Investigated of Neural Mechanisms Involved in Choking During Soccer Players' Decision-making

Investigated of Neural Mechanisms Involved in Choking During Soccer Players' Decision-making | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Investigated of Neural Mechanisms Involved in Choking During Soccer Players' Decision-making Akbar Bohloul, Mehdi Shahbazi, Shahzad Tahmasebi Borujeni, Yousef Moghadas Tabrizi This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5871851/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Purpose : Soccer players on the pitch have to make decisions under pressure, which can lead to wrong decisions and reduced performance. Few research has investigated the neural mechanisms underlying this reduced performance and choking. the aim of the study investigated of neural mechanisms involved in choking during soccer players’ decision-making. Methods : Eighteen soccer players from Tehran Youth Premier League participated in this study. Decision-making task included images of 3 simulated soccer conditions on a monitor including neutral (no pressure), result pressure, and monitoring pressure. During all these stages, the alpha wave of the involved areas in decision-making ( Fp 1 , Fp 2 , F 3 , F z , F 4 , C 3 , C z , C 4 ) was evaluated by EEG. Results: The results of repeated-measures analysis of variance showed significant difference in Fp 1 , Fp 2 , Fp 3 , F z , C 3 , C z and C 4 under all the three pressures. Subsequently, the Bonferroni post hoc test showed a significant decrease in alpha wave activity of all the above areas under the result and monitoring pressure conditions compared to neutral one (no pressure). Conclusion: According to the neural evidence in the OFC, DLPFC, and ACC, under monitoring and outcome pressure conditions, the choking was respectively due to self-focus and over-arousal and thus caused dysfunction in the player’s decision-making. Therefore, soccer coaches are advised to ask players to practice and make the right decisions during training sessions by emphasizing concentration, attention, and control of arousal in under pressure conditions so that the experienced players of these training conditions can perform better in matches. Choking Decision-making Brain activity Alpha wave soccer Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 1. Introduction Decision-making refers to selecting one answer out of several possible answers in the environment [1]. A variety of cognitive processes are required to select an answer [2]. These cognitive processes (such as perception, attention, prediction, decision-making, etc.) are necessary for better performance in competition conditions [3]. In team sports, the effective decision-making ability depends on the appropriate orientation towards task-related characteristics [4]. Furthermore, decisions in team sports are made under time constraints [5]. Accordingly, enough knowledge and qualification are required to quickly extract game-related information [6]. Since prior knowledge of the environment, objects, and purpose of the task is involved in better decision-making performance [7] thus the previous experiences might also guide cognitive processes [8]. Research pieces of evidence suggest that examining the underlying functions and mechanisms of brain activity is an interesting area for a detailed investigation of decision-making. According to studies, the frontal lobes in the cortical part of the brain and the limbic, amygdala, striatum, and insula structures in the subcortical part are involved in decision-making. The three major regions in the frontal lobe, including the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), the lateral posterior prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), and the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) have been further examined in decision-making studies [9, 10]. Hong et al.'s (2023) study investigated the characteristics of brain activation in high-level players in different decision-making stages of soccer players outside the field of play, which revealed differences in the neural mechanisms of elite and novice soccer players during observation. This study showed that during the process of watching motion videos, the anterior parietal cognitive area, the primary sensorimotor cortex, the visual cortex and the insula of the brain are activated differently in experts and novices [11]. The study of Lucia et al. (2022) showed that the proposed cognitive-motor training protocol was very effective in improving sports performance and stated that at the neural level, anticipatory prefrontal activity can be the preferred target of cognitive-motor training [12]. Fang et al. (2022) with a review and meta-analysis of the brain function of athletes and non-athletes at the behavioral and neurological level through EEG studies stated that optimal brain function in athletes can be seen as neural efficiency, increased cortical asymmetry, cognitive flexibility More and the exact time of cerebral cortex activation was summarized [13]. Muslimi and Chalbianlou (2024) stated that stimulating the left side of the prefrontal cortex, it increases brain activity and arousal and increases blood flow in the brain, which causes the processing of high-level and complex cognitive processes and improvement. In executive functions and memory, attention, decision making and social cognition [14]. Fink et al. (2018) examined the activity of the EEG alpha wave during creative movements in soccer decision-making conditions. Their results showed that in highly creative decision-making conditions, the frontal and central regions had more alpha power than in low-creative decision-making conditions [15]. In an EEG-based study, Del Percio et al. (2019) examined the neural performance of soccer players in cortical activity related to visual-spatial information processing. According to this study, the alpha wave of the parietal lobe was more active in soccer players than in non-athletes [16]. Villafaina et al. (2019) examined chess players' EEG responses to time-pressure decision-making processes. Their results showed that the pattern of brain activity is different between lightning and rapid chess games. Also, the theta wave is more active in the posterior areas of the cerebral cortex in lightning and the right hemisphere is more active in chess games, which is probably due to visual-spatial processing [17]. Sports competitions are often performed under psychological pressure. The ability to perform at a high level is critical in such conditions. However, an athlete may act as a beginner in critical moments of competition and make one’s worst athletic experience. This performance may be lower than expected even for elite athletes. This issue is called choking which is defined as any reduced performance in high-pressure environments [18, 19]. Generally, three theories explain the underlying mechanisms of choking: distracting model, self-focus, and over-arousal. According to distracting model, stress diverts an individual's attention to non-task-related symptoms or occupies a limited attention capacity, resulting in less attention capacity being assigned to the task, which leads to a decrease in performance [20]. However, there is a belief in the theory of explicit monitoring and self-focus. According to this theory, pressure increases self-awareness in performance and leads to focus on performing a skill that has become automatic. This approach considers internal focus as the cause of choking [21]. According to the over-arousal theory, as motivation increases, the level of arousal rises. The increase in the arousal level improves the performance to some extent, and then it causes a decrease in performance [22, 23]. The mechanism by which over-arousal affects behavior is relatively unclear. However, proponents of this theory suggest that arousal affects neural control of goal-oriented movements by changing the range of attention (e.g., limiting attention) [24]. Each of these approaches provides different predictions on brain activity. There are some contradictions in the results of previous studies on the cause of choking. Some studies (e.g., Gucciardi, Longbottom, Jackson, & Dimmock, 2010; Mesagno and Hill, 2013) consider the distracting model to be a choking factor [25, 26] while others (e.g., Jackson, Kinrade, Hicks, & Wills, 2013; Gucciardi and Dimock, 2008) contemplate self-focus as the cause of choking [27, 28]. Also, researchers such as Chib et al. (2009) and Mobbs et al. (2012) have identified over-arousal as the reason for choking [23, 24]. According to both distracting model and self-focus in neurological studies, the activity of attention-related areas (e.g., the OFC and DLPFC) in the brain may be associated with choking under pressure. The distracting model predicts that during choking, brain activity decreases in attention control areas, while the self-focusing approach assumes that in the case of choking, brain activity increases in attention control areas. In contrast, neurological studies of over-arousal have attributed the choking to the increased activity in ACC [29]. In various studies, a combination of different factors has been used to create pressure, i.e., presence of spectator, competition, prize, and video camera [20]. Some studies have examined the effect of different pressure environments. However, the effect of discrete pressure environments of this study was similar to that of Decaro, Thomas, Albert, and Beilock (2011). They believe that under pressure conditions have different components that may have different effects and lead to explicit monitoring, distraction, or both. These researchers examined the effects of two types of pressure: monitoring and outcome. They stated that being watched by others or using the camera might increase attention to the methods or processes of performing the skill (monitoring pressure) while the pressure of offering an award or achieving a goal may shift an individual’s attention to the situation or outcome (outcome pressure). DeCaro et al. (2011) predict that the performance and decision-making of players will be destroyed under monitoring and outcome pressures, respectively [30]. Soccer players on the pitch have to make decisions under pressure, which can lead to wrong decisions and reduced performance. In addition, high expectations of fans, coaches, and teammates, and the necessity of a great performance create high-pressure conditions for players that are likely to increase choking. Thus, identifying the specific characteristics of a high-pressure conditions that leads the athlete to focus on one’s performance processes or the result of a performance, not only can predict the choking in various conditions but also may be a useful guide to plan interventions for reducing choking. Meanwhile, due to the contradictions between distraction, self-focus, and over-arousal chokings, as well as few studies on the neural mechanisms in under pressure conditions during competition, this study investigated the neural mechanisms involved in choking during soccer players’ decision-making. 