The Role of High-Protein Instant Ramen Noodles in Inducing and Maintaining Satiety: Acute, Randomized, Crossover Study

The Role of High-Protein Instant Ramen Noodles in Inducing and Maintaining Satiety: Acute, Randomized, Crossover Study | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article The Role of High-Protein Instant Ramen Noodles in Inducing and Maintaining Satiety: Acute, Randomized, Crossover Study Nikhil Dhurandhar, Princess Ozioma, Gaurav Kudchadkar, Sara Ranjbar, and 5 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7769021/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Objective The purpose of the study was to test if a breakfast meal of high-protein instant ramen noodles would increase satiety, reduce hunger, improve glycemic response, and reduce lunch-time energy intake compared to an isocaloric portion of standard protein instant ramen noodles. Methods A double-blind randomized crossover study was conducted. Participants were recruited from the community of Lubbock, TX. Following an overnight fast, 25 men and women (age 25 – 45 y; BMI 20 – 30 kg/m 2 ) randomly completed 2 testing days that included a 71 g breakfast of high-protein (HP) ramen noodles (320 kcal; protein 20 g [25% kcal]; carbohydrates 29 g [36% kcal]; fat 14 g [39% kcal]) or 71 g breakfast of standard protein (SP) ramen noodles (311 kcal; protein 6 g [8% kcal]; carbohydrates 41 g [53% kcal]; fat 13 g [38% kcal]). Appetite and hormonal responses were collected over 5 h followed by an ad libitum buffet lunch. Mixed effect model was used to examine the effect of different factors and the conditions on each outcome. A paired t-test was used to examine differences in lunch intake parameters between the two conditions. Results A comparison of the HP vs SP breakfast conditions showed that appetite score, the primary outcome, was similar. HP led to greater reduction of the desire for prospective food consumption and reduced lunch-time energy intake compared to SP (-94kcal; 95% CI: 8.63, 179.75 kcal; p<0.04). Glucose, insulin, ghrelin, GLP-1 and PYY3-36 were not different between the treatments. Greater desire to eat something savory or something sweet was observed following HP breakfast compared to SP breakfast (p<0.05). Perceived feeling of hunger, satiety, and the desire to eat something fatty or something salty was not different between the conditions. Conclusions A breakfast of high-protein instant ramen noodles acutely decreased the desire for prospective food consumption and subsequently reduced lunch-time energy intake compared to an isocaloric standard protein instant ramen noodles breakfast. Among individuals who consume noodles, the incorporation of a high-protein version might be an effective strategy for reducing short-term food intake. Health sciences/Health care Health sciences/Health care/Nutrition high-protein breakfast appetite regulation energy intake GLP-1 ghrelin Peptide YY3-36 randomized crossover trial satiety Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Introduction Dietary protein is important for building and maintaining the cells of the body, as well as for producing various substances that regulate metabolism (1). In addition to these basic functions, dietary protein has gained recognition for its role in weight management when consumed in higher quantities (2). The recommended dietary allowance (RDA) of protein for adult men and non-pregnant, non-lactating women is 0.8 g (of good quality) protein per kg body weight per day (3); while the Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range (AMDR) is 10 to 35% of total daily energy intake provided by protein (1). Higher protein consumption above the RDA but within the AMDR has shown benefits, including the reduction of hunger, the increase of satiety, and the reduction of subsequent food intake which all together may contribute to the reduction of the risk of obesity (2). Obesity exists in the United States and worldwide in epidemic proportions. The 2015 global estimate of adults with obesity was 603.7 million adults (4). The United States was listed among nations with the highest prevalence of adult obesity (4). Furthermore, national data from 2023 showed that more than 1 in 5 adults had obesity in the United States (5). The impact of obesity is further complicated by the multiple links of obesity to other chronic conditions such as diabetes, heart disease, and cancer (6). Strategies for treating and reducing the risk of obesity have therefore been our priority. One strategy that has been evaluated in past studies is protein preload. Protein preload refers to eating a substantial quantity of protein to increase fullness and to reduce energy intake at the next meal. An example would be to consume a breakfast containing higher protein which could reduce lunchtime energy intake (7-9). In the United States, a typical menu consists of 16% of the total daily protein intake at breakfast, 31% at lunch, and dinner provides about 41%, while 12% is provided while snacking (1). Therefore, breakfast would be the perfect meal for protein preload, to effectively reduce energy intake by impacting food intake during the meals that follow in the day. For example, a higher protein breakfast containing eggs reduced lunchtime energy intake compared to lower protein breakfast consumption, and there was no rebound consumption of food for at least 24 h thereafter (7). Higher protein consumed at breakfast has demonstrated increased fullness, reduced hunger (10, 11), and reduced food intake at subsequent meals (2, 12). Egg-containing HP breakfast promotes greater weight loss in individuals on a weight loss diet (13). However, eggs are not considered a vegetarian option by many. Noodles on the other hand, are a vegetarian option, can be consumed before lunch, and are commonly consumed in the United States (14). Worldwide, the United States ranks as the 6 th highest noodle-consuming nation with 5,150 million servings per year as noted by the World Instant Noodles Association demand rankings in the year 2023 (15). HP instant ramen noodles are now commercially available, and considering the convenience and high acceptance of noodles, HP noodles are a good vegetarian candidate for testing the role of protein preload in increasing satiety and reducing hunger for the subsequent lunch. We hypothesized that HP instant ramen noodles breakfast would reduce hunger, increase satiety, reduce lunch-time energy intake, and clear postprandial glucose faster than SP instant ramen noodles breakfast. Materials and methods Study design The study incorporated a double blind, 2-condition, randomized, crossover design performed on two testing days at Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX. On the test days, the participants consumed one portion of HP instant ramen noodles breakfast, or a weight-matched portion of SP instant ramen noodles breakfast in a random order. The participants and outcome assessors were blinded to the randomization. Participants were not told which instant ramen noodle they were receiving on the test days. Three to thirty-five days separated the two conditions. The protocol was approved by the Institutional Review Board at Texas Tech University. All participants provided their informed consent and were free to withdraw from the study at any time. Participants The participants were 25 generally healthy men and women between the ages of 25 and 45, with BMI between 20-30kg/m 2 . Participants were recruited from the Lubbock, Texas, area using Texas Tech University Listserv (Tech Announce). Flyers were posted on campus and in the Lubbock community. Interested individuals were excluded based on the following criteria, body weight 10% change in body weight in the prior 3 months, taking medications that affect appetite or glucose regulation, prior bariatric surgery, unmedicated blood pressure >130/90 mmHg, intolerance, dislike or allergy to the study foods, tobacco use within 6 months, consumption of >14 alcoholic drinks/week, following a weight loss diet during the study recruitment period, irregular menstrual cycle, pregnant or lactating, and being unwilling or unable to have an IV catheter inserted. The flow diagram of participant screening and enrollment is shown in Figure 1. Testing day Participants were at the research facility for approximately 5 hours per test day. They were asked to limit physical activity to the past 24 hours; refraining from vigorous physical activity like running, as well as other vigorous physical activities in which one could only say a few words before one had to take a breath. The participants were provided with a standardized dinner to consume the day prior to testing. Following a 12-hour fast (only water was allowed), participants arrived at the facility between 07:00 and 9:00, had an IV catheter inserted in a vein in the forearm, a fasting blood sample was taken, and visual analogue scale (VAS) was administered. Participants were provided with the test noodles and were asked to consume the noodles within 15 minutes. Water was