Non-adherence to surgical antibiotic prophylaxis guidelines: findings from a mixed-methods study in a developing country

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We aimed to assess adherence to surgical antibiotic prophylaxis guidelines and to explore the factors contributing to non-adherence. Methods : This mixed-methods study comprised a cross-sectional survey and qualitative analysis. The cross-sectional survey included all surgical procedures performed in Ain Shams University Hospital of Obstetrics and Gynecology from November 1 2024 to December 31 2024. Trained medical interns collected routine data in real-time in the operative theater and in the wards by observing and documenting three key variables namely the antibiotic prescribed, timing of administration, and the duration of use. The overall adherence rate was calculated as the proportion of cases meeting all three criteria. The survey was followed by a qualitative research through synchronous online focus group of 12 participants. Following transcription of the audio-recorded discussion, three researchers used a deductive approach to content analysis of the focus group discussion. Results: Two handred and eighty surgical procedures were analyzed, with cesarean sections accounting for 48.6% (136/280). Full adherence to SAP guidelines was observed in 0% of cases. The appropriate antibiotic was prescribed in 62.5% (175/280) of procedures. Timely administration within the recommended 60-minute pre-incision window occurred in 38.2% (107/280). In contrast, 61.4% (172/280) of procedures had delayed antibiotic administration post-incision. The recommended single-dose or ≤24-hour regimen was administered in only 6.1% (17/280), whereas 93.9% (263/280) had prolonged parenteral antibiotic use beyond 24 hours, with 98.9% (277/280) transitioning to oral antibiotics upon discharge. Key barriers to adherence included knowledge gaps, workflow inefficiencies, inadequate monitoring, limited antibiotic availability, financial constraints, and weak enforcement of SAP guidelines. Conclusions: Non-adherence to SAP guidelines is alarmingly high, particularly regarding timing and duration. Addressing systemic barriers and enforcing guideline compliance is essential to improving antibiotic stewardship in surgical settings. Surgical Site Infection Antibiotic Prophylaxis Guideline Adherence Obstetric Surgical Procedures Gynecologic Surgical Procedures Developing country Background Surgical antibiotic prophylaxis (SAP) is a key intervention for reducing the risk of postoperative infectious morbidity. Its appropriate use significantly decreases the incidence of surgical site infections (SSIs), which are associated with increased patient morbidity, prolonged hospital stays, and higher healthcare costs. [1, 2] SAP effectiveness depends on proper adherence to established guidelines regarding the selection, timing, dosage, and duration of antibiotic administration. [1] On the other hand, an inappropriate use of SAP contributes to unnecessary costs, adverse events, disruption of normal microbiota, and most critically, to the global burden of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). AMR is responsible for approximately 700,000 deaths annually. [3–6] Despite clear recommendations, inappropriate use of prophylactic antibiotics continues to be a challenge in many healthcare settings, particularly in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). [6] The scale of this inappropriate SAP in LMICs remains uncertain due to a lack of accurate and updated data. [7–9] Egypt’s population ranks number 13 in the list of countries by population. The country’s tertiary hospitals specializing in obstetrics and gynecology perform a high volume of surgical procedures, including cesarean sections and hysterectomies, making adherence to SAP guidelines crucial in minimizing infectious morbidity. Egypt has an up-to-date and clear national guideline for antimicrobial prophylaxis, [10] yet data on adherence to SAP guidelines remain sparse. This project aimed to assess adherence to SAP guidelines, including antibiotic selection, timing of administration, and duration of use, in an obstetric and gynecology tertiary university hospital. The qualitative part aimed to understand the factors contributing to non-adherence to SAP guidelines in a developing country. Methods The project consisted of two phases: an audit and a focus group discussion. It was prospectively registered on the Open Science Framework (https://osf.io/y7hk9) as a quality improvement initiative. The Institutional Review Board at Ain Shams University reviewed the project and approved it as an exempt protocol. All collected data remained fully deidentified throughout the study. The audit We conducted a cross-sectional survey at the university hospital of the department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Ain Shams University. We followed the methodology for the Point Prevalence Survey on Antibiotic Use in Hospitals. [11] Following the design and preparatory phase, data collection started on November 1, 2024 and ended on December 31, 2024. The survey included data on antibiotic prophylaxis of all surgical procedures at the university hospital of obstetrics and gynecology. Exclusion criteria included the need for therapeutic antibiotics. A team of trained interns collected data in real time in the operative theater using a standardized data collection form. Data collection proceeded as a natural task scenario to mitigate the Hawthorne effect. The data collected did not contain any identifiable information, and there is no way to link the information back to identifiable information. The team stored data in an online university database created specifically for this project. The design of the form was by the Point Prevalence Survey on Antibiotic Use in Hospitals [11] and included the following variables: surgical details (type of surgery and its urgency), and antibiotic prophylaxis parameters (antibiotic choice, timing of administration, dosage, duration, antibiotic count, and route of administration). Adherence to SAP guidelines was assessed using three parameters: antibiotic selection, timing of administration, and duration of prophylaxis. Appropriateness of antibiotic choice was based on hospital or national guidelines. Timing of administration was defined as optimal if given within 60 minutes before incision. Duration was deemed appropriate if limited to a single preoperative dose or ≤24 hours post-operative. The overall adherence rate was calculated as the proportion of cases meeting all three criteria. The adherence rate was presented as a proportion. Descriptive data analysis was performed using R v4.4. [12] The qualitative study We invited eight healthcare providers to participate in a synchronous online focus group (SOFG). The members of the group were of different age groups, specialties, and cadres. We maintained gender balance in the group. All participants signed informed consent to participate in the study, to the use of their data and opinions in the focus groups, as well as to their audio-recording, and were informed that they can withdraw at any time. We used the MS Teams application to organize the SOFG on March 25, 2025. Eight healthcare providers participated in the focus group discussion (FGD). The duration of the meeting was 60 minutes. The lead researcher (male, professor) moderated the FGD, and the other (female, research fellow) took notes and asked follow-up questions. At the start of the FGD, the moderator explained the purpose of the meeting and then introduced the open-ended question: What are the factors contributing to SAP non-adherence? Members of the focus group provided their insights. All participants had a chance to share, and the recording included the input from each participant. The moderator promoted the discussion and maintained neutrality while ensuring an interactive atmosphere and contributions from every participant. The FGD was transcribed verbatim and examined by three researchers (SAA, SIA, and RAA) who had no prior acquaintance with the focus group members. We used a deductive approach to content analysis of the FGD. This approach involved systematically analyzing textual data based on predefined themes. [13] The predefined themes included health workforce, service delivery, health information systems, medical products, financing, and leadership and governance. The three researchers initially reviewed the transcripts thoroughly before extracting and coding meaning units. The codes were then grouped into the pre-specified themes. Each step was completed individually before the researchers collaboratively reviewed the analysis and reached a consensus. While the primary focus was on fitting data into existing categories, the three researchers remained open to minor modifications if new insights emerged. [14–17] Following the completion of the content analysis, the findings from the focus group discussion were triangulated with the survey findings to explore any convergence. [18, 19] Public involvement Members of the public were not involved directly in the design of this project. Although not explicitly part of this project, the main idea of this work was definitely inspired by the daily discussion between doctors and members of the public regarding the burden of misuse of antibiotics. Results Data on 280 obstetric or gynecologic surgical procedures were collected. Residents of obstetrics and gynecology and anesthesia were responsible for the preparation of the operative procedures, including the provision of antibiotic prophylaxis. Almost half of the procedures were cesarean sections (136/280 [48.6%]), followed by hysterectomies (50/280 [17.9%]). Elective procedures accounted for 93.9% (263/280) of the work, Table 1. Table 1: Surgical Procedures Surgical Procedure Frequency (%) Urgency Elective 263 (93.9) Emergency 17 (6.1) Type of the procedure Cesarean section 136 (48.6) Hysterectomy (Abdominal, vaginal, Laparoscopic) 50 (17.9) Laparotomy (Myomectomy = 9, Staging = 9, Ovarian cystectomy = 5, Adnexectomy = 5, tubal pregnancy = 2, vesicovaginal fistula repair = 1) 31 (11.1) Laparoscopy (operative or diagnostic) 16 (5.7) Hysteroscopy (operative or diagnostic) 15 (5.4) Dilatation and Curettage 11 (3.9) Pelvic floor reconstructive surgery 5 (1.8) Other procedures 16 (5.7) Adherence to Surgical Antibiotic Prophylaxis Guidelines Intravenous antibiotic prophylaxis was administered in all procedures. Continuous intravenous infusion was used in 66.1% (185/280) and intermittent intravenous injections in 33.9% (95/280) of procedures. Non-indicated SAP was observed in 8.2% (23/280) of cases. This included eleven dilatation and curettage, five diagnostic Hysteroscopies, three diagnostic laparoscopies, two hymenotomies, one cervical cerclage, and one examination under anesthesia. Overall adherence Overall adherence to all SAP guidelines - correct antibiotic selection, timing, and duration - was not observed in any of the procedures. Antibiotic Selection The appropriate antibiotic, as per hospital or national guidelines, was administered in 62.5% (175/280) of procedures. In the remaining 37.5%, either a non-recommended antibiotic or a combination of antibiotics was administered. All deviations were due to the absence of the recommended antibiotic at the time of procedure. A single antibiotic was used in 65.7% of procedures (184/280). Multiple antibiotics were used in 34.3% of procedures (96/280). A cephalosporin was administered in most procedures (255/280 [91.1%]), either as a single agent or in combined regimens. Metronidazole was the most frequently added antibiotic (41 out of the 96 combined regimens), Table 2. Table 2: Antibiotic Selection Antibiotic Choice Frequency Single agent 184 Cefoxitin 112 Cefazolin 46 Ampicillin-Sulbactam 17 Cefotaxime 4 Meropenem 2 Cefoperazone-Sulbactam 