2. Method 2.1. Participants The statistical population of the present study consisted of all male soccer players (age range: 13-16 years) of Tehran Premier League in Iran and 18 players were selected as the sample [31]. All players participated in this research voluntarily and their consent forms were filled and approved by their parents. The project was approved by the Ethics Committee on Research with Human Beings of the University of Tehran (IR.UT.SPORT.REC.1397.020). 2.2. Measuring tools Competitive state anxiety inventory-2 . In the present study, the alternative CSAI-2, which is a multidimensional construct, was used. This list contains 17 questions and 3 subscales including physical anxiety (e.g.: I feel tremors in my muscles), cognitive anxiety (e.g.: I'm worried about disappointing others), and confidence (e.g.: I’m pretty sure I’ll do better). Physical anxiety is composed of 7 questions and the remaining 5 scales contain 5 questions [32]. Decision-making software for simulated soccer situations . A soccer decision-making instrument designed by Zoudji et al. (2011) which simulated 180 images of 2*2 and 3*2 positions related to shoot, pass, and dribble was used as the decision-making instrument of this study [33]. In each image, depending on how the defenders and attackers are positioned, the participant should have considered himself as the player with the ball and at that moment select one of the three decisions and press the relevant button on the keyboard: to pass to a teammate, to shoot to the goal, or to dribble the defender. The results of each subject in this task, which included the speed of decision (duration of image display to hit the button) and accuracy of decision-making (number of correct answers) were automatically recorded and stored at the end of the test without the need for manual registration (Figure 1). Electroencephalography : A 19-channel bio-signal amplifier (g. USB amp) EEG made by g.tec which is in the National Brain Mapping Center of Iran was used in this study. A special cap was used for electrode placement through which, 10 to 20 electrodes were used according to the universal system. In this study, alpha waves of Fp 1 , Fp 2 , F 3 , F z , F 4 , C 3 , C z , and C 4 were selected for evaluation and the reference electrode was placed on the ear [9]. Brain waves were recorded in a very quiet hall with a sampling rate of 512 Hz. In order to measure EEG components, a Neuro scan device and a Neuro guide software were used to record electroencephalograms and to quantify the recorded electroencephalograms and wave analysis, respectively. 2.3. Data Collection The subjects completed an informed consent form and a demographic information questionnaire in the laboratory. Then, each subject was then asked to sit in a chair in front of the screen and the test objectives were explained to him. The whole experiment was divided into four blocks, which include one familiar block and three test blocks: First, the simulated images of the familiar stage, including 10 images, were presented. Then, in the first block, the simulated images were presented in 60 attempts (images) without pressure. Before performing each of the next blocks, the desired interventions were performed to create pressure. The subjects performed 60 attempts (image) under outcome pressure in the second block and 60 attempts (image) under monitoring pressure in the third block. To eliminate the sequence effect, half of the subjects were first under monitoring pressure and the other half were first under outcome pressure. Immediately after each block, the CSAI-2 was given to the subjects and the perceived pressure scores were recorded. Before beginning each block, the subject was asked to perform the task with maximum speed and accuracy. 2.3.1. Pressure Interventions Monitoring pressure : To create this environment, subjects were asked to practice skills in the presence of two individuals, and they were told that the two will analyze their decision-making. A camera was also placed to cover all of the subjects’ movements and they were told that the recorded performance video would be sent to two national team coaches to score their decision-making cognitive ability compared to other subjects [31]. Outcome pressure : In this situation, the subjects were told that the points earned by their performance in the previous block were low and should be increased by 20% in order to reach ranks above the average. They were also told that in case of obtaining acceptable points, a prize of 300 thousand Rials will be paid. Also, a special prize of one million rials was determined for the top three subjects [31]. In the end, the subjects were thanked and given a gift for participating in the research. 2.4. EEG Data Analysis The method used to record the EEG signal was non-invasive. The recorded signal by the electrodes was first amplified by an amplifier and then filtered to eliminate all types of noise, including city electrical noise. For quantitative analysis, the EEG signal was passed through an analog-to-digital converter and then stored. The EEG only recorded the raw data, and the related installed software on the computer was capable of processing. What ultimately existed for processing as input data was a series of noiseless data without any processing and including all frequencies. The MATLAB software was used to provide a series of preprocessors for using the data to show the status of the subjects. The EEG data, originally stored in NED format, was called up in MATLAB and then converted into a series of process able numbers by a pre-prepared program. These numbers were the same recorded range of brain signals of individuals. The initial processing steps were performed after extracting the process able numbers from the saved EEG signal file by MATLAB. The next preprocessing step was removing the noise. Initially, a notch filter was installed to remove the electrical noise of the city. It is a transient filter for a frequency of 55 Hz. A 2 Hz bandwidth was considered in the design of the filter. The next step was to design a low-pass and high-pass filter to have a signal between 1 to 16 Hz. The low-pass filter was designed by MATLAB software, which was selected as IIR type. The pass frequency was 15 Hz, the stop frequency was 16 Hz, the sampling frequency was selected 55Hz. Also, the high-pass filter was designed with a sampling frequency of 55Hz, a passing frequency of 1 Hz, and a half-Hz stop frequency. This filter was also selected as IIR type. After implementing the filters on the data, it was time to remove the other noises. These noises included blinking, sudden shaking of the person, and sometimes moving the electrode to ensure proper communication with the person. The level of alpha wave activity from the time of displaying an image on the screen to the moment of decision-making (pressing the button for each answer) was determined as the criterion for changes in brain activity. 2.5. Data analysis The descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) and the Shapiro-Wilk test was used to describe the group status and to determine the normal distribution of data, respectively. The analysis of variance with repeated measures was used to investigate the effect of monitoring, outcome, and neutrality pressures on brain activity, and then, the Bonferroni post hoc test was used to compare pressure conditions two by two. A significance level was determined p≤0.05 in all tests. 3. Results 3.1. Competitive state anxiety The results of repeated-measures analysis of variance showed that the mean cognitive anxiety (F (2, 51) =6.84, P =0.002, =0.21) in all three conditions were significantly different under the three pressures. The results of the Bonferroni post hoc test in figure 1 showed that the mean cognitive anxiety under outcome (10.27±27.00) and monitoring (9.83±2.77) pressures were significantly increased compared to the neutral pressure (7.33±1.78) (respectively, P =0.003, P =0.01). 3.2. Brain activity in choking under pressure The results of repeated-measures analysis of variance in Table 1 showed that the mean alpha wave activity is significantly different under all three pressures in Fp 1 , Fp 2 , F 3 , F z , F 4 , C 3 , C z , C 4 . Table 1. Results of repeated-measures analysis of variance for mean alpha wave activity in different cortical regions under three different pressures According to Bonferroni’s post hoc test based on figure 2, the mean alpha wave activity in the Fp 1 had significantly decreased under outcome (4.1±9.19) and monitoring (4.46±2.05) pressures compared to neutral condition (6.81±2.07) (respectively, P =0.03, P =0.008). Also, the mean alpha wave activity in the Fp 2 had significantly decreased under outcome (3.89 ± 1.10) and monitoring (3.51 ± 1.93) pressures compared to neutral condition (6.1 ± 52.88) (respectively, P =0.01, P =0.001). According to figure3, the mean alpha wave activity in the F 3 had significantly decreased under outcome (3.78±9.82) and monitoring (9.4±79.67) pressures compared to neutral condition (13.43±4.75) (respectively, P =0.04, P =0.04). The mean alpha wave activity in the F z had significantly decreased under outcome (10.28 ± 2.30) and monitoring (10.18 ± 3.89) pressures compared to neutral condition (13.46 ± 3.61) (respectively, P =0.03, P =0.01). The mean alpha wave activity in the F 4 region had significantly decreased under outcome (8.67 ± 3.42) and monitoring (8.04 ± 2.56) pressures compared to neutral condition (11.38 ± 3.70) (respectively, P =0.05, P =0.01). According to figure 4, the mean alpha wave activity in the C 3 had significantly decreased under outcome (12.4±4.92) and monitoring (12.22±5.47) pressures compared to neutral condition (19.80±4.42) (respectively, P =0.04, P =0.03). The mean alpha wave activity in the C z had significantly decreased under outcome (13.67 ± 4.82) and monitoring (12.27 ± 3.45) pressures compared to neutral condition (19.35 ± 4.10) (respectively, P =0.04, P =0.01). The mean alpha wave activity in the C 4 had significantly decreased under monitoring pressure (9.64 ± 4.50) compared to neutral condition (13.4 ± 64.52) ( P =0.02). 