Carbonate- and silicate-metasomatized mantle beneath Himalayan-Tibetan orogenic belt

Carbonate- and silicate-metasomatized mantle beneath Himalayan-Tibetan orogenic belt | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Carbonate- and silicate-metasomatized mantle beneath Himalayan-Tibetan orogenic belt Zhiming Yang, Weikai Li, Zoltan Zajacz, Limin Zhou, Zengqian Hou This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6729968/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 16 Oct, 2025 Read the published version in Communications Earth & Environment → Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The extreme geochemical enrichment of post-collisional potassium-rich lava in the Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt has led researchers to hypothesize that enrichment is inherited from a metasomatized mantle source potentially incorporating crustal components. However, direct verification of metasomatic processes remains challenging due to the scarcity of mantle rocks preserving metasomatism records. Here, we report two groups of mantle xenolith entrained in Tibetan ultrapotassic lavas. Integrated petrographic observations, whole-rock geochemistry, and in-situ microanalysis reveal that subcontinental lithospheric mantle (SCLM) exhibits extreme enrichment in both Sr-Nd isotopes and incompatible elements. Textural evidence of vein networks and melt pockets in xenoliths indicate the coexistence of carbonate and silicate metasomatic regimes. Considering high Li concentration of xenoliths and subduction-collision background, we propose that metasomatic enrichment of Tibetan SCLM likely resulted from the recycling of Indian continental crustal materials. Earth and environmental sciences/Solid Earth sciences/Petrology Earth and environmental sciences/Solid Earth sciences/Geology Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Introduction The Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt, extending over 15,000 km, represents the planet's longest collisional orogen. Post-collisional magmatism within this belt not only documents continental crustal thickening processes but also offers critical constraints on deep geodynamic mechanisms during subduction-collision orogeny 1 , crust-mantle material recycling 2 , 3 , and post-collisional mineralization 4 , 5 . Notably, mantle-derived post-collisional ultrapotassic lavas, defined by their geochemical criteria (K₂O > 3 wt%, MgO > 3 wt%, K₂O/Na₂O > 2), exhibit extreme enrichment in incompatible elements and radiogenic isotopes 6 , 7 , 8 . These volcanic suites are predominantly interpreted as products of partial melting of metasomatized subcontinental lithospheric mantle (SCLM), establishing them as vital archives for studying mantle enrichment processes in collisional orogeny 9 , 10 , 11 . Despite three decades of investigation, the petrogenetic origin of extreme geochemical enrichment in ultrapotassic magma sources remains contentious. Current debates center on two hypotheses: inheritance from pre-existing metasomatized mantle reservoirs versus acquisition through crustal assimilation during magma ascent. The former emphasizes the role of ancient mantle metasomatism by subduction-related fluids/melts 1,12 , whereas the latter attributes enrichment to interaction with crustal materials 13 , 14 . Recent microanalytical investigations of Tibetan ultrapotassic lava phenocrysts revealed systematic depletion trends from early-formed crystal core to late-stage rim during fractionation crystallization 15 , suggesting that the primary geochemical enrichment was source-inherited, with subsequent crustal interactions potentially modifying but not generating the observed signatures. The latest experimental petrology studies further demonstrate that SCLM enrichment in orogenic settings result from intereaction between depleted peridotite and recycled metasomatic agents, including hydrous pyroxenite-derived melts 16 , 17 and subducted sedimentary and/or crustal materials 18 , 19 . However, direct verification of metasomatism types and processes remains challenging due to the scarcity of mantle rocks preserving metasomatism records and the overprinting effects of post-magmatic processes. Mantle xenoliths, as fragments of lithospheric mantle, typically retain robust geochemical evidence of ancient metasomatic events. This study presents comprehensive petrographic, whole-rock geochemical, and in-situ microanalytical investigations of peridotite and pyroxenite xenoliths entrained in southern Tibetan ultrapotassic lavas from the Himalayan-Tibetan orogenic belt. Our findings provide direct evidence for two types of mantle metasomatism (carbonate and silicate) through integrated multi-scale analysis. Sample and petrography Twelve studied fresh xenoliths reported here can be categorized into two distinct groups: olivine (Ol)-rich group (ORG) and Ol-poor group (OPG). The ORG xenoliths (0.8–1.8 cm in diameter) include harzburgite, lherzolite, Ol-orthopyroxenite, and Ol-websterite (Figs. 1 A, 1 B, 2 A), whereas the OPG xenoliths (1.2–3.5 cm in diameter) are exclusively websterite (Figs. 1 C– 1 H, 2 A). ORG Petrography The ORG xenoliths display porphyroclastic textures dominated by subhedral olivine (27–53%) and orthopyroxene (Opx: 42–67%) grains (0.1–0.8 mm) with curvilinear boundaries (Fig. 1 A). Orthopyroxene exhibits disequilibrium features indicated by BSE-dark cores rimmed by bright zones. Minor phases include clinopyroxene (Cpx), phlogopite (Phl), and spinel (Sp), with acicular apatite (Ap) locally occupying intergranular spaces. Notably, carbonates are identified in ORG xenoliths. They occur as: (1) mm-scale vein networks restricted to xenolith central part without penetrating the host rock (Supplementary Fig. S1 in the Supplemental information file), crosscutting coarse Ol and Opx grains while preferentially eroding Opx margins (Fig. 1 B); (2) Ca-Mn-Ba-F-Cl-rich carbonate patches at grain boundaries, sharing similar composition with carbonate in veins (Fig. 1 B and Supplementary Fig. S2 ). OPG Petrography The OPG websterites display protogranular to porphyroclastic texture mainly composed of coarse-grained Cpx (20–85%) and Opx (15–80%) with curved, rounded, and embayed texture indicative of disequilibrium (Figs. 1 C– 1 F). Compared with ORG, hydrous phase (e.g., phlogopite) is barely observed in OPG. Silicate and carbonate veins are very common in this group. The OPG websterites can be classified into two subtypes (type I, II) according to the type of veins they contain: Type I websterite (Cpx 20 − 72 Opx 24−80 Ol 0−4 ) only contains Ca-Mn-Ba-K-Cl-rich carbonate vein networks transecting pyroxene (Fig. 1 D, Supplementary Fig. S3 ). Type II websterite (Cpx 59 − 85 Opx 15−41 Ol 0−4 ) characterized by silicate veins along the boundary of pyroxene (Fig. 1 E) occasionally transecting pyroxene. Minerals in vein include plagioclase (Pl ~ 90%), Opx (~ 5%), Fe-Ti oxide (~ 1%), and very minor Na-K-Al-Ti-rich glass without carbonate (Figs. 1 F, 1 G). Vein-pyroxene contacts show BSE-bright reaction zones with Cpx dissolution textures (Figs. 1 F, 1 G). These silicate veins frequently connect vermicular silicate pockets at triple junctions, comprising glass (45%), fine-grained Opx (45%), Cpx (5%), and minor Fe-Ti oxides (Fig. 1 H). Neither carbonate nor silicate veins/pocket are observed in the host lava. Results Whole-rock compositions The ORG xenolith suite exhibit distinct geochemical characteristics compared to OPG, displaying significantly elevated whole-rock Mg# values (87–89), MgO contents (33.6–35.9 wt%), and compatible element concentrations (Ni = 1143–1898 ppm; Cr = 1542–2510 ppm). Conversely, ORG xenoliths show relatively depletion in TiO₂, Al₂O₃, K₂O, CaO, Li, and heavy rare-earth elements (HREEs) as documented in Fig. 2 B, Supplementary Fig. S4 and Supplementary Table S1 . Within the OPG group, type I websterites demonstrate slightly higher MgO, TiO₂, and K₂O contents relative to type II (Fig. 2 B, Supplementary Fig. S4 ). All analyzed xenoliths share coherent chondrite-normalized REE patterns characterized by strong light REE (LREE) enrichment relative to HREE and consistent negative Eu anomalies (Fig. 2 C). Primitive mantle-normalized trace element diagram is characterized by pronounced negative Ba, Nb, Ta, and Ti anomalies (Fig. 2 D). Large ion lithophile elements (LILE: Rb, Ba, K) enrichment contrasts with high field strength elements (HFSE: Nb, Ta, Zr, Hf, Ti) depletion, forming characteristic "arc-type" signatures. The host volcanic rocks exhibit nearly identical trace element patterns to the xenolith, suggesting cogenetic relationships between mantle xenoliths and their carrier magmas. Whole-rock 87 Sr/ 86 Sr and 143 Nd/ 144 Nd ratios of ORG range from 0.716775 to 0.718698, 0.511868 to 0.511913, respectively (Fig. 2 E). The OPG has slightly lower but more concentrated 87 Sr/ 86 Sr ratios (0.715648–0.176066) within a wide variation of 143 Nd/ 144 Nd (0.511862–0.512006). The 87 Sr/ 86 Sr positively correlates with (La/Yb) N ratio in both groups (Fig. 2 F). Mineral compositions Olivine from ORG has higher Fo value (84–87), Ni, incompatible elements concentration (e.g., Li, K, Ba, P, Sr, Zr), and lower CaO content (0.04–0.09) than Ol phenocrysts from host rock (Figs. 3 A– 3 D; Supplementary Table S2 ). Olivine compositions from OPG remain unavailable due to the scarcity and small size of olivine crystals. The Al 2 O 3 , CaO and Na 2 O contents in Cpx increase with decreasing of MgO (Figs. 4 A– 4 C). The Cpx in both ORG and OPG displays higher Li concentration than Cpx phenocryst from host rock (Fig. 4 D). All Cpx display upward-convex REE patterns with negative Eu anomalies (Fig. 4 E). Primitive mantle-normalized pattern of Cpx is similar to whole rock (Fig. 4 F). Most Cpx from ORG are enriched in Ba concentration compared to those from OPG, resulting in higher Ba/La ratio (Fig. 4 G). The Cpx in ORG and OPG-type I websterite plot in carbonatite metasomatism field (Fig. 4 H). In contrast, Cpx in one type II