provided at breakfast time and for the next 180 minutes when the participants remained in the clinic. Following completion of the meal, blood was sampled at regular intervals (30, 60, 120, and 180 minutes) for the assessment of hunger- and satiety hormones (i.e., Glucagon Like Peptide-1, Peptide-YY3-36, and Ghrelin), and glucose and insulin. VAS questionnaires were utilized for obtaining appetite-related responses including hunger, satiety, fullness, prospective food consumption, the desire to eat something sweet, the desire to eat something savory, the desire to eat something fatty, and the desire to eat something salty. The primary outcome was Appetite Score (mm*180 minutes) which was calculated from VAS scores as satiety + fullness + (100 − hunger) + (100 − prospective food consumption)/4 (16). Test meals and ad libitum lunch During the HP condition, participants received one portion of high-protein instant ramen noodles [CHEF WOO Roasted Chicken Flavor Ramen Cup Noodles, Borealis Foods; 71 g; 320 kcal; fat 14 g (39% kcal); saturated fat 1.5 g; carbohydrates 29 g (36% kcal); fiber 2 g; total sugars 3 g; protein 20 g (25% kcal)]. During the control condition, participants received a weight-matched portion of SP instant ramen noodles [RAMEN EXPRESS Chicken Flavor Ramen Cup Noodle Chef Woo, Borealis Foods; 71 g; 311 kcal; fat 13 g (38% kcal); saturated fat 6 g; carbohydrates 41 g (53% kcal); fiber 1 g; total sugars 2 g; protein 6 g (8% kcal)]. For both conditions, the noodles were presented to the participants in the same manner in a plain white cup. Table 1 shows the nutrient composition of instant ramen noodles breakfasts offered. For determining the buffet lunch intake, an ad libitum buffet of 10 commonly liked foods (mac & cheese, lasagna, fried rice, cheddar cheese dip, humus, guacamole, corn chips, potato crisps, carrots, and celery was provided (4771 kcal). Each food item in the buffet was provided in pre-weighed portions. Participants were instructed to eat as much or as little as they desired. The buffet was provided in an isolated room and the use of cell phones, books, TV, and computers was not permitted during the meal to limit distractions. The participants were told that the purpose of the study was to help us learn if HP instant ramen noodles increased satiety, reduced hunger, and improved blood sugar levels compared to regular SP instant ramen noodles. Food intake was determined covertly by carefully measuring the pre-meal weight of each buffet item minus the post weight. Plate waste was also measured. Energy intake was calculated based on the nutrition facts information of the buffet items. Statistical Analysis Statistical model assumptions were evaluated and confirmed prior to analyses for hypothesis testing. For non-normal response variables, rank-transformed values were computed to obtain normally distributed data. The mixed model procedure was used to examine the effect of study condition (HP vs. SP instant ramen noodles) on each outcome. The model included effects of participant, time, condition, randomization sequence, and gender (participant was included as a random effect). Randomization sequence, condition, visit, and time were modeled as fixed effects. In addition, sex was modeled as a fixed effect to examine differences in response by sex. AUC over 180 minutes was calculated using the trapezoidal rule. A paired t-test was used to examine between-condition differences in the buffet lunch intake. P <0.05 was considered as statistically significant. To get complete VAS data for the assessment of the primary outcome (appetite score), data analysis was performed on 25 participants who completed the trial (completers analysis). All analyses were conducted with the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS; version 29.0; SPSS, Chicago, IL, USA). Results Baseline characteristics of the study participants Ninety-two individuals were telephone-screened. Forty-eight individuals were excluded while the remaining 44 individuals were further screened in the clinic for eligibility. After the clinic screening, 14 individuals were excluded while the remaining 30 individuals (19 males and 11 females) were enrolled and randomized. Of these 30 individuals, 25 completed the study (16 males and 9 females) while 5 withdrew (3 males and 2 females). Of these 5 individuals, 2 withdrew because their time for visit 2 elapsed during the wait time to employ a phlebotomist, 1 could not tolerate blood sampling, while the remaining 2 withdrew for personal reasons. Only the 25 participants who completed the study were included in the analysis set (Figure 1). Participants were randomly assigned to HP instant ramen noodles or SP instant ramen noodles. At the time of randomization, the participants were 64% males with a mean ± SD age of 31±4y and BMI of (mean ± SD) 23.96 ± 1.86 kg/m 2 . The racial and ethnic distribution of the participants was 20% Black, 24% Asian, 28% White, 4% Middle Eastern, and 24% Hispanic. Appetite score and appetite-related VAS measures Appetite score and appetite-related VAS measures are presented in Figure 2. The primary outcome, appetite score, was not different between the HP and SP noodles conditions ( P >0.05). The mixed model procedure showed that an overall main effect of breakfast condition was observed to be significant for the desire to eat something savory ( P < 0.05) and the desire to eat something sweet ( P < 0.05). The HP meal led to significantly greater desire to eat something savory vs SP (+6.37 mm; 95% CI: 2.02, -10.71m mm; P = 0.03). The HP meal also led to significantly greater desire to eat something sweet vs SP (+4.94 mm; 95% CI: 1.13, 8.76 mm; P = 0.011), but no significant differences between meals were observed for hunger, satiety, fullness, the desire to eat something salty, and the desire to eat something fatty ( P > 0.05). However, an overall main effect of breakfast condition was observed to be significant for the desire for prospective food consumption (P< 0.05), HP led to reduced desire for prospective food consumption vs. SP (-4.33 mm; 95% CI: -7.72, -.94 mm; P = 0.013). Glucose, hormonal responses and subsequent food intake The hormonal and glucose response to the breakfast meals were not significantly different between HP and SP conditions. No main effect of breakfast meal was observed to be significant for PYY3-36, GLP-1, Ghrelin, Insulin, and Glucose (Figure 3). Subsequent food intake was measured from the ad libitum lunch and is presented in Table 3. The HP meal led to a significantly lower energy intake during the buffet lunch compared to the SP meal (P<0.05). Intake of macronutrients, saturated fat, and sodium were also significantly lower after HP breakfasts compared to SP breakfasts. Discussions Protein preload lowers energy intake at a subsequent meal (8, 9, 17). Whey, casein, eggs, and meat have often been utilized in high protein studies. We tested a vegetarian high-protein product comprising of pea and wheat protein. Moreover, noodles are a versatile food item and are a generally accepted staple in the United States (14). This study is the first to evaluate the effect of HP ramen noodles breakfast as a protein pre-load on subjective and objective markers of satiety, hunger, lunchtime energy intake, and glucose response in generally healthy adult males and females with a BMI of 20 - 30kg/m 2 . Isocaloric portion of SP ramen noodles were used as control. Significantly lower energy intake at lunchtime following the HP noodle breakfast was a key finding, which is particularly strengthened by the double blind, randomized crossover study design. Nonetheless, there was no significant difference between HP and SP conditions for appetite score, perceived hunger, satiety, fullness, the desire to eat something fatty, or the desire to eat something salty. Similarly, there was no significant difference between blood glucose, and the appetite hormones (GLP-1, PYY3-36, and Ghrelin). The desire to eat something savory and the desire to eat something sweet were higher in the HP condition compared to the SP condition. One of the important messages from this study is the low reliability of subjective measures (VAS) and even hunger and satiety hormones in predicting a reduction in lunch-time food intake. One possibility for this is that the study may be underpowered to observe these effects in comparing 20g protein preload to 6 g preload. A review of acute feeding studies comparing high protein with lower protein breakfasts demonstrated a decrease in energy intake (38-148 kcal energy intake reduction) when the HP diets provided 46g-127g of protein (2). A study by Leidy and Racki obtained a significant reduction in hunger and satiety as well as reduced food intake(9) when they compared 48 g protein preload to 18g (9). Perhaps, we would have observed changes in objective and subjective measures of satiety in accordance with the reduction in energy intake, had we used a higher protein preload breakfast. However, we used one serving of noodles as a test meal. It would not have