of 1.50 mg/L. Children under the age of 8 may experience dental fluorosis when too much fluoride is consumed over a long period of time when the teeth are developing under the gums. Dental fluorosis changes the appearance of tooth enamel. Its severity varies on \u0026nbsp;the dose, duration, and timing fluoride is consumed \u0026nbsp; (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2019). This finding also means that people are not at risk of having skeletal fluorosis, caused by consuming fluorides at concentrations of 1.5 ppm or consuming large amounts of fluoride over a long period of time (Cafasso, J., 2019; Srivastava S, \u0026nbsp; Flora, S., 2020). Early signs of skeletal fluorosis include joint pain and stiffness, \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;it changes the bone structure and weakens it (Cafasso, J., 2019).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e3.1.8.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003eChromium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 2 shows that all four locations have 0 mg/L of chromium. All of them \u0026nbsp;did not go beyond \u0026nbsp;the Department of Health\u0026rsquo;s standard for drinking water, therefore, they are \u0026nbsp;safe with regards to the potability \u0026nbsp; of water. \u0026nbsp; Based on MyHealth.Alberta.ca. (2022), exposure to chromium may cause liver damage, nerve tissue damage, kidney problems \u0026nbsp; or if \u0026nbsp; exposed for a long time, it may cause death. This is a good result because \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;chromium is toxic,\u0026ensp;especially \u0026nbsp; in its hexavalent form. No \u0026nbsp; chromium means \u0026nbsp; the community is not at risk of getting any of \u0026nbsp; these problems.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e3.1.9. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn Table 2, only location 3 passed the standards set by the Department of Health since it had 524.5 ppm TDS. Locations 1, 2, and 4 had TDS levels of 704.5 ppm, 779 ppm, and 713.5 mg/L respectively which all exceed the maximum amount allowed of 600.7 ppm. Presence of TDS can change water taste and also represent\u0026ensp;presence of other harmful contaminants. Though the World Health Organization (2003) stated that there are no recent studies that show how consuming total dissolved solids in drinking water can affect human health, hig total dissolved solids are composed of dissolved organic matters and inorganic salts such as calcium, chloride, lead, fluoride, magnesium, etc. (Woodward, 2021), which may suggest a wider problem with the quality of water. This is supported in an assessment of groundwater sources in Pakistan, which revealed significant health risks resulting from contaminated drinking water, where there is a correlation between TDS levels and various health problems (Daud et al., 2017). The safety of the presence of total dissolved solids in water is based on what salts or compounds are present that can affect human health, even so it is important to measure and avoid ingesting water with high levels of total dissolved solids (Garg, 2024; Ravindra et al., 2019). As per Saalidong et al. (2022), alongside TDS, pH and various other more parameters can dynamically influence water quality, pointing to the need for complete water quality assessments.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e3.2 \u0026nbsp;Presence of Escherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe\u0026ensp;microbial analysis, specifically \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e for the four different sampled locations, is shown in Table 3. All results in this table are reported in MPN/100mL. The standard safe drinking\u0026ensp;water according to recognized health guidelines is \u0026lt; \u0026nbsp; 1.1 MPN/100mL. \u0026nbsp;In terms\u0026ensp;of the presence of e.coli, \u0026nbsp; locations 1,2, and 4 have very low risk of contamination based on data; they had less than 1.1 MPN/100mL. This suggests that\u0026ensp;the risk of waterborne illnesses resulting from drinking water from these places is low.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3\u003c/strong\u003e Presence of \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e across the four locations \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"632\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 211px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParameter\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e(MPN/100mL)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 109px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLocation 1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLocation 2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLocation 3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLocation 4\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 211px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eE.coli\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 109px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;1.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;1.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 103px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;8.0*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;1.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote: \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e Negative: \u0026nbsp;\u0026lt;1.1 MPN/100mL Positive: \u0026nbsp; \u0026gt;8.0 MPN/100mL \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e*= The presence of the \u003cem\u003eE\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e.