websterites (C01) show a silicate metasomatism trend with high Ti/Eu ratio (Fig. 4 H), while Cpx in the other two type II websterites (C02, C03) have the highest Ti/Eu and (La/Yb) N ratio. In OPG, Cpx in direct contact with silicate vein or pocket has higher Ti, Na, HREE, Sr, Zr than those not in contact (Supplementary Fig. S5). In-situ 87 Sr/ 86 Sr values of Cpx from ORG (0.7169–0.7204) are higher than that from OPR (0.7135–0.7148; Fig. 4 I). In both ORG and OPG, 87 Sr/ 86 Sr ratio positively correlates with (La/Yb) N in Cpx (R 2 = 0.82 and 0.77). The Sr isotope data of Cpx in type I websterite are not available owing to the large errors (2σ ≥ 0.001), which is probably caused by the small size and disequilibrium texture. Overall, Tibetan peridotite and pyroxenite xenoliths demonstrate pronounced geochemical enrichment. Discussion Origin of ORG and OPG Two fundamental questions inevitably arise when investigating the petrogenesis of mantle-derived xenoliths, particularly pyroxenite: (1) Are these lithologies primary mantle formations or products of melt segregation during upwelling? (2) Does their geochemical enrichment originate from mantle metasomatism or magmatic process? While incompatible elements typically concentrate in residual melts and late-stage crystallizing phases during fractionation crystallization, our analyses reveal a clear geochemical paradox. Coarse-grained Ol in ORG xenolith have obviously higher incompatible element concentrations (e.g., Li, Ba, K, P, Sr, Zr, Hf, Th) compared to phenocrysts in the evolved host lava (Fig. 3 ). Similarly, coarse-grained Cpx in both OPG and OPG has higher Li coupled with higher Mg# value relative to Cpx phenocryst (Fig. 4 D). This geochemical dichotomy contradicts conventional expectations for crystal segregation from a common magma source. Post-magmatic processes such as crustal assimilation or mixing with enriched end-members cannot adequately account for these observations, as they fail to explain the selective enrichment of xenoliths compared to their host lavas. This interpretation is further strengthened by petrological and isotopic evidence showing that most crustal xenoliths are relatively depleted than the host ultrapotassic lava 12 , 15 , 20 . Hence, one of convincing interpretations is that ORG and OPG xenoliths represent fragments of mantle sources that experienced pre-entrainment metasomatic enrichment. Two types of metasomatism and corresponding impacts Peridotite and pyroxenite in ORG and OPG show wide variations in modal and chemical compositions. Such a heterogeneity can be primarily ascribed to two distinct petrogenetic processes: (1) differential melt extraction from an initially enriched pyroxenite protolith, and (2) polyphase metasomatic overprinting of peridotite precursors by percolating melts. As discussed below, the first mechanism can be ruled out, and we favor the second mechanism. The systematic negative correlation between MgO and other oxides in both whole rock and Cpx has been widely recognized as geochemical indicator for melt extraction of mantle rock. Oxides and modal Cpx contents seem to be elevated with decreasing of MgO and Mg# from ORG to OPG, but this trend is discontinuous between two groups (Fig. 2 B, Supplementary Fig. S4 ). The Al 2 O 3 , Na 2 O and CaO contents in Cpx roughly increase with decreasing of MgO (Figs. 4 A– 4 C), might indicative of enhanced melt extraction efficiency from OPG to ORG. In theory, melt extraction in compositionally homogeneous mantle sources would not substantially alter the isotopic signature of residual lithologies. However, Sr-Nd isotope of ORG and OPG is notably different (Fig. 2 E). This fundamental discrepancy necessitates consideration of additional petrogenetic factors. Porphyroclastic texture observed in mantle rock is commonly interpreted to reflect percolation of fluid and/or melt 21 . In the Tibetan SCLM, carbonate- and silicate-bearing vein/pocket provide critical evidence for metasomatic events. Three lines of evidence argue against a genetic link between these features (of vein/pocket) and host melts: (1) their restricted occurrence within xenoliths, (2) mineralogical discrepancies with host rocks (Fig. 1 , Supplementary Fig. S1 ), and (3) textural characteristics consistent with mantle P-T condition melt-rock reactions. The carbonate-bearing veins and pockets, exemplified by fine-grained Cpx + Opx + Ol + carbonate assemblages and carbonate-embayed Opx textures (Fig. 1 B), document carbonate melt-peridotite/pyroxenite reactions through Opx dissolution: Opx + Carbonate→Cpx + Ol + CO 2 (e.g., at 1.5–3.0 GPa, 1150–1300 o C; ref. 22). This interpretation is supported by the former observation of CO₂-rich fluid inclusions in Tibetan peridotite xenoliths 23 . Moreover, partial melts and residues from carbonate metasomatism sources are considered to inherit elevated (La/Yb) N and Nb/Ta ratios coupled with reduced Ti/Eu ratios, reflecting carbonate melt percolation processes 24 , 25 . In carbonate-bearing xenoliths (ORG and OPG-type I websterite), the concordance between petrographic features and geochemical signatures (Fig. 4 H) confirms carbonate metasomatism imprinting. In addition, the enrichment of fluid-mobile elements (Ba, F, Cl) in carbonates (Supplementary Figs. S2, S3) indicates fluid-rich carbonate metasomatism, consistent with elevated Cpx Ba/La ratios (Fig. 4 G). In contrast, silicate metasomatism exhibits comparatively "dry" characteristics evidenced by low Ba/La and high Th/Yb ratios. For silicate-bearing vein and pocket in OPG (type II), the residue small glass fragment provides direct evidence of silicate melt percolation. The dissolved Cpx in reaction zone further attest to melt impregnation and interaction 26 , 27 , 28 . The Cpx exhibits progressive Ti, Na, Sr, Zr, and HREE enrichment from non-contacted domains to those interfacing with veins/pockets (Supplementary Fig. S5), reflecting elemental contributions from percolating silicate melts. The presence of Fe-Ti oxides in veins additionally indicates Fe-Ti-rich melt compositions. However, Pl precipitation within these features appears inconsistent with the systematic negative Eu anomalies observed in whole-rock and mineral analyses (Figs. 2 C, 4 E). Given the lack of Eu enrichment in silicate veins/pockets relative to the pyroxenite matrix (Energy Disperse Spectroscopy mapping; Supplementary Fig. S6), three mechanisms potentially resolve this paradox: (1) Pre-percolation Pl fractionation: Early crystallization of Eu-rich Pl before percolation results in depletion of Eu in later percolating melt. (2) Alkaline melt derivation: Pl crystallization from a Ca-poor Na-K-rich percolating melt would suppress Eu-Ca substitution. This is supported by Na and K enrichment relative to Ca in silicate vein and pocket (Supplementary Fig. S6). Alkaline type metasomatism in Tibetan SCLM is also inferred from isotopic and chemical feature of Na- and K-rich magmatisms by ref. 8. (3) Subsolidus re-equilibration: Cpx-Pl re-equilibration in the Pl stability field is thought to typically cause Eu depletion and HREE enrichment in Cpx because HREE is more readily concentrated in Cpx 28 , 29 . Yet the absence of clearly negative Eu N /Eu*-Yb N correlations within type II websterite of OPG negate this process (Figs. 4 J). Collectively, these observations suggest the cryptic metasomatism recorded by silicate veins/pockets likely originated from Fe-Ti-rich alkaline silicate melts. Deep processes controlling metasomatism and geological implications In addition to elemental enrichment from silicate metasomatism, carbonate metasomatism contributes isotopically as evidenced by strong positive correlations between 87 Sr/ 86 Sr ratios and (La/Yb) N values in both whole-rock samples (R²=0.69 and 0.90; Fig. 2 F) and clinopyroxenes (R²=0.77 and 0.82; Fig. 4 I). The absence of correlations between (La/Yb) N and SiO 2 (Fig. 2 H) effectively excludes partial melting or magmatic differentiation as potential mechanisms. Although elevated (La/Yb) N ratios typically characterize carbonate metasomatism, potential contributions from silicate metasomatism and associated pyroxenite-forming processes in the deep mantle still require consideration. The Cpx in the two websterites (C02, C03) exhibit extremely high (La/Yb) N ratios (71–116; Fig. 4 H) coupled with high Sr/Y ratios (20–22; Supplementary Table S3 ). This probably indicates that the source of Tibetan pyroxenite involves a deep-seated endmember with strong garnet segregation because these high ratios are attributed to low Yb (0.07–0.12 ppm) and Y concentration (2.61–3.03 ppm) rather than La and Sr enrichment (Figs. 4 E, 4 F; Supplementary Table S3 ). Silicate metasomatism represented by silicate vein and pocket is not responsible for this because of their HREE-rich feature (Supplementary Fig. S6). In this context, the positive correlation of (La/Yb) N and Sr/Y with 87 Sr/ 86 Sr ratios (Figs. 2 F, 4 I) imply variable contributions from this garnet-fractionated source, though its genetic relationship with percolating melts remains ambiguous. Moreover, the extremely low Nb (< 0.06 ppm) and Ta (< 0.001 ppm) contents in Cpx from C02 and C03 (Fig. 4 F; Supplementary Table S3 ) further require the presence of rutile as a residual phase in the source region, due to the strong preferential partitioning of Nb and Ta into rutile. Participation of such a garnet-, Pl- and rutile-bearing endmember generally indicates a high-pressure melting condition (2 GPa; ref. 30). The subduction-related geochemical fingerprint (e.g., LILE enrichment and HFSE depletion; Figs. 2 D, 4 F) combined with the high Li concentration (Figs. 3 A, 3 B, 4 D) strongly implicates subducted Indian continental crust as one of the probable deep endmembers. Lithium abundances in the studied pyroxenite xenoliths (21.3–36.4 ppm; Supplementary Table S1 ) significantly exceed typical mantle values (< 2 ppm; ref. 31) and oceanic lavas (< 10 ppm; ref. 32), aligning better with continental crustal reservoirs (~ 24 ppm; ref. 