1 Ceftriaxone 1 Metronidazole 1 Multiple agents 96 Cefoxitin, Cefazolin 24 Cefoxitin, Metronidazole 14 Cefoxitin, Ampicillin-Sulbactam 14 Cefoxitin, Cefazolin, Metronidazole 10 Cefazolin, Ampicillin-Sulbactam 5 Cefazolin, Metronidazole 5 Cefoxitin, Cefotaxime 5 Ampicillin-Sulbactam, Metronidazole 4 Cefotaxime, Cefazolin 3 Cefotaxime, Clindamycin 2 Cefoxitin, Ampicillin-Sulbactam, Metronidazole 2 Cefazolin, Ampicillin-Sulbactam, Metronidazole 1 Cefazolin, Ampicillin-Sulbactam, Clindamycin 1 Cefazolin, Cefoxitin, Metronidazole 1 Cefotaxime, Ampicillin-Sulbactam, Metronidazole 1 Cefotaxime, Metronidazole 1 Cefoxitin, Azithromycin 1 Cefoxitin, Cefotaxime, Metronidazole 1 Meropenem, Clindamycin 1 Timing of Administration Antibiotics were administered within the recommended 60-minute window before incision in 38.2% (107/280) of procedures. In contrast, 61.8% of cases experienced delayed or premature antibiotic administration. The first dose was administered after the start of surgery in 61.4% (172/280) of procedures. The inappropriate timing of the first dose was not significantly more common in emergency (75%) compared to elective procedures (60.8%) (p = 0.3). Duration of Prophylaxis The recommended single-dose or ≤24-hour regimen was adhered to in only 6.1% (17/280) of procedures. Prolonged parenteral antibiotic use in hospital beyond 24 hours was observed in 93.9% (263/280) of procedures. A switch to oral antibiotics on hospital discharge was observed in 98.9% (277/280) of cases. Outpatient oral antibiotics continued for up to seven days following discharge. Factors Contributing to Non-Adherence to SAP Guidelines A deductive approach to qualitative content analysis was performed by applying predefined themes (health system building blocks) to examine factors influencing SAP non-adherence. Theme 1: Health Workforce Workforce-related factors include inadequate training, knowledge gaps, and limited accountability regarding SAP guidelines. Participants reported inconsistent adherence due to a lack of awareness or confusion about best practices. These quotes illustrate how workforce-related factors contribute to non-adherence. “Not everyone knows the exact timing and dose of prophylactic antibiotics. Some just go by what they’ve always done.” “New staff don’t receive structured training on SAP; they learn on the job, which leads to inconsistencies.” “There’s a real lack of knowledge and proper monitoring when it comes to using antibiotics.” “Non-adherence is more about not knowing and not following the existing guidelines than it is about the guidelines themselves being missing.” “Junior residents don’t get any formal training on surgical antibiotic prophylaxis; they learn with hands-on experience, which leads to inconsistencies.” “Some healthcare providers aren’t clear on the appropriate timing and duration for prophylactic antibiotics, often sticking to their usual habits instead of following standardized protocols.” Theme 2: Service Delivery Service delivery is the way in which healthcare is being provided, including readiness to provide SAP in a timely fashion. Service delivery factors impacting SAP adherence include workflow inefficiencies, time constraints, and lack of standardized protocols. Participants described how the inefficient process of dispensing prophylactic antibiotics, lack of coordination among teams, and high patient volumes created challenges in adhering to SAP guidelines. The following quotes highlight the structural and procedural challenges in service delivery that hinder appropriate SAP administration. “There’s no clear protocol followed by all teams, so practices vary from one department to another.” “We are understaffed, and in the rush to prepare for surgery, SAP timing is often overlooked.” “The high patient flow in our hospital makes it difficult to maintain adherence to the guidelines for surgical antibiotic prophylaxis.” “Surgical antibiotic prophylaxis tends to be viewed as one of the less critical elements of patient care in the operative theater, with other surgical priorities taking the spotlight. This mindset can result in insufficient focus on its administration, even though it plays a vital role in preventing infections after surgery.” “While junior doctors may be aware of the guidelines, they often overlook their importance and follow the outdated practices from their seniors, even when they’re wrong.” “in the operative room, we do not follow a mandatory checklist for the timely pre-incision administration of SAP.“ Theme 3: Health Information Systems Information is essential for monitoring and evaluation. Inadequate documentation and lack of real-time monitoring systems hinder adherence to SAP guidelines. Participants noted that inconsistent record-keeping prevents effective tracking and evaluation of SAP compliance. The following quotes demonstrate challenges related to health information systems. “SAP administration is not always documented properly, so we don’t have reliable data to track compliance.” “There’s no alert system to remind staff when to administer prophylactic antibiotics.” “Records are sometimes incomplete, making it difficult to assess whether SAP guidelines were followed.” “There’s no system in place to check whether antibiotics were administered correctly.” Theme 4: Medical Products This refers to equitable access to essential pharmaceutical products of assured quality, safety, efficacy, and cost-effectiveness and their scientifically sound and cost-effective use. Limited availability of appropriate antibiotics and stock-outs negatively impact adherence. Participants described instances where they had to use alternative antibiotics due to supply chain issues. These quotes reflect how access to medical products affects adherence to SAP guidelines. “Sometimes, the recommended antibiotic is unavailable, so we use whatever is in stock.” “Non-adherence to prophylactic antibiotics is more often due to a lack of the recommended antibiotics and accepted alternatives rather than a lack of knowledge.” “The occurrence of adverse events and the concerns regarding the quality of the available antibiotics and poor storage complicate things even more and drive doctors to use a trusted antibiotic even when it is not the one recommended by guidelines.” Theme 5: Financing Financial constraints limit SAP adherence by affecting resource availability, staff training, and procurement of necessary medical supplies. Participants noted that budget limitations reduce access to quality antibiotics and delay system improvements. The following quotes illustrate how financial barriers influence SAP adherence. “Budget cuts mean we can’t always afford the recommended antibiotics, so we use cheaper alternatives.” “There’s no dedicated funding for continuous training on SAP guidelines.” “Financial constraints affect every aspect, from procurement to training to electronic systems, making it difficult to implement SAP guidelines correctly.” “The model of unified governmental procurement sometimes means that we do not get the recommended antibiotics, so we might be compelled to use whatever they send.” Theme 6: Leadership and Governance This involves ensuring that policy frameworks exist and are combined with effective oversight, regulation, attention to system design, and accountability. Weak governance structures and lack of enforcement of SAP guidelines contribute to non-adherence. Participants expressed concerns about the absence of accountability mechanisms and inconsistent policy implementation. The following quotes highlight governance-related barriers to SAP adherence. “There’s no strict enforcement of SAP guidelines, so practices vary widely.” “Leadership hasn’t prioritized SAP compliance, so there’s little motivation to follow protocols strictly.” “Policies exist on paper, but in practice, adherence is not closely monitored or evaluated.” “Having a national guideline is only a starting point; hospitals need to have their own clinical protocols based on reliable, trusted evidence rather than personal opinions. For instance, one hospital’s protocol once stated that IUD insertion required antibiotic administration, despite compelling evidence to the contrary.” “The anxiety surrounding potential legal consequences often pushes doctors into practicing defensive medicine. Many healthcare providers tend to over-prescribe antibiotics or ignore the established guidelines due to the fear of legal repercussions, which can lead to unnecessary use and issues with surgical antibiotic prophylaxis.” “The culture of blame compels many junior doctors to extend postoperative antibiotic use. If a patient develops a surgical site infection, we are blamed—even when we strictly follow SAP guidelines. However, overprescribing antibiotics rarely attracts criticism, making it the safer choice in a blame-driven environment.” Triangulation of quantitative and qualitative findings Overall, the non-adherence can be explained by knowledge gaps, workflow inefficiencies, lack of real-time monitoring systems, limited availability of appropriate antibiotics, financial constraints, and lack of enforcement of SAP guidelines, Table 3 Table 3: Triangulation of quantitative and qualitative findings Theme Qualitative Findings Survey Data (Quantitative) Triangulation Workforce Lack of awareness and confusion about best practices No adherence to all three parameters Convergent Service Delivery Workflow inefficiencies and high patient volume Delayed administration in 61.4% of cases Convergent Health Information Systems Poor documentation and lack of real-time monitoring No adherence to all three parameters Convergent Medical Products Stock shortages of recommended antibiotics 37.5% received non-recommended antibiotics Convergent Financing Limited resources for training and procurement 93.9% prolonged use beyond 24 hours Convergent Governance Weak enforcement and non-compliance culture Outpatient oral antibiotics prescribed in 98.9% of cases Convergent Proposed Actions to Overcome Barriers The focus group identified several key actions to address barriers in our setting: Enhancing the consistent implementation of SAP: Participants suggested the following ideas to improve access to evidence-based recommendations: Developing and disseminating standardized SAP hospital protocols that are aligned with the national guidelines. A printed or electronic copy of the SAP protocol should be made available to all healthcare providers in the hospital. Addressing Educational Gaps: Participants highlighted the critical role of knowledge translation and utilization by conducting regular training and orientation sessions. Training should target surgeons, anesthetists, nurses, and clinical pharmacists and should cover all aspects of appropriate antibiotic selection, timing of administration, and duration of SAP. Optimizing Workflow Efficiency: Participants emphasized the need to Integrate SAP into a preoperative checklist. Have a stock of the recommended antibiotic available in operating rooms to prevent delayed administration. Establish a reminder for SAP in the operating rooms to ensure timely administration. Strengthening Multidisciplinary Collaboration: Participants highlighted the need to establish a functional antimicrobial stewardship team to actively monitor compliance and improve SAP adherence. Implementing Audit and Feedback Mechanisms: Participants emphasized the need to Conduct regular audits and present compliance data at surgical team meetings. Provide real-time feedback to clinicians to reinforce best practices. Promoting Accountability and a Supportive Culture: Participants highlighted the need to cultivate a culture where all team members, from nurses to pharmacists, feel empowered to question non-compliant practices. Discussion This mixed-methods study assessed adherence to surgical antibiotic prophylaxis guidelines in one