\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003ecoli\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eexceeds the DOH\u0026rsquo;s standard for drinking water\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt Location 3, the reported value of \u0026gt; 8.0 \u0026nbsp; MPN/100mL indicates a high\u0026ensp;degree of \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003econtamination. This degree of contamination is well above the safe drinking water threshold, thus there is a\u0026ensp;likelihood of fecal contamination. \u0026nbsp;Drinking water from location 3 is a serious health\u0026ensp;hazard. It is\u0026ensp;most commonly linked to gastrointestinal illness, and elevated levels of \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e can trigger severe illness in vulnerable populations, including children, the elderly \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;and those with compromised immune systems. This is the same with the study in Kola treien, Ethiopia, found that 46.6% of the water samples of manual pumps were positive for \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e, highlighting a prevailing problem in rural water access (Bekuretsion et al., 2018). Similarly, in Nigeria, Samuel et al (2018) reported the alarming levels of \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e contamination in the public water of the manual pump in the state of Ebonyi. \u0026nbsp;While a study in the suburbs and rural Laos and Thailand found that several factors, including the proximity to livestock and the socioeconomic state of households, contributed significantly to the presence of \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e in drinking water (Vannavong et al., 2018).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2019) and Mayo Clinic\u0026ensp;(2022) both made this list of symptoms of an e.coli \u0026nbsp; infection, such as fever, vomiting, watery or bloody diarrhea, nausea, and abdominal cramps. NHS inform (2023) reported a \u0026nbsp;small number of people with the infection can develop haemolytic uraemic syndrome (HUS), which can lead to kidney failure and even death, although\u0026ensp;rarely. HUS is most common in children under\u0026ensp;5.\u0026nbsp;Khan et al. (2022) demonstrated a direct correlation between the domestic drinking water of \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003econtamination and increased incidents of child diarrhea in Bangladesh, which implies dysentery and gastroenteritis such as immediate health problems. Therefore, effective interventions may include the implementation of sanitary inspections together with microbial water analysis, as demonstrated by research focused on rural sub -Saharan Africa (Kelly et al., 2021).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study critically assessed the physicochemical and microbial quality of water obtained from hand water pumps in Cotabato City, South Central Mindanao, Philippines. The results indicate that the pH of water is within the acceptable range over the \u0026nbsp;sampling locations. Nitrate \u0026nbsp;level in location 2 \u0026nbsp;exceeded the maximum allowable limit, thereby \u0026nbsp;requiring close monitoring as the site could be contaminated with wastewater. Mercury was recorded only at location 2 within the threshold limits, while lead was absent across all sampling sites, thus implying that there is no public risk for lead poisoning. Iron concentrations were below the maximum limit, ensuring no adverse impacts on ae sthetic quality in \u0026nbsp;the quality of \u0026nbsp;water. Fluoride and chromium levels were undetected in any sample, which is preferable because exposure to them over long periods would lead to serious health problems. \u0026nbsp;Moreover, \u0026nbsp;total dissolved solids (TDS) showed that only location 3 conformed to Department of Health standards, whereaslocation 1,2, and 4 already exceeded their allowable limit. High TDS levels may indicate a \u0026nbsp;presence of harmful contaminants requiring further confirmation of water quality. \u0026nbsp;Concern also arises from high levels of copper in all sites, wherein \u0026nbsp;one site revealing high \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e contamination that offers \u0026nbsp;more direct health risks to the community. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5. Implications\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eIn the context of public health and water safety, drinking water gets polluted \u0026nbsp;with \u003cem\u003eE.coli\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026nbsp; or copper will \u0026nbsp; lead to various illnesses \u0026nbsp; such as gastrointestinal ailments and lifelong diseases resulting from exposure to heavy metals. Since the selected households in this community heavily rely on/prefers \u0026nbsp; to use hand water pumps, then \u0026nbsp; the study highlights the need for safe drinking water access intervention \u0026nbsp; for the residents. This study also contributes to the broader understanding of the \u0026nbsp;water quality problems, particularly those affecting community-based areas in the Philippines and in other developing areas of the region, \u0026nbsp; and therefore, \u0026nbsp; important to public health strategies.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6. Recommendation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBased on the outcome of the study, it is fundamental to: 1) prioritize the upgrading of the overall infrastructure associated with water sourcing, including regular maintenance, better filtration systems, as well as proper sanitation practices; 2) establish a much more systematic program in monitoring water quality within the city; 3) conduct initiatives to educate the public on the quality of water; and 4) conduct studies on the sources of contamination from water supplied by hand pumps and investigate the different methods of treating the water.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgment\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors would like to thank the Mindanao State University- Maguindanao and Notre Dame of Cotabato for their invaluable support, which greatly contributed to the completion of this research article. \u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical considerations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of Interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no conflicts of interest.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research did not receive any financial support.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAlahi, M. 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Examining the dynamics of the relationship between water pH and other water quality parameters in ground and surface water systems. PloS one, 17(1), e0262117.