33) and clastic sediments (~ 70 ppm; ref. 11). The temporal isotopic evolution of Tibetan magmatism reveals a pronounced enrichment from the pre-collisional (pre-65 Ma) to post-collisional stages (Fig. 5 ), a pattern that coincides with seismic evidence for the northward underthrusting of Indian continental crust beneath the study area as revealed by the seismic data 34 . We therefore propose that metasomatic enrichment of the Tibetan SCLM originated from the recycling of Indian continental crustal materials during collision. Methods Prior to wet chemistry analysis, xenolith samples underwent repeatedly grinding-polishing using a precision mill under binocular and microscope to complete remove contamination from adhered host rock. Trace element compositions of coarse Ol in ORG and Cpx from both xenolith groups were determined by laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). In-situ Sr isotope ratios in Cpx were determined by using a multi-collector ICP-MS (MC-ICP-MS) interfaced with a femtosecond laser ablation system. Trace elements analysis by LA-ICP-MS Laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) was employed to determine trace element concentrations in olivine, clinopyroxene from xenoliths, and ultrapotassic host rocks at the University of Tasmania. The system consisted of a New Wave Research UP213 Nd-YAG (213 nm) laser coupled to an Agilent 7900 quadrupole mass spectrometer. Ablation was conducted using 30–60 µm diameter spots at a repetition rate of 10 Hz. Data reduction followed the standard methods of ref. 36, with NIST612 glass as the primary reference material and USGS BCR-2G glass as the secondary standard. Analytical results are presented in Supplementary Tables S2 and S3. Major elements analysis by EMPA Clinopyroxene major element compositions were analyzed using a JEOL JXA-8230 Superprobe electron microprobe at the Institute of Mineral Resources, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences (CAGS). Operating conditions included an accelerating voltage of 15 kV, a probe current of 20 nA, and a beam diameter of 2–5 µm. Calibration utilized synthetic oxides and natural mineral standards, with matrix effects corrected via the manufacturer-supplied ZAF procedure. The detection limits ranged from 77 to 244 ppm, and measurement accuracy was maintained within 5% relative error. Complete major element data for Cpx are provided in Supplementary Table S3 . In-situ Sr isotope analysis In-situ Sr isotope measurements of clinopyroxene were performed using a Neptune Plus MC-ICP-MS (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Germany) at the National Research Center for Geoanalysis, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences. The system was coupled to a J-200 343 nm Yb-fiber femtosecond laser ablation system (Applied Spectra, USA). A baffled-type smoothing device was used before MC-ICP-MS to reduce the fluctuation effect induced by laser-ablation pulses and improve the quality of data. Instrument modifications included a high-efficiency dry pump for enhanced ion transmission and JET/X skimmer cones with a guard electrode. All measurements were conducted under low resolution and static mode. The NBS987 standard yielded 87 Sr/ 86 Sr = 0.710245 ± 0.000025 (2σ, n = 32), consistent with TIMS values (0.710236; ref. 37). The analysis was optimized with NIST 612 to achieve maximum signal intensity and low oxide rates. The electronic baseline of every Faraday collector and gain for each amplifier were determined and calibrated. The clinopyroxene grains were ablated in line mode with spot size of 20–40 µm, line length of 20–40 µm, sample stage movement speed of 0.65 µm/s, laser repetition rate of 2–10 Hz, and beam energy density of ~ 1 J/cm 2 . The instrumental mass bias for Sr isotopes was corrected using an exponential law function based on the 86 Sr/ 88 Sr value of 0.1194. The correction of interferences of Kr isotopes (impurities in the Ar gas) on mass 84 and 86 was successfully accomplished by the background subtraction. The interferences of Rb and doubly charged ions of Er and Yb on Sr were corrected based on the measured signal intensities of 85 Rb, 167 Er 2+ and 173 Yb 2+ and their natural isotopic relative abundances 38 , 39 , 40 . The Durango apatite standard and the StHs6 80-G glass standard were analyzed to monitor the instrument stability, yielding a mean value of 87 Sr/ 86 Sr = 0.70655 ± 0.00046 (2σ, n = 19; the recommended value by TIMS is 0.70640 ± 0.00007; ref. 41) and 87 Sr/ 86 Sr = 0.70348 ± 0.00011 (2σ, n = 7; recommended value by TIMS is 0.703497 ± 0.000034; ref. 42), respectively. Data are reported in Supplementary Table S3 . As the 87 Rb/ 86 Sr ratios of all analyzed clinopyroxene were very low and the age of the host is relatively young (< 20 Ma; ref. 2), the 87 Sr/ 86 Sr ratios were not age-corrected. Whole-rock major and trace element analysis Fresh peridotite and pyroxenite xenoliths were selected under the binocular. Then they were repeatedly polished by grinder and carefully checked under binocular and microscope in order to remove all attached host rock part completely. Ultrapotassic host rocks were ground to remove surfaces, cleaned with deionized water, crushed and powdered in an agate mill. Wet chemical analyses were carried out at Activation Laboratories Ltd. Sample powder was mixed with a flux of lithium metaborate and tetraborate, and fused in an induction furnace. The molten mixture was poured into a 5% nitric acid solution containing an internal standard, and mixed continuously until completely dissolved (~ 30 min.). Major and selected trace elements (e.g., Ba, Sr, and V) were analyzed by ICP–MS (Thermo Jarrell-Ash ENVIRO II ICP or Varian Vista 735 ICP), with reference materials NIST694, DNC1, GBW07113, NIST1613b, SY4, and BIR-1a being analyzed in parallel. Analytical precisions were 1–2%. Accuracy for major elements, as determined by reproducibility of standard and duplicate analyses, was typically within ± 5% ( ≤ ± 3% for SiO 2 and Al 2 O 3 ). Trace element analyses involved digestion of sample powder in aqua regia with reference materials for the metals of interest. Samples and standards were analyzed by ICP–MS (Perkin Elmer Sciex 9000). Accuracy for trace elements was within ± 10%. More detailed methods are available from Actlabs ( http://www.actlabs.com ). Analyzed data are listed in Supplementary Table S1 . Whole-rock Sr isotope analysis Fifty milligrams of sample powder were digested over three days on a hot-plate (120°C), with HF and HNO 3 in 15 ml PFA screw vials for three days. Then the digested sample was dried and the residue was dissolved in 1.5 ml 3M HNO 3 and centrifuged. A fraction of the sample solution was loaded on to the column with SR-Spec resin 43 to separate Sr. The 87 Sr/ 86 Sr ratios were determined with a Neptune Plus MC-ICP-MS in the National Research Center for Geoanalysis, CAGS. 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MPIDING reference glasses for in situ microanalysis: new reference values for element concentrations and isotope ratios. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 7, 217–222 (2006). Paton, C., Woodhead, J. D., Hergt, J. M., Phillips, D., and Shee, S. Strontium isotope analysis of kimberlitic groundmass perovskite via LA-MC-ICP-MS. Geostandards and Geoanalytical Research, 31(4), 321–330 (2007). Yang, Y. H., Wu, F. Y., Xie, L. W., Chu, Z. Y., and Yang, J. H. Re-evaluation of interferences of doubly charged ions of heavy rare earth elements on Sr isotopic analysis using multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Spectrochimica Acta Part B: Atomic Spectroscopy, 97, 118–123 (2014). Tong, X., Liu, Y., Hu, Z., Chen, H., Zhou, L., Hu, Q., Xu, R., Deng, L., Chen, C., Yang, L., and Gao, S. Accurate determination of Sr isotopic compositions in clinopyroxene and silicate glasses by LA-MC-ICP-MS. Geostandards and Geoanalytical Research, 40(1), 85–99 (2016). 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Supplementary Files SupplementaryTableS1.xlsx Supplementary Table S1 SupplementaryTableS2.xlsx Supplementary Table S2 SupplementaryTableS3.xlsx Supplementary Table S3 Supplementalinformation.pdf Supplemental information Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 16 Oct, 2025 Read the published version in Communications Earth & Environment → Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6729968","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":463652001,"identity":"f7f70b39-5801-4a15-836b-fe4f45629e47","order_by":0,"name":"Zhiming Yang","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA2UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBADOQMwZWBBvBZjAwZmkBYJ4rUkbgBrYSBCi/y0A2wSP3fUpm9n7z+64UeBBAN/e3cCXi2MsxPYJHvPHM/d2XOY7WYP0GESZ85uwKuFWTqBTYK37VjuhhvJbDd4gFoMJHLxa2EDapH823Ys3QCo5eYfYrTwALVI87bVJIC03CbKFgnpxGZr2bYDhhvOHDa7LWMgwUPQL/Kzkw/efNtWJ29wvPHZzTd/bOT423vxawGGWQswLg4jXEpAORgwf2BgqCNG4SgYBaNgFIxUAACLxUN6R78u+gAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1686-3973","institution":"Institute of Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Zhiming","middleName":"","lastName":"Yang","suffix":""},{"id":463652002,"identity":"d6b2895d-827c-4daf-b141-f2d0e3eb7b76","order_by":1,"name":"Weikai Li","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1048-2782","institution":"Southern University of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Weikai","middleName":"","lastName":"Li","suffix":""},{"id":463652003,"identity":"c766ebce-dd8f-46be-a51d-bb6e880433dd","order_by":2,"name":"Zoltan Zajacz","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6528-7717","institution":"University of Geneva","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Zoltan","middleName":"","lastName":"Zajacz","suffix":""},{"id":463652004,"identity":"0f8b1c16-d6c2-458c-8a79-ecf39c363e80","order_by":3,"name":"Limin Zhou","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Limin","middleName":"","lastName":"Zhou","suffix":""},{"id":463652005,"identity":"e48baf14-1567-4dd2-a509-026f9cfdbe58","order_by":4,"name":"Zengqian Hou","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0004-9574-0235","institution":"Deep Space Exploration Laboratory","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Zengqian","middleName":"","lastName":"Hou","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-05-23 06:40:40","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6729968/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6729968/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-025-02778-0","type":"published","date":"2025-10-16T04:00:00+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":83791243,"identity":"f8cea575-fc48-4cbd-9d89-54b3ec434f33","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-02 19:35:37","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":13314026,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBack scattered electron (BSE) images of ORG (A, B) and OPG (C–H) mantle xenolith.