of the largest tertiary university hospitals of obstetrics and gynecology in Egypt. We sought to identify gaps in practice and potential areas for improvement. The findings revealed that while the recommended antibiotic selection was usually implemented, substantial deviations from standard guidelines were observed in the timing and duration of antibiotic administration. Adherence to all three SAP parameters was never attained in any of the included procedures. Key barriers to adherence included knowledge gaps, workflow inefficiencies, inadequate monitoring, limited antibiotic availability, financial constraints, and weak enforcement of SAP guidelines. Our comprehensive literature search clearly showed the paucity of data from Egypt. Our data showed that the most common deviation from evidence-based recommendations was the prolonged antibiotic use beyond 24 hours. In almost all procedures, we observed a switch to oral antibiotics for up to seven days after discharge from hospital. The current status is probably worse than previously reported one decade ago. [ 20 , 21 ] This overuse of antibiotics in developing countries has been recently documented in a rigorous scoping review. [ 22 ] Extending antibiotic use beyond 24 hours does not reduce the risk of postoperative infectious morbidity but increases the likelihood of antimicrobial resistance and adverse events [ 5 ]. The fear of infections, fear of litigation, misconceptions regarding antibiotic prophylaxis, the culture of blame, and the practice of defensive medicine contributed to this disturbing practice. Timely administration of prophylactic antibiotics within the recommended 60-minute window before surgical incision is crucial for optimal efficacy. [ 5 , 7 ] In our survey, only 38.2% of patients received antibiotics at the appropriate time. The limited literature from developing countries on adherence to this 60-minute window suggests the same poor practice. [ 20 , 21 ] Administration timing (0–60 minutes before incision) is the most problematic indicator even in developed countries. [ 23 ] We observed lapses in timing as a result of workflow inefficiencies, anesthesia-related delays, and inadequate awareness among healthcare providers. Studies have shown variability in compliance with SAP protocols, influenced by factors such as institutional policies, healthcare provider knowledge, and resource availability. [ 24 ] An audit of antibiotic prophylaxis in the Eastern Mediterranean Region revealed that many hospitals lack standardized SAP protocols or fail to enforce existing ones. The same audit indicated that surgeons and other healthcare providers may not always be fully aware of or adhere to updated SAP guidelines, leading to inconsistent practices. [ 25 ] A recent qualitative study from a high-income country demonstrated that a lack of structured workflow was the main factor contributing to non-adherence to antibiotic guidelines in the peri-operative settings. [ 26 ] We believe that in LMICs, the main factors have a different profile. Our study indicates that weak enforcement of the guidelines, occasional unavailability of recommended antibiotics, lack of audits or regular feedback, and a lack of fidelity for implementing the guidelines were the main barriers to adherence to SAP guidelines. Some clinicians resist adopting guidelines, especially if previous practices were perceived as effective. Providers expressed their belief that guidelines do not fit the nature of a public hospital serving poor patients with inadequate self-hygiene and poor living conditions at home. Providers extended antibiotic duration beyond guidelines as a precautionary measure, despite their knowledge of the evidence against it. Fear of infections and litigation and consequently the practice of defensive medicine probably contributed to the overuse of antibiotics as a safety measure. While the overall compliance with guidelines is around 64% in developed countries [ 23 ], the picture is different in developing countries, as shown by our data. We understand the numerous challenges for implementing effective and sustainable antibiotic stewardship programs in developing countries. [ 27 ] The implementation of effective and sustainable antibiotic stewardship programs in developing countries is not impossible. A recent systematic review assessed the potential for a successful implementation of such programs in African countries, including Egypt. The successes reported in some countries may give us some hope that other developing countries can implement these programs. [ 28 ] Limitations The findings of this work should be interpreted in the context of its limitations. The survey was conducted at a single university hospital, which may limit generalizability. This work did not assess the risk of postoperative infectious morbidity among non-adherent participants. Future studies should include multicenter data. Future studies should assess the impact of targeted interventions, such as provider education, regular feedback, and electronic alerts, on SAP adherence in low-resource, high-flow settings. Conclusion The lack of overall adherence to key parameters of antibiotic prophylaxis in one of the largest developing countries is alarming. Efforts should focus on the appropriate timing and duration of administration. This calls for a sustained program with strict enforcement. Declarations Ethics approval This Quality Improvement project was reviewed by the Institutional Review Board of Ain Shams University (Assurance No. FWA00017585). It was classified as a quality improvement initiative and approved as an exempt protocol. All data were deidentified and remained anonymous throughout the study. Consent for publication Not applicable. Availability of data and materials All data relevant to this project are publicly available. The data, analysis script and materials related to this project are publicly available in the project folder in OSF. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Funding This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors. Acknowledgments We sincerely thank the healthcare providers at Ain Shams University Hospital of Obstetrics and Gynecology for their dedication and commitment to patient care in the operating rooms. We deeply appreciate their contributions and the valuable role they play in ensuring high-quality surgical care. Author contributions CRediT authorship contribution statement: NA : Writing - review & editing, Project administration, investigation. RH : Writing - review & editing, Investigation. RT : Writing - review & editing, investigation. AL : Investigation. RH: Writing - review & editing, Investigation, Supervision. RG : Investigation, Supervision. MA : Investigation. ME : Writing - review & editing, Investigation, Supervision. AA : Writing - review & editing, Supervision. AA : Writing - review & editing, Investigation, Supervision. NS : Writing - review & editing, Supervision. AG : Investigation, Supervision. SAA : Writing - review & editing, Investigation, Data analysis. RA : Writing - review & editing, Investigation, Data analysis. SA : Writing - review & editing, Investigation, Data analysis. AN : Writing - original draft, Methodology, Supervision, Data analysis, Conceptualization. References Bratzler DW, Dellinger EP, Olsen KM, Perl TM, Auwaerter PG, Bolon MK, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for antimicrobial prophylaxis in surgery. American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy. 2013;70:195–283. Monahan M, Jowett S, Pinkney T, Brocklehurst P, Morton DG, Abdali Z, et al. Surgical site infection and costs in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review of the economic burden. PLOS ONE. 2020;15:e0232960. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6630751","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":459216647,"identity":"ad875a22-009e-4f1c-9e12-3b5ba4c4119f","order_by":0,"name":"Noha Ali","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Ain Shams University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Noha","middleName":"","lastName":"Ali","suffix":""},{"id":459216648,"identity":"78189b34-1433-4757-8f85-6dd591be322f","order_by":1,"name":"Ranim Hamouda","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Ain Shams University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ranim","middleName":"","lastName":"Hamouda","suffix":""},{"id":459216649,"identity":"000ef312-881d-406d-8824-11c795346016","order_by":2,"name":"Rana Tarek","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Ain Shams University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Rana","middleName":"","lastName":"Tarek","suffix":""},{"id":459216650,"identity":"301d8143-7626-4dcf-8ecf-5528efcbb505","order_by":3,"name":"Menna Abdelhamid","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Ain Shams University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Menna","middleName":"","lastName":"Abdelhamid","suffix":""},{"id":459216651,"identity":"9db83751-4f41-4566-82a4-45bafa6cc909","order_by":4,"name":"Abdullah Lashin","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Ain Shams University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Abdullah","middleName":"","lastName":"Lashin","suffix":""},{"id":459216652,"identity":"585382b8-629d-47ff-90ce-1fb14a1951c7","order_by":5,"name":"Rania Hassan","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Ain Shams University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Rania","middleName":"","lastName":"Hassan","suffix":""},{"id":459216653,"identity":"128193ac-0402-4328-af4b-06f27bbfd50f","order_by":6,"name":"Rania Gamal","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Ain Shams University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Rania","middleName":"","lastName":"Gamal","suffix":""},{"id":459216654,"identity":"63b8cb5d-861f-4063-a868-e67dcfee69cf","order_by":7,"name":"Mourad Elfaham","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Ain Shams University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mourad","middleName":"","lastName":"Elfaham","suffix":""},{"id":459216655,"identity":"3c726194-2133-4237-b8bd-b90956d404c9","order_by":8,"name":"Aya Attia","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Ain Shams University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Aya","middleName":"","lastName":"Attia","suffix":""},{"id":459216656,"identity":"96b335bd-6855-4428-b919-1d03277c929f","order_by":9,"name":"Ahmed Abdelaleem","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Ain Shams University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ahmed","middleName":"","lastName":"Abdelaleem","suffix":""},{"id":459216657,"identity":"2e69724a-e1ef-4dac-9638-7de7f41c254e","order_by":10,"name":"Noha Sakna","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Ain Shams University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Noha","middleName":"","lastName":"Sakna","suffix":""},{"id":459216658,"identity":"d9a174c0-a99a-4c20-ab44-f40d05e4d52b","order_by":11,"name":"Amgad Gamal","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Ain Shams University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Amgad","middleName":"","lastName":"Gamal","suffix":""},{"id":459216659,"identity":"acae861b-bf4b-4dc5-ae1d-0a9c55a30357","order_by":12,"name":"Sally Aboelenin","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA+klEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFAC5sYDIMoARPBUMMDZeABjA5KWMyRr4W0jQot8+8GGwzwM2+TM2U8nPng7rzaxgb15mwRDRS1OLQZnEkFabhtb9uRuNpy77XhiA8+xMgmGM8dxa2GAaEnccCB3mzTvtmOJDRI5ZhKMbcdwO6z/IVTL+bfbf/POAWqRfwPU8g+3FoYbMFtu5G5j5m2oAdrCA9TSUIPbYTceNhycY3Db2ODG282Sc44dMG7jSSu2SDh2AI/Dkg8+eFNxW87gfO7GD29q6mT72Q9vvPGhpg63w4CAiQcREYcZ2EBUApCBDzD+QLDrMBijYBSMglEwCgAy5GAPgXjSQwAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Galala University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sally","middleName":"","lastName":"Aboelenin","suffix":""},{"id":459216660,"identity":"3fdbf9f6-cf7c-4e69-a32c-3f2bab51eb12","order_by":13,"name":"Rahma AbdelHafez","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Galala University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Rahma","middleName":"","lastName":"AbdelHafez","suffix":""},{"id":459216661,"identity":"c26f5cdd-af68-47b4-b7c4-f551eda0feb5","order_by":14,"name":"Sara Abdelkader","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Galala University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sara","middleName":"","lastName":"Abdelkader","suffix":""},{"id":459216662,"identity":"2603ff21-f9e8-4295-a851-88758973d889","order_by":15,"name":"Ashraf Nabhan","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Ain Shams University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ashraf","middleName":"","lastName":"Nabhan","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-05-09 17:53:12","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6630751/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6630751/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s13756-025-01607-5","type":"published","date":"2025-07-15T15:57:23+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":87219542,"identity":"b6b70ca4-a33c-4ed5-a887-764e94586baf","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-21 16:05:16","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1337241,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6630751/v1/0c7b323b-6f41-418c-ab89-f59335607922.