been practically relatable to increase serving size, just to increase protein content of the test breakfast. Overall, this study demonstrates that statistically significant difference in food intake was observed between HP and SP conditions without the differences in subjective and hormonal indicators of food intake. Therefore, determining actual food intake may be better than relying on surrogate indicators of food intake. Overall, our study demonstrates that lower energy intake can result from the consumption of high-protein meal of up to 20 g protein compared to a meal containing 6g protein. A potential limitation of this study was a lack of significant difference between HP and SP conditions for ghrelin, PYY3-36, GLP1, glucose and insulin. Objectively, satiety can be detected by changes in the levels of satiety-related hormones including GLP-1, PYY3-36 and the orexigenic hormone ghrelin (18). In adults, ghrelin rises to reflect hunger and then reduces after eating (19). We did not find differences in ghrelin levels after consumption of HP versus SP noodles. In contrast, Bloom and colleagues found that a high-protein diet significantly decreased ghrelin compared to a lower protein diet (20). In addition to not finding any difference between conditions for ghrelin in our study, we also found no difference between conditions for PYY3-36 and GLP-1. Of our participants, 38%, 52% and 58% had incomplete GLP1, ghrelin or PYY3-36 data, respectively due to undetectable levels of the hormones. Therefore, we cannot draw broad conclusions about the effect of high-protein noodles on hormonal response. Some other studies (8, 9) showed greater reduction of food intake after consumption of high protein diets without a change in PYY3-36. This also suggests the possibility that HP-induced reduction of food intake may not operate through PYY3-36 signaling. In addition, Leidy et al reported that while postprandial appetitive sensations and hormonal responses are associated with and may lead to alterations in subsequent energy intake, they do not consistently track with each other (2). Lower glucose and insulin excursion are metabolically beneficial because hyperglycemia and hyperinsulinemia are linked to insulin resistance and the development of conditions like obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus (21, 22). Foods such as eggs have been suggested to promote satiety by preventing large deviations in plasma glucose and insulin levels (23). Compared to standard protein test meals, high-protein test meals reduce blood glucose and may help in regulating postprandial glucose (24). In our study, however, no differences between-conditions were detected for insulin and glucose. In support of this findings, Baum and colleagues (25) also found no effect of protein dose over time on blood glucose. In their study, after children consumed high-protein (21%, 344Kcal) and low-protein (4%, 327 kcal) diets, blood glucose excursion was not different in the high-protein when compared to the low-protein conditions (25). One of the strengths of our study was the double blind, randomized controlled crossover design. The reduction in lunch-time energy intake after the HP condition was about 10%, and was similar (lower by about 10%) for macronutrients and saturated fat for the HP condition. It is unknown if the 10% difference in energy intake could be widened by increasing the protein content of the protein preload, by increasing the difference in protein amounts between HP and SP conditions, or by offering greater food amounts for lunch. Also, an important question is whether the 10% reduction (nearly 100 Kcal) of energy intake is biologically meaningful, mainly for weight loss / management. Will the intake of HP noodles for breakfast induce weight loss, or will it promote weight loss only in individuals already on lower calorie diets, by empowering them to eat less by reducing their food intake? A short-term study that incorporated eggs in breakfast and compared it to a breakfast containing bagels, showed a 22% reduction in lunchtime food intake (7). The next study determined the role of these breakfasts in 152 individuals either on or without weight loss diets (13). The egg breakfast helped produce 65% greater weight loss in groups on weight loss diets. There was no significant difference in weight loss in groups that were not on weight loss diets (13). A similar study with HP and SP noodles may help further understand the significance and clinical implications of these findings. Conclusion In summary, the findings show that a high-protein instant ramen noodles breakfast acutely decreases the desire for prospective food consumption and subsequent lunch time energy intake compared to standard protein instant ramen noodles of equal energy density. Noodles are commonly consumed in the United States (14) so, current noodle consumers might find it easy to incorporate high-protein versions into their diets. They also provide a vegetarian option for use as a protein preload. A practical utility of these findings would be to help individuals in reducing energy intake for weight loss / management, which may be determined in subsequent studies. Declarations Competing Interests: Borealis Foods Inc. provided funding support for this study. The sponsor had no role in the study design, data collection, statistical analysis, data interpretation, or writing of the manuscript. Acknowledgements: We also thank Dr. Kristina Petersen for her guidance in protocol development and Dr. Arubala Reddy for her support with study coordination. Ethics Statement: This study was approved by the Texas Tech University Institutional Review Board (TTU IRB: IRB2023-3; Cayuse ID: 22-0729). All participants provided written informed consent prior to participation. Clinical Trial Registration: This trial was registered at ClinicalTrials.gov with the identifier NCT05725681. Data Availability Statement : Data are available upon request from the corresponding author. References Hoy MK, Clemens JC, Moshfegh A. Protein Intake of Adults: What We Eat in America, NHANES 2015-2016. 2023. Leidy HJ, Clifton PM, Astrup A, Wycherley TP, Westerterp-Plantenga MS, Luscombe-Marsh ND, et al. The role of protein in weight loss and maintenance. The American journal of clinical nutrition. 2015;101(6):1320S–9S. 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Tables Table 1: Nutrient composition of instant ramen noodles breakfast Composition Intervention (HP noodle) (Chef Woo Roasted Chicken Flavor) Control (Standard Protein noodle) (Chef Woo Ramen Express Chicken Flavor) Weight (g) 71 71 Energy (Kcal) 320 311 Carbohydrate (g) 29 41 Protein (g) 20 6 Fat (g) 14 13 Fiber (g) 2 1 Table 2: Buffet Lunch offered: Amount and Macronutrient composition Food items Amount Energy (Kcal) Carbohydrate (g) Protein (g) Fat (g) Stouffer's® Baked Macaroni & Cheese 496 g 704 74.8 30.8 30.8 Stouffer's® Lasagna with Meat & Sauce 535 g 648 75.6 39.6 19.8 Healthy Choice® Simply Steamers Chicken Fried Rice Frozen Meal 566 g 600 80 42 12 FRITOS® Mild Cheddar Cheese Dip 100 g 132 9.9 3.3 9.9 Sabra® Classic Original Hummus 100 g 231 16.5 6.6 19.8 WHOLLY GUACAMOLE® Avocado Verde 100 g 231 6.6 0 19.8 FRITOS® Original Corn Chips 262 g 1504 150.4 18.8 94 Lay's® Oven Baked Original Potato Crisps 177 g 672 63 8.4 42 Baby peeled carrots 100 g 35 8.24 0 0 Celery sticks 100 g 14 2.97 0.69 0.17 Total 4771 488.01 150.19 248.27 Table 3. Ad libitum buffet meal Intake (N=25) Parameters Intake Mean difference 95% CI p-value Control (Standard Protein) Intervention (HP) Calories (kcal) 981 ± 407.76 887 ± 318.29 94.19 8.63 179.75 0.03 * Total fat (g) 44.38 ± 21.04 39.37 ± 15.68 5.01 0.34 9.68 0.04 * Saturated fat (g) 12.89 ± 5.70 11.54 ± 4.45 1.35 0.41 2.29 0.01 * Total Carbohydrates (g) 102.76 ± 40.72 93.65 ± 32.95 9.12 0.62 17.62 0.04 * Total sugars (g) 14.68 ± 5.83 13.85 ± 5.38 0.83 -0.43 2.09 0.19 Protein (g) 41.19 ± 17.58 38.21 ± 16.28 2.98 0.05 5.92 0.05 * Sodium (mg) 2225.84 ± 0.98 2011.46 ± 0.79 214.38 41.02 387.74 0.02 * Fiber (g) 9.77 ± 3.97 9.35 ± 3.85 0.41 -0.57 1.39 0.39 Significance at p < 0.05. Values are means ± SD. Data were analyzed using paired samples t-test. Values in the same column with * indicate statistically significant. Additional Declarations Yes there is potential conflict of interest. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: revise 18 Nov, 2025 Review # 2 received at journal 14 Nov, 2025 Reviewer # 2 agreed at journal 12 Nov, 2025 Review # 1 received at journal 07 Nov, 2025 Reviewer # 1 agreed at journal 12 Oct, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 06 Oct, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 06 Oct, 2025 First submitted to journal 03 Oct, 2025 Unknown event 03 Oct, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 02 Oct, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":62155,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eConsolidated standards of reporting trials (CONSORT) diagram\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7769021/v1/118cd8bc244b2108db617dbf.png"},{"id":93882447,"identity":"5da2b066-797b-4a51-af2b-0bf7fb2f46b8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-19 16:53:34","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":85282,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAppetite-related visual analogue scale (VAS) responses\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7769021/v1/e10c44d058d13de222bd73bc.png"},{"id":93882362,"identity":"e60f6ea2-0014-4528-a637-b890ec68fac7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-19 16:53:31","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":58712,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePostprandial plasma Glucose, Insulin and appetite-regulating hormone responses.