\u003c/strong\u003e A: BSE image showing minerals in ORG. B and D: BSE images showing carbonate veins, patches, and inclusions in ORG and OPG xenolith, respectively. C: BSE image showing minerals in OPG. E–G: Structure and mineral assemblage ofsilicate veins in OPG. H: Mineral assemblage in silicate pocket. Abbreviations: Ap-apatite, C-carbonate, Cpx-clinopyroxene, Ol-olivine, Opx-orthopyroxene, Phl-phlogopite, Pl-plagioclase, Sil-silicate, Sp-spinel.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6729968/v1/b92c8583e458b30198b07d27.jpg"},{"id":83791162,"identity":"64e3fe47-3387-462e-a566-beff397e85ee","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-02 19:27:37","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":3479950,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWhole-rock geochemical features of mantle xenoliths and host ultrapotassic rocks. \u003c/strong\u003eA: Ol-Opx-Cpx triangular plot for peridotites and pyroxenite xenoliths. B: MgO (wt%) vs. Al\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e (wt%) diagram. C: Chondrite-normalized REE patterns. D: Primitive mantle-normalized multielement patterns. E: \u003csup\u003e143\u003c/sup\u003eNd/\u003csup\u003e144\u003c/sup\u003eNd vs. \u003csup\u003e87\u003c/sup\u003eSr/\u003csup\u003e86\u003c/sup\u003eSr ratios diagram. F: (La/Yb)\u003csub\u003eN\u003c/sub\u003e vs. \u003csup\u003e87\u003c/sup\u003eSr/\u003csup\u003e86\u003c/sup\u003eSr ratios diagram. In xenoliths of OPG and ORG, (La/Yb)\u003csub\u003eN\u003c/sub\u003e ratios show strong positive correlation with \u003csup\u003e87\u003c/sup\u003eSr/\u003csup\u003e86\u003c/sup\u003eSr ratios, R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e=0.69 and 0.90, respectively. G: Nb/Ta vs. (La/Yb)\u003csub\u003eN\u003c/sub\u003e ratios. H: SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e (wt%) vs. (La/Yb)\u003csub\u003eN\u003c/sub\u003e ratios. Data source is Supplementary Table S1.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6729968/v1/ae3ff3dbd4c2b6324596fe5c.jpg"},{"id":83791163,"identity":"916a6b76-2e1a-465c-a39a-49a1d2f5b8a6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-02 19:27:37","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1400565,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGeochemical features of olivine in mantle xenoliths and host ultrapotassic rock.\u003c/strong\u003e A: Fo content (mol%) vs. (La/Yb)\u003csub\u003eN\u003c/sub\u003e ratios of olivine in ORG xenolith and olivine phenocryst in host rock. Fo=Mg/(Mg+ Fe) molar ratio. B\u003cstrong\u003e:\u003c/strong\u003e Li (ppm) vs. Ba (ppm) contents of olivine in ORG xenolith and host rock. C: Sr (ppm) vs. Zr (ppm) contents of olivine in ORG xenolith and host rock. D: P (ppm) vs. K (ppm) contents of olivine in ORG xenolith and host rock. Data source is Supplementary Table S2.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6729968/v1/15c3ee6bb5e476cd23648c52.jpg"},{"id":83791244,"identity":"ea63c0f6-d2e0-4d95-a455-9803f5c44c6b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-02 19:35:37","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":3815460,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGeochemical features of clinopyroxene in mantle xenoliths and host ultrapotassic rock.\u003c/strong\u003e A: MgO (wt%) vs. Al\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e (wt%) of clinopyroxene from both xenolith and phenocryst in host rock. B: MgO (wt%) vs. Na\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO (wt%) of clinopyroxene. C: MgO (wt%) vs. CaO (wt%) of clinopyroxene. D: Mg# value vs. Li (ppm) contents of clinopyroxene. E: Chondrite-normalized REE patterns of clinopyroxene. F: Primitive mantle-normalized multielement patterns of clinopyroxene. G: Ba/La vs. Th/Yb ratios of clinopyroxene from xenolith and phenocryst in host rock. H: Ti/Eu vs. (La/Yb)\u003csub\u003eN\u003c/sub\u003e ratios diagram of clinopyroxene. The carbonatite metasomatism field is Ti/Eu\u0026lt;1500, (La/Yb)\u003csub\u003eN\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026gt;3 (ref. 36). I: (La/Yb)\u003csub\u003eN\u003c/sub\u003e vs. \u003csup\u003e87\u003c/sup\u003eSr/\u003csup\u003e86\u003c/sup\u003eSr ratios diagram. In xenoliths of OPG and ORG, (La/Yb)\u003csub\u003eN\u003c/sub\u003e ratios show strong positive correlation with \u003csup\u003e87\u003c/sup\u003eSr/\u003csup\u003e86\u003c/sup\u003eSr ratios, R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e=0.77 and 0.82, respectively. J: Yb\u003csub\u003eN\u003c/sub\u003e vs. Eu\u003csub\u003eN\u003c/sub\u003e/Eu* ratio of clinopyroxene. Eu*=Eu\u003csub\u003eN\u003c/sub\u003e/(Sm\u003csub\u003eN\u003c/sub\u003e+Gd\u003csub\u003eN\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003csup\u003e1/2\u003c/sup\u003e. Gray error bars represent the mean error of the parameters on both axes, those with ranges smaller than the size of data points are not displayed on figures. Data source is Supplementary Table S3.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6729968/v1/045b916c3be612d1a529cb9c.jpg"},{"id":83791159,"identity":"86e19609-589d-4390-ae69-fff3804d31b2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-02 19:27:37","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1536646,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTemporal Sr-Nd isotopic evolution of Tibetan magmatism\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eshows a clear enrichment trend from pre-collisional (arc magma) to post-collisional stages. \u003c/strong\u003eA: \u003csup\u003e87\u003c/sup\u003eSr/\u003csup\u003e86\u003c/sup\u003eSr ratio vs. \u003csup\u003e143\u003c/sup\u003eNd/\u003csup\u003e144\u003c/sup\u003eNd ratio of whole-rock data. Whole-rock data are collected from literatures, including typical Late Cretaceous Gangdese arc magma formed before collision (\u0026gt;65Ma), volcanic lava erupted during collision (~50-65), and mantle-derived volcanic lava formed after collision (\u0026lt;50Ma). B: Age (Ma) vs. \u003csup\u003e87\u003c/sup\u003eSr/\u003csup\u003e86\u003c/sup\u003eSr ratio. Data are collected from ref. 2,7,8.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.5.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6729968/v1/27d68d013dbb6d8a1c3ef08f.jpg"},{"id":93748376,"identity":"ce31f865-b782-4d98-9653-52689a097698","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 07:12:46","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":13129386,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6729968/v1/a90f7f8d-1dd9-4f55-b92b-d127a08002b3.pdf"},{"id":83791156,"identity":"00024c9d-e130-4515-ade6-cf4e9a995e3b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-02 19:27:37","extension":"xlsx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":52033,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"Supplementary Table S1","description":"","filename":"SupplementaryTableS1.xlsx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6729968/v1/ea89e951e81115a1324b0792.xlsx"},{"id":83791154,"identity":"d5858899-a07f-40f9-810d-fc20c8c5ff41","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-02 19:27:37","extension":"xlsx","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":24220,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"Supplementary Table S2","description":"","filename":"SupplementaryTableS2.xlsx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6729968/v1/6e043ef4c87757b1a119d83e.xlsx"},{"id":83791242,"identity":"e0158159-950d-4a5d-80e1-39c712e41642","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-02 19:35:37","extension":"xlsx","order_by":3,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":92933,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"Supplementary Table S3","description":"","filename":"SupplementaryTableS3.xlsx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6729968/v1/d162c926fd2d8618316ac5c7.xlsx"},{"id":83791165,"identity":"7e1f9003-6573-4ab8-8ebc-c5c0b0e8787b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-02 19:27:37","extension":"pdf","order_by":4,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":2057213,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"Supplemental information","description":"","filename":"Supplementalinformation.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6729968/v1/98dab8699fc623ce22429955.