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Non-adherence to surgical antibiotic prophylaxis guidelines: findings from a mixed-methods study in a developing country","fulltext":[{"header":"Background","content":"\u003cp\u003eSurgical antibiotic prophylaxis (SAP) is a key intervention for reducing the risk of postoperative infectious morbidity. Its appropriate use significantly decreases the incidence of surgical site infections (SSIs), which are associated with increased patient morbidity, prolonged hospital stays, and higher healthcare costs. [1, 2] SAP effectiveness depends on proper adherence to established guidelines regarding the selection, timing, dosage, and duration of antibiotic administration. [1]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOn the other hand, an inappropriate use of SAP contributes to unnecessary costs, adverse events, disruption of normal microbiota, and most critically, to the global burden of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). AMR is responsible for approximately 700,000 deaths annually. [3\u0026ndash;6]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite clear recommendations, inappropriate use of prophylactic antibiotics continues to be a challenge in many healthcare settings, particularly in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). [6] The scale of this inappropriate SAP in LMICs remains uncertain due to a lack of accurate and updated data. [7\u0026ndash;9]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEgypt\u0026rsquo;s population ranks number 13 in the list of countries by population. The country\u0026rsquo;s tertiary hospitals specializing in obstetrics and gynecology perform a high volume of surgical procedures, including cesarean sections and hysterectomies, making adherence to SAP guidelines crucial in minimizing infectious morbidity. Egypt has an up-to-date and clear national guideline for antimicrobial prophylaxis, [10] yet data on adherence to SAP guidelines remain sparse.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis project aimed to assess adherence to SAP guidelines, including antibiotic selection, timing of administration, and duration of use, in an obstetric and gynecology tertiary university hospital. The qualitative part aimed to understand the factors contributing to non-adherence to SAP guidelines in a developing country.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe project consisted of two phases: an audit and a focus group discussion. It was prospectively registered on the Open Science Framework (https://osf.io/y7hk9) as a quality improvement initiative. The Institutional Review Board at Ain Shams University reviewed the project and approved it as an exempt protocol. All collected data remained fully deidentified throughout the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eThe audit\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe conducted a cross-sectional survey at the university hospital of the department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Ain Shams University. We followed the methodology for the Point Prevalence Survey on Antibiotic Use in Hospitals. [11]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFollowing the design and preparatory phase, data collection started on November 1, 2024 and ended on December 31, 2024. The survey included data on antibiotic prophylaxis of all surgical procedures at the university hospital of obstetrics and gynecology. Exclusion criteria included the need for therapeutic antibiotics. A team of trained interns collected data in real time in the operative theater using a standardized data collection form. Data collection proceeded as a natural task scenario to mitigate the Hawthorne effect. The data collected did not contain any identifiable information, and there is no way to link the information back to identifiable information. The team stored data in an online university database created specifically for this project. The design of the form was by the Point Prevalence Survey on Antibiotic Use in Hospitals [11] and included the following variables: surgical details (type of surgery and its urgency), and antibiotic prophylaxis parameters (antibiotic choice, timing of administration, dosage, duration, antibiotic count, and route of administration).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAdherence to SAP guidelines was assessed using three parameters: antibiotic selection, timing of administration, and duration of prophylaxis. Appropriateness of antibiotic choice was based on hospital or national guidelines. Timing of administration was defined as optimal if given within 60 minutes before incision. Duration was deemed appropriate if limited to a single preoperative dose or \u0026le;24 hours post-operative. The overall adherence rate was calculated as the proportion of cases meeting all three criteria.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe adherence rate was presented as a proportion. Descriptive data analysis was performed using R v4.4. [12]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eThe qualitative study\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe invited eight healthcare providers to participate in a synchronous online focus group (SOFG). The members of the group were of different age groups, specialties, and cadres. We maintained gender balance in the group. All participants signed informed consent to participate in the study, to the use of their data and opinions in the focus groups, as well as to their audio-recording, and were informed that they can withdraw at any time.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe used the MS Teams application to organize the SOFG on March 25, 2025. Eight healthcare providers participated in the focus group discussion (FGD). The duration of the meeting was 60 minutes. The lead researcher (male, professor) moderated the FGD, and the other (female, research fellow) took notes and asked follow-up questions. At the start of the FGD, the moderator explained the purpose of the meeting and then introduced the open-ended question: What are the factors contributing to SAP non-adherence? Members of the focus group provided their insights. All participants had a chance to share, and the recording included the input from each participant. The moderator promoted the discussion and maintained neutrality while ensuring an interactive atmosphere and contributions from every participant.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe FGD was transcribed verbatim and examined by three researchers (SAA, SIA, and RAA) who had no prior acquaintance with the focus group members. We used a deductive approach to content analysis of the FGD. This approach involved systematically analyzing textual data based on predefined themes. [13] The predefined themes included health workforce, service delivery, health information systems, medical products, financing, and leadership and governance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe three researchers initially reviewed the transcripts thoroughly before extracting and coding meaning units. The codes were then grouped into the pre-specified themes. Each step was completed individually before the researchers collaboratively reviewed the analysis and reached a consensus. While the primary focus was on fitting data into existing categories, the three researchers remained open to minor modifications if new insights emerged. [14\u0026ndash;17]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFollowing the completion of the content analysis, the findings from the focus group discussion were triangulated with the survey findings to explore any convergence. [18, 19]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003ePublic involvement\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMembers of the public were not involved directly in the design of this project. Although not explicitly part of this project, the main idea of this work was definitely inspired by the daily discussion between doctors and members of the public regarding the burden of misuse of antibiotics.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eData on 280 obstetric or gynecologic surgical procedures were collected. Residents of obstetrics and gynecology and anesthesia were responsible for the preparation of the operative procedures, including the provision of antibiotic prophylaxis. Almost half of the procedures were cesarean sections (136/280 [48.6%]), followed by hysterectomies (50/280 [17.9%]). Elective procedures accounted for 93.9% (263/280) of the work, Table 1.