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7769021/v1/a3afaeca79b1fc2d475e6787.png"},{"id":93883776,"identity":"4af09a9c-c9be-45f3-9b66-de1c8bd0978c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-19 17:09:39","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":750738,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7769021/v1/3a633659-6ff3-4dbd-82cb-d6a55d786bcb.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"\u003cb\u003eYes\u003c/b\u003e there is potential conflict of interest.","formattedTitle":"The Role of High-Protein Instant Ramen Noodles in Inducing and Maintaining Satiety: Acute, Randomized, Crossover Study","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eDietary protein is important for building and maintaining the cells of the body, as well as for producing various substances that regulate metabolism (1). In addition to these basic functions, dietary protein has gained recognition for its role in weight management when consumed in higher quantities (2). The recommended dietary allowance (RDA) of protein for\u0026nbsp;adult men and non-pregnant, non-lactating women is 0.8 g (of good quality) protein per kg body weight per day (3); while the Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range (AMDR) is 10 to 35% of total daily energy intake provided by protein (1). Higher protein consumption above the RDA but within the AMDR has shown benefits, including the reduction of hunger, the increase of satiety, and the reduction of subsequent food intake which all together may contribute to the reduction of the risk of obesity (2).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eObesity exists in the United States and worldwide in epidemic proportions. The 2015 global estimate of adults with obesity was 603.7 million adults (4). The United States was listed among nations with the highest prevalence of adult obesity (4). Furthermore, national data from 2023 showed that more than 1 in 5 adults had obesity in the United States (5). The impact of obesity is further complicated by the multiple links of obesity to other chronic conditions such as diabetes, heart disease, and cancer (6).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStrategies for treating and reducing the risk of obesity have therefore been our priority. One strategy that has been evaluated in past studies is protein preload. Protein preload refers to eating a substantial quantity of protein to increase fullness and to reduce energy intake at the next meal. \u0026nbsp;An example would be to consume a breakfast containing higher protein which could reduce lunchtime energy intake (7-9). In the United States, a typical menu consists of 16% of the total daily protein intake at breakfast, 31% at lunch, and dinner provides about 41%, while 12% is provided while snacking (1). Therefore, breakfast would be the perfect meal for protein preload, to effectively reduce energy intake by impacting food intake during the meals that follow in the day. For example, a higher protein breakfast containing eggs reduced lunchtime energy intake compared to lower protein breakfast consumption, and there was no rebound consumption of food for at least 24 h thereafter (7). Higher protein consumed at breakfast has demonstrated increased fullness, reduced hunger (10, 11), and reduced food intake at subsequent meals \u0026nbsp;(2, 12).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEgg-containing HP breakfast promotes greater weight loss in individuals on a weight loss diet (13). However, eggs are not considered a vegetarian option by many. \u0026nbsp;Noodles on the other hand, are a vegetarian option, can be consumed before lunch, and are commonly consumed in the United States (14). Worldwide, the United States ranks as the 6\u003csup\u003eth\u003c/sup\u003e highest noodle-consuming nation with 5,150 million servings per year as noted by the World Instant Noodles Association demand rankings in the year 2023 (15). HP instant ramen noodles are now commercially available, and considering the convenience and high acceptance of noodles, HP noodles are a good vegetarian candidate for testing the role of protein preload in increasing satiety and reducing hunger for the subsequent lunch. We hypothesized that HP instant ramen noodles breakfast would reduce hunger, increase satiety, reduce lunch-time energy intake, and clear postprandial glucose faster than SP instant ramen noodles breakfast.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eStudy design\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study incorporated a double blind, 2-condition, randomized, crossover design performed on two testing days at Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX. On the test days, the participants consumed one portion of HP instant ramen noodles breakfast, or a weight-matched portion of SP instant ramen noodles breakfast in a random order. The participants and outcome assessors were blinded to the randomization. Participants were not told which instant ramen noodle they were receiving on the test days. Three to thirty-five days separated the two conditions. The protocol was approved by the Institutional Review Board at Texas Tech University. All participants provided their informed consent and were free to withdraw from the study at any time.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eParticipants\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe participants were 25 generally healthy men and women between the ages of 25 and 45, with BMI between 20-30kg/m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e. Participants were recruited from the Lubbock, Texas, area using Texas Tech University Listserv (Tech Announce). Flyers were posted on campus and in the Lubbock community. Interested individuals were excluded based on the following criteria, body weight \u0026lt;110 pounds, diabetes of any type, fasting capillary glucose \u0026ge;100 mg/dL, unstable systemic medical condition, \u0026gt;10% change in body weight in the prior 3 months, taking medications that affect appetite or glucose regulation, prior bariatric surgery, unmedicated blood pressure \u0026gt;130/90 mmHg, intolerance, dislike or allergy to the study foods, tobacco use within 6 months, consumption of \u0026gt;14 alcoholic drinks/week, following a weight loss diet during the study recruitment period, irregular menstrual cycle, pregnant or lactating, and being unwilling or unable to have an IV catheter inserted. The flow diagram of participant screening and enrollment is shown in Figure 1.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eTesting day\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants were at the research facility for approximately 5 hours per test day. They were asked to limit physical activity to the past 24 hours; refraining from vigorous physical activity like running, as well as other vigorous physical activities in which one could only say a few words before one had to take a breath. The participants were provided with a standardized dinner to consume the day prior to testing. Following a 12-hour fast (only water was allowed), participants arrived at the facility between 07:00 and 9:00, had an IV catheter inserted in a vein in the forearm, a fasting blood sample was taken, and visual analogue scale (VAS) was administered. Participants were provided with the test noodles and were asked to consume the noodles within 15 minutes. Water was provided at breakfast time and for the next 180 minutes when the participants remained in the clinic. Following completion of the meal, blood was sampled at regular intervals (30, 60, 120, and 180 minutes) for the assessment of hunger- and satiety hormones (i.e., Glucagon Like Peptide-1, Peptide-YY3-36, and Ghrelin), and glucose and insulin. VAS questionnaires were utilized for obtaining appetite-related responses including hunger, satiety, fullness, prospective food consumption, the desire to eat something sweet, the desire to eat something savory, the desire to eat something fatty, and the desire to eat something salty. The primary outcome was Appetite Score (mm*180 minutes) which was calculated from VAS scores as satiety + fullness + (100 \u0026minus; hunger) + (100 \u0026minus; prospective food consumption)/4\u0026nbsp;(16).