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"There is \u003cb\u003eNO\u003c/b\u003e Competing Interest.","formattedTitle":"Carbonate- and silicate-metasomatized mantle beneath Himalayan-Tibetan orogenic belt","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt, extending over 15,000 km, represents the planet's longest collisional orogen. Post-collisional magmatism within this belt not only documents continental crustal thickening processes but also offers critical constraints on deep geodynamic mechanisms during subduction-collision orogeny\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, crust-mantle material recycling\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, and post-collisional mineralization\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Notably, mantle-derived post-collisional ultrapotassic lavas, defined by their geochemical criteria (K₂O\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;3 wt%, MgO\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;3 wt%, K₂O/Na₂O\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;2), exhibit extreme enrichment in incompatible elements and radiogenic isotopes\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. These volcanic suites are predominantly interpreted as products of partial melting of metasomatized subcontinental lithospheric mantle (SCLM), establishing them as vital archives for studying mantle enrichment processes in collisional orogeny\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite three decades of investigation, the petrogenetic origin of extreme geochemical enrichment in ultrapotassic magma sources remains contentious. Current debates center on two hypotheses: inheritance from pre-existing metasomatized mantle reservoirs versus acquisition through crustal assimilation during magma ascent. The former emphasizes the role of ancient mantle metasomatism by subduction-related fluids/melts\u003csup\u003e1,12\u003c/sup\u003e, whereas the latter attributes enrichment to interaction with crustal materials\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Recent microanalytical investigations of Tibetan ultrapotassic lava phenocrysts revealed systematic depletion trends from early-formed crystal core to late-stage rim during fractionation crystallization\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, suggesting that the primary geochemical enrichment was source-inherited, with subsequent crustal interactions potentially modifying but not generating the observed signatures. The latest experimental petrology studies further demonstrate that SCLM enrichment in orogenic settings result from intereaction between depleted peridotite and recycled metasomatic agents, including hydrous pyroxenite-derived melts\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and subducted sedimentary and/or crustal materials\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. However, direct verification of metasomatism types and processes remains challenging due to the scarcity of mantle rocks preserving metasomatism records and the overprinting effects of post-magmatic processes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMantle xenoliths, as fragments of lithospheric mantle, typically retain robust geochemical evidence of ancient metasomatic events. This study presents comprehensive petrographic, whole-rock geochemical, and in-situ microanalytical investigations of peridotite and pyroxenite xenoliths entrained in southern Tibetan ultrapotassic lavas from the Himalayan-Tibetan orogenic belt. Our findings provide direct evidence for two types of mantle metasomatism (carbonate and silicate) through integrated multi-scale analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSample and petrography\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTwelve studied fresh xenoliths reported here can be categorized into two distinct groups: olivine (Ol)-rich group (ORG) and Ol-poor group (OPG). The ORG xenoliths (0.8\u0026ndash;1.8 cm in diameter) include harzburgite, lherzolite, Ol-orthopyroxenite, and Ol-websterite (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eA, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eB, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eA), whereas the OPG xenoliths (1.2\u0026ndash;3.5 cm in diameter) are exclusively websterite (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eC\u0026ndash;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eH, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eA).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eORG Petrography\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe ORG xenoliths display porphyroclastic textures dominated by subhedral olivine (27\u0026ndash;53%) and orthopyroxene (Opx: 42\u0026ndash;67%) grains (0.1\u0026ndash;0.8 mm) with curvilinear boundaries (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eA). Orthopyroxene exhibits disequilibrium features indicated by BSE-dark cores rimmed by bright zones. Minor phases include clinopyroxene (Cpx), phlogopite (Phl), and spinel (Sp), with acicular apatite (Ap) locally occupying intergranular spaces. Notably, carbonates are identified in ORG xenoliths. They occur as: (1) mm-scale vein networks restricted to xenolith central part without penetrating the host rock (Supplementary Fig. \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e in the Supplemental information file), crosscutting coarse Ol and Opx grains while preferentially eroding Opx margins (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eB); (2) Ca-Mn-Ba-F-Cl-rich carbonate patches at grain boundaries, sharing similar composition with carbonate in veins (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eB and Supplementary Fig. \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eOPG Petrography\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe OPG websterites display protogranular to porphyroclastic texture mainly composed of coarse-grained Cpx (20\u0026ndash;85%) and Opx (15\u0026ndash;80%) with curved, rounded, and embayed texture indicative of disequilibrium (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eC\u0026ndash;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eF). Compared with ORG, hydrous phase (e.g., phlogopite) is barely observed in OPG. Silicate and carbonate veins are very common in this group. The OPG websterites can be classified into two subtypes (type I, II) according to the type of veins they contain:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eType I websterite (Cpx\u003csub\u003e20\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;72\u003c/sub\u003eOpx\u003csub\u003e24\u0026minus;80\u003c/sub\u003eOl\u003csub\u003e0\u0026minus;4\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eonly contains Ca-Mn-Ba-K-Cl-rich carbonate vein networks transecting pyroxene (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eD, Supplementary Fig. \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eType II websterite (Cpx\u003csub\u003e59\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;85\u003c/sub\u003eOpx\u003csub\u003e15\u0026minus;41\u003c/sub\u003eOl\u003csub\u003e0\u0026minus;4\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003echaracterized by silicate veins along the boundary of pyroxene (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eE) occasionally transecting pyroxene. Minerals in vein include plagioclase (Pl\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;90%), Opx (~\u0026thinsp;5%), Fe-Ti oxide (~\u0026thinsp;1%), and very minor Na-K-Al-Ti-rich glass without carbonate (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eF, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eG). Vein-pyroxene contacts show BSE-bright reaction zones with Cpx dissolution textures (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eF, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eG). These silicate veins frequently connect vermicular silicate pockets at triple junctions, comprising glass (45%), fine-grained Opx (45%), Cpx (5%), and minor Fe-Ti oxides (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eH). Neither carbonate nor silicate veins/pocket are observed in the host lava.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eWhole-rock compositions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe ORG xenolith suite exhibit distinct geochemical characteristics compared to OPG, displaying significantly elevated whole-rock Mg# values (87\u0026ndash;89), MgO contents (33.6\u0026ndash;35.9 wt%), and compatible element concentrations (Ni\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1143\u0026ndash;1898 ppm; Cr\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1542\u0026ndash;2510 ppm). Conversely, ORG xenoliths show relatively depletion in TiO₂, Al₂O₃, K₂O, CaO, Li, and heavy rare-earth elements (HREEs) as documented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eB, Supplementary Fig. \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS4\u003c/span\u003e and Supplementary Table \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e. Within the OPG group, type I websterites demonstrate slightly higher MgO, TiO₂, and K₂O contents relative to type II (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eB, Supplementary Fig. \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll analyzed xenoliths share coherent chondrite-normalized REE patterns characterized by strong light REE (LREE) enrichment relative to HREE and consistent negative Eu anomalies (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eC). Primitive mantle-normalized trace element diagram is characterized by pronounced negative Ba, Nb, Ta, and Ti anomalies (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eD). Large ion lithophile elements (LILE: Rb, Ba, K) enrichment contrasts with high field strength elements (HFSE: Nb, Ta, Zr, Hf, Ti) depletion, forming characteristic \"arc-type\" signatures. The host volcanic rocks exhibit nearly identical trace element patterns to the xenolith, suggesting cogenetic relationships between mantle xenoliths and their carrier magmas.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhole-rock \u003csup\u003e87\u003c/sup\u003eSr/\u003csup\u003e86\u003c/sup\u003eSr and \u003csup\u003e143\u003c/sup\u003eNd/\u003csup\u003e144\u003c/sup\u003eNd ratios of ORG range from 0.716775 to 0.718698, 0.511868 to 0.511913, respectively (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eE). The OPG has slightly lower but more concentrated \u003csup\u003e87\u003c/sup\u003eSr/\u003csup\u003e86\u003c/sup\u003eSr ratios (0.715648\u0026ndash;0.176066) within a wide variation of \u003csup\u003e143\u003c/sup\u003eNd/\u003csup\u003e144\u003c/sup\u003eNd (0.511862\u0026ndash;0.512006). The \u003csup\u003e87\u003c/sup\u003eSr/\u003csup\u003e86\u003c/sup\u003eSr positively correlates with (La/Yb)\u003csub\u003eN\u003c/sub\u003e ratio in both groups (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eF).