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;1: Surgical Procedures\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"97%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 325px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSurgical Procedure\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 325px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFrequency (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 325px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eUrgency\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 325px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 325px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eElective\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 325px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e263 (93.9)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 325px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEmergency\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 325px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17 (6.1)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 325px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eType of the procedure\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 325px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 325px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCesarean section\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 325px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e136 (48.6)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 325px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHysterectomy (Abdominal, vaginal, Laparoscopic)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 325px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50 (17.9)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 325px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLaparotomy (Myomectomy = 9, Staging = 9, Ovarian cystectomy = 5, Adnexectomy = 5, tubal pregnancy = 2, vesicovaginal fistula repair = 1)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 325px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31 (11.1)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 325px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLaparoscopy (operative or diagnostic)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 325px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16 (5.7)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 325px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHysteroscopy (operative or diagnostic)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 325px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15 (5.4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 325px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDilatation and Curettage\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 325px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11 (3.9)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 325px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePelvic floor reconstructive surgery\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 325px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 (1.8)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 325px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOther procedures\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 325px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16 (5.7)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAdherence to Surgical Antibiotic Prophylaxis Guidelines\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIntravenous antibiotic prophylaxis was administered in all procedures. Continuous intravenous infusion was used in 66.1% (185/280) and intermittent intravenous injections in 33.9% (95/280) of procedures.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNon-indicated SAP was observed in 8.2% (23/280) of cases. This included eleven dilatation and curettage, five diagnostic Hysteroscopies, three diagnostic laparoscopies, two hymenotomies, one cervical cerclage, and one examination under anesthesia.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eOverall adherence\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOverall adherence to all SAP guidelines - correct antibiotic selection, timing, and duration - was not observed in any of the procedures.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAntibiotic Selection\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe appropriate antibiotic, as per hospital or national guidelines, was administered in 62.5% (175/280) of procedures. In the remaining 37.5%, either a non-recommended antibiotic or a combination of antibiotics was administered. All deviations were due to the absence of the recommended antibiotic at the time of procedure.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA single antibiotic was used in 65.7% of procedures (184/280). Multiple antibiotics were used in 34.3% of procedures (96/280). A cephalosporin was administered in most procedures (255/280 [91.1%]), either as a single agent or in combined regimens. Metronidazole was the most frequently added antibiotic (41 out of the 96 combined regimens), Table 2.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;2: Antibiotic Selection\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 470px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAntibiotic Choice\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFrequency\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 470px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSingle agent\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e184\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 470px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCefoxitin\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e112\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 470px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCefazolin\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 470px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAmpicillin-Sulbactam\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 470px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCefotaxime\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 470px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMeropenem\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 470px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCefoperazone-Sulbactam\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 470px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCeftriaxone\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 470px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMetronidazole\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 470px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMultiple agents\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 470px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCefoxitin, Cefazolin\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 470px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCefoxitin, Metronidazole\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 470px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCefoxitin, Ampicillin-Sulbactam\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 470px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCefoxitin, Cefazolin, Metronidazole\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 470px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCefazolin, Ampicillin-Sulbactam\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 470px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCefazolin, Metronidazole\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 470px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCefoxitin, Cefotaxime\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 470px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAmpicillin-Sulbactam, Metronidazole\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 470px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCefotaxime, Cefazolin\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 470px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCefotaxime, Clindamycin\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 470px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCefoxitin, Ampicillin-Sulbactam, Metronidazole\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 470px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCefazolin, Ampicillin-Sulbactam, Metronidazole\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 470px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCefazolin, Ampicillin-Sulbactam, Clindamycin\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 470px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCefazolin, Cefoxitin, Metronidazole\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 470px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCefotaxime, Ampicillin-Sulbactam, Metronidazole\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 470px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCefotaxime, Metronidazole\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 470px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCefoxitin, Azithromycin\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 470px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCefoxitin, Cefotaxime, Metronidazole\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 470px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMeropenem, Clindamycin\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eTiming of Administration\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAntibiotics were administered within the recommended 60-minute window before incision in 38.2% (107/280) of procedures. In contrast, 61.8% of cases experienced delayed or premature antibiotic administration.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe first dose was administered after the start of surgery in 61.4% (172/280) of procedures. The inappropriate timing of the first dose was not significantly more common in emergency (75%) compared to elective procedures (60.8%) (p = 0.3).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eDuration of Prophylaxis\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe recommended single-dose or \u0026le;24-hour regimen was adhered to in only 6.1% (17/280) of procedures. Prolonged parenteral antibiotic use in hospital beyond 24 hours was observed in 93.9% (263/280) of procedures. A switch to oral antibiotics on hospital discharge was observed in 98.9% (277/280) of cases. Outpatient oral antibiotics continued for up to seven days following discharge.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eFactors Contributing to Non-Adherence to SAP Guidelines\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA deductive approach to qualitative content analysis was performed by applying predefined themes (health system building blocks) to examine factors influencing SAP non-adherence.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eTheme 1: Health Workforce\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWorkforce-related factors include inadequate training, knowledge gaps, and limited accountability regarding SAP guidelines. Participants reported inconsistent adherence due to a lack of awareness or confusion about best practices.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese quotes illustrate how workforce-related factors contribute to non-adherence.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Not everyone knows the exact timing and dose of prophylactic antibiotics. Some just go by what they\u0026rsquo;ve always done.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;New staff don\u0026rsquo;t receive structured training on SAP; they learn on the job, which leads to inconsistencies.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;There\u0026rsquo;s a real lack of knowledge and proper monitoring when it comes to using antibiotics.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Non-adherence is more about not knowing and not following the existing guidelines than it is about the guidelines themselves being missing.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Junior residents don\u0026rsquo;t get any formal training on surgical antibiotic prophylaxis; they learn with hands-on experience, which leads to inconsistencies.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Some healthcare providers aren\u0026rsquo;t clear on the appropriate timing and duration for prophylactic antibiotics, often sticking to their usual habits instead of following standardized protocols.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eTheme 2: Service Delivery\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eService delivery is the way in which healthcare is being provided, including readiness to provide SAP in a timely fashion. Service delivery factors impacting SAP adherence include workflow inefficiencies, time constraints, and lack of standardized protocols. Participants described how the inefficient process of dispensing prophylactic antibiotics, lack of coordination among teams, and high patient volumes created challenges in adhering to SAP guidelines.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe following quotes highlight the structural and procedural challenges in service delivery that hinder appropriate SAP administration.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;There\u0026rsquo;s no clear protocol followed by all teams, so practices vary from one department to another.