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eTest meals and ad libitum lunch\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDuring the HP condition, participants received one portion of high-protein instant ramen noodles [CHEF WOO Roasted Chicken Flavor Ramen Cup Noodles, Borealis Foods; 71 g; 320 kcal; fat 14 g (39% kcal); saturated fat 1.5 g; carbohydrates 29 g (36% kcal); fiber 2 g; total sugars 3 g; protein 20 g (25% kcal)]. During the control condition, participants received a weight-matched portion of SP instant ramen noodles [RAMEN EXPRESS Chicken Flavor Ramen Cup Noodle Chef Woo, Borealis Foods; 71 g; 311 kcal; fat 13 g (38% kcal); saturated fat 6 g; carbohydrates 41 g (53% kcal); fiber 1 g; total sugars 2 g; protein 6 g (8% kcal)]. For both conditions, the noodles were presented to the participants in the same manner in a plain white cup. Table 1 shows the nutrient composition of instant ramen noodles breakfasts offered.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor determining the buffet lunch intake, an ad libitum buffet of 10 commonly liked foods (mac \u0026amp; cheese, lasagna, fried rice, cheddar cheese dip, humus, guacamole, corn chips, potato crisps, carrots, and celery was provided (4771 kcal). Each food item in the buffet was provided in pre-weighed portions. Participants were instructed to eat as much or as little as they desired. The buffet was provided in an isolated room and the use of cell phones, books, TV, and computers was not permitted during the meal to limit distractions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe participants were told that the purpose of the study was to help us learn if HP instant ramen noodles increased satiety, reduced hunger, and improved blood sugar levels compared to regular SP instant ramen noodles. Food intake was determined covertly by carefully measuring the pre-meal weight of each buffet item minus the post weight. Plate waste was also measured. Energy intake was calculated based on the nutrition facts information of the buffet items.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStatistical Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStatistical model assumptions were evaluated and confirmed prior to analyses for hypothesis testing. For non-normal response variables, rank-transformed values were computed to obtain normally distributed data. The mixed model procedure was used to examine the effect of study condition (HP vs. SP instant ramen noodles) on each outcome. The model included effects of participant, time, condition, randomization sequence, and gender (participant was included as a random effect). Randomization sequence, condition, visit, and time were modeled as fixed effects. In addition, sex was modeled as a fixed effect to examine differences in response by sex. AUC over 180 minutes was calculated using the trapezoidal rule. A paired t-test was used to examine between-condition differences in the buffet lunch intake. \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.05 was considered as statistically significant. To get complete VAS data for the assessment of the primary outcome (appetite score), data analysis was performed on 25 participants who completed the trial (completers analysis). All analyses were conducted with the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS; version 29.0; SPSS, Chicago, IL, USA).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eBaseline characteristics of the study participants\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNinety-two individuals were telephone-screened. Forty-eight individuals were excluded while the remaining 44 individuals were further screened in the clinic for eligibility. After the clinic screening, 14 individuals were excluded while the remaining 30 individuals (19 males and 11 females) were enrolled and randomized. Of these 30 individuals, 25 completed the study (16 males and 9 females) while 5 withdrew (3 males and 2 females). Of these 5 individuals, 2 withdrew because their time for visit 2 elapsed during the wait time to employ a phlebotomist, 1 could not tolerate blood sampling, while the remaining 2 withdrew for personal reasons. Only the 25 participants who completed the study were included in the analysis set (Figure 1). Participants were randomly assigned to HP instant ramen noodles or SP instant ramen noodles. At the time of randomization, the participants were 64% males with a mean ± SD age of 31±4y and BMI of (mean ± SD) 23.96 ± 1.86 kg/m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e. The racial and ethnic distribution of the participants was 20% Black, 24% Asian, 28% White, 4% Middle Eastern, and 24% Hispanic.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eAppetite score\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;and appetite-related VAS measures\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAppetite score and appetite-related VAS measures are presented in Figure 2. The primary outcome, appetite score, was not different between the HP and SP noodles conditions (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026gt;0.05). The mixed model procedure showed that an overall main effect of breakfast condition was observed to be significant for the desire to eat something savory (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; 0.05) and the desire to eat something sweet (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; 0.05). The HP meal led to significantly greater desire to eat something savory vs SP (+6.37 mm; 95% CI: 2.02, -10.71m mm; \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.03). \u0026nbsp;The HP meal also led to significantly greater desire to eat something sweet vs SP (+4.94 mm; 95% CI: 1.13, 8.76 mm; \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.011), but no significant differences between meals were observed for hunger, satiety, fullness, the desire to eat something salty, and the desire to eat something fatty (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026gt; 0.05). \u0026nbsp;However, an overall main effect of breakfast condition was observed to be significant for the desire for prospective food consumption (P\u0026lt; 0.05), HP led to reduced desire for prospective food consumption vs. SP (-4.33 mm; 95% CI: -7.72, -.94 mm; \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.013).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eGlucose, hormonal responses and subsequent food intake\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe hormonal and glucose response to the breakfast meals were not significantly different between HP and SP conditions. No main effect of breakfast meal was observed to be significant for PYY3-36, GLP-1, Ghrelin, Insulin, and Glucose (Figure 3). Subsequent food intake was measured from the ad libitum lunch and is presented in Table 3. The HP meal led to a significantly lower energy intake during the buffet lunch compared to the SP meal (P\u0026lt;0.05). \u0026nbsp;Intake of macronutrients, saturated fat, and sodium were also significantly lower after HP breakfasts compared to SP breakfasts. \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussions","content":"\u003cp\u003eProtein preload lowers energy intake at a subsequent meal \u0026nbsp;(8, 9, 17). \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhey, casein, eggs, and meat have often been utilized in high protein studies. We tested a vegetarian high-protein product comprising of pea and wheat protein. \u0026nbsp; Moreover, noodles are a versatile food item and are a generally accepted staple in the United States (14). This study is the first to evaluate the effect of HP ramen noodles breakfast as a protein pre-load on subjective and objective markers of satiety, hunger, lunchtime energy intake, and glucose response in generally healthy adult males and females with a BMI of 20 - 30kg/m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e. Isocaloric portion of SP ramen noodles were used as control. Significantly lower energy intake at lunchtime following the HP noodle breakfast was a key finding, which is particularly strengthened by the double blind, randomized crossover study design.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;Nonetheless, there was no significant difference between HP and SP conditions for appetite score, perceived hunger, satiety, fullness, the desire to eat something fatty, or the desire to eat something salty. Similarly, there was no significant difference between blood glucose, and the appetite hormones (GLP-1, PYY3-36, and Ghrelin). The desire to eat something savory and the desire to eat something sweet were higher in the HP condition compared to the SP condition.