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMineral compositions\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOlivine from ORG has higher Fo value (84\u0026ndash;87), Ni, incompatible elements concentration (e.g., Li, K, Ba, P, Sr, Zr), and lower CaO content (0.04\u0026ndash;0.09) than Ol phenocrysts from host rock (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eA\u0026ndash;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eD; Supplementary Table \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS2\u003c/span\u003e). Olivine compositions from OPG remain unavailable due to the scarcity and small size of olivine crystals.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Al\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, CaO and Na\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO contents in Cpx increase with decreasing of MgO (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eA\u0026ndash;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eC). The Cpx in both ORG and OPG displays higher Li concentration than Cpx phenocryst from host rock (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eD). All Cpx display upward-convex REE patterns with negative Eu anomalies (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eE). Primitive mantle-normalized pattern of Cpx is similar to whole rock (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eF). Most Cpx from ORG are enriched in Ba concentration compared to those from OPG, resulting in higher Ba/La ratio (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eG). The Cpx in ORG and OPG-type I websterite plot in carbonatite metasomatism field (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eH). In contrast, Cpx in one type II websterites (C01) show a silicate metasomatism trend with high Ti/Eu ratio (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eH), while Cpx in the other two type II websterites (C02, C03) have the highest Ti/Eu and (La/Yb)\u003csub\u003eN\u003c/sub\u003e ratio. In OPG, Cpx in direct contact with silicate vein or pocket has higher Ti, Na, HREE, Sr, Zr than those not in contact (Supplementary Fig. S5).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn-situ \u003csup\u003e87\u003c/sup\u003eSr/\u003csup\u003e86\u003c/sup\u003eSr values of Cpx from ORG (0.7169\u0026ndash;0.7204) are higher than that from OPR (0.7135\u0026ndash;0.7148; Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eI). In both ORG and OPG, \u003csup\u003e87\u003c/sup\u003eSr/\u003csup\u003e86\u003c/sup\u003eSr ratio positively correlates with (La/Yb)\u003csub\u003eN\u003c/sub\u003e in Cpx (R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.82 and 0.77). The Sr isotope data of Cpx in type I websterite are not available owing to the large errors (2σ\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;0.001), which is probably caused by the small size and disequilibrium texture.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, Tibetan peridotite and pyroxenite xenoliths demonstrate pronounced geochemical enrichment.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eOrigin of ORG and OPG\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTwo fundamental questions inevitably arise when investigating the petrogenesis of mantle-derived xenoliths, particularly pyroxenite: (1) Are these lithologies primary mantle formations or products of melt segregation during upwelling? (2) Does their geochemical enrichment originate from mantle metasomatism or magmatic process? While incompatible elements typically concentrate in residual melts and late-stage crystallizing phases during fractionation crystallization, our analyses reveal a clear geochemical paradox. Coarse-grained Ol in ORG xenolith have obviously higher incompatible element concentrations (e.g., Li, Ba, K, P, Sr, Zr, Hf, Th) compared to phenocrysts in the evolved host lava (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, coarse-grained Cpx in both OPG and OPG has higher Li coupled with higher Mg# value relative to Cpx phenocryst (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eD). This geochemical dichotomy contradicts conventional expectations for crystal segregation from a common magma source. Post-magmatic processes such as crustal assimilation or mixing with enriched end-members cannot adequately account for these observations, as they fail to explain the selective enrichment of xenoliths compared to their host lavas. This interpretation is further strengthened by petrological and isotopic evidence showing that most crustal xenoliths are relatively depleted than the host ultrapotassic lava\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Hence, one of convincing interpretations is that ORG and OPG xenoliths represent fragments of mantle sources that experienced pre-entrainment metasomatic enrichment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eTwo types of metasomatism and corresponding impacts\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePeridotite and pyroxenite in ORG and OPG show wide variations in modal and chemical compositions. Such a heterogeneity can be primarily ascribed to two distinct petrogenetic processes: (1) differential melt extraction from an initially enriched pyroxenite protolith, and (2) polyphase metasomatic overprinting of peridotite precursors by percolating melts. As discussed below, the first mechanism can be ruled out, and we favor the second mechanism.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe systematic negative correlation between MgO and other oxides in both whole rock and Cpx has been widely recognized as geochemical indicator for melt extraction of mantle rock. Oxides and modal Cpx contents seem to be elevated with decreasing of MgO and Mg# from ORG to OPG, but this trend is discontinuous between two groups (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eB, Supplementary Fig. \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS4\u003c/span\u003e). The Al\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, Na\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO and CaO contents in Cpx roughly increase with decreasing of MgO (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eA\u0026ndash;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eC), might indicative of enhanced melt extraction efficiency from OPG to ORG. In theory, melt extraction in compositionally homogeneous mantle sources would not substantially alter the isotopic signature of residual lithologies. However, Sr-Nd isotope of ORG and OPG is notably different (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eE). This fundamental discrepancy necessitates consideration of additional petrogenetic factors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePorphyroclastic texture observed in mantle rock is commonly interpreted to reflect percolation of fluid and/or melt\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In the Tibetan SCLM, carbonate- and silicate-bearing vein/pocket provide critical evidence for metasomatic events. Three lines of evidence argue against a genetic link between these features (of vein/pocket) and host melts: (1) their restricted occurrence within xenoliths, (2) mineralogical discrepancies with host rocks (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, Supplementary Fig. \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e), and (3) textural characteristics consistent with mantle P-T condition melt-rock reactions. The carbonate-bearing veins and pockets, exemplified by fine-grained Cpx\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Opx\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Ol\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;carbonate assemblages and carbonate-embayed Opx textures (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eB), document carbonate melt-peridotite/pyroxenite reactions through Opx dissolution: Opx\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Carbonate\u0026rarr;Cpx\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Ol\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e (e.g., at 1.5\u0026ndash;3.0 GPa, 1150\u0026ndash;1300\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC; ref. 22). This interpretation is supported by the former observation of CO₂-rich fluid inclusions in Tibetan peridotite xenoliths\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Moreover, partial melts and residues from carbonate metasomatism sources are considered to inherit elevated (La/Yb)\u003csub\u003eN\u003c/sub\u003e and Nb/Ta ratios coupled with reduced Ti/Eu ratios, reflecting carbonate melt percolation processes\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In carbonate-bearing xenoliths (ORG and OPG-type I websterite), the concordance between petrographic features and geochemical signatures (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eH) confirms carbonate metasomatism imprinting. In addition, the enrichment of fluid-mobile elements (Ba, F, Cl) in carbonates (Supplementary Figs. S2, S3) indicates fluid-rich carbonate metasomatism, consistent with elevated Cpx Ba/La ratios (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eG). In contrast, silicate metasomatism exhibits comparatively \"dry\" characteristics evidenced by low Ba/La and high Th/Yb ratios.