4. Discussion This study aimed at investigating the neural mechanisms involved in choking during soccer players’ decision-making. The results showed that the presentation of rewards (outcome pressure) and the presence of two evaluators and a video camera (monitoring pressure) led to an increase in cognitive anxiety of soccer players which was consistent with Decaro et al. (2011), Belletier et al. (2015), and Mesagno et al. (2011) [25, 30, 34]. However, physical anxiety did not show a significant change under pressure. According to the results, the possible reason for the lack of significant differences in physical anxiety under different pressure could be that this form of intervention, which is purely cognitive, is different from the actual conditions of the competition, which is a form of motor-cognitive intervention. Also, players in this age group may not have been able to properly show their physical anxiety by a questionnaire. The results of this study showed a significant difference in mean alpha wave activity in Fp 1 , Fp 2 , F 3 , F z , F 4 , C 3 , C z , C 4 regions under the three pressures during decision-making tasks in soccer. Moreover, there was a significant decrease of mean alpha wave activity in Fp 1 , Fp 2 , F 3 , F z , F 4 , C 3 , C z , under outcome and monitoring pressures, and in C 4 , under monitoring pressure compared to the neutral condition. Since there is an inverse relationship between alpha wave activity and brain activity, thus the latter has increased under pressure. According to the universal system of 10 to 20 electrode placement, Fp 1 , Fp 2 , F 3 , F z , F 4 , C 3 , C z , C 4 regions comprise the three main parts of the frontal region: OFC, DLPFC, and ACC which play an important role in the decision-making process through interacting with each other [9], [10]. Therefore, brain activity in OFC, DLPFC, and ACC has increased significantly under pressure. As previously discussed, choking is one of the reasons for the decline in performance under pressure. According to distracting model and self-focus theory, the activity of attention-related areas (such as OFC and DLPFC) in the brain can be associated with choking caused by under pressure conditions. The self-focus approach believes that brain activity increases in the OFC and DLPFC [29, 35], under choking condition which confirm the results of this study. Slutter et al. (2021) also confirm these results [36]. The player tended to show his best performance under monitoring pressure (which is created by the presence of two evaluators and a video camera), thus he focused on the performance process. Also, the monitoring pressure increased the self-awareness for the correct performance and the subject became more aware of the difference between the standard performance and his actual performance, which increased the comparison of the standard performance with the present performances. These repetitive comparisons take time and thus led to poor performance (either due to slower performance speed or incorrect choice of moves) [19]. However, according to distracting theory, brain activity decreases during choking in attention-related areas [29]. In this regard, Lee and Grafton (2015) and stated that brain activity decreases in the OFC and DLPFC under pressure [37] which contradicts the results of this study. In their study, they used non-athletes and two rewards of 10 and 40 $ to create pressure for two-handed movement [37]. In addition, according to the over-arousal theory, as motivation increases, the level of arousal rises. The increase in the arousal level improves the performance to some extent, and then it causes a decrease in performance [23]. Accordingly, Mobbs et al. (2009) and Chib et al. (2012) also hold over-arousal as the cause of choking [23, 24]. According to this theory, increased activity in reward-related areas (e.g., ACC) is the cause of choking and decline in performance [29], which is in line with the results of this study. Probably when players are under outcome pressure and are told that they will be given more financial rewards if they get a better ranking, their arousal will be higher than the optimal level, their sensitivity will increase, and they will spend more top-down resources on performance. As a result, they cannot use these resources effectively due to neutral pressure conditions, and their performance decline. According to previous studies, anxiety causes metabolic changes in different areas of the brain, especially in areas where stress hormone receptors are present [38, 39]. Studies using fMRI or PET have shown that anxiety conditions cause metabolic reactions in the prefrontal, limbic, and basal ganglia. In some studies, increased brain activity was observed in DLPFC, ACC, basal ganglia, and striatum in anxious conditions [40] which was consistent with the results of this study. Accordingly, there is an interaction between anxiety and nervous reactions. When players are under pressure, appropriate nervous reactions occur in their brains. 5. Conclusion According to the results, the choking under monitoring and outcome pressures were due to self-focus and over-arousal, respectively. Also, this was confirmed through the neural evidence in the OFC, DLPFC, and ACC areas. The increased brain activity (decreased alpha wave activity) in the OFC, DLPFC, and ACC under pressure compared to neutral one indicates a disorder of top-down control, which will lead to a decrease in player performance in decision-making. Therefore, soccer coaches are advised to ask players to practice and make the right decisions during training sessions by emphasizing concentration, attention, and control of arousal in under pressure conditions so that the experienced players of these training conditions can perform better in matches. One of the limitations of this study was that due to the reduction of noise and errors in the EEG that are usually created in motion, we had to design a task that the player could perform with the least movement to get more accurate data in the output. Perhaps this is different from the reality of soccer, which is more about movement and cognition (not simply cognition). Unlike most previous studies, which usually used one type of pressure (reward/punishment, monitoring, or both at the same time), there were two different types of pressure in this study: one with the nature of outcome and rewards and the other with the nature of monitoring and being watched. Therefore, in future studies, it is suggested to use EEG wireless devices to evaluate the player's decision-making performance in more realistic competition conditions. Also, due to the importance of neural mechanisms involved in decision-making and emotion control in subcortical areas such as the limbic system, basal ganglia, cerebellum, etc., it is suggested to use instruments such as FMRI to examine under pressure activity more accurately so that it will be possible to evaluate the functional connections between different areas. Declarations Acknowledgment The authors of this study are grateful to the National Brain Mapping Center of Iran for their cooperation in data collection and using the laboratory equipment of this center. References Sanfey, A.G., Decision neuroscience: New directions in studies of judgment and decision making. 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Dimmock, Choking under pressure in sensorimotor skills: Conscious processing or depleted attentional resources? Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 2008. 9(1): p. 45-59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2006.10.007 Yu, R., Choking under pressure: the neuropsychological mechanisms of incentive-induced performance decrements. Frontiers in behavioral neuroscience, 2015. 9: p. 19. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00019 DeCaro, M.S., Choking Under Pressure: Multiple Routes to Skill Failure . 2009, Miami University. Kinrade, N.P., R.C. Jackson, and K.J. Ashford, Reinvestment, task complexity and decision making under pressure in basketball. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 2015. 20: p. 11-19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2015.03.007 Mehrsafar, A.H., Psychometric properties of the Persian version of the revised competitive state anxiety inventory-2. Quarterly of Educational Measurement, 2016. 7(23): p. 189-211. https://doi.org/10.22054/jem.2016.5738 Zoudji, B., B. Thon, and B. Debû, Efficiency of the mnemonic system of expert soccer players under overload of the working memory in a simulated decision-making task. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 2010. 11(1): p. 18-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2009.05.006 Mesagno, C., J.T. Harvey, and C.M. Janelle, Self-presentation origins of choking: Evidence from separate pressure manipulations. Journal of sport and exercise psychology, 2011. 33(3): p. 441-459. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.33.3.441 Olk, B., C. Peschke, and C.C. Hilgetag, Attention and control of manual responses in cognitive conflict: findings from TMS perturbation studies. Neuropsychologia, 2015. 