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOne of the important messages from this study is the low reliability of subjective measures (VAS) and even hunger and satiety hormones in predicting a reduction in lunch-time food intake. One possibility for this is that the study may be underpowered to observe these effects in comparing 20g protein preload to 6 g preload. A review of acute feeding studies comparing high protein with lower protein breakfasts demonstrated a decrease in energy intake (38-148 kcal energy intake reduction) when the HP diets provided 46g-127g of protein (2). \u0026nbsp; A study by Leidy and Racki obtained a significant reduction in hunger and satiety as well as reduced food intake(9) when they compared 48 g protein preload to 18g (9). Perhaps, we would have observed changes in objective and subjective measures of satiety in accordance with the reduction in energy intake, had we used a higher protein preload breakfast. However, we used one serving of noodles as a test meal. It would not have been practically relatable to increase serving size, just to increase protein content of the test breakfast. Overall, this study demonstrates that statistically significant difference in food intake was observed between HP and SP conditions without the differences in subjective and hormonal indicators of food intake. Therefore, determining actual food intake may be better than relying on surrogate indicators of food intake. \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOverall, our study demonstrates that lower energy intake can result from the consumption of high-protein meal of up to 20 g protein compared to a meal containing 6g protein.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA potential limitation of this study was a lack of significant difference between HP and SP conditions for ghrelin, PYY3-36, GLP1, glucose and insulin. \u0026nbsp; Objectively, satiety can be detected by changes in the levels of satiety-related hormones including GLP-1, PYY3-36 and the orexigenic hormone ghrelin (18). In adults, ghrelin rises to reflect hunger and then reduces after eating (19). We did not find differences in ghrelin levels after consumption of HP versus SP \u0026nbsp; noodles. In contrast, Bloom and colleagues found that a high-protein diet significantly decreased ghrelin compared to a lower protein diet (20). In addition to not finding any difference between conditions for ghrelin in our study, we also found no difference between conditions for PYY3-36 and GLP-1. \u0026nbsp;Of our participants, 38%, 52% and 58% had incomplete GLP1, ghrelin or PYY3-36 data, respectively due to undetectable levels of the hormones. Therefore, we cannot draw broad conclusions about the effect of high-protein noodles on hormonal response. Some other studies (8, 9) showed greater reduction of food intake after consumption of high protein diets without a \u0026nbsp;change in PYY3-36. This also suggests the possibility that HP-induced reduction of food intake may not operate through PYY3-36 signaling. In addition, Leidy et al reported that while postprandial appetitive sensations and hormonal responses are associated with and may lead to alterations in subsequent energy intake, they do not consistently track with each other (2).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLower glucose and insulin excursion are metabolically beneficial because hyperglycemia and hyperinsulinemia are linked to insulin resistance and the development of conditions like obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus (21, 22). Foods such as eggs have been suggested to promote satiety by preventing large deviations in plasma glucose and insulin levels (23). Compared to standard protein test meals, high-protein test meals reduce blood glucose and may help in regulating postprandial glucose (24). In our study, however, no differences between-conditions were detected for insulin and glucose. In support of this findings, Baum and colleagues (25) also found no effect of protein dose over time on blood glucose. In their study, after children consumed high-protein (21%, 344Kcal) and low-protein (4%, 327 kcal) diets, blood glucose excursion was not different in the high-protein when compared to the low-protein conditions (25).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOne of the strengths of our study was the double blind, randomized controlled crossover design. The reduction in lunch-time energy intake after the HP condition was about 10%, and was similar (lower by about 10%) for macronutrients and saturated fat for the HP condition. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt is unknown if the 10% difference in energy intake could be widened by increasing the protein content of the protein preload, by increasing the difference in protein amounts between HP and SP conditions, or by offering greater food amounts for lunch. \u0026nbsp;Also, an important question is whether the 10% reduction (nearly 100 Kcal) of energy intake is biologically meaningful, mainly for weight loss / management. \u0026nbsp;Will the intake of HP noodles for breakfast induce weight loss, or will it promote weight loss only in individuals already on lower calorie diets, by empowering them to eat less by reducing their food intake? \u0026nbsp; A short-term study that incorporated eggs in breakfast and compared it to a breakfast containing bagels, showed a 22% reduction in lunchtime food intake (7). The next study determined the role of these breakfasts in 152 individuals either on or without weight loss diets (13). \u0026nbsp; The egg breakfast helped produce 65% greater weight loss in groups on weight loss diets. There was no significant difference in weight loss in groups that were not on weight loss diets (13). \u0026nbsp;A similar study with HP and SP noodles may help further understand the significance and clinical implications of these findings.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn summary, the findings show that a high-protein instant ramen noodles breakfast acutely decreases the desire for prospective food consumption and subsequent lunch time energy intake compared to standard protein instant ramen noodles of equal energy density.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNoodles are commonly consumed in the United States (14) so, current noodle consumers might find it easy to incorporate high-protein versions into their diets. They also provide a vegetarian option for use as a protein preload. A practical utility of these findings would be to help individuals in reducing energy intake for weight loss / management, which may be determined in subsequent studies.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eCompeting Interests:\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eBorealis Foods Inc. provided funding support for this study. The sponsor had no role in the study design, data collection, statistical analysis, data interpretation, or writing of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgements:\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe also thank Dr. Kristina Petersen for her guidance in protocol development and Dr. Arubala Reddy for her support with study coordination.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics Statement:\u003c/strong\u003e This study was approved by the Texas Tech University Institutional Review Board (TTU IRB: IRB2023-3; Cayuse ID: 22-0729). All participants provided written informed consent prior to participation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical Trial Registration:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThis trial was registered at ClinicalTrials.gov with the identifier NCT05725681.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability Statement\u003c/strong\u003e: Data are available upon request from the corresponding author.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHoy MK, Clemens JC, Moshfegh A. Protein Intake of Adults: What We Eat in America, NHANES 2015-2016. 2023.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLeidy HJ, Clifton PM, Astrup A, Wycherley TP, Westerterp-Plantenga MS, Luscombe-Marsh ND, et al. The role of protein in weight loss and maintenance. The American journal of clinical nutrition. 2015;101(6):1320S\u0026ndash;9S.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eIntakes SCotSEoDR, Interpretation So, Intakes UoDR, Nutrients SoURLo, Fiber PotDoD, Macronutrients Po. Dietary reference intakes for energy, carbohydrate, fiber, fat, fatty acids, cholesterol, protein, and amino acids: National Academies Press; 2005.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCollaborators GO. Health effects of overweight and obesity in 195 countries over 25 years. New England journal of medicine. 2017;377(1):13\u0026ndash;27.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCenters for Disease Control and Prevention. Adult obesity prevalence maps. U.S Dept of Health and Human Services. 2023.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJastreboff AM, Kotz CM, Kahan S, Kelly AS, Heymsfield SB. Obesity as a disease: the obesity society 2018 position statement. Obesity. 2019;27(1):7\u0026ndash;9.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eVander Wal JS, Marth JM, Khosla P, Jen KC, Dhurandhar NV. Short-term effect of eggs on satiety in overweight and obese subjects. Journal of the American College of Nutrition. 2005;24(6):510\u0026ndash;5.