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor silicate-bearing vein and pocket in OPG (type II), the residue small glass fragment provides direct evidence of silicate melt percolation. The dissolved Cpx in reaction zone further attest to melt impregnation and interaction\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The Cpx exhibits progressive Ti, Na, Sr, Zr, and HREE enrichment from non-contacted domains to those interfacing with veins/pockets (Supplementary Fig. S5), reflecting elemental contributions from percolating silicate melts. The presence of Fe-Ti oxides in veins additionally indicates Fe-Ti-rich melt compositions. However, Pl precipitation within these features appears inconsistent with the systematic negative Eu anomalies observed in whole-rock and mineral analyses (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eC, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eE). Given the lack of Eu enrichment in silicate veins/pockets relative to the pyroxenite matrix (Energy Disperse Spectroscopy mapping; Supplementary Fig. S6), three mechanisms potentially resolve this paradox: (1) Pre-percolation Pl fractionation: Early crystallization of Eu-rich Pl before percolation results in depletion of Eu in later percolating melt. (2) Alkaline melt derivation: Pl crystallization from a Ca-poor Na-K-rich percolating melt would suppress Eu-Ca substitution. This is supported by Na and K enrichment relative to Ca in silicate vein and pocket (Supplementary Fig. S6). Alkaline type metasomatism in Tibetan SCLM is also inferred from isotopic and chemical feature of Na- and K-rich magmatisms by ref. 8. (3) Subsolidus re-equilibration: Cpx-Pl re-equilibration in the Pl stability field is thought to typically cause Eu depletion and HREE enrichment in Cpx because HREE is more readily concentrated in Cpx\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Yet the absence of clearly negative Eu\u003csub\u003eN\u003c/sub\u003e/Eu*-Yb\u003csub\u003eN\u003c/sub\u003e correlations within type II websterite of OPG negate this process (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eJ). Collectively, these observations suggest the cryptic metasomatism recorded by silicate veins/pockets likely originated from Fe-Ti-rich alkaline silicate melts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDeep processes controlling metasomatism and geological implications\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition to elemental enrichment from silicate metasomatism, carbonate metasomatism contributes isotopically as evidenced by strong positive correlations between \u003csup\u003e87\u003c/sup\u003eSr/\u003csup\u003e86\u003c/sup\u003eSr ratios and (La/Yb)\u003csub\u003eN\u003c/sub\u003e values in both whole-rock samples (R\u0026sup2;=0.69 and 0.90; Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eF) and clinopyroxenes (R\u0026sup2;=0.77 and 0.82; Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eI). The absence of correlations between (La/Yb)\u003csub\u003eN\u003c/sub\u003e and SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eH) effectively excludes partial melting or magmatic differentiation as potential mechanisms. Although elevated (La/Yb)\u003csub\u003eN\u003c/sub\u003e ratios typically characterize carbonate metasomatism, potential contributions from silicate metasomatism and associated pyroxenite-forming processes in the deep mantle still require consideration. The Cpx in the two websterites (C02, C03) exhibit extremely high (La/Yb)\u003csub\u003eN\u003c/sub\u003e ratios (71\u0026ndash;116; Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eH) coupled with high Sr/Y ratios (20\u0026ndash;22; Supplementary Table \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS3\u003c/span\u003e). This probably indicates that the source of Tibetan pyroxenite involves a deep-seated endmember with strong garnet segregation because these high ratios are attributed to low Yb (0.07\u0026ndash;0.12 ppm) and Y concentration (2.61\u0026ndash;3.03 ppm) rather than La and Sr enrichment (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eE, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eF; Supplementary Table \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS3\u003c/span\u003e). Silicate metasomatism represented by silicate vein and pocket is not responsible for this because of their HREE-rich feature (Supplementary Fig. S6). In this context, the positive correlation of (La/Yb)\u003csub\u003eN\u003c/sub\u003e and Sr/Y with \u003csup\u003e87\u003c/sup\u003eSr/\u003csup\u003e86\u003c/sup\u003eSr ratios (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eF, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eI) imply variable contributions from this garnet-fractionated source, though its genetic relationship with percolating melts remains ambiguous. Moreover, the extremely low Nb (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.06 ppm) and Ta (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001 ppm) contents in Cpx from C02 and C03 (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eF; Supplementary Table \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS3\u003c/span\u003e) further require the presence of rutile as a residual phase in the source region, due to the strong preferential partitioning of Nb and Ta into rutile.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipation of such a garnet-, Pl- and rutile-bearing endmember generally indicates a high-pressure melting condition (2 GPa; ref. 30). The subduction-related geochemical fingerprint (e.g., LILE enrichment and HFSE depletion; Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eD, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eF) combined with the high Li concentration (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eA, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eB, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eD) strongly implicates subducted Indian continental crust as one of the probable deep endmembers. Lithium abundances in the studied pyroxenite xenoliths (21.3\u0026ndash;36.4 ppm; Supplementary Table \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e) significantly exceed typical mantle values (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2 ppm; ref. 31) and oceanic lavas (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;10 ppm; ref. 32), aligning better with continental crustal reservoirs (~\u0026thinsp;24 ppm; ref. 33) and clastic sediments (~\u0026thinsp;70 ppm; ref. 11). The temporal isotopic evolution of Tibetan magmatism reveals a pronounced enrichment from the pre-collisional (pre-65 Ma) to post-collisional stages (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e), a pattern that coincides with seismic evidence for the northward underthrusting of Indian continental crust beneath the study area as revealed by the seismic data\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. We therefore propose that metasomatic enrichment of the Tibetan SCLM originated from the recycling of Indian continental crustal materials during collision.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":" \u003cp\u003ePrior to wet chemistry analysis, xenolith samples underwent repeatedly grinding-polishing using a precision mill under binocular and microscope to complete remove contamination from adhered host rock. Trace element compositions of coarse Ol in ORG and Cpx from both xenolith groups were determined by laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). In-situ Sr isotope ratios in Cpx were determined by using a multi-collector ICP-MS (MC-ICP-MS) interfaced with a femtosecond laser ablation system.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eTrace elements analysis by LA-ICP-MS\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eLaser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) was employed to determine trace element concentrations in olivine, clinopyroxene from xenoliths, and ultrapotassic host rocks at the University of Tasmania. The system consisted of a New Wave Research UP213 Nd-YAG (213 nm) laser coupled to an Agilent 7900 quadrupole mass spectrometer. Ablation was conducted using 30\u0026ndash;60 \u0026micro;m diameter spots at a repetition rate of 10 Hz. Data reduction followed the standard methods of ref. 36, with NIST612 glass as the primary reference material and USGS BCR-2G glass as the secondary standard. Analytical results are presented in Supplementary Tables S2 and S3.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMajor elements analysis by EMPA\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eClinopyroxene major element compositions were analyzed using a JEOL JXA-8230 Superprobe electron microprobe at the Institute of Mineral Resources, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences (CAGS). Operating conditions included an accelerating voltage of 15 kV, a probe current of 20 nA, and a beam diameter of 2\u0026ndash;5 \u0026micro;m. Calibration utilized synthetic oxides and natural mineral standards, with matrix effects corrected via the manufacturer-supplied ZAF procedure. The detection limits ranged from 77 to 244 ppm, and measurement accuracy was maintained within 5% relative error. Complete major element data for Cpx are provided in Supplementary Table \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eIn-situ Sr isotope analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn-situ Sr isotope measurements of clinopyroxene were performed using a Neptune Plus MC-ICP-MS (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Germany) at the National Research Center for Geoanalysis, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences. The system was coupled to a J-200 343 nm Yb-fiber femtosecond laser ablation system (Applied Spectra, USA). A baffled-type smoothing device was used before MC-ICP-MS to reduce the fluctuation effect induced by laser-ablation pulses and improve the quality of data. Instrument modifications included a high-efficiency dry pump for enhanced ion transmission and JET/X skimmer cones with a guard electrode. All measurements were conducted under low resolution and static mode. The NBS987 standard yielded \u003csup\u003e87\u003c/sup\u003eSr/\u003csup\u003e86\u003c/sup\u003eSr = 0.710245\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.000025 (2σ, n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;32), consistent with TIMS values (0.710236; ref. 37). The analysis was optimized