Ultra-strong nanoporous copper enabled by amorphization-directed dealloying

Ultra-strong nanoporous copper enabled by amorphization-directed dealloying | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Ultra-strong nanoporous copper enabled by amorphization-directed dealloying Jackson Smith, Ali Ramezannejad, Matthew Field, Edwin Mayes, Tingting Song, and 2 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7778133/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Nanoporous metals offer exceptional surface-area-enabled multifunctionality, yet their adoption as bulk structural materials has long been hindered by intrinsic fragility. Here, we present amorphization-directed dealloying, a transformative synthetic strategy that produces bulk nanoporous copper (NPCu) with a record specific compressive strength of 43.4 kN·m/kg, exceeding all previously reported porous coppers and approaching the performance of fully dense, commercially pure titanium. By kinetically steering the dealloying pathway away from crystallization and towards amorphization, this approach yields a hierarchical nanoligament architecture in which ultrafine twinned nanocrystals are embedded within an amorphous backbone. The resulting amorphous–nanocrystalline hybrid network achieves a three-fold strength enhancement over single-crystal NPCu while mitigating dealloying-induced stresses through compositionally guided precursor design. This novel synthesis strategy directly addresses the longstanding mechanical limitations of nanoporous metals, establishing a scalable framework for creating ultra-strong porous architectures and opening opportunities for their use as next-generation structural–functional materials. Physical sciences/Materials science/Nanoscale materials/Synthesis and processing Physical sciences/Materials science/Nanoscale materials/Structural properties Physical sciences/Materials science/Structural materials/Metals and alloys nanoporous copper synthesis dealloying amorphous nanocrystalline Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 1. Introduction Nanoporous metals, bicontinuous networks of nanoscale pores and ligaments, deliver exceptional multifunctionality that stems from an enormous, tunable surface area and interfacial reactivity [ 1 , 2 ]. Among them, nanoporous copper (NPCu) is particularly notable for its superior thermophysical properties, including high electrical and thermal conductivity as well as catalytic activity. Despite these advantages, the deployment of bulk NPCu in industrial applications has been fundamentally limited by its inherent mechanical fragility. Recent advances in cellular materials have demonstrated that precisely architected porous metals can overcome traditional trade-offs between mechanical and functional performance, achieving near-theoretical specific strength and stiffness without compromising high surface area [ 3 – 8 ]. These breakthroughs define a new pathway toward next-generation bulk NPCu for advanced applications. Dealloying stands out as a particularly promising and scalable technique for producing such precisely architected, hierarchical nanoscale architectures. By selectively dissolving less noble elements from multicomponent alloys, dealloying generates interconnected nanoligament frameworks with feature sizes approaching 10 nm [ 9 – 11 ]. NPCu synthesized by this route has been explored for a wide range of applications, including heat exchange [ 12 , 13 ], electrocatalysis [ 14 , 15 ], chemical sensing [ 16 , 17 ], energy storage [ 18 , 19 ], antimicrobial coatings [ 20 , 21 ], and filtration [ 22 ]. Yet, for all these promising applications, mechanical limitations, most notably cracking and instability driven by dealloying-induced tensile stresses from volumetric shrinkage [ 23 ], remain major barriers to their practical, bulk implementation [ 24 – 26 ]. A survey of prior work (Table S1 ) highlights the persistent challenges in achieving mechanically robust nanoporous copper. Conventional precursor systems such as Al–Cu, Mg–Cu, and Zn–Cu often form brittle intermetallic phases that fracture during or after dealloying [ 27 – 39 ]. Even ductile, single-phase solid-solution alloys like Mn–Cu, which avoid intermetallic formation, frequently experience catastrophic cracking driven by large, intrinsic shrinkage stresses [ 40 , 41 ], a phenomenon observed across diverse compositions and dealloying conditions. More exploratory strategies, such as sintering dealloyed NPCu powders to heal native cracks, can partially restore ductility, but at the expense of nanoligament coarsening and residual cracking [ 42 , 43 ]. Skeletal alloy–NPCu composites, formed from dealloyed and undealloyed regions, improve structural integrity but compromise specific surface area [ 44 ]. Collectively, these studies reveal a fundamental gap in understanding ligament formation and stress evolution. To date, no work has leveraged atomic-scale control over nanoligament formation during dealloying to redefine conventional dealloying kinetics, offering a pathway to simultaneously strengthen nanoporous copper and suppress cracking. In this research, we introduce a novel synthesis framework, termed amorphization-directed dealloying, designed to overcome the long-standing mechanical limitations of nanoporous metals by revealing new insights into the interplay between dissolution kinetics, atomic diffusion, and mechanical performance. Unlike conventional dealloying, which typically drives crystallization and leads to cracking even in ductile systems such as Mn–Cu, our synthesis approach enables kinetic control over dealloying dynamics in engineered Mn–Cu precursors. This control yields an unprecedented nanoligament architecture, where ultrafine (~ 5 nm) twinned nanograins are uniformly embedded within an amorphous Cu matrix. The resulting amorphous–nanocrystalline hybrid structure delivers exceptional strength and structural integrity in bulk NPCu, directly resolving the key limitations of traditional synthesis routes. The following sections detail the conceptual design, the governing synthesis mechanisms, the observed microstructural evolution, and the resulting mechanical performance of this pathway. 2. Conceptual design 2.1 Amorphization-directed dealloying for high strength NPCu The classical dealloying model, established by Erlebacher et al. [ 45 ], describes nanoligament formation as a diffusion-controlled process in which less noble atoms selectively dissolve, while the remaining noble atoms migrate along the solid–liquid interface to assemble into a three-dimensional network. Under typical conditions, defined by electrolyte composition, concentration, and temperature, these ligaments crystallize into the thermodynamically stable phase of the noble element, such as face-centered cubic (FCC) Cu, whether the precursor alloy is crystalline [ 46 – 50 ] or amorphous [ 51 – 54 ]. This paradigm of diffusion-driven crystallization has guided nearly all previous studies and is schematically illustrated in Fig. 1a. Although crystallization is widely assumed, sporadic deviations have been reported. For instance, amorphous–nanograin hybrids have appeared in nanoporous Au, though often attributed to preparation artifacts such as focused ion beam (FIB) damage [ 55 ]. More deliberate modifications, including dealloying under external magnetic fields [ 56 ], have been shown to induce amorphous features, though the mechanisms underlying their formation remain unexplored. These findings suggest that non-equilibrium dealloying regimes may enable alternative nanostructural pathways beyond conventional diffusion-driven crystallization. Building on this insight, we propose a distinct mechanism known as amorphization-directed dealloying (Fig. 1b). We hypothesize that under rapid dissolution of the less noble atoms (e.g., Mn in Mn–Cu precursors), atomic diffusion at the interface may become restricted, suppressing crystallization and kinetically trapping the noble atoms in a non-equilibrium amorphous configuration. As dealloying progresses under elevated temperature and volumetric contraction, these driving forces could promote partial ordering, leading to the in-situ nucleation of nanoscale noble metal grains (e.g. FCC Cu) within the amorphous backbone. Such hybrid architectures are reminiscent of metallic glasses, where nanocrystals can emerge through annealing [ 57 ] or plastic deformation [ 58 ], yielding exceptional strength while mitigating the inherently low ductility of amorphous metals [ 59 ]. Within this framework, dealloying kinetics emerges as a decisive variable. We hypothesize that rapid dissolution in concentrated acid at elevated temperature may constrain atomic rearrangement and thereby favour amorphous–nanograin hybrids, whereas slower dealloying in dilute acid at lower temperature is more likely to permit diffusion-driven crystallization into single-crystal nanoligaments. Comparative evaluation of these regimes may provide a pathway to test how kinetics influence nanostructure evolution and, in turn, mechanical performance in nanoporous metals. 2.2 Precursor alloy design for high strength NPCu Realizing amorphization-directed dealloying requires careful precursor alloy design that balances two competing demands: enabling complete selective dissolution of the less noble element while preserving mechanical integrity in the resulting porous structure. This balance depends on three parameters: (i) a large electrochemical potential difference to drive dissolution, (ii) high ductility to accommodate contraction stresses, and (iii) compositional tuning to prevent passivation while minimizing cracking. First, the alloying element must be more reactive than Cu to ensure selective dissolution, while the alloy retains enough ductility to withstand shrinkage-induced stresses. These requirements exclude brittle intermetallic systems such as Mg–Cu, Al–Cu, and Zn–Cu, which typically fail under contraction. By contrast, FCC Mn–Cu solid solutions offer high solid solubility of Mn in Cu, suppress brittle intermetallics, and provide robust mechanical properties, making them a promising precursor system. Second, the Mn concentration must exceed the critical parting limit [ 60 ] to sustain dissolution, as insufficient Mn leads to premature passivation [ 60 – 64 ]. Yet excessive Mn content amplifies shrinkage stresses, promoting cracks and defects [ 24 ]. Compositional optimization is therefore essential to balance dissolution completeness with structural stability. To validate these principles experimentally, we synthesized four Mn–xCu alloys with varying Cu contents (x = 20, 30, 40, and 50 at.%). According to the Mn–Cu phase diagram (Fig. 2a), these alloys solidify into Mn-rich dendrites (~ 10 at.% Cu) surrounded by Cu-enriched interdendritic regions (35–57 at.% Cu). This heterogeneity is advantageous as Mn-rich dendrites dissolve readily during dealloying, while Cu-rich regions remain below the passivation threshold [ 63 ], ensuring both selectivity and mechanical integrity. All precursor alloys underwent identical dealloying treatments, providing a controlled framework to isolate the role of precursor composition. By comparing the resulting microstructures and properties, we will establish how precursor alloy chemistry dictates the success of amorphization-directed dealloying and the emergence of bulk high-strength NPCu. 3. Results and Discussion 3.1 Precursor composition and dealloying pathways The as-cast precursor alloys exhibit a characteristic dendritic solid-solution microstructure, as shown in Figs. 1b-e. Backscattered electron (BSE) imaging reveals pronounced elemental segregation between dendrites and interdendritic regions, confirmed by energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) mapping of Cu and Mn (Fig. 2f). This micro-segregation arises from Cu rejection during solidification of Mn-rich dendrites and establishes the essential compositional heterogeneity for effective dealloying. EDS maps of a representative Mn-40Cu specimen (Figs. 2g–h) clearly illustrate this spatial partitioning, with concentrations matching the Cu-Mn phase diagram predictions. Dealloying outcomes depend strongly on precursor composition (Figs. 1i–l). Mn-20Cu specimens suffered poor mechanical integrity, fracturing easily due to (i) excessive Mn content causing volumetric strain in the interdendritic matrix, (ii) rapid Mn dissolution, (iii) internal H₂ gas buildup, and (iv) high porosity. Conversely, Mn-30Cu and Mn-40Cu specimens retained excellent structural integrity post-dealloying, with Mn-40Cu showing especially robust behavior. Although Mn-50Cu preserved mechanical integrity, its unusual coloration indicated incomplete dealloying, attributed to interdendritic Cu content (57.2%) exceeding the parting limit. Scanning electron micrographs of the dealloyed structures are shown in Fig. S1 . 3.2 Hierarchical architectures in optimized Mn–40Cu precursor Cross-sectional analysis of dealloyed Mn-40Cu (Figs. 1m–o) reveals a well-defined lattice architecture featuring interconnected channels and nanoligament struts (~ 44.7 ± 6.2 nm diameter) formed by Cu atom agglomeration during dealloying. Remarkably, rapid dealloying enabled complete dissolution of Mn-rich dendrites despite their high Cu content (up to 26.7 at.%). This is significantly greater than Al- or Mg-rich phases which contain only < 2 at.% Cu [ 17 , 27 , 65 , 66 ] and are completely dissolved in solution. Prior studies on similar micro-segregated Cu–Mn alloys produced monolithic NPCu [ 67 ] upon dealloying, highlighting the importance of solute redistribution control and careful tuning of dealloying conditions to achieve hierarchical structures. The successful removal of dendrites in Mn-40Cu, but not Mn-50Cu, establishes a critical upper limit of dendritic Cu content for forming robust hierarchical lattices. Our earlier work demonstrated that rapid dissolution of Mn-rich dendrites facilitates subsequent dealloying of the Cu-rich matrix [ 21 ]. This allows dealloying at higher Cu concentrations than conventionally feasible. For example, the Mn-40Cu interdendritic matrix (51.8 at.% Cu) forms nanoporous structures, while homogenized Mn-50Cu (50 at.% Cu) experiences surface passivation. Dissolving dendrites create percolating pathways that delay passivation onset and reduce volumetric shrinkage stresses by dealloying of Cu-rich interdendritic matrix. These findings identify Mn-40Cu as the optimal precursor for achieving complete dealloying with mechanical robustness. Hence, subsequent analyses focus on this nominal composition. 