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBrennan IM, Luscombe-Marsh ND, Seimon RV, Otto B, Horowitz M, Wishart JM, et al. Effects of fat, protein, and carbohydrate and protein load on appetite, plasma cholecystokinin, peptide YY, and ghrelin, and energy intake in lean and obese men. American Journal of Physiology-Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology. 2012;303(1):G129\u0026ndash;G40.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLeidy H, Racki E. The addition of a protein-rich breakfast and its effects on acute appetite control and food intake in \u0026lsquo;breakfast-skipping\u0026rsquo;adolescents. International journal of obesity. 2010;34(7):1125\u0026ndash;33.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRains TM, Leidy HJ, Sanoshy KD, Lawless AL, Maki KC. A randomized, controlled, crossover trial to assess the acute appetitive and metabolic effects of sausage and egg-based convenience breakfast meals in overweight premenopausal women. Nutrition journal. 2015;14(1):1\u0026ndash;10.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLeidy HJ, Bossingham MJ, Mattes RD, Campbell WW. Increased dietary protein consumed at breakfast leads to an initial and sustained feeling of fullness during energy restriction compared to other meal times. British Journal of Nutrition. 2008;101(6):798\u0026ndash;803.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eVander Wal JS, Marth JM, Khosla P, Jen KL, Dhurandhar NV. Short-term effect of eggs on satiety in overweight and obese subjects. J Am Coll Nutr. 2005;24(6):510\u0026ndash;5.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eVander Wal JS, Gupta A, Khosla P, Dhurandhar NV. Egg breakfast enhances weight loss. Int J Obes (Lond). 2008;32(10):1545\u0026ndash;51.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eChung CE, Lee KW, Cho MS. Noodle consumption patterns of American consumers: NHANES 2001-2002. Nutrition research and practice. 2010;4(3):243\u0026ndash;51.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWorld Instant Noodles Association. Global demand for instant noodles, 2023 Demand rankings. 2024.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGibbons C, Hopkins M, Beaulieu K, Oustric P, Blundell JE. Issues in Measuring and Interpreting Human Appetite (Satiety/Satiation) and Its Contribution to Obesity. Curr Obes Rep. 2019;8(2):77\u0026ndash;87.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBelza A, Ritz C, S\u0026oslash;rensen MQ, Holst JJ, Rehfeld JF, Astrup A. Contribution of gastroenteropancreatic appetite hormones to protein-induced satiety. The American of Clinical Nutrition. 2013;97(5):980\u0026ndash;9.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGibbons C, Hopkins M, Beaulieu K, Oustric P, Blundell JE. Issues in measuring and interpreting human appetite (satiety/satiation) and its contribution to obesity. Current obesity reports. 2019;8:77\u0026ndash;87.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLiu AG, Puyau RS, Han H, Johnson WD, Greenway FL, Dhurandhar NV. The effect of an egg breakfast on satiety in children and adolescents: a randomized crossover trial. Journal of the American College of Nutrition. 2015;34(3):185\u0026ndash;90.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBlom WA, Lluch A, Stafleu A, Vinoy S, Holst JJ, Schaafsma G, et al. Effect of a high-protein breakfast on the postprandial ghrelin response. The American journal of clinical nutrition. 2006;83(2):211\u0026ndash;20.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBlaak E, Antoine JM, Benton D, Bj\u0026ouml;rck I, Bozzetto L, Brouns F, et al. Impact of postprandial glycaemia on health and prevention of disease. Obesity reviews. 2012;13(10):923\u0026ndash;84.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSamkani A, Skytte MJ, Kandel D, Kjaer S, Astrup A, Deacon CF, et al. A carbohydrate-reduced high-protein diet acutely decreases postprandial and diurnal glucose excursions in type 2 diabetes patients. British Journal of Nutrition. 2018;119(8):910\u0026ndash;7.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRatliff J, Leite JO, de Ogburn R, Puglisi MJ, VanHeest J, Fernandez ML. Consuming eggs for breakfast influences plasma glucose and ghrelin, while reducing energy intake during the next 24 hours in adult men. Nutrition Research. 2010;30(2):96\u0026ndash;103.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYang D, Liu Z, Yang H, Jue Y. Acute effects of high-protein versus normal-protein isocaloric meals on satiety and ghrelin. European journal of nutrition. 2014;53:493\u0026ndash;500.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBaum JI, Gray M, Binns A. Breakfasts higher in protein increase postprandial energy expenditure, increase fat oxidation, and reduce hunger in overweight children from 8 to 12 years of age. The Journal of nutrition. 2015;145(10):2229\u0026ndash;35.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003eTable 1: Nutrient composition of instant ramen noodles breakfast\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cu\u003eComposition\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cu\u003eIntervention\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(HP noodle)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Chef Woo Roasted Chicken Flavor)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cu\u003eControl\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Standard Protein noodle)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Chef Woo Ramen Express Chicken Flavor)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWeight (g)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEnergy (Kcal)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e320\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e311\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCarbohydrate (g)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProtein (g)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFat (g)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFiber (g)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 2: Buffet Lunch offered: Amount and Macronutrient composition\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFood items\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAmount\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEnergy (Kcal)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCarbohydrate (g)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProtein (g)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFat\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(g)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStouffer\u0026apos;s\u0026reg; Baked Macaroni \u0026amp; Cheese\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e496 g\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e704\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e74.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStouffer\u0026apos;s\u0026reg; Lasagna with Meat \u0026amp; Sauce\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e535 g\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e648\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e75.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHealthy Choice\u0026reg; Simply Steamers Chicken Fried Rice Frozen Meal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e566 g\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e600\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFRITOS\u0026reg; Mild Cheddar Cheese Dip\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100 g\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e132\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSabra\u0026reg; Classic Original Hummus\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100 g\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e231\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWHOLLY GUACAMOLE\u0026reg; Avocado Verde\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100 g\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e231\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFRITOS\u0026reg; Original Corn Chips\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e262 g\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1504\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e150.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLay\u0026apos;s\u0026reg; Oven Baked Original Potato Crisps\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e177 g\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e672\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBaby peeled carrots\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100 g\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCelery sticks\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100 g\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.97\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.69\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4771\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e488.