74: p. 7-20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2015.02.008 Slutter, M.W., N. Thammasan, and M. Poel, Exploring the brain activity related to missing penalty kicks: an fNIRS study. Frontiers in Computer Science, 2021. 3: p. 661466. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomp.2021.661466 Lee, T.G. and S.T. Grafton, Out of control: Diminished prefrontal activity coincides with impaired motor performance due to choking under pressure. NeuroImage, 2015. 105: p. 145-155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.10.058 Dedovic, K., C. D'Aguiar, and J.C. Pruessner, What stress does to your brain: a review of neuroimaging studies. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 2009. 54(1): p. 6-15. https://doi.org/10.1177/070674370905400104 Pruessner, J.C., et al., Stress regulation in the central nervous system: evidence from structural and functional neuroimaging studies in human populations-2008 Curt Richter Award Winner. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 2010. 35(1): p. 179-191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009.02.016 Pruessner, J.C., et al., Dopamine release in response to a psychological stress in humans and its relationship to early life maternal care: a positron emission tomography study using [11C] raclopride. Journal of Neuroscience, 2004. 24(11): p. 2825-2831. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3422-03.2004 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-5871851","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":405582747,"identity":"26006002-13d3-4e49-82a0-a08c4e33661f","order_by":0,"name":"Akbar Bohloul","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA+ElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACHh4QeYDBgB1IPaiwkYOKSxChhRlIJZxJM2ZgI0lLYsvhxAY2Au7i7zl78HMFwx05c2bmYxKJDYfTN9xvYPzwg8EiH5cWibN9yZJnGJ4ZWzazpUkk7kjP3XCMgVmyh0HCsgGXnvM8BpINDIcTNxzmMZNIPGMN0sIgDTTLAJcO+fM8xj8RWtqY0w2AtvzGp8XgbI8Zki1tzglALWx4bTE8cy7NssHgmbHBYbZkC2AgG848lthm2WOAW4vcmdzDNxsq7sgZHG8+eONDhY083+HDh2/8qKjDqQXqPBQeYwO6yCgYBaNgFIwCEgEA6wFUNK9Ov9MAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"University of Tehran","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Akbar","middleName":"","lastName":"Bohloul","suffix":""},{"id":405582748,"identity":"cb33c682-3368-417d-8ca7-2f0bb0108fbe","order_by":1,"name":"Mehdi Shahbazi","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Tehran","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mehdi","middleName":"","lastName":"Shahbazi","suffix":""},{"id":405582749,"identity":"33de2417-d52c-4a95-a86d-6e38e511135b","order_by":2,"name":"Shahzad Tahmasebi Borujeni","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Tehran","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Shahzad","middleName":"Tahmasebi","lastName":"Borujeni","suffix":""},{"id":405582750,"identity":"d1e8d47b-ae83-490c-b7f1-29159b2dff39","order_by":3,"name":"Yousef Moghadas Tabrizi","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Tehran","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yousef","middleName":"Moghadas","lastName":"Tabrizi","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-01-21 08:53:38","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5871851/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5871851/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":75308822,"identity":"7cdae079-0441-45e0-8d86-dd4bcba02464","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-03 08:51:00","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":73870,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAn example of the images provided in the simulated decision-making software\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5871851/v1/d4f1d543764a2df134973f5b.jpg"},{"id":75308817,"identity":"348b014c-7938-4253-a29b-3485e26a53ef","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-03 08:51:00","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":74216,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003efigure 1. Comparison of mean cognitive anxiety under different pressures; The values represent the mean ± mean standard error in different pressure conditions. The results of this test show a significant increase in the mean cognitive anxiety in outcome and monitoring pressure conditions compared to the neutral condition (**P≥0.01* P≥0.05)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5871851/v1/9b53b49f9e9b75d33ce618ff.jpg"},{"id":75308821,"identity":"e130571e-6e42-4f0f-a22b-c0b22d35e214","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-03 08:51:00","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":64287,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFigure 2. Comparison of the mean alpha wave activity in Fp\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e1\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e and Fp\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e under different pressures; The values represent the mean ± mean standard error of different pressure conditions. The results of this test showed a significant decrease in mean alpha wave activity in Fp\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e1\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e and Fp\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e2 \u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003ein under outcome and monitoring pressures compared to the neutral condition (***P≥0.001, ** P≥0.01, * P≥0.05)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5871851/v1/c4574831bc4eaa7361f0b066.jpg"},{"id":75310057,"identity":"89fd0252-ae95-4050-bbe8-ccbe9ca78871","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-03 08:59:00","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":65439,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFigure 3. Comparison of the mean alpha wave activity in F\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e3\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e, F \u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ez\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e, and F\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e4 \u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003eunder different pressures; The values represent the mean ± mean standard error of different pressure conditions. The results of this test showed a significant decrease in mean alpha wave activity in F\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e3\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e, F \u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ez\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e, and F\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e4\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003eunder outcome and monitoring pressures compared to the neutral condition (** P≥0.01, * P≥0.05)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5871851/v1/0983ec2d18e8911bd45fa7d3.jpg"},{"id":75308825,"identity":"e7c8a8af-8465-45a0-a01c-0f3f5698e29c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-03 08:51:00","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":62457,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFigure 4. Comparison of the mean alpha wave activity in C\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e3\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e, C \u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ez\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e, and C\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e4 \u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003eunder different pressures; The values represent the mean ± mean standard error of different pressure conditions. The results of this test showed a significant decrease in mean alpha wave activity in C\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e3\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e, C \u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ez\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e, under outcome and monitoring pressures and in C\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e4, \u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003eonly under monitoring pressure compared to the neutral condition (** P≥0.01, * P≥0.05)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5871851/v1/b85ce7ff68857f9d64f6d95e.jpg"},{"id":81138827,"identity":"5de02d63-ded7-4317-80b4-b1cb30d39893","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-22 16:16:46","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1053674,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5871851/v1/1c53c537-9605-47bd-a121-156a6b664e52.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Investigated of Neural Mechanisms Involved in Choking During Soccer Players' Decision-making","fulltext":[{"header":"1.\tIntroduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eDecision-making refers to selecting one answer out of several possible answers in the environment [1]. A variety of cognitive processes are required to select an answer [2]. These cognitive processes (such as perception, attention, prediction, decision-making, etc.) are necessary for better performance in competition conditions [3]. In team sports, the effective decision-making ability depends on the appropriate orientation towards task-related characteristics [4]. Furthermore, decisions in team sports are made under time constraints [5]. Accordingly, enough knowledge and qualification are required to quickly extract game-related information [6]. Since prior knowledge of the environment, objects, and purpose of the task is involved in better decision-making performance [7] thus the previous experiences might also guide cognitive processes [8].