3.3 Amorphous–nanocrystalline nanoligament substructure A transmission electron microscopy (TEM) lamella, prepared by focused ion beam (FIB) milling from a single micro-lattice strut, reveals a thin slice of interconnected nanoligaments (Fig. 3a). High-resolution TEM (HRTEM) of an isolated nanoligament (Fig. 3b) shows a polycrystalline substructure of equiaxed nanograins averaging 5.3 ± 1.9 nm. Grain orientation variations are visualized by pseudo-coloring (Fig. 3c) derived from fast Fourier transform (FFT) selected-area electron diffraction (SAED) patterns (Fig. 3d), confirming polycrystallinity. Further HRTEM (Fig. 3e) reveals a hybrid structure of isolated and impinging nanograins embedded within a non-crystalline matrix. FFT-SAED shows diffuse rings characteristic of an amorphous phase, while STEM-EDS (Fig. S2) indicates a residual Mn content of ~ 0.4 at.% in nanoligaments, confirming near-complete Mn removal. Indexing of a nanograin along the [011] zone axis (Figs. 3e–f) identifies single-crystal FCC Cu. Amorphous regions between grains display diffuse diffraction and irregular atomic arrangements (Figs. 3h–i). Twin boundaries, visualized by HRTEM (Fig. 3j) and FFT-SAED (Fig. 3k), occur at a high density with lamella spacing as low as 4.5 Å. These observations challenge conventional assumptions that precursor grain structure is preserved post-dealloying [ 68 , 69 ]. The coexistence of nanograin and amorphous phases points to a strong sensitivity to dealloying parameters. Supporting this, identical nanoligament architectures are observed in rapidly dealloyed NPCu nanoligaments that were drop cast on Ni TEM grids (Fig. S3). This observation confirms that the architecture is not a preparation artifact but rather a direct outcome of the dealloying process. 3.4 Influence of dealloying kinetics on phase formation To validate the formation kinetics under rapid dealloying conditions, the same Mn-40Cu precursor alloy was subjected to slower dealloying conditions (0.1 M HCl at 20°C). Scanning electron micrographs of the dealloying structure instead show a dual-scale nanoporous structure, lacking the open channels present after rapid dealloying (Figs. 4a–b). The dual-scale porosity exhibits a morphology that mirrors the preserved dendritic and interdendritic structure (Figs. 4c–d). Under these slower dealloying conditions, selective Mn removal without full phase dissolution highlights the critical influence of dealloying kinetics on phase dissolution and Cu diffusion. Dark-field (DF) TEM images acquired at varying tilt angles (Fig. 4e) confirm crystallographic homogeneity in two distinct nanoligaments formed under slow dealloying conditions. High-resolution TEM (Fig. 4f) and selected area electron diffraction (SAED) patterns (Figs. 4g–j) further verify the presence of a continuous single-crystal FCC Cu structure throughout each ligament. In contrast to rapid dealloying, these findings highlight the critical influence of dissolution kinetics in promoting amorphous substructure formation (Fig. 3). Without the initial development of this amorphous phase, subsequent nanograin nucleation is not observed. Conventionally, nanoligament formation during dealloying arises from the selective dissolution of less noble elements (e.g., Mn) and the concurrent lateral diffusion of more noble atoms (e.g., Cu), driven by their high self-diffusivity at ambient conditions [ 70 ]. This process has historically produced crystalline nanoligaments that inherit the orientation of the precursor grains. The observation of a single-crystal structure under identical sample preparation conditions further confirms that differences in nanoligament architecture arise solely from variations in dealloying kinetics, rather than from artefacts introduced during sample preparation. 3.5 Record strength from synergistic amorphous–nanocrystalline architecture The mechanical performance of hierarchical Cu lattices derived from Mn-40Cu precursors was assessed via compression testing using samples prepared under rapid (1 M HCl, 60°C) and slow (0.1 M HCl, 20°C) dealloying conditions. The precursor alloy displayed high ductility, sustaining 73.3% strain before exceeding the testing machine’s load capacity. Representative compressive stress–strain curves (Fig. 5a) show that amorphous–nanocrystalline specimens achieve a compressive strength of 163.93 ± 5.18 MPa and a fracture strain of 3.09 ± 0.05%, compared with 49.09 ± 6.79 MPa and 1.53 ± 0.07% for single-crystal nanoligament specimens, corresponding to a three-fold enhancement in strength. The specific strengths were 43.40 ± 0.61 kN·m/kg and 12.46 ± 0.13 kN·m/kg, respectively, with densities of 3.76 ± 0.16 g/cm³ (amorphous–nanocrystalline) and 3.94 ± 0.34 g/cm³ (single-crystal). Complete compressive stress–strain curves are provided in Fig. S4. These results demonstrate that the amorphous–nanocrystalline hybrid architecture markedly enhances mechanical performance while maintaining low density, highlighting its potential for ultra-strong, lightweight structural applications. Figure 6 compares compressive strength vs. density for the hierarchical Cu lattices and various material classes, including plastics, metal and ceramic foams, dense metals, Cu foams, additively manufactured lattices, and other NPCu structures. The hierarchical Cu lattice (orange line) outperforms all other nanoporous architectures across ligament sizes and relative densities [ 41 , 71 – 76 ], including conventional open-cell Cu foams produced via space-holder methods [ 77 , 78 ], freeze casting [ 77 ], electro/electroless deposition [ 79 , 80 ], and laser powder bed fusion [ 81 – 83 ] (Table S2). Its performance rivals or exceeds many dense metals, including Al, Mg, Cu, and even Ti. The exceptional strength of this material arises from its unique nanoligament architecture, comprising a polycrystalline network of twinned nanograins embedded within an amorphous matrix. Metallic glasses inherently resist shear due to the high energy barrier for atomic rearrangements, while the embedded nanograins provide dislocation pathways and mechanical reinforcement. This synergistic dual-phase design yields far superior strength compared to fully crystalline counterparts of similar composition [ 84 ]. Strengthening is further promoted by the interaction between the amorphous and nanocrystalline domains. Fine nanograins dispersed within the amorphous matrix suppress shear banding through nanocrystalline pinning [ 85 ], contribute to Hall–Petch strengthening [ 86 ], and locally resist shear deformation [ 59 ]. Twin boundaries, acting as potent dislocation barriers, provide an additional strengthening mechanism [ 85 ]. Our structure contains exceptionally fine twins (~ 4.5 Å spacing). Although very small twin spacings can soften materials via slip along twin boundaries, simulations indicate that ~ 20 nm grains with ~ 2 nm twin spacing (10:1 ratio) achieve yield strengths up to 2 GPa [ 87 ]. With a comparable grain-to-twin spacing ratio (~ 11.8:1), our architecture suggests that nanotwins and their fine periodicity significantly contribute to the observed strength. Moreover, twins impede Cu and vacancy diffusion, stabilizing nanograin size and thereby sustaining Hall–Petch strengthening [ 88 ]. 4. Conclusion This work establishes amorphization-directed dealloying as a transformative and scalable synthetic route to overcome the longstanding mechanical fragility of nanoporous metals. By kinetically steering dealloying in an engineered Mn–40Cu precursor, we produce bulk nanoporous copper (NPCu) with a hierarchical nanoligament architecture, where ultrafine twinned nanocrystals are embedded within an amorphous backbone. This amorphous–nanocrystalline hybrid network, stabilized by suppressing diffusion under rapid dissolution, achieves a record specific compressive strength of 43.4 kN·m/kg, exceeding all previously reported porous coppers and rivaling the performance of fully dense titanium. By shifting the paradigm of nanoligament formation from diffusion-driven crystallization to kinetically tailored amorphization, we demonstrate precise synthetic control over nanostructure and mechanical performance. The resulting three-fold strength enhancement over single-crystal NPCu establishes a generalizable framework for producing ultra-strong bulk architectures, enabling the functional use of nanoporous metals in structural applications and opening new frontiers for next-generation structural–functional materials. 5. Experimental methods 5.1 Precursor alloy casting, sectioning and characterisation Binary Mn-xCu precursor alloy castings, with nominal compositions of x = 20, 30, 40, and 50 at.% Cu (all compositions herein are expressed in atomic percent unless otherwise specified), were prepared via arc melting. High-purity Cu and Mn metals (≥ 99.99 wt.%) were melted in a water-cooled Cu mould under an argon atmosphere to ensure an inert environment. To achieve chemical homogeneity, each ingot was re-melted five times. Cylinders measuring 5 mm in diameter and 10 mm in length, designated for microstructural characterisation and compression testing, were sectioned from each ingot using electric discharge machining. Microstructural analysis was conducted at the central cross-section of each precursor alloy specimen using backscattered electron (BSE) imaging and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS). These analyses were performed on a FEI SCIOS dual-beam scanning electron microscope (SEM) equipped with an Oxford Xmax80 EDS detector. The dendrite volume fraction was quantified from BSE micrographs using ImageJ software. 5.2 Fabrication of a hierarchical Cu lattice structure via chemical dealloying Precursor alloy specimens were chemically dealloyed in a 1 M aqueous HCl solution at 60°C. During the process, Mn atoms dissolved, generating hydrogen gas bubbles on the specimen surfaces. The cessation of bubble formation indicated the complete removal of Mn, marking the conclusion of the dealloying process. Afterward, the specimens were carefully extracted, ultrasonically rinsed with distilled water and ethanol to remove residual acid, and air-dried. Mn-40Cu specimens were selected for further study due to their successful dealloying and exceptional robustness. To investigate the impact of dealloying conditions on diffusion kinetics and structural evolution, additional Mn-40Cu specimens were dealloyed at room temperature (20°C) using a dilute 0.1 M HCl solution. A test specimen was sectioned to verify complete dealloying throughout its volume. 5.3 Hierarchical Cu lattice structure length scale and morphology SE and EDS analyses were conducted on the central cross-section of the as-dealloyed specimens using a FEI Verios 460L SEM equipped with an Oxford Xmax30 EDS detector. The strut, channel and nanoligament geometries of the hierarchical Cu lattice were quantified using ImageJ software. 5.4 TEM sample preparation A FEI SCIOS dual-beam SEM was used to extract a TEM lamella from a hierarchical Cu lattice strut utilizing a Ga ion beam source. The lamella was mounted onto a Cu grid and secured by carbon deposition. Additionally, a Cu-nanoligament powder was obtained by gently scraping the surface of a dealloyed sample to release the surface ligaments. The resulting powder was ultrasonically agitated in isopropyl alcohol and drop-cast onto a Ni TEM grid using a pipette. The TEM grids were left to dry overnight to ensure complete evaporation of the isopropyl alcohol. 5.5 Atomic structure of Cu nanoligaments High-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), selected area electron diffraction (SAED), and scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) EDS analyses were performed using a JEOL JEM-2100 FEGTEM equipped with an Oxford X-Maxn 80T EDS detector. HRTEM and SAED utilised a double-tilt holder, enabling precise alignment of the Cu crystals' crystallographic zone axis with the electron beam. Dark-field (DF) micrographs were acquired at these orientations to visualize and differentiate crystallographic misalignments both between nanoligaments and within distinct regions of a single nanoligament. Cu, Mn and oxygen atomic fractions were measured in each nanoligament following dealloying to assess the success of the dealloying of the process. 5.6 Mn-40Cu precursor alloy bulk compression before and after dealloying The Mn-40Cu alloy composition was selected for compression testing due to its superior mechanical robustness compared to other tested variants. Compression tests were performed on both precursor alloy cylinders and dealloyed specimens under two conditions: (i) 1 M HCl at 60°C and (ii) 0.1 M HCl at 20°C, following ISO 13314 standards for the compression testing of porous metals. A minimum of three specimens were tested under each condition to ensure statistical reliability. The tests were conducted using an Instron 5569 50 kN tension/compression material testing system with a constant crosshead speed of 0.01 mm/s. Each test was concluded at the point where a sharp drop in force was observed, accompanied by visible shear fracture. Declarations Supporting information Supporting information is available from the Wiley Online Library or from the author. Author contributions M. Qian, T. Song, and D. Liang conceived the idea of fabricating large nanoporous copper structures via dealloying and secured funding from RMIT University and CSIRO. J. Smith developed the concept of modifying dealloying kinetics to assemble high strength amorphous-nanocrystalline Cu structures. J. Smith carried out all experimental and analytical procedures, with assistance from A. Ramezannejad, who contributed to the bulk compression experiments. J. Smith interpreted the results. The manuscript was written and finalised by J. Smith and M. Qian, with review and editing contributions from A. Ramezannejad, T. Song, and D. Liang. M. Qian, T. Song, and D. Liang supervised the project. Acknowledgements We extend our gratitude to technical officers Mr. Bradley Sherwood, Mr. Mark Overend and Mr. Wei Qian Song for their valuable assistance with machining and mechanical testing. We acknowledge the facilities, scientific expertise, and technical support provided by RMIT University’s Microscopy and Microanalysis Facility, a linked laboratory of Microscopy Australia. Conflict of interest The authors declare no conflict of interest. ORCID ID Jackson L Smith: 0000-0001-5451-6852 Ali Ramezannejad: 0000-0001-7885-010X Matthew R Field: 0000-0002-6189-922X Edwin LH Mayes: 0000-0001-6668-444X Tingting Song: 0000-0001-9923-9369 Daniel Liang: 0000-0002-7113-2655 Ma Qian: 0000-0001-9705-6913 References Singh, J., A. Upadhyay, and S.S. Sehgal, A review on metallic micro lattice. Materials Today: Proceedings, 2020. 