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;We are understaffed, and in the rush to prepare for surgery, SAP timing is often overlooked.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;The high patient flow in our hospital makes it difficult to maintain adherence to the guidelines for surgical antibiotic prophylaxis.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Surgical antibiotic prophylaxis tends to be viewed as one of the less critical elements of patient care in the operative theater, with other surgical priorities taking the spotlight. This mindset can result in insufficient focus on its administration, even though it plays a vital role in preventing infections after surgery.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;While junior doctors may be aware of the guidelines, they often overlook their importance and follow the outdated practices from their seniors, even when they\u0026rsquo;re wrong.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;in the operative room, we do not follow a mandatory checklist for the timely pre-incision administration of SAP.\u0026ldquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eTheme 3: Health Information Systems\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInformation is essential for monitoring and evaluation. Inadequate documentation and lack of real-time monitoring systems hinder adherence to SAP guidelines. Participants noted that inconsistent record-keeping prevents effective tracking and evaluation of SAP compliance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe following quotes demonstrate challenges related to health information systems.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;SAP administration is not always documented properly, so we don\u0026rsquo;t have reliable data to track compliance.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;There\u0026rsquo;s no alert system to remind staff when to administer prophylactic antibiotics.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Records are sometimes incomplete, making it difficult to assess whether SAP guidelines were followed.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;There\u0026rsquo;s no system in place to check whether antibiotics were administered correctly.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eTheme 4: Medical Products\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis refers to equitable access to essential pharmaceutical products of assured quality, safety, efficacy, and cost-effectiveness and their scientifically sound and cost-effective use. Limited availability of appropriate antibiotics and stock-outs negatively impact adherence. Participants described instances where they had to use alternative antibiotics due to supply chain issues.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese quotes reflect how access to medical products affects adherence to SAP guidelines.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Sometimes, the recommended antibiotic is unavailable, so we use whatever is in stock.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Non-adherence to prophylactic antibiotics is more often due to a lack of the recommended antibiotics and accepted alternatives rather than a lack of knowledge.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;The occurrence of adverse events and the concerns regarding the quality of the available antibiotics and poor storage complicate things even more and drive doctors to use a trusted antibiotic even when it is not the one recommended by guidelines.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eTheme 5: Financing\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFinancial constraints limit SAP adherence by affecting resource availability, staff training, and procurement of necessary medical supplies. Participants noted that budget limitations reduce access to quality antibiotics and delay system improvements.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe following quotes illustrate how financial barriers influence SAP adherence.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Budget cuts mean we can\u0026rsquo;t always afford the recommended antibiotics, so we use cheaper alternatives.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;There\u0026rsquo;s no dedicated funding for continuous training on SAP guidelines.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Financial constraints affect every aspect, from procurement to training to electronic systems, making it difficult to implement SAP guidelines correctly.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;The model of unified governmental procurement sometimes means that we do not get the recommended antibiotics, so we might be compelled to use whatever they send.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eTheme 6: Leadership and Governance\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis involves ensuring that policy frameworks exist and are combined with effective oversight, regulation, attention to system design, and accountability. Weak governance structures and lack of enforcement of SAP guidelines contribute to non-adherence. Participants expressed concerns about the absence of accountability mechanisms and inconsistent policy implementation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe following quotes highlight governance-related barriers to SAP adherence.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;There\u0026rsquo;s no strict enforcement of SAP guidelines, so practices vary widely.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Leadership hasn\u0026rsquo;t prioritized SAP compliance, so there\u0026rsquo;s little motivation to follow protocols strictly.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Policies exist on paper, but in practice, adherence is not closely monitored or evaluated.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Having a national guideline is only a starting point; hospitals need to have their own clinical protocols based on reliable, trusted evidence rather than personal opinions. For instance, one hospital\u0026rsquo;s protocol once stated that IUD insertion required antibiotic administration, despite compelling evidence to the contrary.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;The anxiety surrounding potential legal consequences often pushes doctors into practicing defensive medicine. Many healthcare providers tend to over-prescribe antibiotics or ignore the established guidelines due to the fear of legal repercussions, which can lead to unnecessary use and issues with surgical antibiotic prophylaxis.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;The culture of blame compels many junior doctors to extend postoperative antibiotic use. If a patient develops a surgical site infection, we are blamed\u0026mdash;even when we strictly follow SAP guidelines. However, overprescribing antibiotics rarely attracts criticism, making it the safer choice in a blame-driven environment.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTriangulation of quantitative and qualitative findings\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOverall, the non-adherence can be explained by knowledge gaps, workflow inefficiencies, lack of real-time monitoring systems, limited availability of appropriate antibiotics, financial constraints, and lack of enforcement of SAP guidelines, Table 3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;3: Triangulation of quantitative and qualitative findings\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 140px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTheme\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 236px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eQualitative Findings\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSurvey Data (Quantitative)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTriangulation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 140px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWorkforce\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 236px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLack of awareness and confusion about best practices\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo adherence to all three parameters\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eConvergent\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 140px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eService Delivery\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 236px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWorkflow inefficiencies and high patient volume\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDelayed administration in 61.4% of cases\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eConvergent\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 140px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHealth Information Systems\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 236px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePoor documentation and lack of real-time monitoring\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo adherence to all three parameters\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eConvergent\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 140px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMedical Products\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 236px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStock shortages of recommended antibiotics\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37.5% received non-recommended antibiotics\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eConvergent\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 140px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFinancing\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 236px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLimited resources for training and procurement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e93.9% prolonged use beyond 24 hours\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eConvergent\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 140px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGovernance\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 236px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWeak enforcement and non-compliance culture\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOutpatient oral antibiotics prescribed in 98.9% of cases\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eConvergent\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eProposed Actions to Overcome Barriers\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe focus group identified several key actions to address barriers in our setting:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eEnhancing the consistent implementation of SAP: Participants suggested the following ideas to improve access to evidence-based recommendations:\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e\n\u003cul type=\"disc\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDeveloping and disseminating standardized SAP hospital protocols that are aligned with the national guidelines.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eA printed or electronic copy of the SAP protocol should be made available to all healthcare providers in the hospital.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003col start=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAddressing Educational Gaps: Participants highlighted the critical role of knowledge translation and utilization by conducting regular training and orientation sessions. Training should target surgeons, anesthetists, nurses, and clinical pharmacists and should cover all aspects of appropriate antibiotic selection, timing of administration, and duration of SAP.