with NIST 612 to achieve maximum signal intensity and low oxide rates. The electronic baseline of every Faraday collector and gain for each amplifier were determined and calibrated. The clinopyroxene grains were ablated in line mode with spot size of 20\u0026ndash;40 \u0026micro;m, line length of 20\u0026ndash;40 \u0026micro;m, sample stage movement speed of 0.65 \u0026micro;m/s, laser repetition rate of 2\u0026ndash;10 Hz, and beam energy density of ~\u0026thinsp;1 J/cm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e. The instrumental mass bias for Sr isotopes was corrected using an exponential law function based on the \u003csup\u003e86\u003c/sup\u003eSr/\u003csup\u003e88\u003c/sup\u003eSr value of 0.1194. The correction of interferences of Kr isotopes (impurities in the Ar gas) on mass 84 and 86 was successfully accomplished by the background subtraction. The interferences of Rb and doubly charged ions of Er and Yb on Sr were corrected based on the measured signal intensities of \u003csup\u003e85\u003c/sup\u003eRb, \u003csup\u003e167\u003c/sup\u003eEr\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e and \u003csup\u003e173\u003c/sup\u003eYb\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e and their natural isotopic relative abundances\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The Durango apatite standard and the StHs6 80-G glass standard were analyzed to monitor the instrument stability, yielding a mean value of \u003csup\u003e87\u003c/sup\u003eSr/\u003csup\u003e86\u003c/sup\u003eSr = 0.70655\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00046 (2σ, n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;19; the recommended value by TIMS is 0.70640\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00007; ref. 41) and \u003csup\u003e87\u003c/sup\u003eSr/\u003csup\u003e86\u003c/sup\u003eSr = 0.70348\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00011 (2σ, n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7; recommended value by TIMS is 0.703497\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.000034; ref. 42), respectively. Data are reported in Supplementary Table \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS3\u003c/span\u003e. As the \u003csup\u003e87\u003c/sup\u003eRb/\u003csup\u003e86\u003c/sup\u003eSr ratios of all analyzed clinopyroxene were very low and the age of the host is relatively young (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;20 Ma; ref. 2), the \u003csup\u003e87\u003c/sup\u003eSr/\u003csup\u003e86\u003c/sup\u003eSr ratios were not age-corrected.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eWhole-rock major and trace element analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFresh peridotite and pyroxenite xenoliths were selected under the binocular. Then they were repeatedly polished by grinder and carefully checked under binocular and microscope in order to remove all attached host rock part completely. Ultrapotassic host rocks were ground to remove surfaces, cleaned with deionized water, crushed and powdered in an agate mill. Wet chemical analyses were carried out at Activation Laboratories Ltd. Sample powder was mixed with a flux of lithium metaborate and tetraborate, and fused in an induction furnace. The molten mixture was poured into a 5% nitric acid solution containing an internal standard, and mixed continuously until completely dissolved (~\u0026thinsp;30 min.). Major and selected trace elements (e.g., Ba, Sr, and V) were analyzed by ICP\u0026ndash;MS (Thermo Jarrell-Ash ENVIRO II ICP or Varian Vista 735 ICP), with reference materials NIST694, DNC1, GBW07113, NIST1613b, SY4, and BIR-1a being analyzed in parallel. Analytical precisions were 1\u0026ndash;2%. Accuracy for major elements, as determined by reproducibility of standard and duplicate analyses, was typically within \u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5% (\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3% for SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e and Al\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e). Trace element analyses involved digestion of sample powder in aqua regia with reference materials for the metals of interest. Samples and standards were analyzed by ICP\u0026ndash;MS (Perkin Elmer Sciex 9000). Accuracy for trace elements was within \u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10%. More detailed methods are available from Actlabs (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttp://www.actlabs.com\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"http://www.actlabs.com\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e). Analyzed data are listed in Supplementary Table \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eWhole-rock Sr isotope analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFifty milligrams of sample powder were digested over three days on a hot-plate (120\u0026deg;C), with HF and HNO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e in 15 ml PFA screw vials for three days. Then the digested sample was dried and the residue was dissolved in 1.5 ml 3M HNO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e and centrifuged. A fraction of the sample solution was loaded on to the column with SR-Spec resin\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e to separate Sr. The \u003csup\u003e87\u003c/sup\u003eSr/\u003csup\u003e86\u003c/sup\u003eSr ratios were determined with a Neptune Plus MC-ICP-MS in the National Research Center for Geoanalysis, CAGS. The NBS 987 Sr isotopic standard solution were determined, and yielded the \u003csup\u003e87\u003c/sup\u003eSr/\u003csup\u003e86\u003c/sup\u003eSr value of 0.710235\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.000025 (2σ, n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;10). Analyzed data are listed in Supplementary Table \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis work was funded by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2022YFC2903304), NSFC, ERC Consolidator Grants 2019 (864792), and Scientific Research Fund Project of BGRIMM Technology Group (No. JTKY202427822). We thank Huawei Li, Yiwei Zhou and Leitian Xie for their assistance on the LA-ICP-MS analysis.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePrelević, D., Akal, C. \u0026Uuml;. N. E. Y. T., Foley, S. F., Romer, R. 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Analytica Chimica Acta, 269(2), 249\u0026ndash;255 (1992).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"nature-portfolio","isNatureJournal":true,"hasQc":false,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Nature Portfolio","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":false,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"ejp","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6729968/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6729968/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe extreme geochemical enrichment of post-collisional potassium-rich lava in the Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt has led researchers to hypothesize that enrichment is inherited from a metasomatized mantle source potentially incorporating crustal components. However, direct verification of metasomatic processes remains challenging due to the scarcity of mantle rocks preserving metasomatism records. Here, we report two groups of mantle xenolith entrained in Tibetan ultrapotassic lavas. Integrated petrographic observations, whole-rock geochemistry, and in-situ microanalysis reveal that subcontinental lithospheric mantle (SCLM) exhibits extreme enrichment in both Sr-Nd isotopes and incompatible elements. Textural evidence of vein networks and melt pockets in xenoliths indicate the coexistence of carbonate and silicate metasomatic regimes. Considering high Li concentration of xenoliths and subduction-collision background, we propose that metasomatic enrichment of Tibetan SCLM likely resulted from the recycling of Indian continental crustal materials.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Carbonate- and silicate-metasomatized mantle beneath Himalayan-Tibetan orogenic belt","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-06-02 19:27:32","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6729968/v1","editorialEvents":[],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"communications-earth-and-environment","isNatureJournal":true,"hasQc":false,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"commsenv","sideBox":"Learn more about [Communications Earth and Environment](https://www.nature.com/commsenv/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Communications Earth \u0026 Environment","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"ejp","reportingPortfolio":"Communications Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"6947fcef-54c3-4820-8985-8633154a17a9","owner":[],"postedDate":"June 2nd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[{"id":49232768,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Solid Earth sciences/Petrology"},{"id":49232769,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Solid Earth sciences/Geology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-10-17T07:12:31+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-6729968","link":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-025-02778-0","journal":{"identity":"communications-earth-and-environment","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Communications Earth \u0026 Environment"},"publishedOn":"2025-10-16 04:00:00","publishedOnDateReadable":"October 16th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-06-02 19:27:32","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1038/s43247-025-02778-0","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-025-02778-0","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6729968","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6729968","identity":"rs-6729968","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}