33 : p. 1695-1700. Chen, L.-Y., et al., Additive manufacturing of metallic lattice structures: Unconstrained design, accurate fabrication, fascinated performances, and challenges. Materials Science and Engineering: R: Reports, 2021. 146 . Tran, T.Q., et al., 3D Printing of Highly Pure Copper. Metals, 2019. 9 (7). Bauer, J., et al., Nanolattices: An Emerging Class of Mechanical Metamaterials. Advanced Materials, 2017. 29 (40): p. 1701850. Xu, W., et al., Design and performance evaluation of additively manufactured composite lattice structures of commercially pure Ti (CP-Ti). Bioact Mater, 2021. 6 (5): p. 1215-1222. Zhang, X., et al., Design, Fabrication, and Mechanics of 3D Micro-/Nanolattices. Small, 2020. 16 (15): p. e1902842. Crook, C., et al., Plate-nanolattices at the theoretical limit of stiffness and strength. Nat Commun, 2020. 11 (1): p. 1579. Wendy Gu, X. and J.R. Greer, Ultra-strong architected Cu meso-lattices. Extreme Mechanics Letters, 2015. 2 : p. 7-14. Song, T., M. Yan, and M. Qian, The enabling role of dealloying in the creation of specific hierarchical porous metal structures—A review. Corrosion Science, 2018. 134 : p. 78-98. Erlebacher, J., R.C. Newman, and K. Sieradzki, Fundamental Physics and Chemistry of Nanoporosity Evolution During Dealloying , in Nanoporous Gold: From an Ancient Technology to a High-Tech Material , W. Arne, Editor. 2012. p. 23. McCue, I., et al., Dealloying and Dealloyed Materials. Annu Rev Mater Res, 2015. 46 (1). Tang, Y., et al., Nanoporous metallic surface- Facile fabrication and enhancement of boiling heat transfer. Applied Surface Science, 2012. 258 : p. 8747-8751. Tang, B., et al., Augmented boiling heat transfer on a copper nanoporous surface and the stability of nano-porosity in a hydrothermal environment. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 2015. 90 : p. 979-985. Peng, Y., et al., Selective Electrochemical Reduction of CO2 to Ethylene on Nanopores-Modified Copper Electrodes in Aqueous Solution. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces, 2017. Hoang, T.T.H., et al., Nanoporous Copper Films by Additive-Controlled Electrodeposition: CO2 Reduction Catalysis. ACS Catalysis, 2017. 7 (5): p. 3313-3321. Sattayasamitsathit, S., et al., Fabrication of Nanoporous Copper Film for Electrochemical Detection of Glucose. Electroanalysis, 2009. 21 (21): p. 2371-2377. Song, R., et al., Hierarchical Nanoporous Copper Fabricated by One-Step Dealloying Toward Ultrasensitive Surface-Enhanced Raman Sensing. Advanced Materials Interfaces, 2018. 5 (16). Zhang, S., et al., A three-dimensional tin-coated nanoporous copper for lithium-ion battery anodes. Journal of Power Sources, 2011. 196 (16): p. 6915-6919. Zhao, H., et al., Compact 3D Copper with Uniform Porous Structure Derived by Electrochemical Dealloying as Dendrite-Free Lithium Metal Anode Current Collector. Advanced Energy Materials, 2018. 8 (19): p. 1800266. Wang, X., et al., Design and preparation of nanoporous Ag–Cu alloys by dealloying Mg–(Ag,Cu)–Y metallic glasses for antibacterial applications. J Mater Chem B, 2019. 7 (26): p. 4169-4176. Smith, J.L., et al., Robust bulk micro-nano hierarchical copper structures possessing exceptional bactericidal efficacy. Biomaterials, 2022. 280 : p. 121271. Zhu, B., et al., Short Review on Porous Metal Membranes-Fabrication, Commercial Products, and Applications. Membranes (Basel), 2018. 8 (3). Seker, E., et al., The effects of annealing prior to dealloying on the mechanical properties of nanoporous gold microbeams. Acta Materialia, 2008. 56 (3): p. 324-332. Chen-Wiegart, Y.-c.K., et al., Effect of Ag–Au composition and acid concentration on dealloying front velocity and cracking during nanoporous gold formation. Acta Mater, 2013. 61 (15): p. 5561-5570. Chen-Wiegart, Y.K., et al., Evolution of dealloying induced strain in nanoporous gold crystals. Nanoscale, 2017. 9 (17): p. 5686-5693. Ye, X.-L., et al., Primary and Secondary Dealloying of Au(Pt)-Ag: Structural and Compositional Evolutions, and Volume Shrinkage. Journal of The Electrochemical Society, 2014. 161 (12): p. C517. Song, T., et al., Creation of bimodal porous copper materials by an annealing-electrochemical dealloying approach. Electrochimica Acta, 2015. 164 : p. 288-296. Li, J., et al., Tailored products of dealloying as-sintered Al–Cu alloys in sodium hydroxide solutions. RSC Adv., 2015. 5 (92): p. 75044-75054. Li, J., et al., Fabrication and characterization of bulk nanoporous copper by dealloying Al–Cu alloy slices. Corrosion Science, 2015. 90 : p. 216-222. Liu, W., et al., Dealloying Behavior of Dual-Phase Al 15 at.% Cu Alloy in an Acidic Solution. International Journal of Electrochemical Science, 2012. 7 . Xing, Y., et al., Structure Evolution of Nanoporous Copper by dealloying of Al 17-33 at% Cu alloy. International Journal of Electrochemical Science, 2015. 10 : p. 4849-4859. Qi, Z., et al., Formation and Characterization of Monolithic Nanoporous Copper by Chemical Dealloying of Al-Cu Alloys. J Phys Chem C, 2009. 113 (16): p. 6694-6698. Tuan, N.T., et al., Synthesis of nanoporous Cu films by dealloying of electrochemically deposited Cu–Zn alloy films. Corrosion Science, 2014. 80 : p. 7-11. Zhang, Q.B., A.P. Abbott, and C. Yang, Electrochemical fabrication of nanoporous copper films in choline chloride-urea deep eutectic solvent. Phys Chem Chem Phys, 2015. 17 (22): p. 14702-9. Lin, B., et al., Impact of the De-Alloying Kinetics and Alloy Microstructure on the Final Morphology of De-Alloyed Meso-Porous Metal Films. Nanomaterials, 2014. 4 (4): p. 856-878. Zhao, C., et al., Fabrication and characterization of monolithic nanoporous copper through chemical dealloying of Mg–Cu alloys. Corros Sci, 2009. 51 (9): p. 2120-2125. Zhao, C., et al., On the electrochemical dealloying of Mg–Cu alloys in a NaCl aqueous solution. Corrosion Science, 2010. 52 (12): p. 3962-3972. Liu, W., et al., Formation of Monolithic Nanoporous Copper with Ultrahigh Specific Surface Area through Chemical Dealloying of Mg-Cu Alloy. Int. J. Electrochem. Sci, 2012. 7 : p. 9707-9716. Ibrahim, S., et al., Nanoporous Copper Ribbons Prepared by Chemical Dealloying of a Melt-Spun ZnCu Alloy. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 2021. 126 (1): p. 212-226. Hayes, J.R., et al., Monolithic nanoporous copper by dealloying Mn–Cu. J Mater Res, 2006. 21 (10): p. 2611-2616. Wang, L., et al., High-strength hierarchical-structured bulk nanoporous Cu prepared by dealloying and spark plasma sintering. Scripta Materialia, 2021. 203 . Sun, S., et al., Synthesis and mechanical properties of low crack-density bulk hierarchical nanoporous copper. Scripta Materialia, 2025. 258 : p. 116531. Wang, L., et al., High-strength hierarchical-structured bulk nanoporous Cu prepared by dealloying and spark plasma sintering. Scripta Materialia, 2021. 203 : p. 114114. Zhong, H., et al., Skeletal High-Strength Nanoporous Copper and Metamaterials: The Hakka Tulou Design Heritage. Advanced Materials, 2025. n/a (n/a): p. e03701. Erlebacher, J., et al., Evolution of nanoporosity in dealloying. Nature, 2001. 410 : p. 450-453. Ma, H., et al., Influence of dealloying solution on the microstructure of nanoporous copper through chemical dealloying of Al75Cu25 ribbons. Journal of Materials Research, 2020. 35 (19): p. 2610-2619. Wang, Z., et al., Dealloying of Cu-Based Metallic Glasses in Acidic Solutions: Products and Energy Storage Applications. Nanomaterials (Basel), 2015. 5 (2): p. 697-721. Zahra, T., et al., Microstructure Engineered Nanoporous Copper for Enhanced Catalytic Degradation of Organic Pollutants in Wastewater. Materials (Basel), 2025. 18 (13). Zhang, C., et al., Dealloying-Derived Nanoporous Cu(6)Sn(5) Alloy as Stable Anode Materials for Lithium-Ion Batteries. Materials (Basel), 2021. 14 (15). Zhang, Y., et al., Hierarchical Nanoporous Copper Architectures via 3D Printing Technique for Highly Efficient Catalysts. Small, 2019. 15 : p. 1805432. Nicolaescu, M., et al., Synthesis of nanoporous copper by dealloying CuZrAl and CuZrAlAg amorphous ribbons in acidic solution. Materials Today: Proceedings, 2023. 72 : p. 565-571. Dan, Z., et al., Fabrication of nanoporous copper by dealloying of amorphous Ti–Cu–Ag alloys. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2014. 586 : p. S134-S138. Aburada, T., J. Fitz-Gerald, and J. Scully, Synthesis of nanoporous copper by dealloying of Al-Cu-Mg amorphous alloys in acidic solution: The effect of nickel. Corrosion Science - CORROS SCI, 2011. 53 : p. 1627-1632. Yue, X., et al., Fabrication and Degradation Properties of Nanoporous Copper with Tunable Pores by Dealloying Amorphous Ti-Cu Alloys with Minor Co Addition. Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, 2021. 30 (3): p. 1759-1767. Petegem, S., V., et al., On the Microstructure of Nanoporous Gold: An X-ray Diffraction Study. Nano Letters, 2009. 9 (3): p. 1158-1163. Xu, H., et al., Micromorphology and Phase Composition Manipulation of Nanoporous Gold with High Methanol Electro-oxidation Catalytic Activity through Adding a Magnetic Field in the Dealloying Process. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 2018. 122 (6): p. 3371-3385. Kulik, T., T. Horubał, and H. Matyja, Flash annealing nanocrystallization of Fe Si B-based glasses. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 1992. 157 (1): p. 107-112. Hebert, R.J. and J.H. Perepezko, Effect of cold-rolling on the crystallization behavior of amorphous Al88Y7Fe5 alloy. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2004. 375-377 : p. 728-732. Inoue, A., et al., High-strength Zr-based bulk amorphous alloys containing nanocrystalline and nanoquasicrystalline particles. Science and Technology of Advanced Materials, 2000. 1 (2): p. 73-86. Artymowicz, D.M., J. Erlebacher, and R.C. Newman, Relationship between the parting limit for de-alloying and a particular geometric high-density site percolation threshold. Philosophical Magazine, 2009. 89 (21): p. 1663-1693. Xia, J., et al., Impact of Structure and Composition on the Dealloying of CuxAu(1–x) Bulk and Nanoscale Alloys. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 2016. 120 (4): p. 2299-2308. Hemmendinger, K.D. and A.M. Hodge, Progression of the dealloying front in bilayer Cu–Al and Cu–Zn nanoporous foams. Journal of Materials Research, 2023. 38 (13): p. 3407-3415. Liu, F. and H.-J. Jin, Extrinsic Parting Limit for Dealloying of Cu-Rh. J Electrochem Soc, 2018. 165 (16): p. C999-C1006. Wook Noh, K., et al., Grain Boundary Parting Limit during Dealloying. Advanced Engineering Materials, 2015. 17 (2). Zhang, X., et al., Fabrication of a bimodal micro/nanoporous metal by the Gasar and dealloying processes. Materials Letters, 2013. 92 : p. 448-451. Grosu, Y., A. Zaki, and A. Faik, Trimodal hierarchical nanoporous copper with tunable porosity prepared by dealloying Mg-Cu alloys of close-to-eutectic compositions. Applied Surface Science, 2019. 475 : p. 748-753. Xiu-lan, T., et al., Effect of heat treatment of Mn-Cu precursors on morphology of dealloyed nanoporous copper. Journal of Central South University of Technology, 2012. 19 : p. 17-21. Zhang, Z., et al., Dealloying strategy to fabricate ultrafine nanoporous gold-based alloys with high structural stability and tunable magnetic properties. CrystEngComm, 2012. 14 (23): p. 8292. de Jeer, L.T., et al., Formation of Nanoporous Gold Studied by Transmission Electron Backscatter Diffraction. Microsc Microanal, 2015. 21 (6): p. 1387-1397. An, Y., et al., Dealloying: An effective method for scalable fabrication of 0D, 1D, 2D, 3D materials and its application in energy storage. Nano Today, 2021. 37 : p. 101094. Lührs, L. and J. Weissmüller, Nanoporous Copper-Nickel – Macroscopic bodies of a strong and deformable nanoporous base metal by dealloying. Scripta Materialia, 2018. 155 : p. 119-123. Kong, Q., et al., Fabrication and compression properties of bulk hierarchical nanoporous copper with fine ligament. Materials Letters, 2014. 127 : p. 59-62. Chen, F., et al., Fabrication and mechanical behavior of bulk nanoporous Cu via chemical de-alloying of Cu–Al alloys. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2016. 660 : p. 241-250. Lee, S.-Y., et al., Fabrication of high-strength duplex nanoporous Cu by dealloying a dual-phase Mg–Cu precursor alloy. Journal of Magnesium and Alloys, 2020. 8 (3): p. 910-916. Ji, Y., et al., The Mechanical Characteristics of Monolithic Nanoporous Copper and Its Composites. Advanced Engineering Materials, 2018. 20 (10). Yanfei, Y.A.O., et al., Microstructures and mechanical properties of bulk nanoporous copper fabricated by dealloying Al-Cu alloys. Jorunal of Functional Materials, 2016. 47 (5): p. 180-184. Hong, K., et al., Comparison of morphology and compressive deformation behavior of copper foams manufactured via freeze-casting and space-holder methods. Journal of Materials Research and Technology, 2021. 15 : p. 6855-6865. Li, C., et al., Multifunctional Open-Cell Copper Foam with Sphere Pores by a Modified Sintering–Dissolution Process. Metals, 2023. 13 (4). Chen, J., et al., Study on the Compression Properties and Deformation Failure Mechanism of Open‐Cell Copper Foam Advanced Engineering Materials, 2017. 19 (11). Besharati, F. and M.H. Paydar, Fabrication of Copper Open Cell Foam by Electrochemical Deposition Method and Investigation on the Effect of Current Intensity and Plating Solution on the Created Microstructure. Iranian Journal of Materials Forming, 2023. 10 (1): p. 4-12. Ma, Z., et al., Lattice structures of Cu-Cr-Zr copper alloy by selective laser melting: Microstructures, mechanical properties and energy absorption. Materials & Design, 2020. 187 . Kang, S.-G., et al., Green laser powder bed fusion based fabrication and rate-dependent mechanical properties of copper lattices. Materials & Design, 2023. 231 : p. 112023. Liu, Y., et al., Manufacturing of high strength and high conductivity copper with laser powder bed fusion. Nature Communications, 2024. 15 (1): p. 1283. Schuh, C.A., T.C. Hufnagel, and U. Ramamurty, Mechanical behavior of amorphous alloys. Acta Materialia, 2007. 55 (12): p. 4067-4109. Inoue, A., H. Tomioka, and T. Masumoto, Mechanical properties of ductile Fe-Ni-Zr and Fe-Ni-Zr (Nb or Ta) amorphous alloys containing fine crystalline particles. Journal of Materials Science, 1983. 18 : p. 153-160. Cordero, Z., B. Knight, and C. Schuh, Six decades of the Hall–Petch effect – a survey of grain-size strengthening studies on pure metals. International Materials Reviews, 2016. 