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e150.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e248.27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 3. Ad libitum buffet meal Intake (N=25)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"648\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParameters\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIntake\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean difference\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; 95% CI\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Standard Protein)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIntervention\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(HP)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCalories (kcal)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e981 \u0026plusmn; 407.76\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e887 \u0026plusmn; 318.29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e94.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e179.75\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal fat (g)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44.38 \u0026plusmn; 21.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39.37 \u0026plusmn; 15.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaturated fat (g)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.89 \u0026plusmn; 5.70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.54 \u0026plusmn; 4.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCarbohydrates\u0026nbsp;(g)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e102.76 \u0026plusmn; 40.72\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e93.65 \u0026plusmn; 32.95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal sugars (g)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.68 \u0026plusmn; 5.83\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.85 \u0026plusmn; 5.38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.83\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProtein (g)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41.19 \u0026plusmn; 17.58\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.21 \u0026plusmn; 16.28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSodium (mg)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2225.84 \u0026plusmn; 0.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2011.46 \u0026plusmn; 0.79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e214.38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e387.74\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFiber (g)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.77 \u0026plusmn; 3.97\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.35 \u0026plusmn; 3.85\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSignificance at p \u0026lt; 0.05. Values are means \u0026plusmn; SD. Data were analyzed using paired samples t-test. Values in the same column with * indicate statistically significant.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"nutrition-and-diabetes","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":false,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"nutd","sideBox":"Learn more about [Nutrition \u0026 Diabetes](http://www.nature.com/nutd/)","snPcode":"41387","submissionUrl":"https://mts-nutd.nature.com/cgi-bin/main.plex","title":"Nutrition \u0026 Diabetes","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"ejp","reportingPortfolio":"Nature AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"high-protein breakfast, appetite regulation, energy intake, GLP-1, ghrelin, Peptide YY3-36, randomized crossover trial, satiety","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7769021/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7769021/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eObjective\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe purpose of the study was to test if a breakfast meal of high-protein instant ramen noodles would increase satiety, reduce hunger, improve glycemic response, and reduce lunch-time energy intake compared to an isocaloric portion of standard protein instant ramen noodles.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethods\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA double-blind randomized crossover study was conducted. Participants were recruited from the community of Lubbock, TX. Following an overnight fast, 25 men and women (age 25 – 45 y; BMI 20 – 30 kg/m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e) randomly completed 2 testing days that included a 71 g breakfast of high-protein (HP) ramen noodles (320 kcal; protein 20 g [25% kcal]; carbohydrates 29 g [36% kcal]; fat 14 g [39% kcal]) or \u0026nbsp;71 g breakfast of standard protein (SP) ramen noodles (311 kcal; protein 6 g [8% kcal]; carbohydrates 41 g [53% kcal]; fat 13 g [38% kcal]). Appetite and hormonal responses were collected over 5 h followed by an\u0026nbsp;ad libitum\u0026nbsp;buffet lunch. Mixed effect model was used to examine the effect of different factors and the conditions on each outcome. A paired t-test was used to examine differences in lunch intake parameters between the two conditions. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA comparison of the HP vs SP breakfast conditions showed that appetite score, the primary outcome, was similar. HP led to greater reduction of the desire for prospective food consumption and reduced lunch-time energy intake compared to SP (-94kcal; 95% CI: 8.63, 179.75 kcal; p\u0026lt;0.04). Glucose, insulin, ghrelin, GLP-1 and PYY3-36 were not different between the treatments. Greater desire to eat something savory or something sweet was observed following HP breakfast compared to SP breakfast (p\u0026lt;0.05). Perceived feeling of hunger, satiety, and the desire to eat something fatty or something salty was not different between the conditions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA breakfast of high-protein instant ramen noodles acutely decreased the desire for prospective food consumption and subsequently reduced lunch-time energy intake compared to an isocaloric standard protein instant ramen noodles breakfast.\u003cstrong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003eAmong individuals who consume noodles, the incorporation of a high-protein version might be an effective strategy for reducing short-term food intake.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"The Role of High-Protein Instant Ramen Noodles in Inducing and Maintaining Satiety: Acute, Randomized, Crossover Study","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-19 16:53:13","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7769021/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"revise","date":"2025-11-18T11:10:57+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"This content is not available.","date":"2025-11-14T06:06:21+00:00","index":2,"fulltext":"This content is not available."},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"This content is not available.","date":"2025-11-12T16:18:21+00:00","index":2,"fulltext":"This content is not available."},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"This content is not available.","date":"2025-11-08T02:57:32+00:00","index":1,"fulltext":"This content is not available."},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"This content is not available.","date":"2025-10-12T05:22:25+00:00","index":1,"fulltext":"This content is not available."},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-10-06T18:48:20+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-10-06T13:44:54+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Nutrition \u0026 Diabetes","date":"2025-10-03T21:00:57+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksFailed","content":"","date":"2025-10-03T11:04:28+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-10-02T20:55:36+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"nutrition-and-diabetes","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":false,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"nutd","sideBox":"Learn more about [Nutrition \u0026 Diabetes](http://www.nature.com/nutd/)","snPcode":"41387","submissionUrl":"https://mts-nutd.nature.com/cgi-bin/main.plex","title":"Nutrition \u0026 Diabetes","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"ejp","reportingPortfolio":"Nature AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"2a75d65c-0e4b-4233-a131-4b3253e364f0","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 19th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[{"id":55857513,"name":"Health sciences/Health care"},{"id":55857514,"name":"Health sciences/Health care/Nutrition"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-08T15:37:33+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-19 16:53:13","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7769021","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7769021","identity":"rs-7769021","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}