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eOptimizing Workflow Efficiency: Participants emphasized the need to\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e\n\u003cul type=\"disc\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eIntegrate SAP into a preoperative checklist.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eHave a stock of the recommended antibiotic available in operating rooms to prevent delayed administration.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eEstablish a reminder for SAP in the operating rooms to ensure timely administration.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003col start=\"4\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eStrengthening Multidisciplinary Collaboration: Participants highlighted the need to establish a functional antimicrobial stewardship team to actively monitor compliance and improve SAP adherence.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eImplementing Audit and Feedback Mechanisms: Participants emphasized the need to\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e\n\u003cul type=\"disc\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eConduct regular audits and present compliance data at surgical team meetings.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eProvide real-time feedback to clinicians to reinforce best practices.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003col start=\"6\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePromoting Accountability and a Supportive Culture: Participants highlighted the need to cultivate a culture where all team members, from nurses to pharmacists, feel empowered to question non-compliant practices.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003e This mixed-methods study assessed adherence to surgical antibiotic prophylaxis guidelines in one of the largest tertiary university hospitals of obstetrics and gynecology in Egypt. We sought to identify gaps in practice and potential areas for improvement. The findings revealed that while the recommended antibiotic selection was usually implemented, substantial deviations from standard guidelines were observed in the timing and duration of antibiotic administration. Adherence to all three SAP parameters was never attained in any of the included procedures. Key barriers to adherence included knowledge gaps, workflow inefficiencies, inadequate monitoring, limited antibiotic availability, financial constraints, and weak enforcement of SAP guidelines.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur comprehensive literature search clearly showed the paucity of data from Egypt. Our data showed that the most common deviation from evidence-based recommendations was the prolonged antibiotic use beyond 24 hours. In almost all procedures, we observed a switch to oral antibiotics for up to seven days after discharge from hospital. The current status is probably worse than previously reported one decade ago. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e] This overuse of antibiotics in developing countries has been recently documented in a rigorous scoping review. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e] Extending antibiotic use beyond 24 hours does not reduce the risk of postoperative infectious morbidity but increases the likelihood of antimicrobial resistance and adverse events [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. The fear of infections, fear of litigation, misconceptions regarding antibiotic prophylaxis, the culture of blame, and the practice of defensive medicine contributed to this disturbing practice.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTimely administration of prophylactic antibiotics within the recommended 60-minute window before surgical incision is crucial for optimal efficacy. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e] In our survey, only 38.2% of patients received antibiotics at the appropriate time. The limited literature from developing countries on adherence to this 60-minute window suggests the same poor practice. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e] Administration timing (0\u0026ndash;60 minutes before incision) is the most problematic indicator even in developed countries. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e] We observed lapses in timing as a result of workflow inefficiencies, anesthesia-related delays, and inadequate awareness among healthcare providers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudies have shown variability in compliance with SAP protocols, influenced by factors such as institutional policies, healthcare provider knowledge, and resource availability. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e] An audit of antibiotic prophylaxis in the Eastern Mediterranean Region revealed that many hospitals lack standardized SAP protocols or fail to enforce existing ones. The same audit indicated that surgeons and other healthcare providers may not always be fully aware of or adhere to updated SAP guidelines, leading to inconsistent practices. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e A recent qualitative study from a high-income country demonstrated that a lack of structured workflow was the main factor contributing to non-adherence to antibiotic guidelines in the peri-operative settings. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e] We believe that in LMICs, the main factors have a different profile. Our study indicates that weak enforcement of the guidelines, occasional unavailability of recommended antibiotics, lack of audits or regular feedback, and a lack of fidelity for implementing the guidelines were the main barriers to adherence to SAP guidelines. Some clinicians resist adopting guidelines, especially if previous practices were perceived as effective. Providers expressed their belief that guidelines do not fit the nature of a public hospital serving poor patients with inadequate self-hygiene and poor living conditions at home. Providers extended antibiotic duration beyond guidelines as a precautionary measure, despite their knowledge of the evidence against it. Fear of infections and litigation and consequently the practice of defensive medicine probably contributed to the overuse of antibiotics as a safety measure.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile the overall compliance with guidelines is around 64% in developed countries [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e], the picture is different in developing countries, as shown by our data. We understand the numerous challenges for implementing effective and sustainable antibiotic stewardship programs in developing countries. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e] The implementation of effective and sustainable antibiotic stewardship programs in developing countries is not impossible. A recent systematic review assessed the potential for a successful implementation of such programs in African countries, including Egypt. The successes reported in some countries may give us some hope that other developing countries can implement these programs. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLimitations\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings of this work should be interpreted in the context of its limitations. The survey was conducted at a single university hospital, which may limit generalizability. This work did not assess the risk of postoperative infectious morbidity among non-adherent participants. Future studies should include multicenter data. Future studies should assess the impact of targeted interventions, such as provider education, regular feedback, and electronic alerts, on SAP adherence in low-resource, high-flow settings.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe lack of overall adherence to key parameters of antibiotic prophylaxis in one of the largest developing countries is alarming. Efforts should focus on the appropriate timing and duration of administration. This calls for a sustained program with strict enforcement.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eEthics approval\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis Quality Improvement project was reviewed by the Institutional Review Board of Ain Shams University (Assurance No.\u0026nbsp;FWA00017585). It was classified as a quality improvement initiative and approved as an exempt protocol. All data were deidentified and remained anonymous throughout the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll data relevant to this project are publicly available. The data, analysis script and materials related to this project are publicly available in the project folder in OSF.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe sincerely thank the healthcare providers at Ain Shams University Hospital of Obstetrics and Gynecology for their dedication and commitment to patient care in the operating rooms. We deeply appreciate their contributions and the valuable role they play in ensuring high-quality surgical care.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCRediT authorship contribution statement: \u003cstrong\u003eNA\u003c/strong\u003e: Writing - review \u0026amp; editing, Project administration, investigation. \u003cstrong\u003eRH\u003c/strong\u003e: Writing - review \u0026amp; editing, Investigation. \u003cstrong\u003eRT\u003c/strong\u003e: Writing - review \u0026amp; editing, investigation. \u003cstrong\u003eAL\u003c/strong\u003e: Investigation. \u003cstrong\u003eRH:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eWriting - review \u0026amp; editing, Investigation, Supervision. \u003cstrong\u003eRG\u003c/strong\u003e: Investigation, Supervision. \u003cstrong\u003eMA\u003c/strong\u003e: Investigation. \u003cstrong\u003eME\u003c/strong\u003e: Writing - review \u0026amp; editing, Investigation, Supervision. \u003cstrong\u003eAA\u003c/strong\u003e: Writing - review \u0026amp; editing, Supervision. \u003cstrong\u003eAA\u003c/strong\u003e: Writing - review \u0026amp; editing, Investigation, Supervision. \u003cstrong\u003eNS\u003c/strong\u003e: Writing - review \u0026amp; editing, Supervision. \u003cstrong\u003eAG\u003c/strong\u003e: Investigation, Supervision. \u003cstrong\u003eSAA\u003c/strong\u003e: Writing - review \u0026amp; editing, Investigation, Data analysis. \u003cstrong\u003eRA\u003c/strong\u003e: Writing - review \u0026amp; editing, Investigation, Data analysis. \u003cstrong\u003eSA\u003c/strong\u003e: Writing - review \u0026amp; editing, Investigation, Data analysis. \u003cstrong\u003eAN\u003c/strong\u003e: Writing - original draft, Methodology, Supervision, Data analysis, Conceptualization.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBratzler DW, Dellinger EP, Olsen KM, Perl TM, Auwaerter PG, Bolon MK, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for antimicrobial prophylaxis in surgery. American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy. 2013;70:195\u0026ndash;283.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMonahan M, Jowett S, Pinkney T, Brocklehurst P, Morton DG, Abdali Z, et al. Surgical site infection and costs in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review of the economic burden. PLOS ONE. 2020;15:e0232960.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKourbeti I, Kamiliou A, Samarkos M. Antibiotic Stewardship in Surgical Departments. Antibiotics. 2024;13:329.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBan KA, Minei JP, Laronga C, Harbrecht BG, Jensen EH, Fry DE, et al. American College of Surgeons and Surgical Infection Society: Surgical Site Infection Guidelines, 2016 Update. Journal of the American College of Surgeons. 2017;224:59\u0026ndash;74.