61 : p. 1-18. Li, X., et al., Dislocation nucleation governed softening and maximum strength in nano-twinned metals. Nature, 2010. 464 (7290): p. 877-880. Xu, D., et al., Nanotwin formation and its physical properties and effect on reliability of copper interconnects. Microelectronic Engineering, 2008. 85 (10): p. 2155-2158. Additional Declarations There is NO Competing Interest. Supplementary Files NatureCommunicationsJacksonSmithSupplementaryInformation.pdf All Supplementary figures. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7778133","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":531368732,"identity":"9882452a-e3a3-430e-ae0f-23038d62c073","order_by":0,"name":"Jackson Smith","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"RMIT University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jackson","middleName":"","lastName":"Smith","suffix":""},{"id":531368733,"identity":"9b9281a6-d750-4a3a-ba2d-d3cc1cf0e491","order_by":1,"name":"Ali Ramezannejad","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"RMIT University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ali","middleName":"","lastName":"Ramezannejad","suffix":""},{"id":531368734,"identity":"7fb53592-720b-4c1c-9931-93bb445a79e2","order_by":2,"name":"Matthew Field","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"RMIT University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Matthew","middleName":"","lastName":"Field","suffix":""},{"id":531368735,"identity":"61094def-56ba-4a9c-9109-50016f53d5d7","order_by":3,"name":"Edwin Mayes","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6668-444X","institution":"RMIT University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Edwin","middleName":"","lastName":"Mayes","suffix":""},{"id":531368736,"identity":"79eb3fee-0f4e-4be8-85b2-428448dbc3f7","order_by":4,"name":"Tingting Song","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9923-9369","institution":"RMIT University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Tingting","middleName":"","lastName":"Song","suffix":""},{"id":531368737,"identity":"13332760-80e2-47f8-8d44-30f64efed29f","order_by":5,"name":"Daniel Liang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Daniel","middleName":"","lastName":"Liang","suffix":""},{"id":531368731,"identity":"8a56d79d-d674-42c3-8078-9960e37fa61f","order_by":6,"name":"Ma Qian","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA2ElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYLCCBAYGOQYGxgYgk5l4LcZALY0NxGsBgsQGiDVEaNFtP8B440HNnfTt0w63P2CosE5sYD9jgFeL2ZkEZouEY89y59xOBDrsTHpiA08OAS0HEtgkEtgO586QBmphbDsMdCEhLecfALX8O5wuAdbyD6iF/w0BLTeAtiS2HU6AaGkAapEgZMuNh80WiX2HDUEOm5FwLN24TeJZAQGHJR+8+ePbYXkJ6fQHHz7UWMv28ydvwKsFFBsScHYCELMRUA8GEoSVjIJRMApGwYgGAA+hSbOksRCaAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9705-6913","institution":"RMIT University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ma","middleName":"","lastName":"Qian","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-10-04 07:35:08","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7778133/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7778133/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":93997179,"identity":"578c113f-4656-4730-a692-4db655e3efa0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-21 07:21:03","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":155947,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"NatureCommunicationsJacksonLeighSmithText.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7778133/v1/ff6bc6153c0e98e3d9f85f79.docx"},{"id":93997176,"identity":"d834b902-4a66-41d0-8a74-b098036b9d13","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-21 07:21:03","extension":"json","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":8061,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"NCOMMS2579520.json","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7778133/v1/3c6624213ccca8e367e63d2e.json"},{"id":93997186,"identity":"4a694de9-6720-4b31-9593-d58574de5a1a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-21 07:21:03","extension":"pdf","order_by":3,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":2485437,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"NatureCommunicationsJacksonSmithSupplementaryInformation.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7778133/v1/ae9d8462ace252cf8f4d62d7.pdf"},{"id":93997178,"identity":"8b99da4b-b8a8-4f04-8a16-bec8c3be07b6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-21 07:21:03","extension":"xml","order_by":4,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":128798,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"NCOMMS25795200enriched.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7778133/v1/50e517bbc4985f49d1ff319a.xml"},{"id":93997188,"identity":"107656e3-77c0-452c-b754-1968fdcacc7b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-21 07:21:03","extension":"pdf","order_by":5,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":1892383,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"NatureCommunicationsJacksonLeighSmithManuscriptFigures.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7778133/v1/9a776e53c62e593a00a36dc1.pdf"},{"id":93998274,"identity":"7e0ce9c0-e71e-4ea2-8f15-20e73a78f1af","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-21 07:29:03","extension":"xml","order_by":6,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":126704,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"NCOMMS25795200structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7778133/v1/102fd0f6d59979f6e07e816a.xml"},{"id":93997183,"identity":"55c7513f-50f3-4172-8900-6d2bfb636488","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-21 07:21:03","extension":"html","order_by":7,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":138412,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7778133/v1/77fea11c1c0da303862acb8a.html"},{"id":93997174,"identity":"e2027063-b2fc-4e7f-a253-11049b426b10","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-21 07:21:03","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":285047,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"fig1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7778133/v1/d45a9155a27c4d3b8646b126.png"},{"id":93997175,"identity":"3f95cc45-93d3-4e89-a390-90337dec7380","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-21 07:21:03","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1205924,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"fig2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7778133/v1/08bc469fe6c81f08adae4150.png"},{"id":93997181,"identity":"7fe6b3c0-0c6f-4060-8d8d-007846209fd1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-21 07:21:03","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2041200,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"fig3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7778133/v1/536b1d28329b92b0a70cdf64.png"},{"id":93997180,"identity":"4ea84ef3-2d94-4ab9-bdd4-fa5006bf60f5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-21 07:21:03","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1139594,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"fig4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7778133/v1/fd80033a9a8ade4c2ba2be91.png"},{"id":93997177,"identity":"4b120304-c261-41fd-bf1b-ac9ad40436e6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-21 07:21:03","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":69830,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"fig5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7778133/v1/5dbf7efb65e0c72077157c78.png"},{"id":93997182,"identity":"e3245b82-031b-4d11-a2bb-8ba04db78db4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-21 07:21:03","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":462936,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"fig6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7778133/v1/0c2b821429aa4d017ee448e4.png"},{"id":95221604,"identity":"386d07d8-92d2-498b-96ec-2909c6aaad55","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-05 16:19:29","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":5934229,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7778133/v1/819963af-6175-4fba-9312-0cb55f54052b.pdf"},{"id":93997187,"identity":"a1060e87-acc4-44a5-8851-48064a4d3adb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-21 07:21:03","extension":"pdf","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":2485437,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"All Supplementary figures.","description":"","filename":"NatureCommunicationsJacksonSmithSupplementaryInformation.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7778133/v1/4b3f64a3236bacfe3850d68a.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"There is \u003cb\u003eNO\u003c/b\u003e Competing Interest.","formattedTitle":"Ultra-strong nanoporous copper enabled by amorphization-directed dealloying","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eNanoporous metals, bicontinuous networks of nanoscale pores and ligaments, deliver exceptional multifunctionality that stems from an enormous, tunable surface area and interfacial reactivity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. Among them, nanoporous copper (NPCu) is particularly notable for its superior thermophysical properties, including high electrical and thermal conductivity as well as catalytic activity. Despite these advantages, the deployment of bulk NPCu in industrial applications has been fundamentally limited by its inherent mechanical fragility.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRecent advances in cellular materials have demonstrated that precisely architected porous metals can overcome traditional trade-offs between mechanical and functional performance, achieving near-theoretical specific strength and stiffness without compromising high surface area [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR4 CR5 CR6 CR7\" citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. These breakthroughs define a new pathway toward next-generation bulk NPCu for advanced applications.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDealloying stands out as a particularly promising and scalable technique for producing such precisely architected, hierarchical nanoscale architectures. By selectively dissolving less noble elements from multicomponent alloys, dealloying generates interconnected nanoligament frameworks with feature sizes approaching 10 nm [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR10\" citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. NPCu synthesized by this route has been explored for a wide range of applications, including heat exchange [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e], electrocatalysis [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e], chemical sensing [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e], energy storage [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e], antimicrobial coatings [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e], and filtration [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. Yet, for all these promising applications, mechanical limitations, most notably cracking and instability driven by dealloying-induced tensile stresses from volumetric shrinkage [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e], remain major barriers to their practical, bulk implementation [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR25\" citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA survey of prior work (Table \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e) highlights the persistent challenges in achieving mechanically robust nanoporous copper. Conventional precursor systems such as Al\u0026ndash;Cu, Mg\u0026ndash;Cu, and Zn\u0026ndash;Cu often form brittle intermetallic phases that fracture during or after dealloying [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR28 CR29 CR30 CR31 CR32 CR33 CR34 CR35 CR36 CR37 CR38\" citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]. Even ductile, single-phase solid-solution alloys like Mn\u0026ndash;Cu, which avoid intermetallic formation, frequently experience catastrophic cracking driven by large, intrinsic shrinkage stresses [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e], a phenomenon observed across diverse compositions and dealloying conditions. More exploratory strategies, such as sintering dealloyed NPCu powders to heal native cracks, can partially restore ductility, but at the expense of nanoligament coarsening and residual cracking [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e]. Skeletal alloy\u0026ndash;NPCu composites, formed from dealloyed and undealloyed regions, improve structural integrity but compromise specific surface area [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e]. Collectively, these studies reveal a fundamental gap in understanding ligament formation and stress evolution. To date, no work has leveraged atomic-scale control over nanoligament formation during dealloying to redefine conventional dealloying kinetics, offering a pathway to simultaneously strengthen nanoporous copper and suppress cracking.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn this research, we introduce a novel synthesis framework, termed amorphization-directed dealloying, designed to overcome the long-standing mechanical limitations of nanoporous metals by revealing new insights into the interplay between dissolution kinetics, atomic diffusion, and mechanical performance. Unlike conventional dealloying, which typically drives crystallization and leads to cracking even in ductile systems such as Mn\u0026ndash;Cu, our synthesis approach enables kinetic control over dealloying dynamics in engineered Mn\u0026ndash;Cu precursors. This control yields an unprecedented nanoligament architecture, where ultrafine (~\u0026thinsp;5 nm) twinned nanograins are uniformly embedded within an amorphous Cu matrix. The resulting amorphous\u0026ndash;nanocrystalline hybrid structure delivers exceptional strength and structural integrity in bulk NPCu, directly resolving the key limitations of traditional synthesis routes. The following sections detail the conceptual design, the governing synthesis mechanisms, the observed microstructural evolution, and the resulting mechanical performance of this pathway.