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResearch pieces of evidence suggest that examining the underlying functions and mechanisms of brain activity is an interesting area for a detailed investigation of decision-making. According to studies, the frontal lobes in the cortical part of the brain and the limbic, amygdala, striatum, and insula structures in the subcortical part are involved in decision-making. The three major regions in the frontal lobe, including the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), the lateral posterior prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), and the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) have been further examined in decision-making studies [9, 10]. Hong et al.'s (2023) study investigated the characteristics of brain activation in high-level players in different decision-making stages of soccer players outside the field of play, which revealed differences in the neural mechanisms of elite and novice soccer players during observation. This study showed that during the process of watching motion videos, the anterior parietal cognitive area, the primary sensorimotor cortex, the visual cortex and the insula of the brain are activated differently in experts and novices [11]. The study of Lucia et al. (2022) showed that the proposed cognitive-motor training protocol was very effective in improving sports performance and stated that at the neural level, anticipatory prefrontal activity can be the preferred target of cognitive-motor training [12]. Fang et al. (2022) with a review and meta-analysis of the brain function of athletes and non-athletes at the behavioral and neurological level through EEG studies stated that optimal brain function in athletes can be seen as neural efficiency, increased cortical asymmetry, cognitive flexibility More and the exact time of cerebral cortex activation was summarized [13].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMuslimi and Chalbianlou (2024) stated that stimulating the left side of the prefrontal cortex, it increases brain activity and arousal and increases blood flow in the brain, which causes the processing of high-level and complex cognitive processes and improvement. In executive functions and memory, attention, decision making and social cognition [14]. Fink et al. (2018) examined the activity of the EEG alpha wave during creative movements in soccer decision-making conditions. Their results showed that in highly creative decision-making conditions, the frontal and central regions had more alpha power than in low-creative decision-making conditions [15]. In an EEG-based study, Del Percio et al. (2019) examined the neural performance of soccer players in cortical activity related to visual-spatial information processing. According to this study, the alpha wave of the parietal lobe was more active in soccer players than in non-athletes [16]. Villafaina et al. (2019) examined chess players' EEG responses to time-pressure decision-making processes. Their results showed that the pattern of brain activity is different between lightning and rapid chess games. Also, the theta wave is more active in the posterior areas of the cerebral cortex in lightning and the right hemisphere is more active in chess games, which is probably due to visual-spatial processing [17].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSports competitions are often performed under psychological pressure. The ability to perform at a high level is critical in such conditions. However, an athlete may act as a beginner in critical moments of competition and make one’s worst athletic experience. This performance may be lower than expected even for elite athletes. This issue is called choking which is defined as any reduced performance in high-pressure environments [18, 19]. Generally, three theories explain the underlying mechanisms of choking: distracting model, self-focus, and over-arousal. According to distracting model, stress diverts an individual's attention to non-task-related symptoms or occupies a limited attention capacity, resulting in less attention capacity being assigned to the task, which leads to a decrease in performance [20]. However, there is a belief in the theory of explicit monitoring and self-focus. According to this theory, pressure increases self-awareness in performance and leads to focus on performing a skill that has become automatic. This approach considers internal focus as the cause of choking [21]. According to the over-arousal theory, as motivation increases, the level of arousal rises. The increase in the arousal level improves the performance to some extent, and then it causes a decrease in performance [22, 23]. The mechanism by which over-arousal affects behavior is relatively unclear. However, proponents of this theory suggest that arousal affects neural control of goal-oriented movements by changing the range of attention (e.g., limiting attention) [24].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEach of these approaches provides different predictions on brain activity. There are some contradictions in the results of previous studies on the cause of choking. Some studies (e.g., Gucciardi, Longbottom, Jackson, \u0026amp; Dimmock, 2010; Mesagno and Hill, 2013) consider the distracting model to be a choking factor [25, 26] while others (e.g., Jackson, Kinrade, Hicks, \u0026amp; Wills, 2013; Gucciardi and Dimock, 2008) contemplate self-focus as the cause of choking [27, 28]. Also, researchers such as Chib et al. (2009) and Mobbs et al. (2012) have identified over-arousal as the reason for choking [23, 24].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAccording to both distracting model and self-focus in neurological studies, the activity of attention-related areas (e.g., the OFC and DLPFC) in the brain may be associated with choking under pressure. The distracting model predicts that during choking, brain activity decreases in attention control areas, while the self-focusing approach assumes that in the case of choking, brain activity increases in attention control areas. In contrast, neurological studies of over-arousal have attributed the choking to the increased activity in ACC [29].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn various studies, a combination of different factors has been used to create pressure, i.e., presence of spectator, competition, prize, and video camera [20]. Some studies have examined the effect of different pressure environments. However, the effect of discrete pressure environments of this study was similar to that of Decaro, Thomas, Albert, and Beilock (2011). They believe that under pressure conditions have different components that may have different effects and lead to explicit monitoring, distraction, or both. These researchers examined the effects of two types of pressure: monitoring and outcome. They stated that being watched by others or using the camera might increase attention to the methods or processes of performing the skill (monitoring pressure) while the pressure of offering an award or achieving a goal may shift an individual’s attention to the situation or outcome (outcome pressure). DeCaro et al. (2011) predict that the performance and decision-making of players will be destroyed under monitoring and outcome pressures, respectively [30].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSoccer players on the pitch have to make decisions under pressure, which can lead to wrong decisions and reduced performance. In addition, high expectations of fans, coaches, and teammates, and the necessity of a great performance create high-pressure conditions for players that are likely to increase choking. Thus, identifying the specific characteristics of a high-pressure conditions that leads the athlete to focus on one’s performance processes or the result of a performance, not only can predict the choking in various conditions but also may be a useful guide to plan interventions for reducing choking. Meanwhile, due to the contradictions between distraction, self-focus, and over-arousal chokings, as well as few studies on the neural mechanisms in under pressure conditions during competition, this study investigated the neural mechanisms involved in choking during soccer players’ decision-making.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2.\tMethod","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e2.1.\u0026nbsp; Participants\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe statistical population of the present study consisted of all male soccer players (age range: 13-16 years) of Tehran Premier League in Iran\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e and 18 players were selected as the sample [31]. All players participated in this research voluntarily and their consent forms were filled and approved by their parents. The project was approved by the Ethics Committee on Research with Human Beings of the University of Tehran (IR.UT.SPORT.REC.1397.020).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e2.2.\u0026nbsp;Measuring tools\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eCompetitive state anxiety inventory-2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e. In the present study, the alternative CSAI-2, which is a multidimensional construct, was used. This list contains 17 questions and 3 subscales including physical anxiety (e.g.: I feel tremors in my muscles), cognitive anxiety (e.g.: I\u0026apos;m worried about disappointing others), and confidence (e.g.: I\u0026rsquo;m pretty sure I\u0026rsquo;ll do better). Physical anxiety is composed of 7 questions and the remaining 5 scales contain 5 questions\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e[32].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eDecision-making software for simulated\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003esoccer\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;situations\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e. A soccer decision-making instrument designed by Zoudji et al. (2011) which simulated 180 images of 2*2 and 3*2 positions related to shoot, pass, and dribble was used as the decision-making instrument of this study [33]. In each image, depending on how the defenders and attackers are positioned, the participant should have considered himself as the player with the ball and at that moment select one of the three decisions and press the relevant button on the keyboard: to pass to a teammate, to shoot to the goal, or to dribble the defender. The results of each subject in this task, which included the speed of decision (duration of image display to hit the button) and accuracy of decision-making (number of correct answers) were automatically recorded and stored at the end of the test without the need for manual registration (Figure 1).