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSartelli M, Boermeester MA, Cainzos M, Coccolini F, Jonge SW de, Rasa K, et al. Six Long-Standing Questions about Antibiotic Prophylaxis in Surgery. Antibiotics. 2023;12:908.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOtaigbe II, Elikwu CJ. Drivers of inappropriate antibiotic use in low- and middle-income countries. JAC-Antimicrobial Resistance. 2023;5.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSartelli M, C. Hardcastle T, Catena F, Chichom-Mefire A, Coccolini F, Dhingra S, et al. Antibiotic Use in Low and Middle-Income Countries and the Challenges of Antimicrobial Resistance in Surgery. Antibiotics. 2020;9:497.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMwita JC, Ogunleye OO, Olalekan A, Kalungia AC, Kurdi A, Saleem Z, et al. Key issues surrounding appropriate antibiotic use for prevention of surgical site infections in low- and middle-income countries: A narrative review and the implications. International journal of general medicine. 2021;14:515\u0026ndash;30.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMurray CJL, Ikuta KS, Sharara F, Swetschinski L, Robles Aguilar G, Gray A, et al. Global burden of bacterial antimicrobial resistance in 2019: a systematic analysis. The Lancet. 2022;399:629\u0026ndash;55.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEgyptian Drug Authority. National guidelines for antimicrobial prophylaxis in surgery. 2022.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWorld Health Organization. WHO methodology for point prevalence survey on antibiotic use in hospitals. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2018.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eR Core Team. R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing; 2024.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eElo S, Kyng\u0026auml;s H. The qualitative content analysis process. Journal of Advanced Nursing. 2008;62:107\u0026ndash;15.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGraneheim UH, Lundman B. Qualitative content analysis in nursing research: concepts, procedures and measures to achieve trustworthiness. Nurse Education Today. 2004;24:105\u0026ndash;12.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDixon-Woods M, Agarwal S, Jones D, Young B, Sutton A. Synthesising qualitative and quantitative evidence: A review of possible methods. Journal of Health Services Research \u0026amp; Policy. 2005;10:45\u0026ndash;53.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMayring P. Qualitative content analysis: Theoretical background and procedures. In: Bikner-Ahsbahs A, Knipping C, Presmeg N, editors. Approaches to qualitative research in mathematics education: Examples of methodology and methods. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands; 2015. p. 365\u0026ndash;80.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMayring P. Qualitative content analysis: A step-by-step guide. London: SAGE; 2022.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCarter N, Bryant-Lukosius D, DiCenso A, Blythe J, Neville AJ. The use of triangulation in qualitative research. Oncology Nursing Forum. 2014;41:545\u0026ndash;7.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDossett LA, Kaji AH, Dimick JB. Practical Guide to Mixed Methods. JAMA Surgery. 2020;155:254.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTalaat M, Saied T, Kandeel A, El-Ata GAA, El-Kholy A, Hafez S, et al. A point prevalence survey of antibiotic use in 18 hospitals in egypt. Antibiotics (Basel, Switzerland). 2014;3:450\u0026ndash;60.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSaied T, Hafez SF, Kandeel A, El-kholy A, Ismail G, Aboushady M, et al. Antimicrobial stewardship to optimize the use of antimicrobials for surgical prophylaxis in egypt: A multicenter pilot intervention study. American journal of infection control. 2015;43:e67\u0026ndash;71.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAlbarqouni L, Palagama S, Chai J, Sivananthajothy P, Pathirana T, Bakhit M, et al. Overuse of medications in low- and middle-income countries: A scoping review. Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 2023;101:36\u0026ndash;61D.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePr\u0026eacute;vost N, Gaultier A, Birgand G, Mocquard J, Terrien N, Rochais E, et al. Compliance with antibiotic prophylaxis guidelines in surgery: Results of a targeted audit in a large-scale region-based French hospital network. Infectious Diseases Now. 2021;51:170\u0026ndash;8.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eClifford V, Daley A. Antibiotic prophylaxis in obstetric and gynaecological procedures: A review. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology. 2012;52:412\u0026ndash;9.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKhan Z, Ahmed N, Zafar S, Rehman A ur, Khan FU, Saqlain M, et al. Audit of antibiotic prophylaxis and adherence of surgeons to standard guidelines in common abdominal surgical procedures. Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal. 2020;26:1052\u0026ndash;61.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBardia A, Melnick ER, McCall T, Zhao X, Lin H-M, Fisher C, et al. Individual and System-level Factors Contributing to Guideline Nonadherent Surgical Antibiotic Prophylaxis at a Tertiary Healthcare System: A Qualitative Analysis. Anesthesiology. 2024;142:489\u0026ndash;99.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCox JA, Vlieghe E, Mendelson M, Wertheim H, Ndegwa L, Villegas MV, et al. Antibiotic stewardship in low- and middle-income countries: the same but different? Clinical Microbiology and Infection. 2017;23:812\u0026ndash;8.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAkpan MR, Isemin NU, Udoh AE, Ashiru-Oredope D. Implementation of antimicrobial stewardship programmes in African countries: a systematic literature review. Journal of Global Antimicrobial Resistance. 2020;22:317\u0026ndash;24.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"antimicrobial-resistance-and-infection-control","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"aric","sideBox":"Learn more about [Antimicrobial Resistance and Infection Control](http://aricjournal.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"13756","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/13756/3","title":"Antimicrobial Resistance \u0026 Infection Control","twitterHandle":"@ARICJournal","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Surgical Site Infection, Antibiotic Prophylaxis, Guideline Adherence, Obstetric Surgical Procedures, Gynecologic Surgical Procedures, Developing country","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6630751/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6630751/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eObjectives:\u003c/strong\u003e The effectiveness of surgical antibiotic prophylaxis in reducing the risk of post-operative infectious morbidity, depends on its appropriate use. We aimed to assess adherence to surgical antibiotic prophylaxis guidelines and to explore the factors contributing to non-adherence.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethods\u003c/strong\u003e: This mixed-methods study comprised a cross-sectional survey and qualitative analysis. The cross-sectional survey included all surgical procedures performed in Ain Shams University Hospital of Obstetrics and Gynecology from November 1 2024 to December 31 2024. Trained medical interns collected routine data in real-time in the operative theater and in the wards by observing and documenting three key variables namely the antibiotic prescribed, timing of administration, and the duration of use. The overall adherence rate was calculated as the proportion of cases meeting all three criteria. The survey was followed by a qualitative research through synchronous online focus group of 12 participants. Following transcription of the audio-recorded discussion, three researchers used a deductive approach to content analysis of the focus group discussion.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults:\u003c/strong\u003e Two handred and eighty surgical procedures were analyzed, with cesarean sections accounting for 48.6% (136/280). Full adherence to SAP guidelines was observed in 0% of cases. The appropriate antibiotic was prescribed in 62.5% (175/280) of procedures. Timely administration within the recommended 60-minute pre-incision window occurred in 38.2% (107/280). In contrast, 61.4% (172/280) of procedures had delayed antibiotic administration post-incision. The recommended single-dose or ≤24-hour regimen was administered in only 6.1% (17/280), whereas 93.9% (263/280) had prolonged parenteral antibiotic use beyond 24 hours, with 98.9% (277/280) transitioning to oral antibiotics upon discharge. Key barriers to adherence included knowledge gaps, workflow inefficiencies, inadequate monitoring, limited antibiotic availability, financial constraints, and weak enforcement of SAP guidelines.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusions:\u003c/strong\u003e Non-adherence to SAP guidelines is alarmingly high, particularly regarding timing and duration. Addressing systemic barriers and enforcing guideline compliance is essential to improving antibiotic stewardship in surgical settings.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Non-adherence to surgical antibiotic prophylaxis guidelines: findings from a mixed-methods study in a developing country","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-05-22 15:16:05","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6630751/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-06-16T07:19:43+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-06-13T17:08:26+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-06-04T18:04:40+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"234785200587067577922956265541717412860","date":"2025-05-27T08:46:37+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"137123249352263809430889482338851775486","date":"2025-05-22T17:09:12+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-05-20T09:15:19+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-05-12T12:15:04+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-05-12T12:09:53+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Antimicrobial Resistance \u0026 Infection Control","date":"2025-05-09T17:41:32+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"antimicrobial-resistance-and-infection-control","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"aric","sideBox":"Learn more about [Antimicrobial Resistance and Infection Control](http://aricjournal.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"13756","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/13756/3","title":"Antimicrobial Resistance \u0026 Infection Control","twitterHandle":"@ARICJournal","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"5d349191-4d34-48b7-ae26-15e455ff9646","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 22nd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-07-21T16:04:45+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-6630751","link":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s13756-025-01607-5","journal":{"identity":"antimicrobial-resistance-and-infection-control","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Antimicrobial Resistance \u0026 Infection Control"},"publishedOn":"2025-07-15 15:57:23","publishedOnDateReadable":"July 15th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-05-22 15:16:05","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1186/s13756-025-01607-5","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s13756-025-01607-5","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6630751","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6630751","identity":"rs-6630751","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}