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Conceptual design","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1 Amorphization-directed dealloying for high strength NPCu\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe classical dealloying model, established by Erlebacher et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e], describes nanoligament formation as a diffusion-controlled process in which less noble atoms selectively dissolve, while the remaining noble atoms migrate along the solid\u0026ndash;liquid interface to assemble into a three-dimensional network. Under typical conditions, defined by electrolyte composition, concentration, and temperature, these ligaments crystallize into the thermodynamically stable phase of the noble element, such as face-centered cubic (FCC) Cu, whether the precursor alloy is crystalline [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR47 CR48 CR49\" citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e] or amorphous [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR52 CR53\" citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e]. This paradigm of diffusion-driven crystallization has guided nearly all previous studies and is schematically illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;1a.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlthough crystallization is widely assumed, sporadic deviations have been reported. For instance, amorphous\u0026ndash;nanograin hybrids have appeared in nanoporous Au, though often attributed to preparation artifacts such as focused ion beam (FIB) damage [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e]. More deliberate modifications, including dealloying under external magnetic fields [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e], have been shown to induce amorphous features, though the mechanisms underlying their formation remain unexplored. These findings suggest that non-equilibrium dealloying regimes may enable alternative nanostructural pathways beyond conventional diffusion-driven crystallization.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBuilding on this insight, we propose a distinct mechanism known as amorphization-directed dealloying (Fig.\u0026nbsp;1b). We hypothesize that under rapid dissolution of the less noble atoms (e.g., Mn in Mn\u0026ndash;Cu precursors), atomic diffusion at the interface may become restricted, suppressing crystallization and kinetically trapping the noble atoms in a non-equilibrium amorphous configuration. As dealloying progresses under elevated temperature and volumetric contraction, these driving forces could promote partial ordering, leading to the in-situ nucleation of nanoscale noble metal grains (e.g. FCC Cu) within the amorphous backbone. Such hybrid architectures are reminiscent of metallic glasses, where nanocrystals can emerge through annealing [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e] or plastic deformation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e], yielding exceptional strength while mitigating the inherently low ductility of amorphous metals [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWithin this framework, dealloying kinetics emerges as a decisive variable. We hypothesize that rapid dissolution in concentrated acid at elevated temperature may constrain atomic rearrangement and thereby favour amorphous\u0026ndash;nanograin hybrids, whereas slower dealloying in dilute acid at lower temperature is more likely to permit diffusion-driven crystallization into single-crystal nanoligaments. Comparative evaluation of these regimes may provide a pathway to test how kinetics influence nanostructure evolution and, in turn, mechanical performance in nanoporous metals.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2 Precursor alloy design for high strength NPCu\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eRealizing amorphization-directed dealloying requires careful precursor alloy design that balances two competing demands: enabling complete selective dissolution of the less noble element while preserving mechanical integrity in the resulting porous structure. This balance depends on three parameters: (i) a large electrochemical potential difference to drive dissolution, (ii) high ductility to accommodate contraction stresses, and (iii) compositional tuning to prevent passivation while minimizing cracking.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFirst, the alloying element must be more reactive than Cu to ensure selective dissolution, while the alloy retains enough ductility to withstand shrinkage-induced stresses. These requirements exclude brittle intermetallic systems such as Mg\u0026ndash;Cu, Al\u0026ndash;Cu, and Zn\u0026ndash;Cu, which typically fail under contraction. By contrast, FCC Mn\u0026ndash;Cu solid solutions offer high solid solubility of Mn in Cu, suppress brittle intermetallics, and provide robust mechanical properties, making them a promising precursor system.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSecond, the Mn concentration must exceed the critical parting limit [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e] to sustain dissolution, as insufficient Mn leads to premature passivation [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR61 CR62 CR63\" citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e]. Yet excessive Mn content amplifies shrinkage stresses, promoting cracks and defects [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. Compositional optimization is therefore essential to balance dissolution completeness with structural stability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo validate these principles experimentally, we synthesized four Mn\u0026ndash;xCu alloys with varying Cu contents (x\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;20, 30, 40, and 50 at.%). According to the Mn\u0026ndash;Cu phase diagram (Fig.\u0026nbsp;2a), these alloys solidify into Mn-rich dendrites (~\u0026thinsp;10 at.% Cu) surrounded by Cu-enriched interdendritic regions (35\u0026ndash;57 at.% Cu). This heterogeneity is advantageous as Mn-rich dendrites dissolve readily during dealloying, while Cu-rich regions remain below the passivation threshold [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e], ensuring both selectivity and mechanical integrity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll precursor alloys underwent identical dealloying treatments, providing a controlled framework to isolate the role of precursor composition. By comparing the resulting microstructures and properties, we will establish how precursor alloy chemistry dictates the success of amorphization-directed dealloying and the emergence of bulk high-strength NPCu.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1 Precursor composition and dealloying pathways\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe as-cast precursor alloys exhibit a characteristic dendritic solid-solution microstructure, as shown in Figs.\u0026nbsp;1b-e. Backscattered electron (BSE) imaging reveals pronounced elemental segregation between dendrites and interdendritic regions, confirmed by energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) mapping of Cu and Mn (Fig.\u0026nbsp;2f). This micro-segregation arises from Cu rejection during solidification of Mn-rich dendrites and establishes the essential compositional heterogeneity for effective dealloying. EDS maps of a representative Mn-40Cu specimen (Figs.\u0026nbsp;2g\u0026ndash;h) clearly illustrate this spatial partitioning, with concentrations matching the Cu-Mn phase diagram predictions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDealloying outcomes depend strongly on precursor composition (Figs.\u0026nbsp;1i\u0026ndash;l). Mn-20Cu specimens suffered poor mechanical integrity, fracturing easily due to (i) excessive Mn content causing volumetric strain in the interdendritic matrix, (ii) rapid Mn dissolution, (iii) internal H₂ gas buildup, and (iv) high porosity. Conversely, Mn-30Cu and Mn-40Cu specimens retained excellent structural integrity post-dealloying, with Mn-40Cu showing especially robust behavior. Although Mn-50Cu preserved mechanical integrity, its unusual coloration indicated incomplete dealloying, attributed to interdendritic Cu content (57.2%) exceeding the parting limit. Scanning electron micrographs of the dealloyed structures are shown in Fig. \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2 Hierarchical architectures in optimized Mn\u0026ndash;40Cu precursor\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eCross-sectional analysis of dealloyed Mn-40Cu (Figs.\u0026nbsp;1m\u0026ndash;o) reveals a well-defined lattice architecture featuring interconnected channels and nanoligament struts (~\u0026thinsp;44.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.2 nm diameter) formed by Cu atom agglomeration during dealloying. Remarkably, rapid dealloying enabled complete dissolution of Mn-rich dendrites despite their high Cu content (up to 26.7 at.%). This is significantly greater than Al- or Mg-rich phases which contain only\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2 at.% Cu [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e65\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e] and are completely dissolved in solution. Prior studies on similar micro-segregated Cu\u0026ndash;Mn alloys produced monolithic NPCu [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e67\u003c/span\u003e] upon dealloying, highlighting the importance of solute redistribution control and careful tuning of dealloying conditions to achieve hierarchical structures.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe successful removal of dendrites in Mn-40Cu, but not Mn-50Cu, establishes a critical upper limit of dendritic Cu content for forming robust hierarchical lattices. Our earlier work demonstrated that rapid dissolution of Mn-rich dendrites facilitates subsequent dealloying of the Cu-rich matrix [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. This allows dealloying at higher Cu concentrations than conventionally feasible. For example, the Mn-40Cu interdendritic matrix (51.8 at.% Cu) forms nanoporous structures, while homogenized Mn-50Cu (50 at.% Cu) experiences surface passivation. Dissolving dendrites create percolating pathways that delay passivation onset and reduce volumetric shrinkage stresses by dealloying of Cu-rich interdendritic matrix.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese findings identify Mn-40Cu as the optimal precursor for achieving complete dealloying with mechanical robustness. Hence, subsequent analyses focus on this nominal composition.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3 Amorphous\u0026ndash;nanocrystalline nanoligament substructure\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA transmission electron microscopy (TEM) lamella, prepared by focused ion beam (FIB) milling from a single micro-lattice strut, reveals a thin slice of interconnected nanoligaments (Fig.\u0026nbsp;3a). High-resolution TEM (HRTEM) of an isolated nanoligament (Fig.\u0026nbsp;3b) shows a polycrystalline substructure of equiaxed nanograins averaging 5.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.9 nm. Grain orientation variations are visualized by pseudo-coloring (Fig.\u0026nbsp;3c) derived from fast Fourier transform (FFT) selected-area electron diffraction (SAED) patterns (Fig.\u0026nbsp;3d), confirming polycrystallinity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFurther HRTEM (Fig.\u0026nbsp;3e) reveals a hybrid structure of isolated and impinging nanograins embedded within a non-crystalline matrix. FFT-SAED shows diffuse rings characteristic of an amorphous phase, while STEM-EDS (Fig. S2) indicates a residual Mn content of ~\u0026thinsp;0.4 at.% in nanoligaments, confirming near-complete Mn removal. Indexing of a nanograin along the [011] zone axis (Figs.\u0026nbsp;3e\u0026ndash;f) identifies single-crystal FCC Cu. Amorphous regions between grains display diffuse diffraction and irregular atomic arrangements (Figs.\u0026nbsp;3h\u0026ndash;i). Twin boundaries, visualized by HRTEM (Fig.\u0026nbsp;3j) and FFT-SAED (Fig.\u0026nbsp;3k), occur at a high density with lamella spacing as low as 4.5 \u0026Aring;.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese observations challenge conventional assumptions that precursor grain structure is preserved post-dealloying [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e68\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e69\u003c/span\u003e]. The coexistence of nanograin and amorphous phases points to a strong sensitivity to dealloying parameters. Supporting this, identical nanoligament architectures are observed in rapidly dealloyed NPCu nanoligaments that were drop cast on Ni TEM grids (Fig. S3). This observation confirms that the architecture is not a preparation artifact but rather a direct outcome of the dealloying process.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4 Influence of dealloying kinetics on phase formation\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo validate the formation kinetics under rapid dealloying conditions, the same Mn-40Cu precursor alloy was subjected to slower dealloying conditions (0.1 M HCl at 20\u0026deg;C). Scanning electron micrographs of the dealloying structure instead show a dual-scale nanoporous structure, lacking the open channels present after rapid dealloying (Figs.\u0026nbsp;4a\u0026ndash;b). The dual-scale porosity exhibits a morphology that mirrors the preserved dendritic and interdendritic structure (Figs.\u0026nbsp;4c\u0026ndash;d). Under these slower dealloying conditions, selective Mn removal without full phase dissolution highlights the critical influence of dealloying kinetics on phase dissolution and Cu diffusion.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDark-field (DF) TEM images acquired at varying tilt angles (Fig.\u0026nbsp;4e) confirm crystallographic homogeneity in two distinct nanoligaments formed under slow dealloying conditions. High-resolution TEM (Fig.\u0026nbsp;4f) and selected area electron diffraction (SAED) patterns (Figs.\u0026nbsp;4g\u0026ndash;j) further verify the presence of a continuous single-crystal FCC Cu structure throughout each ligament. In contrast to rapid dealloying, these findings highlight the critical influence of dissolution kinetics in promoting amorphous substructure formation (Fig.\u0026nbsp;3). Without the initial development of this amorphous phase, subsequent nanograin nucleation is not observed.