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eElectroencephalography\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eA 19-channel bio-signal amplifier (g. USB amp) EEG made by g.tec which is in the National Brain Mapping Center of Iran was used in this study. A special cap was used for electrode placement through which, 10 to 20 electrodes were used according to the universal system. In this study, alpha waves of \u003cem\u003eFp\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e, Fp\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, F\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, F \u003csub\u003ez\u003c/sub\u003e, F\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e, C\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, C \u003csub\u003ez\u003c/sub\u003e,\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eand\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;C\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/em\u003e were selected for evaluation and the reference electrode was placed on the ear [9]. Brain waves were recorded in a very quiet hall with a sampling rate of 512 Hz. In order to measure EEG components, a Neuro scan device and a Neuro guide software were used to record electroencephalograms and to quantify the recorded electroencephalograms and wave analysis, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.3. \u0026nbsp;Data Collection\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe subjects completed an informed consent form and a demographic information questionnaire in the laboratory. Then, each subject was then asked to sit in a chair in front of the screen and the test objectives were explained to him. The whole experiment was divided into four blocks, which include one familiar block and three test blocks: First, the simulated images of the familiar stage, including 10 images, were presented. Then, in the first block, the simulated images were presented in 60 attempts (images) without pressure. Before performing each of the next blocks, the desired interventions were performed to create pressure. The subjects performed 60 attempts (image) under outcome pressure in the second block and 60 attempts (image) under monitoring pressure in the third block. To eliminate the sequence effect, half of the subjects were first under monitoring pressure and the other half were first under outcome pressure. Immediately after each block, the CSAI-2 was given to the subjects and the perceived pressure scores were recorded. Before beginning each block, the subject was asked to perform the task with maximum speed and accuracy.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e2.3.1.\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;Pressure Interventions\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eMonitoring pressure\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e:\u003c/strong\u003e To create this environment, subjects were asked to practice skills in the presence of two individuals, and they were told that the two will analyze their decision-making. A camera was also placed to cover all of the subjects\u0026rsquo; movements and they were told that the recorded performance video would be sent to two national team coaches to score their decision-making cognitive ability compared to other subjects [31].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eOutcome pressure\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eIn this situation, the subjects were told that the points earned by their performance in the previous block were low and should be increased by 20% in order to reach ranks above the average. They were also told that in case of obtaining acceptable points, a prize of 300 thousand Rials will be paid. Also, a special prize of one million rials was determined for the top three subjects [31]. In the end, the subjects were thanked and given a gift for participating in the research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.4.\u0026nbsp; EEG Data Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe method used to record the EEG signal was non-invasive. The recorded signal by the electrodes was first amplified by an amplifier and then filtered to eliminate all types of noise, including city electrical noise. For quantitative analysis, the EEG signal was passed through an analog-to-digital converter and then stored.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe EEG only recorded the raw data, and the related installed software on the computer was capable of processing. What ultimately existed for processing as input data was a series of noiseless data without any processing and including all frequencies. The MATLAB software was used to provide a series of preprocessors for using the data to show the status of the subjects. The EEG data, originally stored in NED format, was called up in MATLAB and then converted into a series of process able numbers by a pre-prepared program. These numbers were the same recorded range of brain signals of individuals.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe initial processing steps were performed after extracting the process able numbers from the saved EEG signal file by MATLAB. The next preprocessing step was removing the noise. Initially, a notch filter was installed to remove the electrical noise of the city. It is a transient filter for a frequency of 55 Hz. A 2 Hz bandwidth was considered in the design of the filter. The next step was to design a low-pass and high-pass filter to have a signal between 1 to 16 Hz. The low-pass filter was designed by MATLAB software, which was selected as IIR type. The pass frequency was 15 Hz, the stop frequency was 16 Hz, the sampling frequency was selected 55Hz. Also, the high-pass filter was designed with a sampling frequency of 55Hz, a passing frequency of 1 Hz, and a half-Hz stop frequency. This filter was also selected as IIR type.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter implementing the filters on the data, it was time to remove the other noises. These noises included blinking, sudden shaking of the person, and sometimes moving the electrode to ensure proper communication with the person. The level of alpha wave activity from the time of displaying an image on the screen to the moment of decision-making (pressing the button for each answer) was determined as the criterion for changes in brain activity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.5.\u0026nbsp; Data analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) and the Shapiro-Wilk test was used to describe the group status and to determine the normal distribution of data, respectively. The analysis of variance with repeated measures was used to investigate the effect of monitoring, outcome, and neutrality pressures on brain activity, and then, the Bonferroni post hoc test was used to compare pressure conditions two by two. A significance level was determined p\u0026le;0.05 in all tests.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3.\tResults","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.1.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eCompetitive state anxiety\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results of repeated-measures analysis of variance showed that the mean cognitive anxiety (F\u003csub\u003e(2, 51)\u003c/sub\u003e=6.84, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e=0.002, =0.21) in all three conditions were significantly different under the three pressures. The results of the Bonferroni post hoc test in figure 1 showed that the mean cognitive anxiety under outcome (10.27\u0026plusmn;27.00) and monitoring (9.83\u0026plusmn;2.77) pressures were significantly increased compared to the neutral pressure (7.33\u0026plusmn;1.78) (respectively, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e=0.003, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e=0.01).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e3.2. \u0026nbsp;Brain activity in choking under pressure\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results of repeated-measures analysis of variance in Table 1 showed that the mean alpha wave activity is significantly different under all three pressures in \u003cem\u003eFp\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e, Fp\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, F\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, F \u003csub\u003ez\u003c/sub\u003e, F\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e, C\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, C\u003csub\u003ez\u003c/sub\u003e, C\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e.\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1. Results of repeated-measures analysis of variance for mean alpha wave activity in different cortical regions under three different pressures\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cimg 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\" width=\"629\" height=\"289\"\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAccording to Bonferroni\u0026rsquo;s post hoc test based on figure 2, the mean alpha wave activity in the \u003cem\u003eFp\u003csub\u003e1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/em\u003ehad significantly decreased under outcome (4.1\u0026plusmn;9.19) and monitoring (4.46\u0026plusmn;2.05) pressures compared to neutral condition (6.81\u0026plusmn;2.07) (respectively, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e=0.03, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e=0.008). Also, the mean alpha wave activity in the \u003cem\u003eFp\u003csub\u003e2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/em\u003ehad significantly decreased under outcome (3.89\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e1.10) and monitoring (3.51\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e1.93) pressures compared to neutral condition (6.1\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e52.88) (respectively, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e=0.01, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e=0.001).