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSamuel, O., John, N., \u0026amp; Frederick, O. (2018). Bacteriological assessment of the public hand-pump borehole water in Onueke, Ezza south local government area, Ebonyi state, Nigeria. International Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology, 10(1), 39-48.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSenate Economic Planning Office (2023). The State of Water at a Glance. \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;https://legacy.senate.gov.ph/publications/SEPO/State%20of%20Water%20AAG_August%202023.pdf. Accessed January 14, 2025.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSila, O. N. A. (2019). Physico-chemical and bacteriological quality of water sources in rural settings, a case study of Kenya, Africa. Scientific African, 2, e00018.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSrivastava, S. \u0026amp; Flora, S. \u0026nbsp;(2020). Fluoride in Drinking Water and Skeletal Fluorosis: a Review of the Global Impact. Current environmental health reports, 7(2), 140\u0026ndash;146. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40572-020-00270-9\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eToure, A., Wenbiao, D. (2020). Physicochemical and microorganism analysis of some hand pump water in Pelengana, Segou, Mali. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-020-01225-z\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eUS EPA. (2024). Basic Information about Lead in Drinking Water https://www.epa.gov/ground-water-and-drinking-water/basic-information-about-lead-drinking-water?fbclid=IwAR0qh0ltoV9fFY45UFX8ZG4KRiOauKjD_jUbnwCdD9iUi_GJ2-0rdIbz-OM_aem_AZHfDX15LGZUnDoAYodBbEHAcAs3E8x6wcTZeTpn Ue13DQoBEXBntg0ZZtndRgbIf3BAkD5GWw99DV1DKnLM2_Rk#reDucehome. Accessed January 16, 2025.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eUS EPA. (2024). Health effects of exposures to mercury https://www.epa.gov/mercury/health-effects-exposures-mercury. Accessed January 20, 2025.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eVannavong, N., Overgaard, H. J., Chareonviriyaphap, T., Dada, N., Rangsin, R., Sibounhom, A., ... \u0026amp; Seidu, R. (2018). Assessing factors of E. coli contamination of household drinking water in suburban and rural Laos and Thailand. Water Science and Technology: Water Supply, 18(3), 886-900.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWashington State Department of Health. (2018). Copper in Drinking Water.https://doh.wa.gov/sites/default/files/legacy/Documents/Pubs/331-178.pdf?fbclid=IwAR34F6IXuo2I5lsZda4BAR3pv7P9dfAm5zI_4fwb3fsKMpBX1fy0hhtMTYc_aem_AaimpO3SLOSKF7AzBXlcnNoBFP-5pajyaVmf_Tcar5wmdRaJSeMUwSB6_54VILuIW-q-NZ0zDVCKHdOSxdjysWvB. Accessed March 10, 2025.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWhat are the effects of iron in water? 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Accessed February 17, 2025.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWorld Health Organization. (2017). Mercury and health. \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mercury-and-health#:~:text=Exposure%20to%20mercury%20%E2%80%93%20even% 20small,%2C%20kidneys%2C%20skin%20and %20eyes. Accessed February 17, 2025.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eZhao, Z., Ukidve, A., Krishnan, V., \u0026amp; Mitragotri, S. (2019). Effect of physicochemical and surface properties on in vivo fate of drug nanocarriers. Advanced drug delivery reviews, 143, 3-21.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Drinking Water, Environment, Public Health Physicochemical Profile, Microbial Presence","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8537483/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8537483/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eWater is a basic natural resource for human well-being and survival. However, many communities still face challenges related to water quality. The study aimed to 1) assess the physicochemical parameters of water samples from various hand water pumps, namely pH, nitrate, nitrite, mercury, lead, iron, copper, fluoride, chromium, and total dissolved solids; 2) determine the presence of \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e\u0026nbsp;in the water samples; and 3) compare the results with Standards set by the Department of Health (Administrative Order No. 2017-0010)\u0026nbsp;in order to determine compliance with safe drinking water regulations. The data collected from the physicochemical and microbial tests were analyzed and compared with the maximum allowable levels (MAL) set by the Department of Health (Administrative Order No. 2017-0010): Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water of 2017. Data revealed that all locations maintained acceptable pH values while location 2 has reached beyond the maximum allowable limit for nitrates and showed detectable mercury levels. None of the locations has been positive form lead, while iron levels were within the safe limits. However, copper was high in every location. Further, it also showed that location 3 had high levels of \u003cem\u003eE.coli \u003c/em\u003econtaminations. This evidence was shared with relevant authorities for timely consideration. The study presents the need for improved access to clean drinking water, regular monitoring of water quality, and community health education to improve the health outcomes of the vulnerable communities.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Assessing the physicochemical profile and presence of Escherichia coli on water from hand water pumps in selected areas in Central Mindanao, Philippines","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-01-08 10:56:21","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8537483/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"6d0c293f-d9b4-47f5-a646-31caa01b042f","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 8th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-01-08T10:56:21+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-01-08 10:56:21","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8537483","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8537483","identity":"rs-8537483","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}