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eConventionally, nanoligament formation during dealloying arises from the selective dissolution of less noble elements (e.g., Mn) and the concurrent lateral diffusion of more noble atoms (e.g., Cu), driven by their high self-diffusivity at ambient conditions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e70\u003c/span\u003e]. This process has historically produced crystalline nanoligaments that inherit the orientation of the precursor grains. The observation of a single-crystal structure under identical sample preparation conditions further confirms that differences in nanoligament architecture arise solely from variations in dealloying kinetics, rather than from artefacts introduced during sample preparation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.5 Record strength from synergistic amorphous\u0026ndash;nanocrystalline architecture\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe mechanical performance of hierarchical Cu lattices derived from Mn-40Cu precursors was assessed via compression testing using samples prepared under rapid (1 M HCl, 60\u0026deg;C) and slow (0.1 M HCl, 20\u0026deg;C) dealloying conditions. The precursor alloy displayed high ductility, sustaining 73.3% strain before exceeding the testing machine\u0026rsquo;s load capacity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRepresentative compressive stress\u0026ndash;strain curves (Fig.\u0026nbsp;5a) show that amorphous\u0026ndash;nanocrystalline specimens achieve a compressive strength of 163.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.18 MPa and a fracture strain of 3.09\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05%, compared with 49.09\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.79 MPa and 1.53\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07% for single-crystal nanoligament specimens, corresponding to a three-fold enhancement in strength. The specific strengths were 43.40\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.61 kN\u0026middot;m/kg and 12.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.13 kN\u0026middot;m/kg, respectively, with densities of 3.76\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.16 g/cm\u0026sup3; (amorphous\u0026ndash;nanocrystalline) and 3.94\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.34 g/cm\u0026sup3; (single-crystal). Complete compressive stress\u0026ndash;strain curves are provided in Fig. S4. These results demonstrate that the amorphous\u0026ndash;nanocrystalline hybrid architecture markedly enhances mechanical performance while maintaining low density, highlighting its potential for ultra-strong, lightweight structural applications.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;6 compares compressive strength vs. density for the hierarchical Cu lattices and various material classes, including plastics, metal and ceramic foams, dense metals, Cu foams, additively manufactured lattices, and other NPCu structures. The hierarchical Cu lattice (orange line) outperforms all other nanoporous architectures across ligament sizes and relative densities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR72 CR73 CR74 CR75\" citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e71\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e76\u003c/span\u003e], including conventional open-cell Cu foams produced via space-holder methods [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e77\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e78\u003c/span\u003e], freeze casting [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e77\u003c/span\u003e], electro/electroless deposition [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e79\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e80\u003c/span\u003e], and laser powder bed fusion [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR82\" citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e81\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e83\u003c/span\u003e] (Table S2). Its performance rivals or exceeds many dense metals, including Al, Mg, Cu, and even Ti.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe exceptional strength of this material arises from its unique nanoligament architecture, comprising a polycrystalline network of twinned nanograins embedded within an amorphous matrix. Metallic glasses inherently resist shear due to the high energy barrier for atomic rearrangements, while the embedded nanograins provide dislocation pathways and mechanical reinforcement. This synergistic dual-phase design yields far superior strength compared to fully crystalline counterparts of similar composition [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e84\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eStrengthening is further promoted by the interaction between the amorphous and nanocrystalline domains. Fine nanograins dispersed within the amorphous matrix suppress shear banding through nanocrystalline pinning [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e85\u003c/span\u003e], contribute to Hall\u0026ndash;Petch strengthening [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e86\u003c/span\u003e], and locally resist shear deformation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e]. Twin boundaries, acting as potent dislocation barriers, provide an additional strengthening mechanism [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e85\u003c/span\u003e]. Our structure contains exceptionally fine twins (~\u0026thinsp;4.5 \u0026Aring; spacing). Although very small twin spacings can soften materials via slip along twin boundaries, simulations indicate that ~\u0026thinsp;20 nm grains with ~\u0026thinsp;2 nm twin spacing (10:1 ratio) achieve yield strengths up to 2 GPa [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e87\u003c/span\u003e]. With a comparable grain-to-twin spacing ratio (~\u0026thinsp;11.8:1), our architecture suggests that nanotwins and their fine periodicity significantly contribute to the observed strength. Moreover, twins impede Cu and vacancy diffusion, stabilizing nanograin size and thereby sustaining Hall\u0026ndash;Petch strengthening [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR88\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e88\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis work establishes amorphization-directed dealloying as a transformative and scalable synthetic route to overcome the longstanding mechanical fragility of nanoporous metals. By kinetically steering dealloying in an engineered Mn\u0026ndash;40Cu precursor, we produce bulk nanoporous copper (NPCu) with a hierarchical nanoligament architecture, where ultrafine twinned nanocrystals are embedded within an amorphous backbone. This amorphous\u0026ndash;nanocrystalline hybrid network, stabilized by suppressing diffusion under rapid dissolution, achieves a record specific compressive strength of 43.4 kN\u0026middot;m/kg, exceeding all previously reported porous coppers and rivaling the performance of fully dense titanium. By shifting the paradigm of nanoligament formation from diffusion-driven crystallization to kinetically tailored amorphization, we demonstrate precise synthetic control over nanostructure and mechanical performance. The resulting three-fold strength enhancement over single-crystal NPCu establishes a generalizable framework for producing ultra-strong bulk architectures, enabling the functional use of nanoporous metals in structural applications and opening new frontiers for next-generation structural\u0026ndash;functional materials.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Experimental methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.1 Precursor alloy casting, sectioning and characterisation\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eBinary Mn-xCu precursor alloy castings, with nominal compositions of x\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;20, 30, 40, and 50 at.% Cu (all compositions herein are expressed in atomic percent unless otherwise specified), were prepared via arc melting. High-purity Cu and Mn metals (\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;99.99 wt.%) were melted in a water-cooled Cu mould under an argon atmosphere to ensure an inert environment. To achieve chemical homogeneity, each ingot was re-melted five times. Cylinders measuring 5 mm in diameter and 10 mm in length, designated for microstructural characterisation and compression testing, were sectioned from each ingot using electric discharge machining. Microstructural analysis was conducted at the central cross-section of each precursor alloy specimen using backscattered electron (BSE) imaging and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS). These analyses were performed on a FEI SCIOS dual-beam scanning electron microscope (SEM) equipped with an Oxford Xmax80 EDS detector. The dendrite volume fraction was quantified from BSE micrographs using ImageJ software.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.2 Fabrication of a hierarchical Cu lattice structure via chemical dealloying\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrecursor alloy specimens were chemically dealloyed in a 1 M aqueous HCl solution at 60\u0026deg;C. During the process, Mn atoms dissolved, generating hydrogen gas bubbles on the specimen surfaces. The cessation of bubble formation indicated the complete removal of Mn, marking the conclusion of the dealloying process. Afterward, the specimens were carefully extracted, ultrasonically rinsed with distilled water and ethanol to remove residual acid, and air-dried. Mn-40Cu specimens were selected for further study due to their successful dealloying and exceptional robustness. To investigate the impact of dealloying conditions on diffusion kinetics and structural evolution, additional Mn-40Cu specimens were dealloyed at room temperature (20\u0026deg;C) using a dilute 0.1 M HCl solution. A test specimen was sectioned to verify complete dealloying throughout its volume.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.3 Hierarchical Cu lattice structure length scale and morphology\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSE and EDS analyses were conducted on the central cross-section of the as-dealloyed specimens using a FEI Verios 460L SEM equipped with an Oxford Xmax30 EDS detector. The strut, channel and nanoligament geometries of the hierarchical Cu lattice were quantified using ImageJ software.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.4 TEM sample preparation\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA FEI SCIOS dual-beam SEM was used to extract a TEM lamella from a hierarchical Cu lattice strut utilizing a Ga ion beam source. The lamella was mounted onto a Cu grid and secured by carbon deposition. Additionally, a Cu-nanoligament powder was obtained by gently scraping the surface of a dealloyed sample to release the surface ligaments. The resulting powder was ultrasonically agitated in isopropyl alcohol and drop-cast onto a Ni TEM grid using a pipette. The TEM grids were left to dry overnight to ensure complete evaporation of the isopropyl alcohol.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.5 Atomic structure of Cu nanoligaments\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eHigh-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), selected area electron diffraction (SAED), and scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) EDS analyses were performed using a JEOL JEM-2100 FEGTEM equipped with an Oxford X-Maxn 80T EDS detector. HRTEM and SAED utilised a double-tilt holder, enabling precise alignment of the Cu crystals' crystallographic zone axis with the electron beam. Dark-field (DF) micrographs were acquired at these orientations to visualize and differentiate crystallographic misalignments both between nanoligaments and within distinct regions of a single nanoligament. Cu, Mn and oxygen atomic fractions were measured in each nanoligament following dealloying to assess the success of the dealloying of the process.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.6 Mn-40Cu precursor alloy bulk compression before and after dealloying\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Mn-40Cu alloy composition was selected for compression testing due to its superior mechanical robustness compared to other tested variants. Compression tests were performed on both precursor alloy cylinders and dealloyed specimens under two conditions: (i) 1 M HCl at 60\u0026deg;C and (ii) 0.1 M HCl at 20\u0026deg;C, following ISO 13314 standards for the compression testing of porous metals. A minimum of three specimens were tested under each condition to ensure statistical reliability. The tests were conducted using an Instron 5569 50 kN tension/compression material testing system with a constant crosshead speed of 0.01 mm/s. Each test was concluded at the point where a sharp drop in force was observed, accompanied by visible shear fracture.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSupporting information\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSupporting information is available from the Wiley Online Library or from the author.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eM. Qian, T. Song, and D. Liang conceived the idea of fabricating large nanoporous copper structures via dealloying and secured funding from RMIT University and CSIRO. J. Smith developed the concept of modifying dealloying kinetics to assemble high strength amorphous-nanocrystalline Cu structures. J. Smith carried out all experimental and analytical procedures, with assistance from A. Ramezannejad, who contributed to the bulk compression experiments. J. Smith interpreted the results. The manuscript was written and finalised by J. Smith and M. Qian, with review and editing contributions from A. Ramezannejad, T. Song, and D. Liang. M. Qian, T. Song, and D. Liang supervised the project. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe extend our gratitude to technical officers Mr. Bradley Sherwood, Mr. Mark Overend and Mr. Wei Qian Song for their valuable assistance with machining and mechanical testing. We acknowledge the facilities, scientific expertise, and technical support provided by RMIT University\u0026rsquo;s Microscopy and Microanalysis Facility, a linked laboratory of Microscopy Australia. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no conflict of interest.