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAccording to figure3, the mean alpha wave activity in the \u003cem\u003eF\u003csub\u003e3\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/em\u003ehad significantly decreased under outcome (3.78\u0026plusmn;9.82) and monitoring (9.4\u0026plusmn;79.67) pressures compared to neutral condition (13.43\u0026plusmn;4.75) (respectively, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e=0.04, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e=0.04). The mean alpha wave activity in the \u0026nbsp; \u003cem\u003eF \u003csub\u003ez\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/em\u003ehad significantly decreased under outcome (10.28\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e2.30) and monitoring (10.18\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e3.89) pressures compared to neutral condition (13.46\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e3.61) (respectively, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e=0.03, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e=0.01). The mean alpha wave activity in the \u003cem\u003eF\u003csub\u003e4\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/em\u003eregion had significantly decreased under outcome (8.67\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e3.42) and monitoring (8.04\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e2.56) pressures compared to neutral condition (11.38\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e3.70) (respectively, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e=0.05, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e=0.01).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAccording to figure 4, the mean alpha wave activity in the\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eC\u003csub\u003e3\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/em\u003ehad significantly decreased under outcome (12.4\u0026plusmn;4.92) and monitoring (12.22\u0026plusmn;5.47) pressures compared to neutral condition (19.80\u0026plusmn;4.42) (respectively, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e=0.04, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e=0.03). The mean alpha wave activity in the\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eC \u003csub\u003ez\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/em\u003ehad significantly decreased under outcome (13.67\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e4.82) and monitoring (12.27\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e3.45) pressures compared to neutral condition (19.35\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e4.10)\u0026nbsp;(respectively, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e=0.04, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e=0.01). The mean alpha wave activity in the\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eC\u003csub\u003e4\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/em\u003ehad significantly decreased under monitoring pressure (9.64\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e4.50)\u0026nbsp;compared to neutral condition (13.4\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e64.52)\u0026nbsp;(\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e=0.02).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4.\tDiscussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study aimed at investigating the neural mechanisms involved in choking during soccer players\u0026rsquo; decision-making. The results showed that the presentation of rewards (outcome pressure) and the presence of two evaluators and a video camera (monitoring pressure) led to an increase in cognitive anxiety of soccer players which was consistent with Decaro et al. (2011), Belletier et al. (2015), and Mesagno et al. (2011) [25, 30, 34]. However, physical anxiety did not show a significant change under pressure. According to the results, the possible reason for the lack of significant differences in physical anxiety under different pressure could be that this form of intervention, which is purely cognitive, is different from the actual conditions of the competition, which is a form of motor-cognitive intervention. Also, players in this age group may not have been able to properly show their physical anxiety by a questionnaire.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results of this study showed a significant difference in mean alpha wave activity in\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eFp\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e, Fp\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, F\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, F \u003csub\u003ez\u003c/sub\u003e, F\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e, C\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, C \u003csub\u003ez\u003c/sub\u003e, C\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/em\u003e regions under the three pressures during decision-making tasks in soccer. Moreover, there was a significant decrease of mean alpha wave activity in\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;Fp\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e, Fp\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, F\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, F \u003csub\u003ez\u003c/sub\u003e, F\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e, C\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, C \u003csub\u003ez\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/em\u003e, under outcome and monitoring pressures, and in\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eC\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/em\u003e, under monitoring pressure compared to the neutral condition.\u0026nbsp;Since there is an inverse relationship between alpha wave activity and brain activity, thus the latter has increased under pressure. According to the universal system of 10 to 20 electrode placement,\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eFp\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e, Fp\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, F\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, F \u003csub\u003ez\u003c/sub\u003e, F\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e, C\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, C \u003csub\u003ez\u003c/sub\u003e, C\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/em\u003e regions comprise the three main parts of the frontal region: OFC, DLPFC, and ACC which play an important role in the decision-making process through interacting with each other\u0026nbsp;[9],\u0026nbsp;[10]. Therefore, brain activity in OFC, DLPFC, and ACC has increased significantly under pressure.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs previously discussed, choking is one of the reasons for the decline in performance under pressure. According to distracting model and self-focus theory, the activity of attention-related areas (such as OFC and DLPFC) in the brain can be associated with choking caused by under pressure conditions. The self-focus approach believes that brain activity increases in the OFC and DLPFC [29, 35], under choking condition which confirm the results of this study. Slutter et al. (2021) also confirm these results [36]. The player tended to show his best performance under monitoring pressure (which is created by the presence of two evaluators and a video camera), thus he focused on the performance process. Also, the monitoring pressure increased the self-awareness for the correct performance and the subject became more aware of the difference between the standard performance and his actual performance, which increased the comparison of the standard performance with the present performances. These repetitive comparisons take time and thus led to poor performance (either due to slower performance speed or incorrect choice of moves) [19].\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHowever, according to distracting theory, brain activity decreases during choking in attention-related areas [29]. In this regard, Lee and Grafton (2015) and stated that brain activity decreases in the OFC and DLPFC under pressure [37] which contradicts the results of this study. In their study, they used non-athletes and two rewards of 10 and 40 $ to create pressure for two-handed movement [37].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn addition, according to the over-arousal theory, as motivation increases, the level of arousal rises. The increase in the arousal level improves the performance to some extent, and then it causes a decrease in performance [23]. Accordingly, Mobbs et al. (2009) and Chib et al. (2012) also hold over-arousal as the cause of choking [23, 24]. According to this theory, increased activity in reward-related areas (e.g., ACC) is the cause of choking and decline in performance [29], which is in line with the results of this study. Probably when players are under outcome pressure and are told that they will be given more financial rewards if they get a better ranking, their arousal will be higher than the optimal level, their sensitivity will increase, and they will spend more top-down resources on performance. As a result, they cannot use these resources effectively due to neutral pressure conditions, and their performance decline.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAccording to previous studies, anxiety causes metabolic changes in different areas of the brain, especially in areas where stress hormone receptors are present [38, 39]. Studies using fMRI or PET have shown that anxiety conditions cause metabolic reactions in the prefrontal, limbic, and basal ganglia. In some studies, increased brain activity was observed in DLPFC, ACC, basal ganglia, and striatum in anxious conditions [40] which was consistent with the results of this study. Accordingly, there is an interaction between anxiety and nervous reactions. When players are under pressure, appropriate nervous reactions occur in their brains.