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eORCID ID\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eJackson L Smith: 0000-0001-5451-6852\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAli Ramezannejad: \u003cu\u003e0000-0001-7885-010X\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMatthew R Field: \u003cu\u003e0000-0002-6189-922X\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEdwin LH Mayes: \u003cu\u003e0000-0001-6668-444X\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTingting Song: 0000-0001-9923-9369\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDaniel Liang: 0000-0002-7113-2655\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMa Qian: 0000-0001-9705-6913\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSingh, J., A. Upadhyay, and S.S. Sehgal, \u003cem\u003eA review on metallic micro lattice.\u003c/em\u003e Materials Today: Proceedings, 2020. \u003cstrong\u003e33\u003c/strong\u003e: p. 1695-1700.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eChen, L.-Y., et al., \u003cem\u003eAdditive manufacturing of metallic lattice structures: Unconstrained design, accurate fabrication, fascinated performances, and challenges.\u003c/em\u003e Materials Science and Engineering: R: Reports, 2021. \u003cstrong\u003e146\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTran, T.Q., et al., \u003cem\u003e3D Printing of Highly Pure Copper.\u003c/em\u003e Metals, 2019. \u003cstrong\u003e9\u003c/strong\u003e(7).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBauer, J., et al., \u003cem\u003eNanolattices: An Emerging Class of Mechanical Metamaterials.\u003c/em\u003e Advanced Materials, 2017. \u003cstrong\u003e29\u003c/strong\u003e(40): p. 1701850.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eXu, W., et al., \u003cem\u003eDesign and performance evaluation of additively manufactured composite lattice structures of commercially pure Ti (CP-Ti).\u003c/em\u003e Bioact Mater, 2021. \u003cstrong\u003e6\u003c/strong\u003e(5): p. 1215-1222.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhang, X., et al., \u003cem\u003eDesign, Fabrication, and Mechanics of 3D Micro-/Nanolattices.\u003c/em\u003e Small, 2020. \u003cstrong\u003e16\u003c/strong\u003e(15): p. e1902842.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCrook, C., et al., \u003cem\u003ePlate-nanolattices at the theoretical limit of stiffness and strength.\u003c/em\u003e Nat Commun, 2020. \u003cstrong\u003e11\u003c/strong\u003e(1): p. 1579.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWendy Gu, X. and J.R. Greer, \u003cem\u003eUltra-strong architected Cu meso-lattices.\u003c/em\u003e Extreme Mechanics Letters, 2015. \u003cstrong\u003e2\u003c/strong\u003e: p. 7-14.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSong, T., M. Yan, and M. Qian, \u003cem\u003eThe enabling role of dealloying in the creation of specific hierarchical porous metal structures\u0026mdash;A review.\u003c/em\u003e Corrosion Science, 2018. \u003cstrong\u003e134\u003c/strong\u003e: p. 78-98.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eErlebacher, J., R.C. Newman, and K. Sieradzki, \u003cem\u003eFundamental Physics and Chemistry of Nanoporosity Evolution During Dealloying\u003c/em\u003e, in \u003cem\u003eNanoporous Gold: From an Ancient Technology to a High-Tech Material\u003c/em\u003e, W. Arne, Editor. 2012. p. 23.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMcCue, I., et al., \u003cem\u003eDealloying and Dealloyed Materials.\u003c/em\u003e Annu Rev Mater Res, 2015. \u003cstrong\u003e46\u003c/strong\u003e(1).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTang, Y., et al., \u003cem\u003eNanoporous metallic surface- Facile fabrication and enhancement of boiling heat transfer.\u003c/em\u003e Applied Surface Science, 2012. \u003cstrong\u003e258\u003c/strong\u003e: p. 8747-8751.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTang, B., et al., \u003cem\u003eAugmented boiling heat transfer on a copper nanoporous surface and the stability of nano-porosity in a hydrothermal environment.\u003c/em\u003e International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 2015. \u003cstrong\u003e90\u003c/strong\u003e: p. 979-985.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePeng, Y., et al., \u003cem\u003eSelective Electrochemical Reduction of CO2 to Ethylene on Nanopores-Modified Copper Electrodes in Aqueous Solution.\u003c/em\u003e ACS Appl Mater Interfaces, 2017.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHoang, T.T.H., et al., \u003cem\u003eNanoporous Copper Films by Additive-Controlled Electrodeposition: CO2 Reduction Catalysis.\u003c/em\u003e ACS Catalysis, 2017. \u003cstrong\u003e7\u003c/strong\u003e(5): p. 3313-3321.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSattayasamitsathit, S., et al., \u003cem\u003eFabrication of Nanoporous Copper Film for Electrochemical Detection of Glucose.\u003c/em\u003e Electroanalysis, 2009. \u003cstrong\u003e21\u003c/strong\u003e(21): p. 2371-2377.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSong, R., et al., \u003cem\u003eHierarchical Nanoporous Copper Fabricated by One-Step Dealloying Toward Ultrasensitive Surface-Enhanced Raman Sensing.\u003c/em\u003e Advanced Materials Interfaces, 2018. \u003cstrong\u003e5\u003c/strong\u003e(16).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhang, S., et al., \u003cem\u003eA three-dimensional tin-coated nanoporous copper for lithium-ion battery anodes.\u003c/em\u003e Journal of Power Sources, 2011. \u003cstrong\u003e196\u003c/strong\u003e(16): p. 6915-6919.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhao, H., et al., \u003cem\u003eCompact 3D Copper with Uniform Porous Structure Derived by Electrochemical Dealloying as Dendrite-Free Lithium Metal Anode Current Collector.\u003c/em\u003e Advanced Energy Materials, 2018. \u003cstrong\u003e8\u003c/strong\u003e(19): p. 1800266.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWang, X., et al., \u003cem\u003eDesign and preparation of nanoporous Ag\u0026ndash;Cu alloys by dealloying Mg\u0026ndash;(Ag,Cu)\u0026ndash;Y metallic glasses for antibacterial applications.\u003c/em\u003e J Mater Chem B, 2019. \u003cstrong\u003e7\u003c/strong\u003e(26): p. 4169-4176.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSmith, J.L., et al., \u003cem\u003eRobust bulk micro-nano hierarchical copper structures possessing exceptional bactericidal efficacy.\u003c/em\u003e Biomaterials, 2022. \u003cstrong\u003e280\u003c/strong\u003e: p. 121271.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhu, B., et al., \u003cem\u003eShort Review on Porous Metal Membranes-Fabrication, Commercial Products, and Applications.\u003c/em\u003e Membranes (Basel), 2018. \u003cstrong\u003e8\u003c/strong\u003e(3).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSeker, E., et al., \u003cem\u003eThe effects of annealing prior to dealloying on the mechanical properties of nanoporous gold microbeams.\u003c/em\u003e Acta Materialia, 2008. \u003cstrong\u003e56\u003c/strong\u003e(3): p. 324-332.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eChen-Wiegart, Y.-c.K., et al., \u003cem\u003eEffect of Ag\u0026ndash;Au composition and acid concentration on dealloying front velocity and cracking during nanoporous gold formation.\u003c/em\u003e Acta Mater, 2013. \u003cstrong\u003e61\u003c/strong\u003e(15): p. 5561-5570.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eChen-Wiegart, Y.K., et al., \u003cem\u003eEvolution of dealloying induced strain in nanoporous gold crystals.\u003c/em\u003e Nanoscale, 2017. \u003cstrong\u003e9\u003c/strong\u003e(17): p. 5686-5693.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYe, X.-L., et al., \u003cem\u003ePrimary and Secondary Dealloying of Au(Pt)-Ag: Structural and Compositional Evolutions, and Volume Shrinkage.\u003c/em\u003e Journal of The Electrochemical Society, 2014. \u003cstrong\u003e161\u003c/strong\u003e(12): p. C517.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSong, T., et al., \u003cem\u003eCreation of bimodal porous copper materials by an annealing-electrochemical dealloying approach.\u003c/em\u003e Electrochimica Acta, 2015. \u003cstrong\u003e164\u003c/strong\u003e: p. 288-296.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLi, J., et al., \u003cem\u003eTailored products of dealloying as-sintered Al\u0026ndash;Cu alloys in sodium hydroxide solutions.\u003c/em\u003e RSC Adv., 2015. \u003cstrong\u003e5\u003c/strong\u003e(92): p. 75044-75054.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLi, J., et al., \u003cem\u003eFabrication and characterization of bulk nanoporous copper by dealloying Al\u0026ndash;Cu alloy slices.\u003c/em\u003e Corrosion Science, 2015. \u003cstrong\u003e90\u003c/strong\u003e: p. 216-222.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLiu, W., et al., \u003cem\u003eDealloying Behavior of Dual-Phase Al 15 at.% Cu Alloy in an Acidic Solution.\u003c/em\u003e International Journal of Electrochemical Science, 2012. \u003cstrong\u003e7\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eXing, Y., et al., \u003cem\u003eStructure Evolution of Nanoporous Copper by dealloying of Al 17-33 at% Cu alloy.\u003c/em\u003e International Journal of Electrochemical Science, 2015. \u003cstrong\u003e10\u003c/strong\u003e: p. 4849-4859.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eQi, Z., et al., \u003cem\u003eFormation and Characterization of Monolithic Nanoporous Copper by Chemical Dealloying of Al-Cu Alloys.\u003c/em\u003e J Phys Chem C, 2009. \u003cstrong\u003e113\u003c/strong\u003e(16): p. 6694-6698.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTuan, N.T., et al., \u003cem\u003eSynthesis of nanoporous Cu films by dealloying of electrochemically deposited Cu\u0026ndash;Zn alloy films.\u003c/em\u003e Corrosion Science, 2014. \u003cstrong\u003e80\u003c/strong\u003e: p. 7-11.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhang, Q.B., A.P. Abbott, and C. Yang, \u003cem\u003eElectrochemical fabrication of nanoporous copper films in choline chloride-urea deep eutectic solvent.\u003c/em\u003e Phys Chem Chem Phys, 2015. \u003cstrong\u003e17\u003c/strong\u003e(22): p. 14702-9.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLin, B., et al., \u003cem\u003eImpact of the De-Alloying Kinetics and Alloy Microstructure on the Final Morphology of De-Alloyed Meso-Porous Metal Films.\u003c/em\u003e Nanomaterials, 2014. \u003cstrong\u003e4\u003c/strong\u003e(4): p. 856-878.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhao, C., et al., \u003cem\u003eFabrication and characterization of monolithic nanoporous copper through chemical dealloying of Mg\u0026ndash;Cu alloys.\u003c/em\u003e Corros Sci, 2009. \u003cstrong\u003e51\u003c/strong\u003e(9): p. 2120-2125.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhao, C., et al., \u003cem\u003eOn the electrochemical dealloying of Mg\u0026ndash;Cu alloys in a NaCl aqueous solution.\u003c/em\u003e Corrosion Science, 2010. \u003cstrong\u003e52\u003c/strong\u003e(12): p. 3962-3972.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLiu, W., et al., \u003cem\u003eFormation of Monolithic Nanoporous Copper with Ultrahigh Specific Surface Area through Chemical Dealloying of Mg-Cu Alloy.\u003c/em\u003e Int. J. Electrochem. Sci, 2012. \u003cstrong\u003e7\u003c/strong\u003e: p. 9707-9716.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eIbrahim, S., et al., \u003cem\u003eNanoporous Copper Ribbons Prepared by Chemical Dealloying of a Melt-Spun ZnCu Alloy.\u003c/em\u003e The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 2021. \u003cstrong\u003e126\u003c/strong\u003e(1): p. 212-226.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHayes, J.R., et al., \u003cem\u003eMonolithic nanoporous copper by dealloying Mn\u0026ndash;Cu.\u003c/em\u003e J Mater Res, 2006. \u003cstrong\u003e21\u003c/strong\u003e(10): p. 2611-2616.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWang, L., et al., \u003cem\u003eHigh-strength hierarchical-structured bulk nanoporous Cu prepared by dealloying and spark plasma sintering.\u003c/em\u003e Scripta Materialia, 2021. \u003cstrong\u003e203\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSun, S., et al., \u003cem\u003eSynthesis and mechanical properties of low crack-density bulk hierarchical nanoporous copper.\u003c/em\u003e Scripta Materialia, 2025. \u003cstrong\u003e258\u003c/strong\u003e: p. 116531.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWang, L., et al., \u003cem\u003eHigh-strength hierarchical-structured bulk nanoporous Cu prepared by dealloying and spark plasma sintering.\u003c/em\u003e Scripta Materialia, 2021. \u003cstrong\u003e203\u003c/strong\u003e: p. 114114.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhong, H., et al., \u003cem\u003eSkeletal High-Strength Nanoporous Copper and Metamaterials: The Hakka Tulou Design Heritage.\u003c/em\u003e Advanced Materials, 2025. \u003cstrong\u003en/a\u003c/strong\u003e(n/a): p. e03701.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eErlebacher, J., et al., \u003cem\u003eEvolution of nanoporosity in dealloying.\u003c/em\u003e Nature, 2001. \u003cstrong\u003e410\u003c/strong\u003e: p. 450-453.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMa, H., et al., \u003cem\u003eInfluence of dealloying solution on the microstructure of nanoporous copper through chemical dealloying of Al75Cu25 ribbons.\u003c/em\u003e Journal of Materials Research, 2020. \u003cstrong\u003e35\u003c/strong\u003e(19): p. 2610-2619.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWang, Z., et al., \u003cem\u003eDealloying of Cu-Based Metallic Glasses in Acidic Solutions: Products and Energy Storage Applications.\u003c/em\u003e Nanomaterials (Basel), 2015. \u003cstrong\u003e5\u003c/strong\u003e(2): p. 697-721.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZahra, T., et al., \u003cem\u003eMicrostructure Engineered Nanoporous Copper for Enhanced Catalytic Degradation of Organic Pollutants in Wastewater.\u003c/em\u003e Materials (Basel), 2025. \u003cstrong\u003e18\u003c/strong\u003e(13).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhang, C., et al., \u003cem\u003eDealloying-Derived Nanoporous Cu(6)Sn(5) Alloy as Stable Anode Materials for Lithium-Ion Batteries.\u003c/em\u003e Materials (Basel), 2021. \u003cstrong\u003e14\u003c/strong\u003e(15).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhang, Y., et al., \u003cem\u003eHierarchical Nanoporous Copper Architectures via 3D Printing Technique for Highly Efficient Catalysts.\u003c/em\u003e Small, 2019. \u003cstrong\u003e15\u003c/strong\u003e: p. 1805432.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNicolaescu, M., et al., \u003cem\u003eSynthesis of nanoporous copper by dealloying CuZrAl and CuZrAlAg amorphous ribbons in acidic solution.\u003c/em\u003e Materials Today: Proceedings, 2023. \u003cstrong\u003e72\u003c/strong\u003e: p. 565-571.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDan, Z., et al., \u003cem\u003eFabrication of nanoporous copper by dealloying of amorphous Ti\u0026ndash;Cu\u0026ndash;Ag alloys.