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5.\tConclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eAccording to the results, the choking under monitoring and outcome pressures were due to self-focus and over-arousal, respectively. Also, this was confirmed through the neural evidence in the OFC, DLPFC, and ACC areas. The increased brain activity (decreased alpha wave activity) in the OFC, DLPFC, and ACC under pressure compared to neutral one indicates a disorder of top-down control, which will lead to a decrease in player performance in decision-making. Therefore, soccer coaches are advised to ask players to practice and make the right decisions during training sessions by emphasizing concentration, attention, and control of arousal in under pressure conditions so that the experienced players of these training conditions can perform better in matches.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOne of the limitations of this study was that due to the reduction of noise and errors in the EEG that are usually created in motion, we had to design a task that the player could perform with the least movement to get more accurate data in the output. Perhaps this is different from the reality of soccer, which is more about movement and cognition (not simply cognition). Unlike most previous studies, which usually used one type of pressure (reward/punishment, monitoring, or both at the same time), there were two different types of pressure in this study: one with the nature of outcome and rewards and the other with the nature of monitoring and being watched. Therefore, in future studies, it is suggested to use EEG wireless devices to evaluate the player\u0026apos;s decision-making performance in more realistic competition conditions. Also, due to the importance of neural mechanisms involved in decision-making and emotion control in subcortical areas such as the limbic system, basal ganglia, cerebellum, etc., it is suggested to use instruments such as FMRI to examine under pressure activity more accurately so that it will be possible to evaluate the functional connections between different areas.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgment\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors of this study are grateful to the National Brain Mapping Center of Iran for their cooperation in data collection and using the laboratory equipment of this center.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSanfey, A.G., \u003cem\u003eDecision neuroscience: New directions in studies of judgment and decision making.\u003c/em\u003e Current Directions in Psychological Science, 2007. 16(3): p. 151-155. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00494.x\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWilliams, A.M., \u003cem\u003ePerceiving the intentions of others: how do skilled performers make anticipation judgments?\u003c/em\u003e Progress in brain research, 2009. 174: p. 73-83. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-6123(09)01307-7\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRaab, M. and G. 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Janelle, \u003cem\u003eSelf-presentation origins of choking: Evidence from separate pressure manipulations.\u003c/em\u003e Journal of sport and exercise psychology, 2011. 33(3): p. 441-459. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.33.3.441\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOlk, B., C. Peschke, and C.C. Hilgetag, \u003cem\u003eAttention and control of manual responses in cognitive conflict: findings from TMS perturbation studies.\u003c/em\u003e Neuropsychologia, 2015. 74: p. 7-20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2015.02.008\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSlutter, M.W., N. Thammasan, and M. Poel, \u003cem\u003eExploring the brain activity related to missing penalty kicks: an fNIRS study.\u003c/em\u003e Frontiers in Computer Science, 2021. 3: p. 661466. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomp.2021.661466\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLee, T.G. and S.T. Grafton, \u003cem\u003eOut of control: Diminished prefrontal activity coincides with impaired motor performance due to choking under pressure.\u003c/em\u003e NeuroImage, 2015. 105: p. 145-155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.10.058\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDedovic, K., C. D\u0026apos;Aguiar, and J.C. Pruessner, \u003cem\u003eWhat stress does to your brain: a review of neuroimaging studies.\u003c/em\u003e The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 2009. 54(1): p. 6-15. https://doi.org/10.1177/070674370905400104\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePruessner, J.C., et al., \u003cem\u003eStress regulation in the central nervous system: evidence from structural and functional neuroimaging studies in human populations-2008 Curt Richter Award Winner.\u003c/em\u003e Psychoneuroendocrinology, 2010. 35(1): p. 179-191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009.02.016\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePruessner, J.C., et al., \u003cem\u003eDopamine release in response to a psychological stress in humans and its relationship to early life maternal care: a positron emission tomography study using [11C] raclopride.\u003c/em\u003e Journal of Neuroscience, 2004. 24(11): p. 2825-2831. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3422-03.2004\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Choking, Decision-making, Brain activity, Alpha wave, soccer","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5871851/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5871851/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePurpose\u003c/strong\u003e: Soccer players on the pitch have to make decisions under pressure, which can lead to wrong decisions and reduced performance. Few research has investigated the neural mechanisms underlying this reduced performance and choking. the aim of the study investigated of neural mechanisms involved in choking during soccer players’ decision-making.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eMethods\u003c/strong\u003e: Eighteen soccer players from Tehran Youth Premier League participated in this study. Decision-making task included images of 3 simulated soccer conditions on a monitor including neutral (no pressure), result pressure, and monitoring pressure. During all these stages, the alpha wave of the involved areas in decision-making (\u003cem\u003eFp\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e1\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e, Fp\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e, F\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e3\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e, F \u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ez\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e, F\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e4\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e, C\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e3\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e, C \u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ez\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e, C\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e4\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e) was evaluated by EEG.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults: \u003c/strong\u003eThe results of repeated-measures analysis of variance showed significant difference in\u003cem\u003e Fp\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e1\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e, Fp\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e, Fp\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e3\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e, F \u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ez\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e, C\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e3\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e, C \u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ez \u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003eand \u003cem\u003eC\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e4\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003eunder all the three pressures. Subsequently, the Bonferroni post hoc test showed a significant decrease in alpha wave activity of all the above areas under the result and monitoring pressure conditions compared to neutral one (no pressure).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusion: \u003c/strong\u003eAccording to the neural evidence in the OFC, DLPFC, and ACC, under monitoring and outcome pressure conditions, the choking was respectively due to self-focus and over-arousal and thus caused dysfunction in the player’s decision-making. Therefore, soccer coaches are advised to ask players to practice and make the right decisions during training sessions by emphasizing concentration, attention, and control of arousal in under pressure conditions so that the experienced players of these training conditions can perform better in matches.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Investigated of Neural Mechanisms Involved in Choking During Soccer Players' Decision-making","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-02-03 08:50:56","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5871851/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"ab30ee74-d1c3-44da-86eb-932fed9d2de7","owner":[],"postedDate":"February 3rd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-04-22T16:08:37+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-02-03 08:50:56","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5871851","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5871851","identity":"rs-5871851","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}