\u003c/em\u003e Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2014. \u003cstrong\u003e586\u003c/strong\u003e: p. S134-S138.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAburada, T., J. Fitz-Gerald, and J. Scully, \u003cem\u003eSynthesis of nanoporous copper by dealloying of Al-Cu-Mg amorphous alloys in acidic solution: The effect of nickel.\u003c/em\u003e Corrosion Science - CORROS SCI, 2011. \u003cstrong\u003e53\u003c/strong\u003e: p. 1627-1632.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYue, X., et al., \u003cem\u003eFabrication and Degradation Properties of Nanoporous Copper with Tunable Pores by Dealloying Amorphous Ti-Cu Alloys with Minor Co Addition.\u003c/em\u003e Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, 2021. \u003cstrong\u003e30\u003c/strong\u003e(3): p. 1759-1767.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePetegem, S., V., et al., \u003cem\u003eOn the Microstructure of Nanoporous Gold: An X-ray Diffraction Study.\u003c/em\u003e Nano Letters, 2009. \u003cstrong\u003e9\u003c/strong\u003e(3): p. 1158-1163.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eXu, H., et al., \u003cem\u003eMicromorphology and Phase Composition Manipulation of Nanoporous Gold with High Methanol Electro-oxidation Catalytic Activity through Adding a Magnetic Field in the Dealloying Process.\u003c/em\u003e The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 2018. \u003cstrong\u003e122\u003c/strong\u003e(6): p. 3371-3385.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKulik, T., T. Horubał, and H. Matyja, \u003cem\u003eFlash annealing nanocrystallization of Fe\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003eSi\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003eB-based glasses.\u003c/em\u003e Materials Science and Engineering: A, 1992. \u003cstrong\u003e157\u003c/strong\u003e(1): p. 107-112.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHebert, R.J. and J.H. Perepezko, \u003cem\u003eEffect of cold-rolling on the crystallization behavior of amorphous Al88Y7Fe5 alloy.\u003c/em\u003e Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2004. \u003cstrong\u003e375-377\u003c/strong\u003e: p. 728-732.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eInoue, A., et al., \u003cem\u003eHigh-strength Zr-based bulk amorphous alloys containing nanocrystalline and nanoquasicrystalline particles.\u003c/em\u003e Science and Technology of Advanced Materials, 2000. \u003cstrong\u003e1\u003c/strong\u003e(2): p. 73-86.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eArtymowicz, D.M., J. Erlebacher, and R.C. Newman, \u003cem\u003eRelationship between the parting limit for de-alloying and a particular geometric high-density site percolation threshold.\u003c/em\u003e Philosophical Magazine, 2009. \u003cstrong\u003e89\u003c/strong\u003e(21): p. 1663-1693.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eXia, J., et al., \u003cem\u003eImpact of Structure and Composition on the Dealloying of CuxAu(1\u0026ndash;x) Bulk and Nanoscale Alloys.\u003c/em\u003e The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 2016. \u003cstrong\u003e120\u003c/strong\u003e(4): p. 2299-2308.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHemmendinger, K.D. and A.M. Hodge, \u003cem\u003eProgression of the dealloying front in bilayer Cu\u0026ndash;Al and Cu\u0026ndash;Zn nanoporous foams.\u003c/em\u003e Journal of Materials Research, 2023. \u003cstrong\u003e38\u003c/strong\u003e(13): p. 3407-3415.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLiu, F. and H.-J. Jin, \u003cem\u003eExtrinsic Parting Limit for Dealloying of Cu-Rh.\u003c/em\u003e J Electrochem Soc, 2018. \u003cstrong\u003e165\u003c/strong\u003e(16): p. C999-C1006.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWook Noh, K., et al., \u003cem\u003eGrain Boundary Parting Limit during Dealloying.\u003c/em\u003e Advanced Engineering Materials, 2015. \u003cstrong\u003e17\u003c/strong\u003e(2).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhang, X., et al., \u003cem\u003eFabrication of a bimodal micro/nanoporous metal by the Gasar and dealloying processes.\u003c/em\u003e Materials Letters, 2013. \u003cstrong\u003e92\u003c/strong\u003e: p. 448-451.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGrosu, Y., A. Zaki, and A. Faik, \u003cem\u003eTrimodal hierarchical nanoporous copper with tunable porosity prepared by dealloying Mg-Cu alloys of close-to-eutectic compositions.\u003c/em\u003e Applied Surface Science, 2019. \u003cstrong\u003e475\u003c/strong\u003e: p. 748-753.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eXiu-lan, T., et al., \u003cem\u003eEffect of heat treatment of Mn-Cu precursors on morphology of dealloyed nanoporous copper.\u003c/em\u003e Journal of Central South University of Technology, 2012. \u003cstrong\u003e19\u003c/strong\u003e: p. 17-21.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhang, Z., et al., \u003cem\u003eDealloying strategy to fabricate ultrafine nanoporous gold-based alloys with high structural stability and tunable magnetic properties.\u003c/em\u003e CrystEngComm, 2012. \u003cstrong\u003e14\u003c/strong\u003e(23): p. 8292.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ede Jeer, L.T., et al., \u003cem\u003eFormation of Nanoporous Gold Studied by Transmission Electron Backscatter Diffraction.\u003c/em\u003e Microsc Microanal, 2015. \u003cstrong\u003e21\u003c/strong\u003e(6): p. 1387-1397.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAn, Y., et al., \u003cem\u003eDealloying: An effective method for scalable fabrication of 0D, 1D, 2D, 3D materials and its application in energy storage.\u003c/em\u003e Nano Today, 2021. \u003cstrong\u003e37\u003c/strong\u003e: p. 101094.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eL\u0026uuml;hrs, L. and J. Weissm\u0026uuml;ller, \u003cem\u003eNanoporous Copper-Nickel \u0026ndash; Macroscopic bodies of a strong and deformable nanoporous base metal by dealloying.\u003c/em\u003e Scripta Materialia, 2018. \u003cstrong\u003e155\u003c/strong\u003e: p. 119-123.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKong, Q., et al., \u003cem\u003eFabrication and compression properties of bulk hierarchical nanoporous copper with fine ligament.\u003c/em\u003e Materials Letters, 2014. \u003cstrong\u003e127\u003c/strong\u003e: p. 59-62.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eChen, F., et al., \u003cem\u003eFabrication and mechanical behavior of bulk nanoporous Cu via chemical de-alloying of Cu\u0026ndash;Al alloys.\u003c/em\u003e Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2016. \u003cstrong\u003e660\u003c/strong\u003e: p. 241-250.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLee, S.-Y., et al., \u003cem\u003eFabrication of high-strength duplex nanoporous Cu by dealloying a dual-phase Mg\u0026ndash;Cu precursor alloy.\u003c/em\u003e Journal of Magnesium and Alloys, 2020. \u003cstrong\u003e8\u003c/strong\u003e(3): p. 910-916.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJi, Y., et al., \u003cem\u003eThe Mechanical Characteristics of Monolithic Nanoporous Copper and Its Composites.\u003c/em\u003e Advanced Engineering Materials, 2018. \u003cstrong\u003e20\u003c/strong\u003e(10).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYanfei, Y.A.O., et al., \u003cem\u003eMicrostructures and mechanical properties of bulk nanoporous copper fabricated by dealloying Al-Cu alloys.\u003c/em\u003e Jorunal of Functional Materials, 2016. \u003cstrong\u003e47\u003c/strong\u003e(5): p. 180-184.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHong, K., et al., \u003cem\u003eComparison of morphology and compressive deformation behavior of copper foams manufactured via freeze-casting and space-holder methods.\u003c/em\u003e Journal of Materials Research and Technology, 2021. \u003cstrong\u003e15\u003c/strong\u003e: p. 6855-6865.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLi, C., et al., \u003cem\u003eMultifunctional Open-Cell Copper Foam with Sphere Pores by a Modified Sintering\u0026ndash;Dissolution Process.\u003c/em\u003e Metals, 2023. \u003cstrong\u003e13\u003c/strong\u003e(4).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eChen, J., et al., \u003cem\u003eStudy on the Compression Properties and Deformation Failure Mechanism of Open‐Cell Copper Foam\u0026thinsp;\u003c/em\u003eAdvanced Engineering Materials, 2017. \u003cstrong\u003e19\u003c/strong\u003e(11).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBesharati, F. and M.H. Paydar, \u003cem\u003eFabrication of Copper Open Cell Foam by Electrochemical Deposition Method and Investigation on the Effect of Current Intensity and Plating Solution on the Created Microstructure.\u003c/em\u003e Iranian Journal of Materials Forming, 2023. \u003cstrong\u003e10\u003c/strong\u003e(1): p. 4-12.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMa, Z., et al., \u003cem\u003eLattice structures of Cu-Cr-Zr copper alloy by selective laser melting: Microstructures, mechanical properties and energy absorption.\u003c/em\u003e Materials \u0026amp; Design, 2020. \u003cstrong\u003e187\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKang, S.-G., et al., \u003cem\u003eGreen laser powder bed fusion based fabrication and rate-dependent mechanical properties of copper lattices.\u003c/em\u003e Materials \u0026amp; Design, 2023. \u003cstrong\u003e231\u003c/strong\u003e: p. 112023.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLiu, Y., et al., \u003cem\u003eManufacturing of high strength and high conductivity copper with laser powder bed fusion.\u003c/em\u003e Nature Communications, 2024. \u003cstrong\u003e15\u003c/strong\u003e(1): p. 1283.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSchuh, C.A., T.C. Hufnagel, and U. Ramamurty, \u003cem\u003eMechanical behavior of amorphous alloys.\u003c/em\u003e Acta Materialia, 2007. \u003cstrong\u003e55\u003c/strong\u003e(12): p. 4067-4109.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eInoue, A., H. Tomioka, and T. Masumoto, \u003cem\u003eMechanical properties of ductile Fe-Ni-Zr and Fe-Ni-Zr (Nb or Ta) amorphous alloys containing fine crystalline particles.\u003c/em\u003e Journal of Materials Science, 1983. \u003cstrong\u003e18\u003c/strong\u003e: p. 153-160.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCordero, Z., B. Knight, and C. Schuh, \u003cem\u003eSix decades of the Hall\u0026ndash;Petch effect \u0026ndash; a survey of grain-size strengthening studies on pure metals.\u003c/em\u003e International Materials Reviews, 2016. \u003cstrong\u003e61\u003c/strong\u003e: p. 1-18.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLi, X., et al., \u003cem\u003eDislocation nucleation governed softening and maximum strength in nano-twinned metals.\u003c/em\u003e Nature, 2010. \u003cstrong\u003e464\u003c/strong\u003e(7290): p. 877-880.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eXu, D., et al., \u003cem\u003eNanotwin formation and its physical properties and effect on reliability of copper interconnects.\u003c/em\u003e Microelectronic Engineering, 2008. \u003cstrong\u003e85\u003c/strong\u003e(10): p. 2155-2158.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"nature-portfolio","isNatureJournal":true,"hasQc":false,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Nature Portfolio","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":false,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"ejp","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"nanoporous copper, synthesis, dealloying, amorphous, nanocrystalline","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7778133/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7778133/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eNanoporous metals offer exceptional surface-area-enabled multifunctionality, yet their adoption as bulk structural materials has long been hindered by intrinsic fragility. Here, we present amorphization-directed dealloying, a transformative synthetic strategy that produces bulk nanoporous copper (NPCu) with a record specific compressive strength of 43.4 kN\u0026middot;m/kg, exceeding all previously reported porous coppers and approaching the performance of fully dense, commercially pure titanium. By kinetically steering the dealloying pathway away from crystallization and towards amorphization, this approach yields a hierarchical nanoligament architecture in which ultrafine twinned nanocrystals are embedded within an amorphous backbone. The resulting amorphous\u0026ndash;nanocrystalline hybrid network achieves a three-fold strength enhancement over single-crystal NPCu while mitigating dealloying-induced stresses through compositionally guided precursor design. This novel synthesis strategy directly addresses the longstanding mechanical limitations of nanoporous metals, establishing a scalable framework for creating ultra-strong porous architectures and opening opportunities for their use as next-generation structural\u0026ndash;functional materials.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Ultra-strong nanoporous copper enabled by amorphization-directed dealloying","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-21 07:20:58","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7778133/v1","editorialEvents":[],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"nature-communications","isNatureJournal":true,"hasQc":false,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"NCOMMS","sideBox":"Learn more about [Nature Communications](http://www.nature.com/ncomms/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://mts-ncomms.nature.com/","title":"Nature Communications","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"ejp","reportingPortfolio":"Nature Communications","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"316d573b-4bc3-42f5-a535-5a8e57a11465","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 21st, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[{"id":56493535,"name":"Physical sciences/Materials science/Nanoscale materials/Synthesis and processing"},{"id":56493536,"name":"Physical sciences/Materials science/Nanoscale materials/Structural properties"},{"id":56493537,"name":"Physical sciences/Materials science/Structural materials/Metals and alloys"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-11-25T20:30:16+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-21 07:20:58","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7778133","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7778133","identity":"rs-7778133","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}